1
-A> i-i"
,1
ENCTCLOPjEDIA BRirANNICA;
DICTIONARY
o r
ARTS, SCIENCES,
AND
MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE;
Conftrudled on a Plan,
BY WHICH
THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS
Are digefted into the Form of Diftincl
TREATISES or systems,
COMPREHENDING
The History, Theory, and Practice, of each,
according to the Lateft Difcoveries and Improvements;
full EXPLANATIONS aiysti of the
VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE,
WHETHER RELATING TO
Natural and Artificial Objects, or to Matters Ecclesiastical,
Civil, Military, Commercial, &c.
Including Elucidations of the mod important Topics relative to Religion, Morals,
Manners, and the Oeconomy of Life :
TOGETHER WITH
A Description of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, 6c.
throughout the W o r l d ;
\ General History, Ancient and Modern, of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States >
An Account of the L i v e s of the molt Eminent Perfons in every Nation,
from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times.
c-^“- -
<FHIRD EDITION, IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, GREATLY IMPROVED.
illustrated with five hundred and forty-two copperplates.
VOL. XVII.
IT^OCri DISC A NT, ET A U S XT_M E Ml N! S S E PERI T /.
EDINBURGH.
PRINTED FOR. A- BELL AND C. MACFARQUHAR>
MoccxgviL
entered tn atattonew ©all in Cermet of tie a& of parliament.
Encyclopedia Britannic a
j
' ^
caxmSSZBXn
X'HtJlory zf Scotland continued from the preceding Volume
Scotland.
\
V "
'8v S
360
James re-
Jolves to iti
^7ade Ei g-
^and.
. 's*
N
^ 361
i he Soots
<is.‘eated.
SCO
JAMES could never forgive Henr)'’ for the lofa of his
brave officer. He fent to demand fatisfadtlon ; but
all the anfwer he received was, that Barton and his crews
were lawlefs pirates, and that what had been done a-
galnft them ought never to have been refented amongft
fovcreign princes. Tames alferted, that Barton was no
pirate, becaufe he bore his commlffion ; and that he
ought to have been convIdled of piratical afts before
be was treatf<l as being guilty of them. Henry inti-
nated to James, that he was willing to accommodate
the affair by way of negotiation ; but James thought
himfelf affronted by the propofal.
Various negotiations took place concerning this and
.other affairs till the year 1513 ; when James, though
he had for fome time before been fully refolved upon a
war w ith England, thought it highly neceffary that it
fhould have the fanttion of his parliament, which he af-
fembled for that purpofe. The young nobility were not
only infpired with the fentiments of James, but had been
won over by the French ; and the majority of them, as
well as of the clergy (which was fomewhat extraordinary,
as James was, in efieft, to fight againft the pope and his
allies), were keen for a war with England. Tlfc.* old
counftllors, on the other hand, who law the flourifhing
flate of Scotland, arifmg fiom a long peace and their
commerce, which was protettcd by a fleet, dreaded the
ruinous confequences of the war. The queen naturally
headed this party; and fhe was joined by the earl of
Angus and the wifeft part of the nobility. Their ar¬
guments made no impreffion upon James, who had re¬
ceived a prefent from -Louis of four (hips laden with
wine and flour, and two fhips of war completely equip¬
ped, one of them carrying 34 pieces of brafs ordnance.
He promifed to the French queen, upon his honour,
that he would take the field againft the Englifh ; and fhe
had fent him a frefh letter, gently reproaching him for
want of gallantry, and for not being fo good as his word.
In fhort, the reafonings of the wifeft and beft part of
the nobility were over-ruled, and the expedition againft
England was refolved on.
1 he earl of Hume, who was chamberlain of Scot¬
land, was, at this junfture, at the head of ycoo nr
8000 men, with whom he committed prodLious de»
Vol. XVH. Part t.
SCO
vaftations on the Enghfh borders. Henryks queen,
Catharine of Spain, whom he had left regent of his
dominions, iffued a cemmiflion of array, dircdted to
Sir Thomas Level, knight ef the garter, for affem-
bling the militia of the counties of Nottingham, Der¬
by, Warwick, Leicefter, Stafford, Rutland, Northamp¬
ton, and Lincoln. The management of the war, how¬
ever, was chiefly committul to the carl of Sttrry, who
affembled the militia of Cbetter, Lancafter, Northum¬
berland, Weftmoreland, Cumberland, and the bifhoprie
of Durham. The earl of Hume had by this time laid
great part of Northumberland wafte ; and his men werd
returning home laden with booty. The earl of Surry,
refolving to intercept them, ordered St William Bub
mer to form an ambufh with toco archers, at a place
called Brcomhou/e, which was extremely convenient fot*
that purpofe, as the Scots were obliged to pafs that way.
As the latter expedted nothing of’that kind, Buhner
executed his orders with great fuccefs. The archeis
affaulted the Scots all at once, and made fo good ufe of
their arrow?, that their main body was put to flight, 500
weie killed, and 4--0 taken, with the Lord Idiime>s
Itandard, which he left on the field of battle; the greateil
pait of the plunder being recovered at the fame time.
The commonalty of Scotland termed this expedition of
the Lord Hume's the 111 road.
James was more exafperated than ever bv this de¬
feat, and continued his preparations for invading Eng¬
land with additional vigour. His qUeen did all that
became a v/iic ano prudent wife to divert him from Tu's
fatal purpofe. She endeavoured to work upon his fu-
perdition, by recounting to him her ominous dreams
and boding apprehewfions. James treating thefe as
mere illufions and fiftions of the brain, fhe had reconrfe
to other arts. While James was waiting at Linlith-
gow for the arrival of his army from the north and the
Highlands, he aftifted one afternoon at the vefoers in
the i.ourea of St Michael. Being placed in one of the
canon’s feats, a venerable, comely man of about 5 2
years of age, entered, d re fled in a garment of an
•azure colour, and girded round with a towel or roll
•of linen, his forehead bald, and his yellow locks hang¬
ing down his {boulders ; in fhort, he was dreffed and
A formed
Scot’and,
The queeit
endeavnui*
to (Jiflua fe
James from
tus dclign.
A phai -
tom appe ui
to l.ini.
SCO [2
Scotland, formed to appear like St Andrew, the apoftle of
1—-v  Scotland, as he is reprefented in painting and fculp-
ture. The church being crowded, this pevfonage, with
feme difficulty, made his way to the king’s feat; and
leaning over it, he fpoke to the following purpofe :
« Sir (faid he), I am fent hither to intreat you for
this time to delay your expedition, and to proceed no
farther in your intended journey: for if you do, you
{hall not profper in your enterprife, nor any of your
followers. I am further charged to warn you, if ye
be fo refractory as to go forward, not to ufe the ac¬
quaintance, company, or counfel of women, as ye ten¬
der your honour, life, and eftate.” After delivering
thofe words, he retired through the crowd, and was no
more feen, though, when the fervice was ended, James
earneflly inquired after him.
That this feene was aCted, feems to be paft dupute ;
for Sir David Lindfay, who was then a young man,
and prefent in the church, reported it both to Bucha¬
nan and Lindfay the hiftorian. It is, however, equally
certain, that the whole was a contrivance of the queen,
to whofe other affli&ions the flings of jealoufy were
now added. In one of the Scotch inroads into Eng-
luded by land, one Heron, the proprietor of the caftle of Ford,
hismiitrtfs. jjaci been taken prifoner, and fent to Scotland ; where
he was detained on a charge of murder, of which he
feems to have been innocent. The Englifh hiflonans
mention this as having puffed after James entered Eng¬
land * but from the latter part of the fuppofed phan¬
tom’s fpeech, it is probable that it happened before ;
and that Heron’s wife and beautiful daughter had been
for feme time foliciting James for his deliverance. _ Be
that as it may, it is too probable that James was fmitten
with the charms of the daughter; and that her mo¬
ther, who was a mod artful woman, knew how to avail
herfelf of the conqueft. Pretending that ffie had in-
tereft enough to procure the releafe of the lord Johniton
and Alexander Home, who were pnfoners in England,
{lie was permitted by James to keep a conftant corre-
fpondence with the earl of Surry, to whom (he is faid
Graved all Tames’s fecrets and meafures. L he
1
SCO
3*4
James de-
uded by
to have betrayed all James’! fecrets and meafures. 1 he
rendezvous of James's army was at the Burrow-moor,
to which James repaired ; and having given order, for
the march of his artillery, he lodged at the abbey of
Holvroodhoufe. While he was there, another at¬
tempt was made to divert him from h.s purpofe of in¬
vading England : but James, deaf to all the lobelia-
,ions and inventions of his queen, muftered h.s army ,
and on the 22d of Auguft he palled the 1 weed, en¬
camping that night near the banks of the Twiffe 1 On
his arrival at'Twiffelhaugh on the 14th, he called an
affimbly of his lords together, and made a declaiation,
that the heirs of all fuch as ffiould die in the army, or
be killed by the enemy during his flay m England,
ffiould have their wards, relief, and marriages of the
Line ; who, upon that account, difpenfed with their
aeet ?This is faid to have been the enfis of that prince s
fate Abandoned to his paffion for his Enghffi mif-
trefs, ffie prevailed with him, at her mother’s inibga-.
tion to trifle away his time for feme days; during
which interval, the jundtion of the Enghffi army was
formed. The earl of Surry, the Enghffi general was
then at Pomfret : but ordered the landholders of the
neighbouring, counties to certify to him in writing what
number of men each could furmffi, charging them to
be ready at an hour’s warning ; and he laid his plan fo, Scotland.*
as not to bring his army into the field till James had
advanced fo far into England as to render it very dif¬
ficult for him to retire without a general battle. 1 his
precaution affifted the lady Ford (as ffie is called) in
perfuading James that there was no danger in the de¬
lay, becaufe the Engliffi had not the face of an army in
the field. , . ,
In the mean time, the earl of Surry ordered the go¬
vernors of Berwick and Norham, the two flrongeft
places on the frontiers of England, to prepare for a
vigorous refiftance in cafe they were attacked ; and di-
re&ed them to certify how long they could hold out,
in hopes, that if they made a refolute defence, James
would march on, and leave them in his rear. The go¬
vernor of Norham’s anfwer was, that his caftle was io
well provided, as to leave him no doubt, m cafe of a
fiege, to be able to defend it till king Henry ffiould ^
return from abroad, and relieve it in perfon. James, Scot3
however, befieged it on the 25th of Auguft, and bat-take the
tered it fo furioufly, that he took it by capitulation the cattles of
fixth day after. James then proceeded to the caftle of ^ ^
Etal belonging to the family of Manners (now duke \yaik.
of Rutland) ; which he took and demolilhed hkewife, as
he alfo did Wark, and arrived before the caftle of Ford.
The Scotch army is generally allowed to have conlifted
of at leaft 50,000 men when it pafted the Tweed. At
this time it was encamped on the heights of Cheviot, in
the heart of a country naturally barren, and now defo-
•late through the precautions taken by the Engliffi ge¬
neral. Being obliged to extend their quarters for the
benefit of fubfiftence, the mercenary part of them had
acquired a confiderable plunder, with which, as ufual,
they retired to their own country, as many more did for
want of fubfiftence. The earl of Surry knew their
fituation, and ordered the rendezvous of his army, firlt .
at Newcaftle, and then near Norham, having certain in¬
telligence of the vaft defertions daily happening in the
Scotch army, which had reduced it greatly. The \vet-
nefs of the feafon rendered his march, efpecially that
of the artillery, extremely difficult; but being joined
by feveral perfons of diftinaion, he marched on the
id of September to Alnwic, where he was reinforced
by 5000 hardy veteran troops, fent from the Enghfh
army on the continent, under the command of his fon
the lord-admiral of England ; fo that the Engliffi
authors admit his army to have confifted of 26,000
all completely armed and provided for the held.
men, au ......— — r/7 , , r J
Tames having, in the manifefto which he difperfed on
his entering England, given the death of Barton as one
of the caufes of°his invalion, the lord-admiral had pre¬
vailed with Henry to fend him upon this iervice ; and he
informed James by a letter, that he intended to juftiiy
the death of that pirate in the front of the Enghffi army. ^
By this time the army of James was* by deieition jarnes
and other caufes, reduced to lefs than half its numbers ; ^utt* feve-
butthe chief misfortune attending it was his own con-ral of h.s
du&. His indolence and ina&ivity, joined to the fcan- J*
^ dalous examples of his amours, at fuch a feafon, had dii-
gufted feveral of his greateft men and heft friends ; and
fome of them more than fufpefted a correfpondence be¬
tween the Engliffi lady amd the earl of Surry. James
was deaf to all their remonftrances ; and the earl of
Angus declared, that he was refolved to return home,
as he forefaw that the ruin of the army was inevitable
through
SCO [
geothind. through the obhinacy of James. He accordingly with-
w—v-  drew to Scotland, but left behind him his two fons.
The lord Hume and the earl of Huntley were likewife
difcontented. The former had brought his men into
the field ; but, according to feme Scotch hiltorians,
with a defign rather to betray than to ferve James :
but Huntley, though he difliked his mailer’s conduct,
remained firmly attached to his perfon.
The defection or backwardnefs of thofe great men
feemed to make no impreflion upon James. He had
chofen a ftrong camp in the neighbourhood of Ford,
on the fide of a mountain called Floddon-hill; and he
3$7 was feparated from the Englilh army by the river Till,
^"an'ad! This advantageous fituation put the earl of Surry un-
vantageous der great difficulties; for it rendered the Scotch army
fituation. inacceflible, as it was fortified by artillery, and was
now well fupplied with provifions by the change of its
fituation. The earl drew up a manifello, with which
he charged Rouge Croix herald, who was attended by
a trumpet. It contained fome propofals for an ex¬
change of prifoners, which feems to have been calcu¬
lated to give the lady Ford the more credit with James;
but concluded with reproaches for his perfidious inva-
fion of England, and a defiance to James to fight him
in a general battle. The herald was farther charged
with a verbal commiflion to acquaint James, that the
earl of Surry had ifiued orders that no quarter Ihould
be given to any of the Scotch army but the king him-
felf.
A council of war was called on this occafion ; in
which the earl of Huntley and others made ftrong re-
monftrances againft a general engagement. They ftiew-
ed how fatal it muft be to Scotland, Ihould it prove un-
fuccefsful; and that the wifeft courfe James could fol¬
low was to return home, where, if he was purfued by
the enemy, he could fight to great advantage. The
earl of Huntley, however, added, that his opinion fhould
be determined by that of the king and council; and
that he was equally ready to fhare in his majefty’s dan¬
ger as his glory.
Huntley and the other noblemen were oppofed by
the French ambaflador, who reprefented a retreat as dif-
368 graceful to the nobility of Scotland and the arms of
James 5 and ufed many romantic arguments of the £ime
contrary to kind, which but too well fuited with the king’s difpo-
the opi- fition. According to Drummond, the council were of
nbn of all opinion, that the king fiiould immediately befiege Ber-
his officers. wjck . {jut be that as it will, the majority of them were
certainly of opinion, that it was beneath the dignity of
James to fight the earl of Surry at that nobleman’s re-
quifition, and that James could lofe no honour by re¬
turning home. Patrick lord Lindfay of Byres, men¬
tioned on a former occafion, and who was prefident of
the council, exprefled himfelf fo ftrongly on that head,
that James, in a paffion, is faid by the hiftorian Lind¬
fay to have fworn, that if ever he lived to return to
Scotland, he would hang that nobleman at his own
gate. He ordered Rouge Croix to be called in ; and
after treating him with great politenefs, he fent a mef-
fage to the earl of Surry by one of his own heralds
(May), importing, that he would give the Englifti
battle on the Friday following ; and that had he re¬
ceived fuch a meflage from the earl even in his own
caftle of Edinburgh, he would have left that, and all
other bufinefs, to have fought Rim. With this meflage,
3 1 sco
a fmall manifefto, in vindication of James's condu£l, was Scotland,
fent by the fame herald. 1 *
The carl of Surry, who was then fo infirm that he
was carried about in a fedan or chariot, had forefeen
that James would return an anfwer by one of his own
heralds; but, unwilling that he ftiould obtain any
knowledge of the fituation of the Englifh camp, he
ordered proper perfons to receive him at two miles di«
fiance, where foon after he attended himfelf in perfon.
May executed his commiflioh without paying much
refpedl to the perfon of the Englifh general; who dif.
miffed him, after beftowing great compliments upon
the honour and courage of James. The earl then or¬
dered his army to march in the line of battle towards
Wollerhaugh. There he was joined by Rouge Croix,
herald, who gave him an account of the ttrong fitua¬
tion of the Scotttifh camp ; but the advanced polls of
the Englifti army were then within three miles of their
enemies, and the earl of Surry found his difficulties
daily increafing. The roads were broken up, the Iwell-
ing of the rivers cut him off from the neceffary com¬
munications for fupplying his army, and nothing but a
battle could fave him either from being dilbanded or
deftroyed.
James feems to have fo far regarded the advice of
his wifeft; counfellors, as not to abandon his ftrong fi-
tuation. They endeavoured to perfuade him, that it
was a fufficient guard to his honour, if he did not de¬
cline the battle on the day appointed ; and that his en¬
gagement did not bind him to fight upon difadvanta-
geous ground. The Scots, at the fame time, knew of
their enemy’s diftreffes; and, as Drummond elegantly
expreffes it, they remonftrated to their king, that he ^
lacked nothing but patience to be vidlorious. The His im, ru-
Scots thus lying on the defenfive, the earl of Surrydem
again fent Rouge Croix to inform James that he wasduCT
ready to give him battle. James was fenfibly nettled at \
this tacit imputation upon his honour, and perhaps was
inwardly vexed for having followed the wile advice of
his noblemen. It is certain, from the bell authorities,
that he negleeledthejneceffary precautions for guarding
the paffages of the Till, which the Englilh crofted, part¬
ly at a place where it was fordable, and partly at a
bridge. We .are told, not without a great appearance
of probability, that while the Englilh were palling the
bridge, Borthwick, mailer of the Scotch artillery, fell up¬
on his knees, and begged permiffion from James to point
his cannon againll the bridge ; but that James anfwer-
ed him in a paffion, that it mull be at the peril of his
(Borthwick’s) head, and that he was refolved to fee all
his enemies that day on the plain before him in a body.
The earl of Surry, after palling the Till, took poflef-
fion of Braxton, which lay to the right of the Scotch
camp ; and by that fituation he cut off the communica¬
tion of his enemies with the Tweed, and commanded
the Till below Eton-callle. The Scotch generals faw
themfelves now in danger of being reduced to the fame
ft rails in which their enemies had been involved two
days before, and their country open to an invafion of
the Englilh army. James had lecret intelligence that
this was far from being the intention of the Englilh
general; and imagining that the latter’s intention was
to take poffeffion of a ftrong camp upon a hill between
him and the Tweed, which would give the Englilh a
farther command of the country, he refolved to be be-
A 2, fore-
SCO ( 4
Scotland. fore-fianJ with the earl, and gave orders for making
large fires of green wood, that the fmoke might cover
his march along the height, to take advantage of that
eminence. But while this ftratagem concealed his
march from the Englilh, their movements were con¬
cealed from him : for when he came to the brow of
the height .over which he had marched, he found the
enemy drawn up in order of battle on the plain, but fo
clofe to the height where he was, that his aitillery, on
which his great dependence was, muft overlhoot them.
Account of A battle was now not only unavoidable, but the only
it c >a*’le ol means of faving the Scotch army, which was probably
Fiouden. fJt from being a difagreeable circumllance to James.
His perfon was fo dear to his troops, that many of
theta drefitd themfelves as nearly as they could in the
lame coats of armour and wth the fame dillin&ions
that James wore that day. His generals had earneilly
defired him to retire to a place of iafety, where his per¬
fon would be fecure in all events: but he obftinately
refufed to follow their advice ; and on the ninth of
September, early in the morning, difpolitions were
ordered for the line of battle. Tire command of the
van was allotted to the earl of Huntley ; the earls of
I.enox and Argyle commanded the Highlanders under
James, who, fume fay, ferved only as a volunteer; and
the earls of Crawford and Montrofc led the body of re-
ferve. The earl of Surry gave the command of his
van to his fon, the lord-admiral ; his right wing was
commanded by his other fon, Sir Edward Howard ;
and his left by Sir Marmaduke ConRable. The rear
was commanded by the earl himfelf, lord Dacres, and
Sir Edward Stanley. Under thofe leaders ferved the
flower of all the nobility and gentry then in England.
Other writers give different accounts of the difpotition
of the Er.gHih army, but they may be reconciled by the
different forms into which the battle was thrown before
it was decided. The lord Hume is mentioned as ier-
ving under the earls of Crawford and Moatrofe, and
Hepburn earl of Bothwel was in the rear.
The firft motion of the Englifh army was by the
lord-admiral, who fuddenly w he Jed to the right, and
1'eizcd a pafs at Milford, where he planted his artillery
in as to command tire molt doping part of the aicent
'where the Scots were drawn up ; and it d d great ex¬
ecution. The Scots had not torefeen this manoeuvre ;
and it put them into fuch diforder, that the earl of
Huntley found it neceffary to attack the lord admiral;
Lilith he did with fo much firry, that he drove him
from his puff; and the ccmfequeuce muff have been
fatal to the Englilh, had not his precipitate retreat
been covered by fome fquadrons of horfe under the lord
Dacres, which gave the lord-admiral an opportunity
of rallying and' new-forming bis men. The earl of
Surry now found it neceffary 1 . advance to the front,
io that the Englilh army forme- one continued line,
■which galled the Scots with perpetual difeharges of
their artillery and bows. The Highlanders, as ufual,
impatient to come to a clofe fight, and to fliare in the
honour of the day, which they now thought their own,
rufired down the declivity with their broad-fwords, but
without order or difcipline, and before the reft of the
army, particularly the divilion under lord Hume, ad¬
vanced* to Support them. Their impetuofity, however,
made a coniiderable imprefllon upon the main battle of
the Englilh; and the"king bringing up the earl o£
]' SCO
BothwePs referve, the battle became general and doubt- SeotWoA
ful: but by this time the lord-admiral, having again '
formed his men, came to the afliftance of his father,
and charged the diviiion under the earls of Crawford
and Montrofe, who were marching up to fupport the
Highlanders, among whom the king and his attendants
were now fighting on foot: while Stanley, making a
circuit round the hill, attacked the Highlanders in tire
rear. Ciawford and Montrofe, not being feeonded, ac¬
cording to the Scotch hiftorians, by the Humes, were
routed ; and thus all that part of the Scotch army
whicli was engaged under their king, was completely
furrminded by the divifion of the Eirglifft under SurryV
Stanley, and the lord-admiral. In this tenable litua-
tion, James afted with a coolnefs not common to his
temper. He drew up his men in a circular form, and
their valour more than once opened the ranks oi the
Englilh, or obliged them to Hand aloof, and again have
recourfe to their bows and artillery. The chief of the
Scotch nobility made freih attempts to prevail with
James to make his efcape while it was pradticable ; but
he obftinattly continued the fight; and thereby became
acceffory to his own ruin, and that of his troops,
whom the Englifir would gladly have fuffered to re- 371
treat. He faw tlie carls of Montrofe, Crawford, T’be Sects
Argyle, and Lenox, fall by his fide, with the braveft^^^J’
of his men lying dead on the fpot ; and darknefs nowkj;1g ia^e^
coining on, he himfelf was killed by an unknown hand.
’1 he Englifh were ignorant of the vUory they had
gained ; and had actually retreated from the field of
battle, with a defign of renewing it next morning.
This Jiiafter was evidently owing to the romantic
difpotition of the king himfeli, and to the want of d;l-
cipline among many of his foldiers; though fome
writers have aicribed it to the treachery of lord Hume.
Maty of James’s domeftics knew and mourned over his
body ; and it appeared that he had received two mortal
wounds, one through the trunk with an arrow, and
the other on the head with a bail. His coat of armour
was prefented to queen Catharine, who inrormed her
hufband, then in France, of the vi&ory over the Scots.
The lofs on both iides, in this engagement, is far from
being aicertamed ; though Polydore Virgil, who lived
at the time, mentions the lofs of the Engltfh at 5002,
and that of the Scots at 10,0:0.
After the death of king James TV. the adminiftra-The que-en-
tion devolved on the queen-dowager ; but fhe being high >wa?e - af-
with a poffhumous child, and unable to bear the weight *iimes rils
of public bulineis, accepted oi Beaton archbifnop o'
Glafgow and chancellor of Scotland, with the eails of
Huntley, Angus, and Arran, to afiift her in the affairs
of government. Soon after her hufband’s death fheWr;tes to
had wrote an affedling letter to her brother the king of the king of
England, informing him of her pregnancy, fettiug forth England,
the deplorable Hate of the kingdom, with her own condi¬
tion, and imploring his friendship and protection for her-
fdf and her infant fan. This letter feems never to have
been communicated by Henry to his council; but he
anfwered it, and informed his filter, that it the Scots
would have peace, they ftiould have peace, and war if
they chofe it. “ He added (according to Drum¬
mond), that her hufband. had fallen by his own indif-
creet rafliuefs, and loolilh kindnefs to France ; that lie
regretted his death as his ally, and fliould be willing to
prohibit all hoftiiity againft the country of Scotland
during
in great
coniuliiMi
SCO [
gcctiUnd. dywng th« minority of her fou. For a remedy of pre-
 : fent evils, one year’s truce and a day lunger was yielded
unto; ia which time he had leifure to profecute his
ddi rns agninft France, without feaFof beincr difturbed
or diverted by the incurfions and inroads of the Scots
upon his borders.”
Thi^cot- Thus far Drummond: but though Henry might
tifhVmiin grant this time to his frier’s intreaty, yet it certainly
did not become a national meafure ; for it appears by
a letter dated two years after, from the Scots council
to the king of France, pubhihed by Rymer, that the
Scats never had deli red a truce. So far from that,
the French influence, joined to a defire of revenge, re¬
mained fo ilrong in the kingdom, that a'ter the meet¬
ing of the parliament, fome of the members were fo
violent as to propofe a renewal of the war. I Ins mo¬
tion was indeed over-ruled by the more moderate part
ot the affembly : but they could not be brought to
make any advances towards Henry for a peace; and
every day was now big with public calamity, which
feems to have gatheied ilreflgth while the queen was in
child-bed. The archbishopric of St Andrew’s being va¬
cant, it was offered by univerfal confent to Itiphinilon
bifhop of Aberdeen ; but being now old and infirm, he
declined it. Three competitors for that high dignity
then appeared. The firfl was Gawin Douglas, who
was then abbot of Aberbrothw 'c, to which be was pre-
fented by the queen upon her recovery (having been
brought to bed of a fon) the very' day before her mar¬
riage with his nephew the earl of Angus : and upon
the death of bifhop Elphinilon in November following,
fhe prefented him like wife to the archbifhopric ot St
Andrew’s. The fecond competitor was John Hepburn,
prior of St Andrew’s ; a bold, avaricious, reftltfs, but
fhrewd and ftnfible pried. By his office he had re¬
ceived the tents of the fee during its vacancy ; and
having prevailed with the canons, on pretence of an¬
cient privileges, to eledt him archbifhop, without re¬
gard to the nomination either of the queen or pope, he
drove Douglas’s fervauts from the cattle ot St Andrew’s,
of which they had taken podefilon. T he third and
moll powerful competitor was Forman brfhop ot Moray
in Scotland, and archbifhop of Boitrges in Ftance, a
dignity to which be had been railed for his public ier-
viccs. He had in his intereil not only the duke of Al¬
bany (fon to the traitor duke) firft prince of the blood,
but alio the court of Rome itfelf; and having received
the pope’s bull and n< minatinn to the dignity, lie was
conhdered by the Scotch clergy in general, and by the
principal tenants and dependents upon the fee, as the
legal archbifhop.
The preference given to Forman difeouraged Dou¬
glas from purfuing his pretentions ; but Hepburn, be¬
ing fupported by the dan of his own name and by the
Humes, made fo formidable a head againft his rivals,
that none could be found daring enough to publifh the
papal bull in favour of Forman. The friends of the
latter, however, having intimated to the earl of Hume,
that his-credit at the court of Rome could eafily pro¬
cure the rich abbey of Coldingham for his younger
brot tier, the earl put him fell at the head of hisTol-
lowers, and, notwithflanding all the oppoikion given
by the Hepburns, he proclaimed the-pope’s bull over
the crofs of Edinburgh, This daring adtion plainly
proved that the earl of Hume had more power than
5 ] SCO
the queen-regent herfelf; but Hepburn’s refolutidft, ■~l?0 iar^q
and the greatnefs of his friends, obliged Forman to *
agree to a compromife. Hepburn was advanced to
the lee of Mo’-ay, without accounting for the revenues
of the archbifhftpric, which he had received during
its vacancy ; and he gave Forman a prefent of three
thoufand crowns, to be divided among his friends and
followers.
In April 1514, the poflhumous fon, of whom the The queen-
queen had been deliveted in Stirling caftle, was by the<l<>wager
bifhop of Gaithnefs baptised Alexander. On the 6th
of Augufl this year fhe was married to the earl of An- °
gits ; than which nothing could be accounted more im¬
politic. She had neither confuked her brother nor
the flutes of Scotland in the match; and by her ha¬
ving accepted of a hufhand, fhe in fail refigned all
claim to the regency under the late king's will. The
Douglaffes did not difpute her having diVeiled herfelf
of the regency: but they affirmed, that the ftdtcs
might lawfully reinflate her in it; and that the peace
of the kingdom required it, as it vras the only mealurC
that could preferte the happy tranquillity which then
ftibliiled between Scotland and England. The earl
of Hume put himfelf at the head of the oppofition to
this propoial. He knew that he had enemies, and he
dreaded that the farther aggrandizement of Anglia
mull w eaken hbffttereft on the borders. He was join¬
ed by a number of the young nobility, whd, though
otherwife divided, united againfl Angus. In fhort,
the general opinion was, that the Douglaffes were al¬
ready too great ; and that, fhould the queen be rein-
fiited in the regency, they mull be abtolute within the
kingdom, and engrofs all places of power and profit.
It was added by the earl of Hume, that he had, out
of refpett to the late king’s meUiory, fubmitted to the
queen’s government; and that, now fhe had made a
voluntary abdication of it by her marriage, it ought not
to be renewed.
After fome deliberations, the duke of Albany was rhe dufce
ebofen regent. He was a man poffidEd ot all the qua-of Albany?
lities requisite for a pood governor; nor did he deceive cho,en rt”*"
the expeditions of the public. On h’s arrival at^ent”
Glafgow, he took upon him the titles of earl of Mdrch,
Mart, G'arioch, lord of Annandale, and of the ifle of
Man, regent and protestor of the kingdom of Scotland.
On his arrival at Edinburgh he was received in form
by the three cflates of the kingdom, and the queen
had met him at fome diflance from the town. The
parliament then returned its feffion, and the three
eflates took an oath of obedience, till the king, then an
infant ot tour years old, fhould arrive at the years of
maturity.
'] he tuft thing at whkh the regent aimed, was the
conciliating the diffeiehces araongft the various con¬
tending families in the kingdom ; at the fame time
that he fuppreffed foine daring robbers, one of whom
is faid to have had no fewer than 800 attendants in his
infamous proftifion. So great was his love of good
order and deceney, that he punithed the lord Dium-
mond with the lofs of his eftatefor having ftmek Lyon
king at arms, whole per fon, as the full herald in Scot¬
land, ought to h ive been held facred. Nay, it was
at the earneft felicitation of Lyon himfelf, and many
of the chief nobility, that a greater punifhment wae
not inflicted. However, the forfeiture was afterwards
remitted r-
chief fa¬
vourite.
378
He at-
earl of
Hume,
SCO [6
Scotland, remitted ; but not before Drummond had, upop his
^ ~v knees, acknowledged his offence, and fubmitted himfelf
^77 before Lyon.
Hepburn The regent had not been long in office before he
becomes hi® took into favour Hepburn the prior of St Andrew’s,
whom he confulted for information concerning the ftate
of Scotland. Hepburn acquainted him with all the
feuds and animofities which raged among the great
families of Scotland, their ferocious charadter, and bar¬
barous behaviour to their enemies. He reprefented the
civil power as too weak to curb thefe potent chieftains;
and gave it as his opinion that the regent’s adminiftra-
tion ought to be fupported by foreign arms, meaning
thofe of France.
Hepburn is faid alfo to have gained an afcendency
over the regent by means of large futns of money laid
out among his domeftics, by a fawning and plaulible
addrefs, and by well-diredted flatteries ; and he employed
this afcendency to deflroy thofe who urere obnoxious to
himfelf. The earl of Hume, as being the firfl fubjedt
tempts to in rank and authority, became obnoxious to the regent
deftroythe through the infinuations of Hepburn; and as that
nobleman had frequent occalton to be at court in virtue
of his office of chamberlain, he foon perceived that
neither he nor his friends were welcome gueils there.
Alarmed for his own fafety, he refolved to form a party
alongfl: with the queen-mother and her new hufband
againft the regent. This was by no means a difficult
talk: for the queen naturally imagined that her new
bulband ought to have had 1'ome lhare in the govern¬
ment ; and the earl of Angus readily concurred in the
fcheme. In the mean time, the regent was making a
progrefs through Scotland, while bloody feuds were
raging among the nobles: but before any remedy
could be applied to thefe diforders, he was informed of
the fchemes laid by the queen-mother and her party ;
and that Ihe had refolved to fly into England with
her two infants. On this he inftantly returned to
Edinburgh ; and, as no time was to be loft, fet out at
midnight that very night, and furprifed the caftle of
Stirling, where he found the queen-mother and her two
infants.
The regent, after this bold ftep, took care to fliow
that the care of the royal infants was his chief ftudy.
As he himfelf was nearly allied to the crown, in order
to remove all fufpicions and calumnies on that account,
he committed the care of the king and his brother to
three noblemen of the moft unexceptionable characters
in the kingdom, but of whom we now know the name
only of one, viz. the earl of Lenox. They were ap¬
pointed to attend the princes by turns ; to whom alfo
a guard, confifting partly of French and partly of Scots,
was affigned ; and the queen-mother was left at liberty
to refide where ftie pleafed.
Whole eai"l Hume, finding his fchemes thus abor-
driven into tive, retired to his own eftate ; from whence he was
England, foon after drawn, and obliged to fly into England, by
the earls of Arran and Lenox. The queen-mother
retired to a monaftery at Coldftream ; and meffengers
were difpatched to the court of England, to know how
Henry would have his After difpofed of. He ordered
the lord Dacres, his warden of the marches, to attend
her to Harbottle-caftle in Northumberland ; and here
fhe was delivered of her daughter the Lady Mary Dou¬
glas, mother to Henry lord Darnley, father to James I.
1 SCO
of England. The regent difpatched ambsiTadors to Hen- Scotland,
ry, in order to vindicate his own conduct. He likewise
fent to affiire the queen that fhe had nothing to fear in
Scotland; and to invite her to return thither, where
fhe fliould at all times be admitted to fee her children. 3§0
This offer, however, fhe declined ; and fet out for Lon-The queen
don, where fhe was affe&ionately received and enter-to
tained by her brother. But in the meantime many EriSlani*’
diforders were committed throughout the kingdom by
the party of the queen-mother; though, by the inter-
pofition of archbifhop Forman, they were at prefent
terminated without bloodflied, and fome of the princi¬
pal offenders were perfuaded to return to their duty.
Among thefe was the earl of Angus himfelf, the queen’s huf-
hufband ; which when king Henry heard, he exclaim-band tub¬
ed, “ That the earl, by deferting his wife, had aCted m'ts to the
/Me a Scot.” Lord Hume refuted to furrender himfelf,
or to accept of the regent’s terms ; and was of conse¬
quence declared a traitor, and his eftate confifcated.
All this time he had been infefting the borders at the
head of a lawkfs banditti ; and now he began to com¬
mit Inch devaftations, that the regent found it neceffary
to march againft him at the head of xooo difeiplined
troops. Hume being obliged to lay down his arms,
was fent prifoner to Edinburgh caftle; w here the re¬
gent very unaccountably committed him to the charge
of his brother-in-law the earl of Arran. Hume eafily
found means to gain over this near relation to his own
party; and both of them, in the month of O&ober ^
1515, efcaped to the borders, where they foon renewed Reveji;on
hoftilities. Both the earls were now proclaimed traitors, and com-
but Hume was allowed fifteen days to furrender him-mof‘on8 ia
felf. This fhort interval the regent employed in quafh- dj^erent
ing the rebellion, for which purpofe the parliament hadP“
allowed him 15,000 men. He befieged the caftle of
Hamilton, the earl of Arran’s chief feat, wrhich was in
no condition of defence : but he was prevailed upon by
Arran’s mother, daughter to James II. and aunt to the
regent himfelf, to forbear further hoftilities, and even
to pardon her fon, provided he ftiould return to his
duty. Arran accordingly fubmitted ; but the public
tranquillity was not by that means reftored. An affo-
ciation, at the head of which wras the earl of Moray,
the king’s natural brother, had been formed againft the
earl of Huntley. That nobleman w'as too well attend¬
ed to fear any danger by day ; but his enemies found
means to introduce fome armed troops in the night¬
time into Edinburgh. On this a fierce fkirmifti enfu-
ed, in which fome were killed on both Tides; but far¬
ther bloodihed was prevented by the regent, who con¬
fined all the lords in prifon till he had brought about
a general reconciliation. One Hay, who had been
very adlive in ftirring up the quarrels, was banilhed to
France ; and only the earl of Hume now continued in
arms.
In 1516 died the young duke of Rothefay: an event
which brought the regent one degree nearer the crown,
fo that he was declared heir in cafe of the demife of
young James. Negociations were then entered into
about prolonging the truce which at that time fubfifted
with England; but Henry infilling upon a removal of
the regent from his place, they wrere for the prefent
dropped. Finding, however, that he could neither
prevail on the parliament as a body to difmifs the re¬
gent, nor form a party of any confequence againft him,
1 he
SCO [7
Scotland, he at laft confented to a prolongation of the truce for
3 S3
a year
The earl of ’f1?* affairs of the regent requiring his pre-
Hume put fence in France, he refolved, before his departure, to
is death, remove the earl of Hume, who, as we have feen, alone
continued to difturb the public tranquillity. Under
pretence of fettling fome differences which (till remain¬
ed with England, he called a convention of the nobility;
and fent fpecial letters to the earl of Hume and his
brother to attend, on account of their great knowledge
in Englifh affairs. Both of them imprudently obeyed
the fummons, and were feized and executed as foon as
they arrived at Edinburgh. But whatever occafion
there might be for this feverity, it loll the affections of
the people to fuch a degree, that the regent could
fearce get the place filled up which Lord Hume had
poffeffed. That of lord warden of the marches he at
lafl gave to his French favourite La Beaute, called by
hiflorians Sir Anthony D’Arcy. The poll of lord
chamberlain was given to Lord Fleming. Soon after
this, the regent levied an army, on pretence of reprefs-
ing fome difturbances on the borders. Thefe being
fpeedily quelled, he feized on his return upon the earl
384 of Lenox, and forced him to deliver up his caftle of
The regent Dumbarton ; not choofing to leave it, during his in-
goesto tended abfence in France, in the cuflody of a noble-
the'queeT man fufpe&ed fidelity ; and from fimilar motives, he
returns to afterwards took him along with him on his departure
Scotland, for the continent. He then procured himfelf to be
nominated ambaffador to France, in which character
he left the kingdom; having committed the govern¬
ment to the archbifhops of St Andrew’s and Glafgow,
the earls of Arran, Angus, Huntley, and Argyle,
with the warden D’Arcy, on whom was his chid de¬
pendence.
On the departure of the regent, the queen-mother
left the Englifh court; and arrived with a noble re¬
tinue at Berwick, on purpofe to vifit her fon. Here
Ihe was received by her hufband ; for whom fhe had
contracted an imvincible averfion, either on account of
his infidelities to her bed, or becaufe he had deferted
her in the manner already related. However, fhe fup-
preffed her refentment for the prefent, and accompanied
him to Edinburgh. Here, in conftquence of the pro-
pofals made by the regent, fhe demanded accefs to her
fon ; but was refufed by D’Arcy. Lord Erfkine, how¬
ever, who was one of thofe to whom the care of the
young king was committed, conveyed him to the caltle
of Craigmillar (where D’Arcy had no jurifdiClion), on
pretence that the plague was in Edinburgh ; and there
the queen was admitted ; but this gave fuch offence
to D’Arcy, that Lord Erfkine was obliged to carry
back the king to the caflle of Edinburgh, wLere all
further accefs was denied to his mother. In fhort, the
behaviour of this favourite was on all occafions fo
haughty and violent, that he rendered himfelf univer-
fally odious ; and was at laft murdered, with all his at¬
tendants, in his way to Dunfe, where he propofed to
hold a court of jultice.—His death was very little re¬
gretted ; yet his murderers were pro/ecuted with the
utmoft; feverity, and feveral perfons of diflindion de¬
clared rebels on that account.
Meanwhile, the regent was treated with high marks
of diftinCtion in France. The king fhowed him the
g reate ft refpeCk, promifed to affift in eftablifhing his
] SCO
authority in Scotland, and folemnly confirmed the an- Scotland,
cient league between the two kingdoms. Soon after, —v—
the earl of Lenox arrived from France, with affurances
of prote&ion and affiftance from the king, who was
highly pleafed at the zeal of the governors in punifh-
ing D’Arcy’s murderers; and 500 foldiers arrived
with him, to reinforce the garrifons, efpecially that of
Dunbar.
All this time the queen-mother continued at Edin- The queen
burgh, employing herfelf in attempts to procure a di- attempts to
vorce from her hufband, under pretence of his having<livorce hef
been previoufiy contraded to another. The affairs 0fhufl3anvi*
the kingdom again began to fall into confufion, and
many murders and commotions happened in different
parts of the country. The earl of Arran had the chief
diredion in the ftate ; but the earl of Angus, notwith-
ftandiug the difference with his wife, had Hill great in-
tereft, and waited every opportunity to oppofe him.
This emulation produced an encounter at Edinburgh ; skirmift
in which vidory declared for Angus, and 72 of the betweenthe
routed party were killed. This fkirmifh was fought on followers of
the 30th of April 1519, and has been known in Scots ^ earl
hiilory by the name of Cleanfe the Caufeway. Angus*™
On the 19th of November 1521, the regent returned
from France. He found the kingdom in great difor-
der. The earl of Angus domineered in the field, but
his antagonills outvoted his party in the parliament.
The queen mother, who had fixed her affedions on a
third hufband, hated all parties almofl equally; hut
joined the duke of Albany, in hopes of his depriving
the other two of their power. This happened accord¬
ing to her expedation ; and fhe was with the regent
when he made a kind of triumphal entry into Edin¬
burgh, attended by a number of perfons of the firft
rank.—The carl of Angus was now fummoned to ap¬
pear as a criminal; but his wife interceded for him, not
out of any remains of affedion, but becaufe he gave
her no oppofition in the procefs of divorce which was
depending between them.—In the mean time, Hen- g
ry VIII. of England, perceiving that the Scots were Wai with
entirely devoted to the French intereft, fent a letter full EnglanL
of accufations againft the regent, and threats againft
the whole nation, if they did not renounce that alliance.
No regard being paid to thefe requifitions, lord Dacres
was ordered to proclaim upon the borders, that the
Scots muft Hand to their peril if they did not fall in
with his meafures by the firft of March 1522. This
producing no-effed, Henry feized the effeds of all the
Scots refiding in England, and banifhed them his do¬
minions, after marking them, according to bifhop Lef-
ley, with a crofs, to diftinguilh them from his other
fubjeds. A war was the unavoidable eonfequence of
thefe proceedings; and, on the 30th of April, the earl
of Shrewftmry, Henry’s fteward of the houfeholdr
and knight of the garter, was appointed commander
in chief of the army that was to ad againft the Scots ;
and, in the mean time, Lord Dacres made an inroad
as far as Kelfo, plundering and burning wherever he
came.
. The regent ordered his army to rendezvous at Rof- The Scot*
hn ; but the Scots, remembering the difafter at Flod-r£fufe to m-
don, fhowed an extreme averli«&U;o the war, and evenvade E';£“
told the regent to his face, that though they would de- k‘nd'
fend themfelves in cafe they were attacked, they would
not engage in a French quarrel. The regent remon-
ftrated.
/
3^9
The regent
goes to
Fiance for
allui«n..c.
39°
The Eng.
SCO [
Seotlaed. Hrated, but without efTeifl; and as tlic malcontents
continued obftinate, he was in danger of bein 1 lelt
by htmfelf, w’hen the queen mother interpofed, and pre¬
vailed upon I.ord Dacres to agree to a conference, the
event of which was a renewal of thq negociations for
peace.
7 he regent perceiving, by the difgrace of this ex¬
pedition, that he had loft his former popularity, deter¬
mined to revenge himfelf; and therefore told thofe
whom he could truft, that he was about to return to
France, from whence he fhoyld bring fuch a force by
fea and land, as ftiould render it unneceftury for him to
a(k leave of the Scots any more to invade England.
Accordingly he embarked for France on the 25th of
October, but publicly gave out that he would return
the enfuing Aug oft.
On the regent’s arrival in France, he made a de¬
mand of 10,000 foot and 5000 hovfe tor carrying on
the war againft England ; but the fitnation of King
Francis did not then allow him to fpare fo many at
once, though he was daily fending over fhips with men,
ammunition, and money, for the French garrifons in
Scotland. At laft it was pubbely known in Eng-
i ili refolve land that the regent was about to return with a ftrong
^i‘intcrcePtfleet, and 4000 of the belt troops in France; upon
which Ffenry determined, if pofiiblc, to intercept him.
Sir William Fkz-Williams, with 36 large Ihips, was or¬
dered to block up the French iquadron in the harbour
of Finhead ; Sir Anthony Foyntz cruized with ano¬
ther in the weftern leas, as Sir Chriftopher Dow and
Sir Henry Shireburn did in the northern with a third
Iquadron. 7 he duke of Albany, being unable to cope
with Fitz-Williams, was obliged to fet out from ano¬
ther port with 1 2 fhips, having forne troops on hoard.
They fell in with Fitz-Williams’s fquadron ; two of
their fhips were funk, and the reft driven back to
Dieppe. Fitz-Williams then made a defeent at 7"re¬
port, where he burnt 18 French {hips, and returned to
his ilation off Finhead. By this time the French had
given the duke fuch a reinforcement as made him an
Overmatch for the Englifti admiral, had the men been
equally good; but the regent had no dependence upon
French Jailors when put in competition with the Eng-
liih. Inftead of coming to an engagement, therefore,
as foon as Fitz-Williams appeared, he difembarked his
foldiers, as if he had intended to delay his expedition
for that year; but a ftorm foon ariling, which obliged
the Englifli fleet to return to the Downs, the regent
took that opportuuity of reimbarking his men, and, fail-
iug by the weilern coafts, arrived fafe in Scotland.
Crueldeva- All this time the fail of Surry had been carrying
ila i ws of on the xrioft cruel and deftnuftive war ag?inft Scotland;
391 .
He outwits
them, and
land* in
Scotland.
8 ] SCO
well difpofed to cultivate a faendihip with Scotland, Sc. tla j,
that he offered to James his eldeft ftfler Mary in mar-  
riage ; but tire Scots, animated by the appearance of
their French auxiliaries, and corrupted by their gold, 393
rejefted all terms, and refolved upon war. However, :~kniy
when the army was affemblcd, and had advanced to the ^[)sjc,hc“cc'
borders, he found the fame iHficulty he had formerly rtje(ae(j.
experienced ; for they flatly refufed to enter England.
With great difficulty he prevailed upon part of the ar¬
my to pafs the 71 weed ; but not meeting with fuccefs,
he was obliged to return to Scotland, which at this
time was divided into four factions. One of thefe
was headed by the regent, another by the queen, a
third by the earl Arran, and a fourth by the earl of
Angus, who had lived as an exile under Henry’s pro-
terftion. Had it been poflible for the earl of Angus
and his wife to have been reconciled to each other, it
would have been much for tne intereft of the king-
dom ; but all the art even of Cardinal Wolfey could The duks
not effect this. At laft, the duke of Albany, finding°f Albany
all parties united againft him, refigned his office of re- r^^ns his
gent of Scotland. On the F4th of March that year,°XuC<” r£*
he went on board one of Iris own fhips for France, from J
whence he never returned to Scotland. He did not
indeed make a formal abdication of his government ;
fo far from that, he requefted the nobility, whom he
convened for that purpofe, to enter into no alliance with
England during his abfence, which he faid would con¬
tinue no longer than the firft of September following;
to make no alteration in the government; and to keep
the king at Stirling.
7’he nobility, who were impatient for the abfence of
the regent, readily promifed whatever he required, hut
without any intention of performing it : nor, indeed,
was it in their power to comply ; for it had been previ-
oufly determined that James himf'elf fhould now take
the adminiftration .into his own hands. According to
Buchanan, the regent had no fooner returned to France
than Scotland relapfed into all the miferies of anarchy.
7'he queen-dowager had the management of public af¬
fairs, but her power was limited. 7’he earl of Arran,
apprehending danger from the Englifh, entered into the
views of the French party. 7’he queen-mother’s did ike
to her hufband continued as great as ever, which pre¬
vented an union among thofe who were in the Englifh
intereil ; and Wolfey took that opportunity of reftoring
the earl of Angus to all his importance in Scotland.—
The queen-mother, therefore, had no other way left
to keep herfelf in power, but to bring James himfelf
into adfion. On the 29th of July, therefore, he re-
moved from Stirling to the abbev of Holyroodhoufe ; James tabes
the Env-
m.
infomuch that, according to Cardinal Wolfey, “ there
was left neither houfe, fortrels, village, tree, cattle, corn,
nor other fuccour for man,” in the countries of 7’weed-
dale and March. The regent s return did not imme¬
diately put a flop to thefe devafiations ; for the inte-
fliue divifio»s in Scotland prevented him from taking
the field. His party was weakened by his long ab¬
fence, and the queen mother had been very a&ive in
•ftrengthening the Englsfh intereft. A parliament was
called in 1 J2i, where it was debated, AVhcther peace
or war with England fhould be refolved on ? and the
determinatioi s of this parliament were evidently on the
vvorft fide oi the queftion. Henry was at tlid time fo
allegiance to His pti
England was now prolonged, and the queen’s party car¬
ried all before them. On the very day in which the Init
truce was ligned with England, the earl of Angus en¬
tered Scotland. FIc had been invited from his exile in
France into England,where he was careffcdby Henry,
who difregarded all his filler's intreaties to fend him The carl of
back to France, and now rtfolved to fupport him in ^us re-
Scotland. Yet, though Ins declared intention in fend-^0"^
iug the earl to Scotland was, that the latter might ba- " ’
brace the French party there, the king enjoined him to
fuc, iu the raol humble manner, for a reconciliation
2 with
397
Negotia¬
tioni for
peace with
England.
SCO t
psrScotlandr tritlrhis tnfe, snd' to co-operate with' the cart of Ar-
ran, who now afted as prime minifter, as long as he
fhould oppofe the French party. On his return,
however, he found himfelf excluded from all fhare in
the government, but foon found means to form a ftrong
party in oppofitiorr to Arran. In die mean time, am-
bafladors were fent to the court cf England, in order
to treat of a perpetual peace between the two nations.
At the fame time a match was prppofed between the
young king of Scotland and Henry's daughter. This*
had originally been a fcheme of Henry himfelf; but
the emperor Charles V. had refolved to outbid him, by^
offering James a princefs of his own family, with an
immenfe treafure. The ambaffadors arrived at London
• on the 19th of December, and found Henry very much
difpofed both to the peace and to the match. Com-
miflioners were appointed to treat of both ; but they
were inftrufted to demand by way of preliminary, that;
the Scots Ihould abfolutely renounce their league with
France, and that James fliould be fent for education to
England till he fhould be of a proper age for marriage.
The Scottifh commiflioners declared, that they had no
inftm&ions on thefe points: but one of them, the earl
of Cafiils, offered to return to Scotland, and bring a
definitive anfwer from the three ftates ; and in the mean
time the truce was prolonged to the 1 5th of May 1525.
The earl of On his arrival at Edinburgh, he found the earl of An-
Angts gUS t}ie fading man in parliament; by whofe influence
power. k was determined that the Scots fliould renounce their
league with France, and fubftitute in place of it a fi-
tnilar league with England ; and that the king fhould
be brought up at the Englifh court till he was of an
» age proper for marriage : but at the fame time they re¬
quired of Henry to break off all engagements with
Charles V. who was the bitter enemy of Francis, and
at that time detained him prifoner. To this the
Englifh monarch returned but a cold anfwer, being
then engaged in a number of treaties with the emperor,
among which one was concerning the marriage of the
princefs Mary with his imperial majefty himfelf; how¬
ever, before Caffils returned, a truce of two years and
a half was concluded between England and Scotland.
But now the queen-mother, though fhe had always
been a warm advocate for an alliance between the two
nations, yet difliked the means of bringing it about.—
She faw her hufband's party increafing every day in
power ; fo that now flie had no other refource than in
keeping poflefiion of the king’s perfon, whom ihe
removed to the calfle ef Edinburgh. Being now un¬
der the necefiity of convening a parliament, it was rc-
lolved to hold it within the caltle ; which, being an un-
conftitutional meafure, gave a great handle to the earl
of Arran and his party to complain of the innovation.
Who i* be- They began with remonftrances ; but finding them in-
fieged in effe&ual, they formed a blockade of the callle with
^n"burgh 2000 men> an(* cut °ff aN communication with the town
By means of trenches. As no proviiions could thus he
got into the caftle, the queen ordered fome of the can¬
non to be turned againft the town, in order to force the
citizens to put an end to the blockade. Several (hot were
fired: but when ail things appeared ready for a civil war,
matters were compromifed, though in fuch an imperfed
manner as left very little room to hope for perfed tran¬
quillity. It was agreed, that the king fliould remove
®ut of the caftle of Edinburgh to the palace of Holy-
Vou XVII. Part I. 1
.399'
If eppofed
bvthe
«pecn-
aiother,
400
cattle.
9 1 S C O
roodhoufe ; from whence he ftiould repair with all pol- Scotland,
fible magnificence to his parliament, in the houfe where * '4
it was commonly held ; and there a finifliing hand was to
be put to all differences. This agreement was figned on 401
the 25th of February 1526. The parliament accord-Marriage
ingly met, and the king’s marriage with the princefs ofA J^a"1Ci
England was confirmed ; but no mention was made ofEnglifh
the king’s being fent for his education into that coun-princeft rc^
try ; on the contrary, he was committed to the care ofiblvedon.
eight lords of parliament. Thefe were to have the
cuftody of the king’s perfon, every one his month fnc-
ceffively, and the whole to ftand for the government of
the ftate ; yet with this limitation, “ that the king, by
their counfel, fliould not ordain or determine any thing
in great affairs to which the queen, as princefs and
dowager, did not give her confent.” This partition of
power, by giving the queen a negative in all public
matters, foon threw every thing into confufion. The
earl of Angus, by leading the king into various feene#
of pleafure and diflipation, fo gained the afcendency
over him, that he became in a manner totally guided by
him. The queen-mother, perceiving that flie could
not have seed's to her fon, without at the fame time be¬
ing in company with her hufband, whom flie hated, re- 40%
tired fuddenly with her domcftics to Stirling. Thus the He is left
king was left under the foie tuition of the earl of An-in t^e
gus, who made a very bad ufe of his power, engroffing ^^r0jfof
into his own hands, or thofe of his friends, all the Argus,
places of honour or profit. The archbifliop of St
Andrew’s, having now joined the king’s party, advifed
her to make a formal demand upon her hufband, that
the order of government which had been fettled laft par¬
liament fliould take place, and that under a penalty he
fliould fet the king at liberty. To this the earl an- ■ '
fwered by a kind of manifefto drawn up by his brother;
in which he declared, that “ the earl of Angus having
been fo highly favoured by his good uncle the king of
England, and that James himlelf being under great
obligations to him, neither the queen nor the other
lords need be in any pain about him, as he chof'e to
fpend his time with the earl of Angus rather than with 40?
any lord in the kingdom.” James himfelf, however, Attempt#
had difeernment fufficient to perceive, that, HQtwith-to recover
Handing all the fair pretences of the earl of Angus, hehis
was in fad no better than his prifoner ; and refolved to
attempt the recovery of his liberty. The earls of ArT
gyle and Arran had for fome time retired from court,
where they had no ftiare in the adminiftration, and were
living on their own eftates ; but the earl of Lenox dif-
iembled his fentiments fo well, that he was neither fuf-
pe&ed by the earl of Angus, nor any of the Douglas
family, who were his partifans. I he king being gain¬
ed upon by his infinuating behaviour, opened his mind
to him, and requefted his affiftance againft his treacher¬
ous keepers. At the fame time he fent letters to his
mother, and the heads of her party, by fome of his
domeftics whom Lenox had pointed out, intreating
them to remove him from the earl, and not fuffer him
any longer to remain under his imperious jurifdiftion ;
adding, that if.this Could not he done by any other
means, they ftiould ufe force of arms.
On receiving this letter, the queen and her party
aflemhled their forces at Stirling, and without lofs of
time began their march for Edinburgh. Angus, on
the other hand, prepared to give them a warm recep-
B tion,
Scotland.
404
T« indifpo-
fod.
405
The queen
mother di-
▼orce* b«r
bulb and.
SCO t
rioti, fcrut at the fame tl-me to carry alohg With him the
king. This refolntion being made known to the queen-
mother, (he was fo much concerned for the fafety of
her fon, that the whole party difbanded themfelves ;
and thus the authority of the earl of Angus feemed to
bt more eftablifhed than ever. Nothing, indeed, was
TiOw wanting to render him defpotrc but the poffenion
of the great feal, which the archbifhop of St Andrew’s
had carried with him to Dunfermline. As no deed of
any conftquenee could be executed without this, he pre¬
vailed upon the king to demand it by a fpecial meffage;
in confcquence of which, the archbifhop was obliged to
give it up. About this time the divorce which had
been fo long in agitation between the queen-mother and
the earl of Angus actually took place ; which, no
doubt, increafed the diflike of James to his confinement,
while the imprudence of Angus'gave everyday freih
matter of difguft. As Angus knew that he had no
firm fupport but in the attachment of his followers to
406
The baron
of Buc-
cleu^h at¬
tempts to
refeue the
king, but is
defeated.
407
Another
attempt by
Lenox.
Ms perfon, he fnffered them to rob and plunder the
Cftates of his opponents without mercy. I hefe, again,
did not fail to make reprifals; fo that, towards the end
of the year 1526, there was fcarcely any appearance of
civil government in Scotland. Thus the court became
almoil totally deferted; every nobleman being obliged
to go home to defend his own eftate. Even Angus
himfelf (hared in the common calamity, and hence was
frequently obliged to leave the king to the cuftody of
Lenox. To this nobleman the king now made the
mo ft grievous complaints, and charged him to contrive
feme plan for his efcape. Lenox accordingly recom¬
mended to him the baron of Buccleugh, who was very
powerful in the fouthern parts, and a violent enemy to
Angus and the whole family of Douglas. To him he
gave orders to foment the diforders in the fouthern parts
to fuch a degree as to require the king’s perfonal pre¬
fence to compofe them. Bucclcugh was then to attack
the party, and take the king by force from the Dou-
glafies. This fcheme was put in execution, but Buc¬
cleugh had the misfortune to be defeated; fo that the
attempt proved abortive, and James found himfelf in a
woffe fituation than ever. After this attempt, how¬
ever, as the earl of Angus could not but know that
Lenox had been acceffory to it, the former behaved to¬
wards him with fuch vifible indifference, that Lenox
openly declared again* him, and advifed the king to
form a friendfhip with the archbifhop of St Andrew’s,
in order to efTed his liberty. This was accordingly
done ; but the intereft of the archbifhop and Lenox
was overbalanced by that of Arran and the Hamilton
family, whom the earl of Angus now drew over to his
party. However, the earl of Lenox, having received
powers from the king for that purpofe, fuddenly retired
from court; and publifhed a manitefto, inviting all loyal
fubjeas to affift him in delivering the king from con¬
finement. In confequence of this he was loon joined by
a numerous army, with whom he advanced towards
Edinburgh. Angus did not fail to afTemble his adhe¬
rents ; and fent orders to the inhabitants of Edinburgh
to-take the field, with the king at their head. The
citizens immediately put themfelves under arms ; but
James, pretending to be indifpofed, Sir George Don-
glas, brother to the earl of Angus, made him the fol¬
lowing fpeech t “ Sir, rather than our enemies fhould
take you from us, we will lay hold of your -perfon ;
10 1 $ C O
and ftiould you be tC"h in pieces id tke ftraggi?, we ScotTanifc^
Will carry off part of your body.” Upon this fpeech, ■
which James never forgot, he mounted his horfe and fet
forward to Linlithgow, but with a very flow pace ; in-
fomuch that Sir George Douglas, afraid of not coming
in time to fuccour his brother, made ufe of many inde¬
cent expreflions and a&fons to pufh James on to the
field of battle. Three expreffes arrived from the earl
of Angus ; the firtt informing his brother that he wafc
about to engage with afuperior army ; the lecond, that
Angus was engaged with a divifion of Lenox’s at my,
commanded bv the carl of Glencairn ; and that Lenox
himfelf was engaged with the Hamiltons. The third
informed him that Lenox, if not a&ual!y defeated, was
on the point of being fo. Upon receiving this laft 408
news, James haftened to the field of battle, that he is de¬
might favc Lenox, and p it an end to the blood died.
But he came too late : for the royal party was alirady
defeated with great (laughter ; and Lenox himfelf, af¬
ter being wounded and taken prifoner, was murdered
by Sir James Hamilton.
' On the night of the battle, the king was removed
to Linlithgow ; and though he was under the greatetl
grief for the fate of Lenox, the behaviour of the Dou-
glaffes ftrubk him with fuch terror that he diffemfeled his
fentiments. The earl of Angus led his viaorious troops
into Fife, in hopes of furprifing the queen and the 409
archbifhop of St Andrew’s. The queen, on the news The queen-
of his approach, fled, with her new hnfband Henry
Stuart, brother to lord Evandale, to Edinburgh, m'd 0v,[jgC£j
both were admitted into the caftle. The archbifhop fled fly.
to the mountains, where he was obliged to keep cattle
as a fhepherd. Angus, after having plundered the caf¬
tle of St Andrew’s and the abbey of Dunfermline, re¬
turned in triumph to Edinburgh, where he prepared to
befiege the caftle ; but the queen, hearing that her fon
was among the number of the befiegers, ordered the
gates of the caftle to be thrown open, and furrendered
herfelf and her hufband prtfoners to James, who was
advifed to confine them to the caftle. After thefe re¬
peated fucccffes, the earl of Angus eftablifhed a kind
of court of juftice, in which he profecuted thofe who 410
had oppoied him, among whom was the earl of Cafiils. Trial and
He was offered by Sir James Hamilton, natural ion
the earl of Arran, the fame who had murdered Lenox, Ca{Jilfc
an indemnity if he would own himfeli awaftal of that
houfe; but this condition was rejefted. Being called
to his trial, and accufed of having taken arms againft
the king, a gentleman of his name and family, who
was his advocate, denied the charge, and offered to
-nrodnee a letter under James’s own hand, defiring hum
v • i- 1 l • „—.mj.. rnmc
to aflift in delivering him from his gaolers. This ftri-
king evidence confounded the profecutor fo much, that
the earl was acquitted ; but on his return home he was
‘way-laid and murdered by one Hugh Campbell, at the
■mitigation of Sir James Hamilton.
During thefe tranfaftioms in the fouth, many of the
Highland clans were perpetrating the meft horrid feenes
of rapine and murder, which in feme places reigned alfo
in the Lowlands. The ftate of the borders was little
better than that of the Highlands; but it engaged the
attention of Angus more, as he had great intereft in
thefe parts. Marching, therefore, againft the banditti,
which infefted thefe parts, he foon reduced them to rea-
fon. Hie power feemed now to be firmly eftahhfhed,
* infomuch
SCO
r n ]
SCO
411
James
efcapes
from his
cor.fine-
<awC.
jinfomuch that the archbifiiop of St Andrew’s began to
' treat with Sir George Douglas, to whom he offered
lucrative leafes and other emoluments if he would inter¬
cede with the regent, as Angus wTas called, in hia fa¬
vour. This was readily agreed to ; and the archbifhop
was allowed to return in lafety to hia palace about the
fame time that Angus returned from his expedition
againft the borderers. Nothing was then feen at court
but feilivities of every kind, in which the queen-mother,
who was now relieved from her confinement, took part:
and (lie was afterwards fuffered to depart to the caltle
of Stirling ; which Angus, not attending to its value,
had neglected to fecure. In the mean time the arch¬
bifhop invited the Douglafies to fpend fome days with
him at his caftle ; which they accordingly did, and car¬
ried the king along with them. Here James diffembled
fo well, and feemed to be fo enamoured of his new tvay
of life, that Angus thought there could be no danger
in leaving him in the hands of his friends till he fhould
return to Lothian to fettle fome public as well as pri¬
vate affairs. Having taken leave of the king, he left
him in the cuftody of his uncle Archibald, his brother
Sir George, and one James Douglas of Parkhead, who
was captain of the guards that watched his majefty on
pretence of doing him honour. The earl was no foon-
er gone than the archbifhop fent an invitation to Sir
George Douglas, defiring him to come to St Andrew’s,
and there put the lail hand to the leaies, and finifh the
bargains that had been fpoken of between them. This
was fo plaufible, that he immediately fet out for St An¬
drew’s ; while his uncle the treafurer went to Dundee,
where he had an amour. James thinking this to be
the beft opportunity that ever prefented to him for an
efcape, refolved to avail himfelf of it at all events ; and
found means, by a private meflage, to apprife his mo.
ther of his defign. It was then the feafon for hunting
and diverfion, which James often followed in the park
of Falkland j and calling for his forrefter, he told him,
that as the weather was fine, he intended to kill a ffag
next morning, ordering him at the fame time to fum-
mon all the gentlemen in the neighbourhood to attend
him with their belt dogs. Fie then called for his chief
domeitics, and commanded them to get his fupper ear¬
ly, becaufe he intended to be in the field by dav-break ;
and he talked with the captain of his guard of nothing
but the excellent fport he expedled next morning. In
the mean time, he had engaged two young men, the
one a page of his own, the other John Hart, a helper
about his ftables, to attend him in his flight, and to
provide him with the drefs of a groom for a difguife.
Having formally taken leave of his attendants, charging
them to be ready early in the morning, and being left
alone, he ftole foftly out of his bed-chamber, went to
the Habit unperceived by the guards, dreffed himfelf in
his difguife ; and he and his ’ companions mounting the
three bell horfes there, galloped to Stirling caille ; into
which, by the queen’* appointment, he was admitted
foon after day-break. He commanded all the gates to
be lecured ; and the queen having previoufly prepared
every thing for a vigorous defence, orders were given
that none fhould be admitted into the caftle without the
king s permiffion.
About an hour after the king efcaped from Falkland,
Sir George Douglas returned ; and being affured that
bis majeily was alleep, he went to bed. It appears
that James had been feen and known in his flight j for Scotland
in the morning the bailiff of Abernethy came poft-hafle V"“*
to inform Sir George that the king had pafled Stirling
bridge. They had, however, fome glimmering hope
that the king might be gone to Bambrigh : but that
fur.*.ife was foon found to be falfe ; and an exprefs was
difpatched, informing Angus of all that had happened.
The earl quickly repaired to Falkland, where he and his
friends came to a refolution of going to Stirling, and
demanding accefs to the king.
James by this time had iffued letters to the earls of Prc'
Huntley, Argyle, Athol, Glencairn, Menteith, Rothes, vecgVhim-
and Eglinton ; the lords Graham, Levingfton, Lindfay, ftlf.
Sinclair, Ruthven, Drummond, Evandale, Maxwell, and
Semple. Before all of them could arrive at Stirling,
the earl of Angus and his friends were upon their jour¬
ney to the fame place; but were flopped by a herald
at arms, commanding them on their allegiance not to
approach within fix miles of the king’s refidence. This
order having fufficiently intimated what they were to
expc£l, the earl deliberated with his party how to pro¬
ceed. Some of them were for marching on and taking
the caftle by furprife : but that was found to be imprac¬
ticable, efpecially as they had no artillery. The earl
and his brother therefore refolved to make a fhow of
fubmiffion to the king’s order; and they accordingly
went to Linlithgow. By this time all the nobility al¬
ready mentioned, and many others, had aifembled at
Stirling ; and James, calling them to council, inveigh¬
ed againft the tyranny of the Douglaffes with an acri¬
mony that fufficiently difeovered what pain it muft have
given him when he was obliged to bear it in filence.
He concluded his fpeech w ith thefe words: “ There¬
fore I defire, my lords, that I may be fatisfied of the
faid earl, his kin, and friends. For I vow that Scot¬
land ftiall not hold us both, while 1 be revenged on him
and his.”
The refult of the council’s deliberation was, that pro¬
clamation fhould be made, renewing the order for the
Douglaffes not to approach the court, and diveftiug the
earl of Angus and his brother of all their public em¬
ployments. In the mean time, fuch was the modera¬
tion of the affembly, that by their advice James ordered
the earl to retire to the north of the Spey till his plea-
fure fhould be known ; but his brother was command¬
ed to furrender himfeft a pril'oner in the caftle of Edin¬
burgh, to take his trial in a very full parliament (all
the members being fummoned to attend), to be held in
that city next September. The earl and his brother
conhdertd their compliance with thole conditions as a
prelude to their deft ruction ; and refolved to juftify
their treasons by Hill greater cxceffes, in furprifing the
town of Edinburgh, and holding it againft the king
and parliament, before the latter could affemble. Hi-
ftoriaus have not done that juitice to the proceedings of
the royal party on this occafion which they delerve.
Hie management of the king’s efcape, his reception
into Stirling, the fortifying that caftle, and the ready
obedience of his great nobility, fome of whom attended
him with their followers before they received any fum-
monfes for that purpofe, are proofs of wife and fpirited
deliberations. Their conduct at this time was equally
•confiftent with the fame plan of forefight.
It was naturally to be fuppofed that the Douglaffes,
who remained affembled in a numerous body, would
B 2 make
Scotland.
413
His ene¬
mies difap.
pointed in
their de-
ligi.s.
4T 4
They are
degraded
and for.
feiteJ.
4i5
They ra-
vapfe the
fouthern
parts.
SCO [ I
make the attempt already mentioned ; but the royalifts
had the precaution to dilpatch the Lord Maxwell and
the baron of Lochinvar, with a body of troops, to take
pofleffion of the town, till James could arrive with 2006
forces to their relief. Maxwell and Lochinvar made
fuch difpatch, that they were- in poffeffion or the tvvvn
when the Douglalfes appeared before it, and repulled
them ; while a moll terrible ftorm had fcattered the
troops under James before he could come to their af*
fiitance, fo effedtually, that, being left almoil without
attendants, his perfon might have been taken by the
fmalleil party of the enemy. Upon the retreat ol the
Uouglaffes from Edinburgh, the parliament met; and
none of them appearing in purfuance of their lummons,
the earl of Angus, his brother Sir George Douglas, his
uncle Archibald Douglas, and Alexander Drummond
of Carnock, with fome of their chiet dependents, were
indidled and forfeited for the following offences: “ i he
aflembling of the king’s lieges, with intention to have
afiailed his perfon ; the detaining of the king againfl
his will and pleafure, and contrary to the articles agreed
upon, for the fpace of two years and more ; all which
time the king was in fear and danger of his life.” We
know of no advocate for the earl and his friends but
one Banantyne, who had the courage to plead their
caufe againfl thofe heinous charges ; and fo exafperated
were both the king and parliament againfl them, that
the former fwore he never would forgive them, and the
latter that they never would intercede for their pardon.
Thus it was not deemed fufficient fimply to declare
their refolutions ; but the folemnity of oaths was added
with an intention to difcourage the king of England
from continuing the vigorous applications he was every
day making, by letters and otherwife, for the pardon of
Angus ; and to {hut out all hopes of that kind, James
created his mother’s third hufband (to whom fhe had
been married for fome time) lord Methven, and gave
him the direction of his artillery.
The difgrace and forfeiture of the Douglafles having
created many vacancies in the flate, Gavin Dunbar,
archbifhop of Glafgow, and tutor to the king, was no¬
minated lord chancellor, though but indifferently quali¬
fied for a poll that ought to have been filled by an able
flatefman ; and Robert Carncrofs, a perfon (fays Bu¬
chanan) more eminent for wealth than virtue, was made
treafurer : but this lafl was foon after difplaced, being
fufpedled of favouring the Douglaffes; and Robert
Barton, one of the king’s favourites, was appointed to
fucceed him. The Douglafles flill kept their arms;
and being joined by a great number of outlaws and rob¬
bers in the fouth, they ravaged ail the lands of their
enemies, carrying their devallations to the very gates
of Edinburgh. A commiflion of lieutenancy was offer¬
ed to the earl of Bothwell to aft againil thofe rebels:
but he declining it, it was accepted by the earl of Ar-
gyle and lord Hume, who did great fervice in proteft-
ing the country from the outlaws. Several villages,
however, in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, were
burnt ; and all the provifions the Douglaffes could find
were carried off to their calfle ofTantallon, which now
fervtd as their head-quarters, and was threatened with
a fiege.
It is remarkable, that the caflle of Dunbar remained
aill in the hands of the duke of Albany’s garrifon, who
recognifed ao matter but him. The place was well
* ]. SCO
flored with artillery of all kinds; and lying in the Scotland,^
neighbourhood of Tantallon, it was eafy to tranfport
them to the liege : but James thought he had no right
to make ufe of them without the confent of one Mau¬
rice, governor of the caflle. Having fummoned, by
proclamation, the inhabitants of Fire, Angus, Strath-
ern, Stirlingfhire, Lothian, Merfe, and Teviotdale, to
be ready to compear at Edinburgh on the xoth-of De¬
cember, with 40 days vrftuals, to affiil in the liege,- he
fent three noblemen to borrow artillery from Maurice,
and to remain as pledges for the fafe redclivery of the
fame ; and the feveral pieces required were accordingly
fent him. j his delicacy is the more remarkable, as we James i*
are told that the duke of Albany had given orders thatt'‘f^PP°.‘nt“
every thing in his caftle fhould beat the king’s fchenie of
However unanimous the parliament might appear againil revenge.
the Douglaffes, yet James was but ill-feconded in this
attempt. The unfortunate, if feverely proceeded againil,>
generally find friends ; and the enemies of the Douglaf¬
fes had impolitically rendered it treafonable for any per¬
fon to fhelter or protect the earl of Angus, his kinfmen,
or followers. This proceeding, in a country where the;
Douglaffes had fo many conneftions, carried with it an
appearance of cruelty and a thirll of revenge, efpecially
as James had chofen fuch. a feafon of the year for carry¬
ing on the liege. In fhort, after battering the place for
fome days, and lofing one Falconer, his chief engineer,
the king was obliged to abandon his enterprife, or ra¬
ther to turn the liege into a blockade, with no great
credit to his firfl effay in the field. Some hiflorians in¬
timate, that Angus found means to corrupt the other
engineers ; but we find, that before this time, a nego-
ciation was going forward between James and the king
of England ; the nature of which proves that the for¬
mer was now rendered more placable towards the Dou¬
glaffes, and was the true reafon why the fiege was fuf-
pended.
The truce between Scotland and England was now
near expiring ; and Henry, under that pretence, gave
a commiflion to the prior of Durham, Thomas Magnus,
Sir Anthony Ughtred captain of the town and caftle of
Berwick, William Frankelyn chancellor of Durham, and
Sir Thomas Tempelt. James feems. to have been in
no halle to enter upon this negociation, becaule he un-
derftood that the Engliih commiflioners were privately
inflrufted to infill upon the Oouglaffes being rellored ^
to their eflates and dignities. England was at that time Dou-
the principal ally of Francis againft the emperor ; and glafles oh.
this gave a handle for Francis to inteipofe fo far in ■a‘c“'r"
vour of the Douglaffts, that he brought James to con- ;n England.,
fent to a preliminary negociation for their obtaining at
leafl a fecure retreat in England. This was at lalt
complied with.
James being now delivered from all dread of the Dou-
glafies, and under no controul from any party, fhowed 4lg
excellent difpofitions for government. Finding that the James re*
borderers were by no means pleafed with the late treaty, Jutes the
and that they were renewing their depredations, he re-borderer8*
folved to ftrike at the root of an evil which had fo long
proved difgraceful and dangerous to his aneeftors, by
giving no quarter to the chiefs of thefe robbers, whofe
principal refidence was in Liddefdale. This was, the
more neceffary, as their daring attempts had exafperated
the Englifh fo much, that they had aftually burnt a
town in Teviotdale; and they, had killed one Robert
Kerr* -
SCO
Scotland. Kerr, a man of feme confequence
W—v—- 0f the Scotch borderers were Cockburn of Kenderlaw,
and Adam Scot, commonly called iitig of the thieves.
Both of them were barons ; and had been fo inured to
the praftice, that they thought there was no crime in
robbing: they therefore appeared publicly in Edin¬
burgh ; where James ordered them to be apprehended,
tried, and hanged. He next proceeded with great fiirm-
nefs againft many noblemen and principal gentlemen,
who were only fufpe&ed of being difaffefted to the late
peace. All of them had behaved with great loyalty,
and fome of them had done him the moll important fer-
vices. Of this number were the earl ol Hume, the lord
Maxwell, with the barons of Buccleugh, Farniherll,
Polwart, Johnllon,' and Mark Kerr. Though we know
nothing particularly of what was laid to the charge of
thofe noblemen and gentlemen, yet fo zealous,was James
for the impartial adminillration of juilice, that he or¬
dered them all, with many other chief gentlemen of the
borders, to be fent to prifon ; where they lay till they
entered into recognizances themfelves, and found bail for
their good behaviour.
Of all the party of the Douglaffes, none of any note
excepting Alexander Drummond of Carnock was dif¬
fered to return-home, at the earned requell of the am-
balfadors and the treafurer Barton. This lenity was of
very little confequence; for James having appointed the
earl of Murray to be foie warden of the Scotch mat ch¬
es, with power to treat with the earl of Northumber¬
land, their conferences had broken off on account of
frelh violences happening every day ; and fome infor¬
mation he had received from them, had prevailed with
James to imprifon the noblemen and gentlemen we have
' already mentioned. He now relolved to attempt in
perfon what his predecefibrs and he had fo often tailed
in by their deputies. As he was known to be violent¬
ly addicted to hunting, he fummoned his nobility, evea
on the north of the Forth, to attend him with their horfes
and dogs; which they did ip Inch numbers, that his hunt¬
ing retinue confided of above 8000 perfons, two-thirds
of whom were well armed. This preparation gave no
fufpickm to the borderers, as great hunting-matches ia
thofe days commonly confilteoi of fome thoulands ; and
James having fet out upon his diveriiort, is laid to have
killed 540 deer. Among the other gentlemen who had
4*9 been fummoned to attend him, was John Armltrong of
Haugs Gilnockhall. He was the head of a numerous clan,
a uoted k’who lived with great pomp and fplendour upon the con-
robber, tributions under which they laid the Englilh on the
with j.t> of borders. He was himfelf always attended by twenty-
foj.ow- £x geatlemen on horleback, well mounted and armed,
as his body guards. Having received the king’s invi¬
tation, he was fond of difplaying his magniiicence to
his lovereign ; and attiring himfelf and his guard more
pomponlly than ufual, they prefented themfelves be¬
fore James, from whom they expected fome particular
mark of diflin£tion lor their fervices &gainll the Eng¬
lilh, and for the remarkable protection they had always
given to their countrymen the Scots. On their firll
appearance, James, not knowing who he was, returned
Armftrong’s falute, imagining him to be fome great no-
er«
C >3 1 s co ,
Two of the chiefs bleman ; but upon hearing his name, he ordered him Scottnil^
and his followers to be immediately apprehended, and * .
lentenced them to be hanged upon the fpot. It is laid
that James, turning to his attendants, aflced them, point¬
ing at Anpltrong, “ What does that knave want that
a king fhould have, but a crown and a Iword of ho¬
nour ?” Annltrong begged hard for his life; and offer¬
ed to ferve the king ip the field with forty horfemen,
befides making him large prefents of Jewels and money,
with many other tempting offers. Finding the king in¬
exorable, “ Fool that l am H,laid he) to look for warm,
water under ice, by alking grace of a gracelefs face .
and then he and his followers fubmitted to their fate*. .
Thofe and fome other executions ot the fame kind re-
ftored peace to the borders..
4 20
Hithert® we have confidered only the civil tranfac- Account of
tions of Scotland ; but henceforth religion will claim aTe tefor-
confiderable lhare of the hillorian’s attention. Theopi-' *
nions of Luther had been propagated in Britain foon
after his preaching in 1517. They had for fome years
infenfibly gained ground ; and, at the time the conten¬
tions began between James and his nobility, were be¬
come formidable to the ellablilhed religion. We have
feen How James efcaped from the hands of his nobles
by means of the archbiffiop of St Andrew’s. To the
clergy, therefore, he was naturally favourable ; and as 421
they of necefiity oppofed the reformation, James became "Ty J met
a zealous perfecutor of the reformed. Ou the other
hand, the nobility having already oppofed the king and
clergy in civil affairs, did fo likewife in thole of religion.
The clergy finding themfelves unequal in argument, had
recourfe to more violent methods. Rigorous inquifi-
tions were made after heretics, and fires were everywhere
prepared lor them. 43*
The firlt perfon who was called upon to fuffer for Martyrdom*
the reformed religion was Patrick Hamilton, abbot of
Feme. At an early period of life he had been. ap.
pointed to this abbacy ; and having imbibed a favour¬
able idea of the dodtrines of Luther, he had travelled
into Germany, where, becoming acquainted with the
molt eminent reformers, he was fully confirmed in theit
opinions. Upon his return to Scotland, he ventured to.
expole the corruptions of the church, and to infill on
tire advantages of the tenets which he had embraced^
A condudl fo bold, and the avidity with which his dif-
courles were received by the people, gave an alarm to the
clergy. Under the pretence of a religious and friendly-
conference,, he was feduced to St Andrew’s by Alexan¬
der Campbell, a dominican friar, who was inllrudled to
remonftrate with him on the Cubjedlof the reformation.
The convCrfations they held only fet ved to ellablilh the
abbot more firmly in his fentiments, and to inflame hi?
zeal to propagate them. The archbiffrop of St An¬
drew s, the archbifliop. of Glafgow, and other dignita¬
ries of the church, conilitutrng a court, called him to
appear before them.
The abbot neither loft his courage nor renounced his
opinions. He was convidled accordingly of heretical
pravity, delivered over to the fecular arm, and executed
in the year 1527 (n). This reformer had not attained , •
the
(n) His tenets were of the following import, and are enumerated m the fentenCe pronounced againft him..
4 “ Man
Scotland.
♦*3
S C O [
th« 24th year of His age. His youth, his virtue, his
magnanimity, and his lufferings, all operated in his fa¬
vour with the people^. To Alexander Campbell, who
infulted him at the flake, he obje&ed his treachery, and
cited him to anfwer for his behaviour before the judge¬
ment-feat of Chritt. And this perfecutor, a few days
after, being feized with a frenzy, and dying in that
condition, it was believed with the greater fmcerity and
confidence, that Mr Hamilton was an innocent man and
a true martyr.
Excues pe- A deed fo affe&ingf, fronv its novelty and in its cir-
^^^H^'cumftances, excited throughout the kingdom an univer-
fal curiofky and indignation. Minute and particular in¬
quiries were made into the tenets of Mr Hamilton.
Converts to the new opinions were multiplying in every
quarter, and a partiality to them began to prevail even
among the Romifh clergy themfelves. Alexander Se-
ton, the king’s confeflbr, took the liberty to inveigh
againfl the errors and abufes of Popery ; to negleft, in
his difeourfes, all mention of purgatory, and pilgrima¬
ges, and faints ; and to recommend the doctrines of the
reformed. What he taught was impugned ; and his
boldnefs rifing with contradi&ion, he defended warmly
his opinions, and even ventured to affirm, that in Scot¬
land there were no true and faithful bifhops, if a judge¬
ment of men in tin’s ftation is to be formed from the
virtues which St Paul has required of them. A farcafm
fo juft, and fo daring, inflamed the whole body of the
prelacy with refentment. They ftudied to compafs his
deftruftion ; and, as Mr Seton had given offence to the
king, whom he had exhorted to a greater purity of life,
they flattered themfelves with the hope of conducing
him to the flake ; but, being apprehenfive of danger,
he made his efcape into England.
In 1533, Henry Forefl, abenediftine friar, who dif-
cOvered a propenfity to the reformed doclrines, was not
ft) fortunate. After having been imptifoned for fome
time in the tower of St Andrew’s, he was brought to
his trial, condemned, and led out to the flames. Pie
had faid, that Mr Plamilton was a pious man, and a
martyr; and that the tenets for which he fuffered
might be vindioated. This guilt-was aggravated by the
difeovery that friar Fore ft was in pofleffion of a Ne w
Teftament in the Englifh language ; for the pritfts ef-
teemed a careful attention to the Scriptures to be an in¬
fallible fymptom of herefy. A cruelty fo repugnant to
the common fenfe and feelings of mankind, while it
pleafed the infolent pride of the eccleliallies, was de-
ffroyinq- their importance, and exciting a general difpo*
iition in the people to adopt in the fulleft latitude the
principles and fentiments of the reformed.
The following year, James Beaton archbifhop of
St Andrew’s, though remarkable for prudence and mo.
deration, was overawed by his nephew and coadjutor
David Beaton, and by the clergy. In his own perfon,
or by commiffion granted by him, persecutions were
carried on with violence. Many were driven into ba-
4*4
Henry Fo-
2<fl burnt;
14 ] SCO
nifhment, andb many were forced to acknowledge what Scfttliwd.
they did not believe. The more ftrenuous and refolute ~
were delivered over to punifhment. Among thefe were A
two private gentlemen, Norman Gourlay and David Gourlay
Stiaton. They were tried at Holyroodhoufe before30^ Stra*
the bifhop of Rofs; and refilling to recant, were con-ton»
demned. King James, who was prefent, appeared ex¬
ceedingly felicitous that they fhould recant their o-
pinions ; and David Straton, upon being adjudged to
the fire, having begged for his mercy, was about to re¬
ceive it, when the priefls proudly pronounced, that the
grace of the fovereign could not be extended to a cri¬
minal whom their law and determination had doomed
to fuffer.
A few years after, the bifhops having affembled atWjthfeve.
Edinburgh, two Dominican friars, Killor and Beverage,ra^ oth«rs*
with Sir Duncan Sympfon a prieft, Robert Forrefler a
gentleman of Stirling, and Thomas Forreft vicar of Do¬
lour in Perthfhire, were condemned to be confumed in
the fame fire.
At Glafgow, a fimilar feene was a&ed in 1539:
Hieronymus Ruffcl a gray-friar, and a young gentleman
of the name of Kennedy, were accufed of herefy before
the bifhop of that fee. Ruffel, when brought to the
flake, dilplaying a deliberate demeanour, reafoned grave¬
ly with his accufers, and was only anfwered with re¬
proaches. Mr Kennedy, who was not yet 18 years of
age, feemed difpofed to difavow his opinions, and to
fink under the weight of a cruel affliction ; but the ex¬
hortation and example of Ruffel awakening his courage,
his mind affumed a firmnefs and conitancy, his counte¬
nance became cheerful, and he exclaimed with a joyful
voice, “ Now, I defy thee, Death ; I praife my God,
I am ready.” 4*7
James Beaton, the archbifhop of St Andrew’s, ha.
ving died about this time, the ambition of David Bea- 1
ton, his coadjutor, was gratified in the fulleft manner.
He had before been created a cardinal of the Roman
church, and he was now advanced into the poffeffxon of
the primacy of Scotland. No Seottifh ecclefiaitic had
been ever invefted with greater authority ; and the re¬
formers had every thing to fear from fo formidable an
enemy. The natural violence of his temper had fixed
itfelf in an overbearing in foie nee, from the fuccels 428
which had attended him. His youth had been puffed *"hs chir*C-»
in feenes of policy and intrigue, which, while they com-!Cr*
municated to him addrefs and the knowledge of men,
corrupted altogether the fimplicity and candour of his
mind. Pie was dark, defigning, and artificial. No
principles of juftice were any bar to his fchemes ; nor
did his heart open to any impreffions of pity. His
ruling paffion was an inordinate love of power ; and the
fupport of his confequence depending alone upon the
church of Rome, lie was animated to maintain its fu-
perflitions with the warmeft zeal. He feemed to take
a delight in pen dioufnefs and diffimulation : he had no
religion ; and lie was itaiued with an inhuman cruelty,
and
Man hath no free-will. Man is in fin fo long as he Hveth. Children, incontinent after their baptifme, are fin-
ners. All Chriflians, that be worthie to be called Chriftians, do know that they are in grace. No man is jolli¬
fied by works, but by faith only. Good works make not a good man, but a good man doth make good works.
And faith, hope, and charity, are fo knit, that he that hath the one hath the reft ; and he that wanteth the one
of them wanteth the reft.’1 Keith, Hiji. of the Church and State of Scotland, Appendix, p. 3.
Scotland.
419
Sir John
Borthwick
impeached.
SCO [
ini the moft open profligacy of manners. In connec*
tlon with thefe defe&s, he poffefFed a perfevetntig obfti.
nacy in parfuing his meafures, the ability to perceive
and to pradife all the arts which were neceffary to ad¬
vance them, and the allurements of ollentation and pro¬
digality. ... v .
"He was fcarcely inverted in the primacy, when he ex¬
hibited an example of his talk for magnificence, and of
his averfion to the reformed. He pioceeded to St An¬
drew’s with an uncommon pomp and parade. The earls
of Huntley, Arran, Marifchal, and Montrofe, with the
lords Fleming, Lindfey, Erlkine, and Seton, honoured
Kim with their attendance ; and there appeared m his
train, Gavin archbifhop of Glafgow and lord high chan¬
cellor, four bi(hops, lix abbots, a great ntany ptivate
gentlemen, and a vaft multitude of the inferior clergy.
In the cathedral church of St Andrew’s, from a thione
ereffed by his command, be harangued concerning the
ftate of religion and the church, to this company, and
to a crowd ot other auditors. He lamented the increafe
of heretics ; he infilled upon their audacity and con¬
tempt of order ; he faid, that even in the court of the
fovereign too much attention was fhown to them , and
he urged the ftrotig necefiity of afting againll them
with the greatefl rigour. He informed this aflembly,
that he had cited Sir John Borthwick to appear before
it, for maintaining tenets of faith hoftile to the church,
and for difperfmg heretical books ; and he defired that
he might be artilled in bringing him to jullice. The
articles of accufation (o) were accordingly read againll
him ; bat he neither appeared in his own perfon,
nor by any agent or deputy. He was found, not with-
Handing, to be guilty ; and the cardinal, with a folem-
nity calculated to ftrike with awe and terror, pronoun¬
ced fentence againft him. His goods and eft ate were
conlifcated ; a painted reprefentation of him was burn¬
ed publicly, in teftimony of the malediction of the
church, and as a memorial of his obftinacy and con¬
demnation. It was ordained, that in the event oi his
being apprehended, he ftiould fuffer as a heretic, with¬
out hope of grace or mercy. All Chriftians, whether
men or women, and of whatever degree or condition,
were prohibited from affording liim any harbour or fuf-
15 3 SCO
tenance. It was declared, that every office of hum an i- ScotlaaA.
ty, comfort, and folacement, extended to him, (hould be *
confidered as criminal, and be pwnifhtd with confifca-
tions and forfeitures. 4*0
Sir John Borthwick having been apprifed of bis He flies in*
danger, fled into England ; where he was kindly
ceived by Henry VII t. who employed him in ntegoci- a *
ations with the Proteftant princes of Germany. Car¬
dinal Beaton perceived with concern that this aft of
feverity did not terrify the people. New defections
from the church were announced to him. Andrew
Cunningham fon to the rralter of Glencairn, James
Hamilton brother to Patrick Hamilton the martyr,
and the celebrated George Buchanan the hiitorian, were
imprifoned upon fufpicions of herefy ; and, it they had
not found means to efcape, muff have died at the
flake. In this declining condition of Popery, the cam
dinal held many mournful confultations with the bilhops-
All their intrigues and wifdom weie employed to devife
methods to fupport themfelves. The projeft of an in-
quilitorial court was conceived, and exhibited a dirtant
view of tire extirpation of heretics. To ereft this tri¬
bunal, they allured James V. with the hopes of thecon-
fifeation and fpoils, which might enrich him, from the
perfecution and punithment of the reformed. He yield¬
ed himfelf to their folicitations, and gave them the fanc-
tion of his authority.
A formal eommifiion was granted, conftituting a court
of inquiry after heretics, and nominating for its prelident 43*
Sir James Hamilton of Fennard. natural brother to the$ir J»mM'
earl of Arran. The officious alfiduity of this man, l**5
ambition, and his thirft of blood, were acceptable inra of
high degree to the clergy ; and to this bad eminence mnuilitor*
their recommendation had promoted him. Upon the
flightelt fufpicion he was allowed to call any perfon be¬
fore him, to ferutinize into his creed, and to abfolve or
to condemn him. A tribunal to dreadful could not
have found a direftor more luited to it. He was in
hafte to fill the prifons of the kingdom with culprits,
and was marking down in lilts the names of all thofe to
whom herefy was imputed by popular report, and whom
the arts of malicious men had reprefented as the objtfts
of correction and punifhment. But, while he was brood-
(o) They are preferred by archbilhop Spotrfwood, and difplay great liberality of mind, in a period when phi-
lofophy may be faid to have been unknown in Scotland. They are thus detailed by this judicious writer.
j. « That he held the pope to have no greater authority over Chriftians than any other bilhop or prelate had.
2. “ That indulgences and pardons granted by the pope were of no force nor effeft, but deviled to abufe
people, and deceive poor ignorant fouls.
3. “ That bifhops, priefts, and other clergymen, may lawfully marry.
4. That the herefies, commonly called berfes of England, and their new liturgy, were commendable, and to¬
te embraced of all Chriftians.
5. “ That the people of Scotland are blinded by their clergy, and profeffed not the true faith.
6. u That churchmen ought not to enjoy temporaliies.
7. <l That the king ought to convert the rents of the church into other pions ufes.
8. “ That the chirrch of Scotland ought to be governed after the manner of the Engliftt.
9. ** That the canons and decrees of the church were of no force, as being contrary to the law of God.
10. “ That the orders of the friars and monks fhould be abolilhed, as bad been done in England.
11. “ That he did openly call the pope Jimoniac, for that he fold ipiritual things.
12. “ That he did read heretical books, and the New Teftament in Engliifi, and fome other treatifes written
ty Melanfthon, Oecolampadius, and Erafmus, which he gave likewife unto others.
13. “ The laft and greateft point was, that he refufed to acknowledge the authority of the Roman fee, or be
fubjeft thereunto/’ Hijl. of the Church, p. 70.
SCO [ |6
mg over mlfchief, and ♦nultiplylng in fancy the triumphs
of his wickednefs/an unexpedted turn of affairs prefent-
ed himfelf in the light of a criminal, and condudicd him
to the fcaffold. '
The brother of Mr Hamilton the martyr, to avoid
perfecution, had been obliged *o go into baniihment;
Hamilton’s ^ut» br tbe interceffion of his friends, he was permit-
ScotUud.
43*
Projedts
bi other.
433
By whom
he is accu¬
sed of trea
Cue.
ted to return for a fhort time to his own country, that
he might regulate the affairs of his family. He was
connected writh Sir James Hamilton ; and, trailing to
the ties of blood, ventured to prolong his flay beyond
the period allotted to him. This trefpafs was trivial.
Sir James Hamilton, being willing to give a fignai
example of feverity, and by this means to ingratiate
himfelf the more with the prieflhood, took the refo-
lution to make his own relation the firfl viftim of his
power. Mr Hamilton, attentive to his perfonal fecu-
aity, and not unacquainted with the moil private ma¬
chinations of this inquifitor, dilpatched his fon to the
king, who was about to pafs the Forth in a barge,
and intreated him to provide for his fafety, as Sir
James Hamilton had confpired with the houfe of Dou¬
glas to affaffmate him. James V. being at variance
with the houfe of Douglas, had reafons of lufpicion,
and was difpofed to believe every thing that is moft
flagitious of Sir James Hamilton. He inftrudled the
young gentleman to go with expedition to Edinburgh,
and to open the matter to the privy-council; and that
he might be treated with the greater refpeA, he fur-
nifhed him with the ring which he was accuflomcd to
fend to them upon thofe important occafions which re¬
quired their addrefs and aflivity. Sir James Hamil¬
ton was apprehended and imprifoned. An accufation
of having devifed and attempted the king’s death at
different times, was preferred againft him. His de¬
fence appeared to be weak and unfatisfaftory. A jury,
.which confifted of men of rank and chara&er, pro¬
nounced him guilty ; and, being condemned to fuffer
the death of a traitor, he loft his head, and the quar¬
ters of his body were expofed upon the gates of the
city of Edinburgh. The clergy, who could not pre¬
vent his trial and execution, regretted his death, but
• did not think of appointing a fucceffor to him in their
court of inquifition.
In other relpedts, however, James {bowed great con¬
cern for the welfare of his people. Being diffatisfied
with the ordinary adminiltration of juftice, he had re-
courfe to the paifiament of Paris for a model of the
like inftilution in Scotland. Great objections lay to
juries in civil matters, and to ambulatory comts of ju¬
ftice. The authority of the heritable jurifdiftions was
almoft exclufive of all law ; for though the king might
guTates the ptefide in them, yet he feldom did ; and appeals before
courts of the council were difagreeable and expenfive. The in-
ftitution of the lords of articles threw too much weight
into their fcale, as no bufinefs could be tranfa&ed in
parliament but what they allowed of and prepared ;
and it was always in the power of the crown to direct
them as the king pkafed. The truelburce of the pub¬
lic grievances, in matters of property, lay in the difre-
gard fhown to the excellent a£ts w hich had pafled du¬
ring the reigns of the three firft James’s, and which
had not been fufficiently fupported in the late reigns.
The evil had gathered flrength during the minority of
James V. and he refolved to eftablifh a ilamling jury
434
Condemn¬
ed and ex¬
ecuted.
435
James re
| office.
] SCO
for all matters of law and equity (for, properly fpeak* Scotland,
mg, the court of feflion in Scotland is no other), with '
a prelident, who was to be the mouth of the affembly. 0: j^in of
On the 13th of May, this year, as we find by a curious the court |
manufeript in the Britifh mufeum, the lords of the ar-of fefiion.
tides laid before the parliament the propofition for in-
ftituting this court, in the following words : “ Itc;m,
anent (concerning) the fecond artickel concerning the
order of juilice ; becaufe our fovereign lord is maiil de-
ftrous,to have an permanent order of juftice for the uni-
vetfal of all his liege ; and therefore tendis to inftitutc
an college of cunning and wife men for doing and ad-
miniftration of juftice in all civil aftions : and there¬
fore thinke to be chofen certain perfons maift conve¬
nient and qualified yair (there), to the number of fif¬
teen perfons, half fpiritual, half temporal, with an pre-
fident.”
In thetyear 1 ^33, hoftilities were recommenced with
England ; but after fome flight incurfions on both fides, 437
a truce again took place. The moft remarkable tranf-Negocia.
adfions of thefe years, however, next to the religious
perfecutions already mentioned, were the negociations m,rriagC>
for the king’s marriage. Indeed, there is icarce any
monarch mentioned in hiftory who feems to have had a
greater variety of choices, or who wras more difficult to
be pleafed. The fituation of affairs on the continent
of Europe, had rendered Scotland a kingdom of great
confequence, as holding the balance between France,
England, and the emperor of Germany ; and each of
the rival powers endeavoured to gain the favour of
James, by giving him a wife.—In 1534, king Francis
offered him his daughter ; and the match was ftrongly
recommended by the duke of Albany, who was Hill li¬
ving in France, and ferved James with great fidelity. 438
The fame year the Imperial ambaffador arrived in Scot-^ersof
land, and prefented, in the name of his mafter, the or- ^
der of the golden fleece to James, who had already beenmany%
invefted with that of St Michael by Francis. At the
fame time, he offered him his choice of three princeffes;
Mary of Auftria, the emperor’s lifter, and widow of
Eewis king of Hungary ; Mary of Portugal, the
daughter of his lifter Eleonora of Auftria ; or Mary of
England, the daughter of Catharine and Henry. An¬
other condition, however, was annexed to this propo-
fal, viz. that, to fupprefs the herefies of the time, a
council ftiould be held for obviating the calamities
which threatened the Chriftian religion. Thofe pro-
pofals-would have met with a more ready acceptance
from James, had not Iris clergy, at this time, been drf-
gufted with Charles, for allowing too great a latitude
to the Proteftants of Germany. James, in his anfwer. Which are
returned the emperor his acknowledgments in the moft ^5
polite tertns, for the fplendid alliances he had offered James*
him. He touched the propofal of the council as being
a meafure rather to be wifhed for than hoped*, becaufe
it ought to be free and holy, and upon the model of
the firfl councils; its inembers coniifting of the moft
charitable, quiet, and difinteretted part of the clergy.
He faid, thatdf fuch a council could be obtained, he
would willingly fend ecckfiaftics to it; but if not,:that
every prince ought to reform the errors of dodliW,
and the faults’of the ckrgy, within his own dominions.
He bewailed the obflinate condiuft of his uncle in lus
divorce and marriage; and offered his bell offices for
pfE&ing a reconciliation between him and the emperor,
• - tvifhiiig
*
44©
He marries
jrhe king i f
France’s
daughter,
441
Who dies
Soon after.
442
J'.-nes ri-
alled by
his unde
in a fecond
marriage.
443
Cruel exe¬
cution of
the heir of
the houfe
of Forbes.
SCO t
wIlTitn^ that all the princes of Chriftendom would unite
their arms againft their common enemy the Turks,
lie hinted, very juftly, that his Imperial majefty had
offered more than he could perform, bccaufe his cou-
fm, Mary of England, was not at his difpofal. The
ambaffador replied, that his mailer, if perfuafions failed,
would compel Henry by force of arms to rdign her.
fames anfvvered this ridiculous declaration by obferving,
that the emperor then would be guilty of a breach of
all laws both divine and human ; that it would be im¬
politic to give a preference to any of the three prin-
ceifes, all of them being fo illuftrious and deferring ;
but, to {how how much he valued an alliance wid his
Imperial majefty. he would become a fuppliant to that
prince for his niece, daughter to Chriftiern king of
Denmark, to become his bride. rl Ire ambaftador s an-
fwer to this unexpe&ed requeft was, that ihe was alrea¬
dy betrothed to the count-palatine, and that before that
time the marriage was probably confummated.
But whether the Imperial ambaffador had any right
to offer the Engliih princefs or not, it is agreed by
moft hiftorians, that he was offered either Mary or Eli¬
zabeth by their father Henry himfelf. To Mary of
Bourbon, the daughter of the duke of Vendofme, he
is faid to have been contra&ed ; but for fome reafon
or ortier all thefe matches were broken off; and the
king at laft went to France, where he married Mag¬
dalen the eldeft daughter of Francis. The nuptials
were celebrated at Paris in the year 1537, with great
magnificence ; and among other things ferved up by
way of defert at the mariage-feaft, were a number of
covered cups filled with pieces wf gold and gold-dull,
the native product of Scotland, which James diftribu-
ted among the guefts. This gold was found in the
mines of Crawford-moor, which were then worked by
the Germans. In the beginning of May, the royal
pair embarked for Leith, under convoy of four large
Ihips of war, and landed on the 28th of the fame
month. The joy of the Scots was inexprelfible, but it
was of Ihort continuance ; for the young queen died of
a fever on the 22d of July the fame year.
King James did not long remain a widower; for the
fame year he fent Beaton abbot of Arbroath, to treat
of his fecond marriage with a French lady, Mary of
Guife, duchefs-dowager of Longueville. In this he
was rivalled by his uncle Henry VIII. but not before
[ames had been contradled to her. But this was no¬
thing to Henry ; for he not only infilled upon having
this lady for his wife, but threw out fome menaces
againll Francis, becaufe he would not comply with this
unjuftifiable requeil. In January 1538, Ihe was mar¬
ried to James, and efeorted to Scotland by the admi¬
ral of France with a confiderable fquadron ; both James
and Francis being fufpicious that Henry would make
fome attempt to intercept the royal bride. But no¬
thing of this kind happened, and Ihe landed fafely at
Fifenefs ; from whence file was conduced to the king
at St Andrew’s.
But while James appeared thus to be giving him¬
felf up to the pleafures of love, he was in other refpects
fhowing himfelf a bloody tyrant. Some differences
fubfifted between the families of Gordon and Forbes in
the north. The heir of the houfe laft-mentioned had
been educated in a loofe diffipated manner, and kept
Vol. XVII. Part I.
7 1 SCO
company with a wrmthlefs fellow named Strahiift. Ha* Scotland,
ving refufed this favourite fornething he had aiked, the ^ 1
latter attached himfelf to Gordon earl of Huntley,
who, it is faid, affitled him in forming a charge of trea-
fon againft Forbes. He was accufed ol intending to
reitore the Douglaffes to their forfeited eftates and ho¬
nours ; which improbable llory being fupported by
fome venal evidences, the unhappy young man was con¬
demned and executed as a traitor. The king could not
but fee the injuftice of this execution ; and, in order to
make fome amends for it, banifhed Strahan the kingdom.
The following execution, which happened a lew days
after, was much more inhuman, infornuch that it would
have ftained the annals even of the moil d^fpotic tyrants.
The earl of Angus, finding that he could not regain
the favour of the king, had recourfe to the method
ufual in thofe days, viz. the committing of depredations 444
on the borders. This crime was fufficient with James And of the
to occafion the death qfhis innocent filler, the dowager-jl wa>j.cr,. ^
lady of Glamis. She had been courted by one Lyon,m-s>
whom ihe had rejected in favour of a gentleman of the
name of Campbell. Lyon, exaiperated at hxs repulle,
found means of admittance to James, whom he filled with
the greateil terrors on account ot the p raft ices of the
family of Angus ; and at lall charged the lady, her huf-
band, and an old pricll, with a defign of poifoning
the king in order to rellore Angus. The parties
were all remarkable for the quiet and innocent lives
they led ; and even this circumltance was by their dia¬
bolical accufer turned to their prejudice, by reprefent-
ing it as the effieft of cunning or caution. In this
reign an accufation of tueafon was always followed by
condemnation. However, the evidence againll the lady
appeared fo abfurd and contradiftory, that fome oi the
judges were for dropping the profecution, and others
for recommending her cafe to the king: but the majo¬
rity prevailed to have it determined by a jury, who
brought her in guilty; and Ihe was condemned to be
burnt alive in the Caftle-liill of Edinburgh. The de¬
fence Ihe made would have done honour to the abletl
orator, and undeniably proved her innocence ; but tho*
it was reported to James, it was fo far from mitiga¬
ting her fentence, that it was aggravated by her hui- 445
band being obliged to behold her execution. The un-^satb cf
happy hufband himfelf endeavoured to make his way | U*'
over the callle-vvall of Edinburgh ; but the rope pro¬
ving too Ihort, he was dalhed in pieces : and lord Gla¬
mis her fon, though but a child, was impriloned during
the remainder of this reign. The old priell, though
put to the torture, confelfed nothing, and was freed.
Lyon, like the other accufer already mentioned, was
banilhed the kingdom. 446
Whether theie and other cruelties had affefted the ‘h-king
king’s confcience, or whether his brain had keen a lthul of'
touched by the diilraftions of the different parties, is diftra&ion,
unknown ; but it is certain, that, in the year 1 540, he
began to live retired : his palace appeared like the cloi-
ftered retreat of monks ; his lleep was haunted by the
moil frightful dreams, which he conllrued into appari¬
tions ; and the body of Sir James Hamilton, whole ex¬
ecution has already been mentioned, feemed continually
prefent to his eyes. Perhaps the lofs of his two fons,
who died on the fame day that Sir James was executed, *
might have contributed to bring this man more remark-
C ably
Scotland.
447.
Hoftiiities
commence
between
Scotland
and Eng¬
land.
448
The f'ove-
rtignry of
Ireland
claimed by
both kings
449
An a«fl of
indemnity
for crimes
committed
during the
king’s mi-
Mrity.
45°
prepara¬
tions of
Jienry.
SCO [ 1
ably to his remembrance No doubt, it added to the
gloom of his mind ; and he now faw his court abandon¬
ed by almoft all his nobility.
At laft James was in fome degree roufed from his
inaction, by the preparations made againft him by his
uncle Henry VIII. of England. Some differences had
already taken place ; to accommodate which, Henry
had defired a conference with James at York. But
this the latter, by the advice of his parliament, had
declined. The confequence was a rupture between the
two courts, and the Englifh had taken 20 of the Scots
trading veffels. Henry threatened to revive the anti¬
quated claim of the Englifh fuperiority over Scotland,
and had given orders for a formidable invafion of the
Scotch borders. He complained that James had u-
furped his title of Defender of the Faith, to which he
had added the word Chriftian, implying that Henry
was an infidel: but the kings of Scotland had, fome
time before, been complimented by the papal fee with
that title. James, on the other hand, threw his eyes
towards Ireland, the north part of which was aftually
peopled with inhabitants who owned no fovereign but
the king of Scotland, and who offered to ferve James
againfl the Englifh ; fome of their chiefs having actual¬
ly repaired to Scotland, and done homage to James.
Henry had, about this time, declared himfelf king of
Ireland, of which he was before only ftyled the lord;
and James roundly afferted, that he had a preferable
claim to at leaft one half of that ifland, which had been
peopled by the fubjeCts of Scotland. Though the
Scotch hiflorians of this reign take very little notice of
this incident, yet James appears to have been very te¬
nacious of his title; and that there was a vaft inter-
courfe carried on between the fubjeCts of Scotland and
the northern Irifh, who unanimoully acknowledged
James for their natural fovereign. Indeed, this was
the only ground of quarrel that the king, with the leafl
fhadow of juflice, could allege againfl Henry.
His parliament being met, many public-fpirited a&s
were paffed; and before the affembly was diffolved,
the members renewed the a&s againfl leafing-making ;
by which is meant the mifreprefenting of the king to his
nobles, or the nobles to their king: and James, to
difmifs them in good humour, paffed an aft of free
grate for all crimes committed in his minority ; the earl
©f Angus, and Sir George and Sir Archibald Douglas,
being excepted.
Henry, after cutting off the head of his wife Ca¬
tharine Howard, married and divorced the princefs
Anne of Cleves, and found himfelf either deferted or
diflrufled by all the princes on the continent, Prote-
llant as well as Roman Catholic. James and his clergy
relied greatly on this public odium incurred by Henry;
but the emperor having again quarrelled with Francis,
left Henry, whofe dominions they had threatened joint¬
ly to invade, at liberty to continue his preparations a-
gainfl the Scots. He -firfl ordered his fleet, then the
mofl formidable of any in the world, to make frefh de-
fcents upon Scotland. At the fame time, he appoint¬
ed a very confiderable army to rendezvous upon the
borders, under the command of Sir Robert Bowes, one
of his wardens, the earl of Angus, and his two bro¬
thers Sir George and Sir Archibald Douglas. James
was every day expefting fupplies of money, arms, and
other neccflaries from Francis; but thefe not arriving,
8 ] SCO
he reaffembled his parliament on the 14th of March, Scotland,
which gratified him in all his demands Many excel- v
lent regulations were made for the internal government,
peace, and fecurity of the kingdom, and againfl the ex¬
portation of money inflead of merchandife. Aftswere
paffed for fortifying and e&bellifhing the town of E-
dinhurgh, and for better fupplying the fubjefts with
wine and all the other neceffaries of life, 'i'he royal
revenue was increafed by many additional eflates; and
the laft hand was put to one of the bell plans for a na¬
tional militia that perhaps ever appeared. As yet,
excepting in the difappointment which Henry met with
from his nephew in not meeting him at York, he had -
no grounds for commencing hoflilities. But it is here Death of
proper to obferve, that the queen-mother was then the queen-
dead ; and confequently the conneftion between Jamesrnot e *
and Henry was weakened. Whatever her private cha-
rafter might have been, fhe was certainly a happy in-
flrument of preventing bloodfhed between the two
kingdoms. She was buried with royal honours at
Perth.
James, to all appearance, was at this time in a mofl
defirable fituation. His domain, by forfeitures and o-
therwife, far exceeded that of any of his predeceflbrs.
He could command the purfes of his clergy; he had
large fums of ready money in his exchequer ; his forts
were well flored and fortified; and he was now daily
receiving remittances of money, arms, and ammunition 45*
from France. All this fhow of happinefs was only in James lofea
appearance ; for the affeftions of his nobility, and the
wifer part of his fubjefts, were now alienated from him fubje&5.
more than ever, by the exceflive attachment he fhowed
to bigotry and perfecution.
He had nominated the earl of Huntley to command
his 4irmy on the borders, confifling of 10,000 men ;
and his lieutenant-general was Sir Walter Lindfay of
Torphichen, who had feen a great deal of foreign fer-
vice, and was efleemed an excellent officer. Huntley,
acquitted himfelf admirably well in his commiffion ;
and was fo well ferved by his fpies, as to have certain
intelligence that the Englifh intended to furprife and
burn Jedburgh and Kelfo. The Englifh army under
Sir Robert Bowes and the DouglafTes, with other nor¬
thern Englifhmen, continued ilill upon the borders ;
and one of the refolutions the Scotch nobility and gen¬
try had come to, was, not to attack them on their own
ground, nor to aft offenfively, unlefs their enemies in¬
vaded Scotland. Huntly being informed that the Eng-
lith had advanced, on the 24th of Auguft, to a place
called Ha/danrig, and that they had deflroyed great
part of the Scotch and debateable lands, refolved to
engage them: and the Englifh were aflonifhed, when
at day-break they faw the Scotch army drawn up in
order of battle. Neither party could now retreat with-The Eng-
out fighting ; and Torphichen, who led the van, coH-lifh defeat-
filling of 2000 of the bell troops of Scotland, charged.6^ ^7
the Englifh fo furioufly, that Huntley gained a com“ HuncJer
plete and an eafy viftory. Above 200 of the Eng¬
lifh were killed, and 600 taken prifoners ; among whom
were their general Sir Robert Bowes, Sir William
Mowbray, and about-60 of the moll diflinguifhed nor¬
thern barons ; the earl of Angus efcapiog by the fwift-
nefs of his horfe. The lofs of the Scots was inconfider-
able.
In the meanwhile, the duke of Norfolk having rai-
8» fed
DiftSaion nobles
of Jamei.
SCO f
Scotland, fed a great army, had orders to march northwards, and
v  to difperfe a manifefto, complaining of James for ha¬
ving difappointed him of the interview at York, and
reviving the ridiculous claim of his own and his ancef-
tors faperiority over the kingdom of Scotland. It
was plain, from the words of this manifefto, that Hen¬
ry was ftiil placable towards James; and that he would
eafilyhave dropt that claim, if his nephew would have
made any perfonal advances towards a reconciliation.
The condition of James was now deplorable. The
few faithful counfellors he had about him, fuch as K.uk-
aldy of Grange, who was then lord treafurer, plainly
intimated, that he could have no dependence upon his
as he was devoted to the clergy ; and James,
fometimes, in a fit of diftra&ion, would draw his dag¬
ger upon the cardinal and other ecclefiaftics when they
came to him with frelh propofitions of murder and pro-
fcriptions, and drive them out of his prefence. But he
had no conftancy of mind ; and he certainly put into
his pocket a bloody fcroll that had been brought him
by his priefts, beginning with the earl of Arran, the
firft fubjedl of the kingdom. In one of his cooler
moments, he appointed the lord Erfkine, and fome o-
thers of his nobility, to make a frefli attempt to gain
time ; and Henry even condefcended to order the duke
of Norfolk (who was then advanced as far as York),
the lord privy feal, the bifiiop of Durham, and others,
to treat with him. The conferences were Ihort and un-
fuccefsful. The duke bitterly complained, that the
Scots fought only to amufe him till the feafon for ac¬
tion was over. In fhort, he confidered both them and
Learmouth, who was ordered to attend him, as fo ma-
Theduke n7 fy1*8’ and treated them accordingly. It was the
of Norfolk 21ft of October before he entered the eaft borders of
enters Scot- Scotland. According to the Scotch hiftorians, his ar-
land with a COnfifted of 4O,CQ0 men ; but the Englilh have fix-
formidable /. ^
ed it at 20,000.
James affefted to complain of this invafion as being
unprovoked ; but he loft no time in preparing to repel
the_ danger. The fituation of his nobility, who were
prefled by a foreign invafion on the one hand, and do-
meftic tyrants on the other, induced them to hold fre¬
quent confultations ; and in one of them, they refolved
to renew the fcene that had been adled at Lawder
bridge under James III. by hanging all his grandfon’s
Confpiracy evil counfellors. The Scots hiftorians fay, that this
agaiuft refolution was not executed, becaufe the nobility could
James’s fa- not agree about the vidims that were to be facrificed ;
vouritcs. an(j tjiat tjie kingj who was encamped with his army
at Fallamoor, having intelligence of their confultation,
removed haftily to Edinburgh ; from which he fent
orders for his army to advance, and give battle to the
duke of Norfolk, who appears as yet not to have en¬
tered the Scotch borders. The anfwer of the nobility
was, that they were determined not to attack the duke
upon Englifh ground ; but that if he invaded Scotland,
they knew their duty. The earl of Huntley, who
commanded the van of the Scottifh army, confifting of
10,000 men, was of the fame opinion : but no fooner
did Norfolk pafs the Tweed, than he harafled the
Englifh army, cut off their foraging parties, and di-
ftreffed them in fuch a manner, that the duke agreed
The Eng- once more to a conference for peace ; which was mana-
lifti obliged ged, on the part of the Scots, by the bifhop of Ork¬
ney and Sir James Learmouth ; but nothing was con-
army.
456
4?7
to retreat.
19 ] SCO
eluded. The Englilh general, finding it now impof- Scotland,
fible on many accounts to profecute his invafion, repaf- —^
fed the Tweed ; and was haraffed in his march by the
earl of Huntley, who defifted from the purfuit the mo¬
ment his enemies gained Englifh ground.
James, whofe army at this time amounted to above The Scot*
30,000 men, continued ftill at Edinburgh, from which refute to
he fent frequent meffages to order his nobility and ge-Pu!^uc'
nerals to follow the duke of Norfolk into England ;
but thefc were difregarded. James was flattered, that
now he had it in his power to be revenged for all the
indignities that had been offered by England to Scot¬
land. In this he was encouraged by the French am-
baffador, and the high opinion he had of his own
troops. About the beginning of November, he came
to a refolution of reaffembling his army, which was dif-
banded upon the duke of Norfolk's retreat, i. his pro-
je& appeared fo feafible and fo promifing, that feveral
of the nobility are faid to have fallen in with it, parti¬
cularly the lord Maxwell, the earls of Arran, Caflils,
and Glencairn, with the lords Fleming, Somerville, and
Erlkine : others reptefented, but in vain, that the arms
of Scotland had already gained fufficient honour, by
obliging the powerful army of the Englifti, with their
moft experienced general at their head, to make a
fhameful retreat before a handful; that the force of
Scotland was inferior to that of England ; and that an
honourable peace was ftill pradlicable. It was faid, in
reply to thofe confiderations, that the ftate of the quar¬
rel was now greatly altered ; that Henry had in his
manifefto declared his intention to enflave their conn-,
try ; that he treated the nobility as his vaffals ; that the
duke of Norfolk had been guilty of burning the dwel¬
lings of the defencelefs inhabitants, by laying above 20
villages and towns in afhes ; and that no Scotchman,
who was not corrupted by Henry’s gold, would op-
pofe the king’s will. The laft, perhaps, was the chief ^4*9^
argument that prevailed on the lord Maxwell, a noble-C())1j-trnt t(J
man of great honour and courage, to agree to carry the invade
war into England by Solway, provided He was at the England,
head of 10,000 men. It was at laft agreed that the
earl of Arran and the cardinal ftiould openly raife men,
as if they intended to enter the eaft marches, where
they were to make only a feint, while the lord Max¬
well was to make the real attempt upon the weft. Pri¬
vate letters were everywhere circulated to raife the men
who were to ferve under the lord Maxwell; among
whom were the earls of Caffils and Glencairn, the lords
Fleming, Somerville, Erlkine, and many other perfons
of great confideration. James, who never was fufpedt-
ed of want of courage, probably would have put him-
felf at the head of this expedition, had he not been dif-
fuaded from it by his priefts and minions, who remind¬
ed him of the confultations at Fallamoor, and the
other treafonable praftices of the nobility. They ad¬
ded, that moft of them being corrupted by the Eng- •
glifti gold, he could not be too much on his guard. He
was at laft perfuaded to repair to the caftle of Loch-
maben or Carlaverock, and there to wait the iffue of j orri jvia^
the inroad. well (uper*
It was probably at this place that James was pre- feded in
vailed on to come to the fatal refolution of appointingrlic TV1*
one Oliver Sinclair, a fon of the houfe of Rofiin, and ui[ver gia*
a favourite minion at court, to command the army in clair.
chief; and his commiffion was made out accordingly.
C 3 On
Scotland,
461
The Scots
fhamefully
defeated at
Solway
■Mofs.
46a
James V.
dies of
grief.
SCO [ 2<
On the 2 of November, the Scots began their march
at midnight; and having'palled the £, lie, all the ad¬
jacent villages vvt're feen in flames by the break of day.
Sir Thomas Wharton, the lingliih warden of thole
inarches, the bailard Dacres, and Mufgravt, haflily rai¬
led a few troop ., the whole not exceeding joo men,
and drew them up upon an advantageous ground ; when
Sinclair, ordering the royal banner to be difplayed, and
being mounted on the (boulders of two tall men, pro¬
duced and read his comtniffion. It is impoflible to i-
magine the confternation into which the Scots were
thrown upon this occalion ; and their leaders fetting
the example, the whole army declared (according to
the Scotch authors), that they would rather furrender
themfelves prifoners to the Englilh, than fubmit to be
commanded by fuch a general. In an inllant, all order
in the Scotch army was broken down ; horfe and foot,
foldiers and fcullions, noblemen and peafants, were in¬
termingled. It was eafy for the.Englilh general to
p-rceive this confufion, and perhaps to guefs at its
caufe. A hundred of his light-horfe happened to ad¬
vance : they met no reliflance: the nobles were the firit
who furrendered themfelves prifoners ; and the reft of
the Englifti advancing, they obtained a bloodlefs vic¬
tory ; for even the women and the boys made prifoners
cf Scotch foldiers, and few or none were killed. The
lord Herbert relates the circumftances of this fhameful
affair with fome immaterial differences ; but agrees with
the Scotch authorities upon the whole. He mentions,
however, no more than 800 common foldiers having
been made prifoners. The chief of the prifoners were
the earls of Caflils and Glencairn, the lords Maxwell,
Fleming, Somerville, Oliphant, and Gray, with above
200 gentlemen beiides.
James was then at Carlaverock, which is about 12
miles diftant from the place of attion, depreffed in his
fpirits, and anxious about the event of the expedition,
which is to this day called the Raid of Solway mojs.
When the news came to his ears, and that the earl of
Arran and the cardinal were returned to Edinburgh,
he was feized with an additional dejection of mind,
which brought him to his grave. In fuch a litu-
ation every cruel action of his former life wounded
his conference ; and he at laft funk into a lullen melan¬
choly, which admitted of no confolation. From Car-
laverock he removed to Falkland ; and was fometimes
heard to txprefs himfelf as if he thought that the whole
body of his nobility were in a confpiracy againft his
perfon and dignity. The prefence of the few attend¬
ants who tvere admitted into his chamber, and who
were the wicked inftruments of his milconduft, feemed
to aggravate his fufferings, and he either, could not or
would not take any fuftenance. His death being now
inevitable, Beaton approached his bed-fxde with a pa¬
per, to which he is faid to have dire&ed tire king’s
hand, pretending that it was his laft will. On the 18th
of December, while James was in this deplorable ftate,
a mtflenger came from Linlithgow, with an account
that the queen was brought to bed of a daughter; and
the laft words he was diftinftly heard to fay, were, “ It
will end as it began : tire crown came by a w oman, and
it will go with one ; many miferies approach this poor
kingdom ; king Henry will either mailer it by arms, or
win it by marriage.” Fie then turned his face to the
wall, and in broken ejaculations pronounced the word
1
SCO
Sclway mofs, and fome faint expreflions alluding to the Scotland
difgrace he fuftered. In this ftate he languiihed for ——v—
fome days; for zt is certain he did not furvive the
13 th.
James V. was fucceeded by his infant daughter Mary, h ^
waoiC biith we iiave already mentioned. James haded by Ma«
taken no Heps for the fecunty ot his kingdom, fo thatry'
amoitious men had now another opportunity of throw¬
ing the public affairs i..to confufion. The fituation
of Scotland indeed at this time was very critical.
Many ot the nobility were prifoners in England, and Critical fi.
thoie who remained at home were faftious and turbu-tuauonof
lent. The nation was diipirited by an unfuccefsfuHffail**
war. Commotions w'ere daily excited on account of
religion, and Henry VIII. had formed a defign of add¬
ing Scotland to his other dominions. By a teilamen-
tary deed which cardinal Beaton had forged in the
name of his fovereign, he was appointed tutor to the
queen and governor of the realm, and three of the
principal nobility were named to aft as his counfellors
in the adminiftration. The nobility and the people,
however, calling in queftion the authenticity of this
deed, which he could not eftablifh, the cardinal was
degraded from the dignity he had affumed ; and the
ellates of the kingdom advanced into the regency garf,,f
James Hamilton, earl of Arran, wdiom they judged ran ap-
to be entitled to this diftinftion, as the fecond Dcrion P°*nted re*
of the kingdom, and the neareit heir, after Mary, to the gent* ■'
crown.
The difgrace of cardinal Beaton might have proved
the deftru&ion of his party, if the earl of Arran had
been endowed with vigour of mind and ability. But
his views were circumfcnbed ; and he did not compen-
fate for this defect by any firmnefs of purpofe. He Hi AhLac
wras too indolent to gain partizans, and too irrefoluteter. C
to fix them. Slight difficulties filled him writh em-
barrafiment, and great ones overpowered him. His
enemies, applying themfelves to the timidity of his dif-
pofition, betrayed him into weakneffes ; and the efteem
which his gentlenefs had procured him in private life,
w^as loft in the contempt attending his public coitdudl,
which was teeble, fluctuating, and inconfiftent.
The attachment w hich the regent was known to Hf ^
profefs for the reformed religion, drew to him the love comes1 po-
of the people ; his high birth, and the mildnefs of his pular on
virtues, conciliated their refped ; and from the circum- aCcount of
fiance, that his name was at the head of the roll of he-nfentto'thc
reties which the clergy had prefented to the late king, aref. rma-
fentiment of tendernefs was mingled with his populari-tion.
ty. His conduit correlponded, at hrft, with the im-
preffions entertained in his favour. Thomas Guillame
and John Rough, two celebrated preachers, were in¬
vited' to live in his houfe ; and he permitted them to
declaim openly againft the errors of the church of
Rome. They attacked and expofed the fupremacy of
the pope, the worffiip of images, and the invocation of
faints. Cardinal Beaton and the prelates were exceed-
ingly provoked, and indefatigably aitive to defend the
eltablifhed doilrints.
't liis public fanilion afforded to the reformation was
of little confequence, however, when compared with a 4<5S
meafure which w'as foon after adopted by Robert lord
Maxwell. .He propofed, that the liberty of reading the u, read the
feriptures ia the vulgar tongue fhould be permitted to feripture*
the people ; and that, for the future, no heretical guiltin theIr
fhould
mother-
tungue.
SCO [2
S<et1str<?* {Iiould be Inferred againft any perfon for havln!y them
in his pofTefiion, or for making ufe of them. The re¬
gent and the three eftates acknowleged|the propriety of
this propofal. Gavin Dunbar arehbiihop of Glafgow,
and chancellor of Scotland, protefted, indeed, for him-
felfund for the church, that no aft on this fubjeft
fhould pafs and be effeftual, till a provincial council of
all the clergy of the kingdom fhould conhder and de¬
termine, whether there was a neceffity that the people
ftiould confult and ftudy the fcriptures in the vulgar
tongue. But his proteftatxon being difregarded, the
bill of the lord Maxwell was carried into a law7, and the
regent made it generally known By a proclamation.
From this period copies of the Bible were import¬
ed in great numbers from England ; and men, allured
by an appeal lo flattering to their reafon, wrere proud
to recover from the lupine ignorance in which they
had been kept by an artful priefthood. To read be¬
came a common accomplifhment : and books were mul¬
tiplied in every quarter, which difcloftd the pride, the
tyranny, and the abiurdities ol the Romilh church and
fuperftitions.
4^mh The death of James V proved very favourable to
i ropofes to t^ie ambitious deligns of Henry. He now propoled
unite t!’e an union of the two kingdoms by the marriage of his
kingdoms fon Edward VI. with Maty the young queen of Scot-
by tr e jand. Do promote this, he releafed the noblemen who
ward * VI. had been taken prifoners at Solw'ay, after having en-
wjth Mary, gaged them on oath, not only to concur in promoting
the alliance, but to endeavour to procure him the charge
and cuftody of the young queen, with the government
ol her kingdom, and the poffelhon ot her cattles. The
earl of Angus and his brother, who had been fifteen
years in exile, accompanied them to Scotland, and
brought letters from Henry recommending them to the
reftitution of their honours and eifates. The regent
was inclined to favour the demands or peHbns ol Inch
eminent ftation ; but though the ftates were inclined
to the marriage, they refufed to permit the removal of
the queen into England, and treated with contempt the
idea of giving the government of Scotland and the care
of the cattles to the king of England. Sir Ralph Sad¬
ler, the Englifh ambaflador, exerted all his endeavours
to induce tire regent to comply writh the requifitions of
his matter ; but all his intrigues were unfuccefsful; and
He d£° Henry perceiving that he mutt depart from fuch extra-
part- from vagant conditions, at laft authorifed the commiflioners
feme of hb to confent to tieaties of amity and marriage, on the
propofals. mott lavourable terms that could be procured. In con-
fequence of thde powers given to the commiffioners, it
was agreed that a firm peace and alliance Ihould take
place between the two nations, and that they fliould
mutually defend and proteft one another in cafe of an
invafion. The queen was to remain within her own
dominions till fire was ten years of age ; and Henry
was not to claim any fliare in the government. Six
nobles, or their apparent heirs, were to be furrendered
to him in fecurity for the conveyance of the young
queen into England, and for her marriage with prince
Edward, as foon as fhe was ten years of age. It was
alio ftipulated, that though the queen fhould have ifiue
by Edward, Scotland fhould retain not only its name,
The regent but its laws and liberties.
oppofid l y Thefe conditions, however advantageous to Scot-
beltor)1 7et not give entire Jatisfaftion Cardinal
ScntUntf,
r 1 S G O
Beaton, who had been imprifoned on pretence of trea-
fonable fchemes, and was now releafed from his confine¬
ment by the influence of the queen-dowager, took all
opportunities of exclaiming againft the alliance, as
tending to deftroy the independency of the kingdom.
He pointed out to the churchmen the dangers which
arole from the prevalence of hcrefy, and urged them to
unanimity and zeal. Awakening all their fears and
felfifhnefs, they granted him a large fum of money with
which he might gain partizans ; the friars were inttruft-
ed to preach againtt the treaties with England ; and
fanatical men wtsre inttrlifted to difplay their rage in
offering indignities to Sir Ralph Sadler.
Cardinal Beaton was not the only, antagonift the re-And by re¬
gent had to deal wfith. The Earls of Argyle, Hunt- n0^C*
ley, Bothwel, and Murray, concurred in the oppofi- ‘
tion ; and having collefted fume troops, and pottefTed
themfelves of the queen’s perion, they aflumed all the
authority. They were joined by the earl of Lenox,
who was made to hope that he might efpoufe the queen-
dowager and obtain the regency. He was alio in¬
clined to oppofe the earl of Arran, from an ancient•
quarrel which had fubfitted between thtir two Fami¬
lies ; and from a claim he had to fuperlede him, not
only in the enjoyment of his perfonal eftates, but in the
fucceffion to the crown. The regent, alarmed at fuch
a powerful combination againft, him, inclined to attend
to lome advances which were made him by the queen-
dowager and cardinal. To refufe to confirm the treaties, But con-
after he had brought them to a conclufion, was, how- firms the
e^er, a flep fo repugnant to probity, that he could not e*
be prevailed upon to adopt it. He therefore, in a mnrnate
foltmn manner, ratified them in the abb^y-church of with Eng»
Holyroodhouie, and commanded the great leal of Scot- land,
land to be appended to them. The fame day he went
Jo St Andrew’s, and iffued a mandate to the cardinal,
requiring him to return to his allegiance. To this the
prelate refilled to pay any attention, or to move from
his cattle ; upon which the regent denounced him a
rebel, and threatened to compel him to fubmiffion by
military force. But in a few days after, the puiillani- He aban-
mous regent meeting with Beaton, forfook the intereft dons the
of Henry VIII. and embraced that of the queen-dow-*'11?^ ^
ager and of France. Being in hafte alfo to reconcile renounces
himfelf to the church of Rome, he renounced publicly, the Pr< t«f-
at Stirling, the opinions of the reformed, and received tant reli-
abfolution from the hands of the cafdinal. 8loru
By this mean-fpirited conduft the regent expofed
himlelf to univerfal contempt, while cardinal Beaton
ufurped the whole authority. The earl of Lenox,
finding that he had no hopes of fuccefs in his fnit to
the queen-dowager, engaged in negociations with Henry,
to place himfelf at the head of the Scottifh lords who
were in the linglifh intereft, and to aflert the caufe of
the reformation. The confequence of all this was a Hemy’*
rupture with England. Henry not only delayed to violent pro**
ratify the treaties on his part, but ordered all the Scot- ceedinge-
tifh fhips in the harbours of England to- be taken and
contifrated. This violent proceeding inflamed the na¬
tional difgufts againtt the Englifh alliance; and the
party of the cardinal and queen-dowager thus obtained
an increafe of popularity. Henry himfelf, however,
was fo much accuftomed to afts of outrage and vio¬
lence, that he feemed to think the ftep he had juft now
taken a matter of no moment j and therefore he de*
manded"
4?6
The nego
ciations
SCO [2
Scotland, mantled that the hoftages, in terms of the treaty of
“ 'C marriage, ihould ftill be delivered up to him. But the
cardinal and regent informed his ambaflador, Sir Ralph
Sadler, that from their own authority they could not
command any of the nobles to be committted to him
as hoftages ; and that the offenfive (train of behaviour
affumcd by the Englifh monarch might have altered
the fentiments ot the Scottifh parliament with regard
to a meafure of fuch importance. After much alterca¬
tion, the conferences were broken off; and as the lords
who were releafed from captivity had promifed to re¬
broken off. turn prifoners to England, it now remained with them
to fulfil their promife. None of them, however, had
the courage to do fo, excepting the earl of Cafiils;
and Henry, being ilruck with his pun&ilious fenfe of
honour, diimlfled him loaded with prefents.
Cardinal Beaton being thus in poffefiion of power,
took mealures to fecure it. The folemnity of the co¬
ronation of the young queen was celebrated at Stirling.
A council was chofen to dire& and affhl the regent in
the greater affairs of (late, at the head of which was
the queen-dowager. John Hamilton, the abbot of
Paidey, who had acquired an afcendency over the re¬
gent, was alfo promoted to the privy feal, and made
treafurer of the kingdom j and cardinal Beaton, upon
the requeft of the regent and the three eftates, accept-
ed the office of lord high chancellor.
Enmity be- After the flatteries and the hopes with which the
*ween car- earl of Lenox had been amufed, the cardinal had rea-
fon to dread the utmoft warmth of his refentment. He
had therefore written to Francis I. giving a detail of
47?
The queen
crowned.
dinal Bea'
ton and the
earl of Le¬
nox.
the critical (ituation of affairs in Scotland, and intreat¬
ing him to recal to France the earl of Lenox, who was
now interefted to oppofe the influence and operations
of the queen-dowager. But the indignation with
which the treachery of the cardinal had inflamed the
earl of Lenox, precipitated him into immediate action,
Hoftiiities and defeated the intention of this artifice. In the ho-
committed ftile fituation of his mind towards Scotland, an oppor-
by the lat- tunity of commencing hoftilities had prefented itfelf.
Five (hips had arrived in the Clyde from France, load¬
ed with warlike (lores, and having on board the pa¬
triarch of Venice, Peter Contareni, legate from Paul III.
with La Broffe, and James Mefnaige, ambaffadors from
France ; and 30,000 crowns, which were to be em¬
ployed in ftrengthening the French fa&ion, and to be
diftributed by the queen-dowager and the cardinal. Pre¬
vailing with the commanders of thefe veffels, who con¬
ceived him to be the faff friend of their monarch, he
fecured this money for his own ufe, and depofited the
military (lores in his callle of Dumbarton, under the
care of George Stirling the deputy-governor, who at
this time was entirely in his interefls.
By the fuccefsful application of this wealth, the earl
of Lenox called forth the full exertion of his party in
levying a formidable army, with which he threatened
-the deftrudtion of the regent and the cardinal, offering
them battle in the fields between Leith and Edinburgh.
The regent, not being in a condition to accent the
challenge of his rival, had recourfe to negodatiou. Car-
Lenoxfuf- dinal Beaton and the earl of Huntley propofed terms
fers himfelfof amity, and exerted themfelves with fo much addrefs,
f-db ahis* t^at t^ie ear* o}: Lenox, lofing the opportunity of cha-
encimes.13 *1IS enemies, confcnted to an accommodation,
^nd indulged anew the hope of obtaining the queen-
2 ] SCO
dowager in marriage. His army was difmiffed, and Scotian L.
he threw himfelf at the feet of his miftrefs, by whom ■—v—^
he was, in appearance, favourably received : but many
of his friends were feduced from him under different pre¬
tences ; and at lad, apprehending his total ruin from 1
feme fecret enterprife, he fled to Glafgow, and fortified 481
himfelf in that city. The regent, colle&ing an army,-^.^ i*
marched againft him; and having defeated his friendt€
the earl of Glencairn in a bloody encounter, was able to
reduce the place of (Length in which he confided. In
this ebb of his fortune, the earl of Lenox had no hope
but from England.
The revolution produced in the political (late of
Scotland by the arts of cardinal Beaton, while it de¬
feated the intrigues of Henry VIII. pointed all its
(Length againft the progrefs of the reformation. Af¬
ter abandoning his old friends, the regent, in connec¬
tion with the cardinal, was ambitious to undo all the
fervices he had rendered t© them. The three eftates \i‘lt ice
annulled the treaties of amity and marriage, and em-with France
powered commiffioners to conclude an alliance withcorKL‘lc<*»
France. The regent difeharged the -two preachers
Guillame and Rough, whom he had invited to impugn pcrfecutedU
the do&rines of the church. He drove back into Eng¬
land many pious perfons, whofe zeal had brought them
to Scotland, to explain and advance the new opinions.
He careffed with particular refpeft the legate whom
the pope had fent to difeourage the marriage of the
young queen with the prince of Wales, and to promife
his affiilance againft the enterprifes of Henry VIII.
He procured an adt of parliament to be paffed for the
perfecution of heretics; and, upon the foundation of
this authority, the mod rigorous proceedings were
concerted againft the reformed; when the arms of
England, roufing the apprehenfions of the nation, gave
the fulled employment to the regent and his counfellors.
In the rage and anguilh of difappointed ambition, Ler^cn,
the earl of Lenox made an offer to affift the views of gages in *
the king of England; who, treating him as an ally,theEnglift
engaged, in the event of fuccefs, to give him in mar-ialereft-
riage his niece the lady Margaret Douglas, and to in-
veft him in the regency of Scotland. To eftablilh the
reformation in Scotland, to acquire the fuperiority over
it to Henry VIII. and to effedluate the marriage of the
prince of Wales with the queen of Scots, were the
great objedls of their confederacy. 484
Henry, though engaged in a war with France, which An Englift
required all his military force, could not refill the earlieft*,m^en'
opportunity in his power to execute his vengeance COt*
againft Scotland. Edward Symour earl of Hartford
was appointed to command 10,000 men ; who were em¬
barked at Tinmouth, aboard a fleet of 200 (hips, under
the diredlion of Sir John Dudley lord Lifle. This
army was landed without oppofition near Leith; and
the earl of Hartford made it known to Sir Adam Ot-
terburn, the provoft of Edinburgh, that his commiffion
empowered him to lay the country wade and defolate,
unlefs the regent (hould deliver up the young queen to
the king of England. It was anfwered, that every ex¬
tremity of diftrefs would be endured, before the Scot-
ti(h nation would fubmit to fo ignominious a demand.
Six thoufand horfe from Berwick, under the lord mit cruel
Evers, now joined the earl of Hartfoid. Leith anddevafta-
Edinburgh, after a feeble refiftance, yielded to the t!ons»anc*
Englifh commander j who abandoned them to pillage,
and tire#
SCO . t 2
Scotland, and then fet fire to them. A cruel devafiatlon enfued
■■’“'Y'-"" in the furrounding villages and country, and an immenle
booty was conveyed on board the Englifh fleet. But,
while an extreme terror was everywhere excited, the earl
of Hartford re-imbarked a part of his troops, and order¬
ed the remainder to march with expedition to the fron¬
tiers of England. „ , , i
The regent, affifted by cardinal Beaton and the earls
of Huntley, Argyle, Bothwell, and Murray, was aaive,
in the mean time, to colled an army, and to provide
for the fecurity of the kingdom. He felt, therefore,
the greateft furprife on being relieved fo unexpectedly
from the molt imminent danger; and an expedition,
conducted with fo little difcernment, did not advance
the meafures of Henry VIII. 1° accomp.ifh tue
marriage of the young queen with the prince of Wales,
to poffefs himfelf of her perfon, or to atchieve a con-
queit over Scotland, were all circumflances apparently
within the reach of the Englifli commander : and yet,
in the moment of vidory, he negleded to profecute his
advantages ; and having inflamed the animoiities of the
Scottifh nation, by a difplay of the paflions and cruelty
of his matter, left them to recover from their difatter,
and to improve in their refources.
The earl of Lenox, taking the opportunity of the
Englifli fleet, went to confult with Henry VIII. upon
the defperate ttate of his affairs. He renewed his en¬
gagements with this monarch ; and received in mar¬
riage the lady Margaret Douglas, with pofleflions in
England. Soon after, he arrived in the filth of Clyde,
with 18 (hips and 6oo foldiers, that he might fecure
the cattle of Dumbarton, and employ himfelf in plun¬
dering and devaftation. But George Stirling, to
whom the cattle was intrufted, refufed to furrender
it; and even obliged him to reimhark his troops. After
engaging in a few petty incurfions and fkirmiihes, he
returned to England.
In 1544, Henry confented to a truce ; and Scot-
436
111 fuccefs
©f the earl
nf Lenox.
487
A truce
concluded
whh Enl land> aFter ?iaving fuffered the miferies of war, was fub-
• . o •ni . _  i rl^t\^ t liar.!
land
jedted to the horrors of perfecution. The regent had
procured an ad of parliament for the perfecution of
the reformed ; and the cardinal, to draw to himtelt an
additional fplendour and power, had obtained from the
pope the dignity of legate a latere. A vifitation of his
- own diocefe appeared to him the moft proper method
of commencing the propofed extirpation of herefy ; and
he carried with him in his train the regent, and many
perfons of diftindion, to aflift in his judicatories, and to
• o fhare in his difgracc.
Many cruel In the town of Perth a great many perfons were
executions accufed and condemned. The moft trifling offences
©n account were regarded as atrocious crimes, and made the fub-
jeds of profecution and punifliment. Robert Lamb
was hanged for affirming that the invocation of faints
had no merit to fave. William Anderibn, James Rey¬
nold, and James Finlayfon, fuffered the fame death,
for having abufed an image of St Francis, by putting
horns upon his head. James Hunter, having kept
their company, was found to be equally guilty, and
punifhed in the fame manner. Helen Stivke, having
refufed, when in labour, to invoke the affiftance of the
Virgin, was drowned in a pool of water. Many of the
burgefles of Perth, being fufpeded of herefy, were fent
into banilhment ; and the lord Ruthven, the provott,
was unon the fame account difmiffed from his office.
3 1 SCO
The cardinal was ftrenuous in perfecutiug herefy in Scotland.^
other parts of his diocefe. But the difcontents and y——^
clamour attending the executions of men of inferior fta-
tion were now loft in the fame of the martyrdom of ^
George Wifliart; a perfon who, while he was refpec- Account of
table "by his birth, was highly eminent from the opi- Mr George
nion entertained of his capacity and endowments. The Wiftiart.
hiilorians of the Pioteftant perfuafion have fpoken of
this reformer in terms of the higheft admiration. They
extol his learning as extenfive, infift on the extreme can¬
dour of his difpofition, and aferibe to him the utmoft
purity of morals. But while the ftrain of their pane¬
gyric is expofed to fufpicion from its excefs, they have'
ventured to impute to him the fpirit of prophecy ; fo
that we mutt neceflarily receive their eulogiums with
fome abatement. It may be fufficient to affirm, that
Mr Wifhart was the moft eminent preacher who had
hitherto appeared in Scotland. His mind was certainly
cultivated by refledlion and ftudy, and he was amply
pofiefled of thofe abilities and qualifications which
awaken and agitate the paffions of the people. His
miniftry had been attended with the moft flattering fucf*
cefs; and his courage to encounter danger grew with
his reputation. The day before he was apprehended,
he faid to John Knox, who attended him ; “ I am
weary of the world, fince I perceive that men are weary
of God.” He had already reconciled himfelf to that
terrible death which awaited him. He was found in
the houfe of Cockburn of Ormifton, in Eaft Lothian ;
who refufing to deliver him to the fervants of the re¬
gent, the earl of Bothwell, the flierifLof the county',
required that he fhould be intrufted to his care, and
promifed that no injury ihould be done to him. But
the authority of the regent and his eounfellors obliged
the earl to furrender his charge. Fie was conveyed to
the cardinal’s caitle at St Andrew’s, and his trial was
hurried on with precipitation. The cardinal and the
clergy proceeding in it without the concurrence of the
fecular power, adjudged him to be burnt alive. In the
circumftances of his execution there appears a deliberate
and moft barbarous cruelty. When led out to the
flake, he was met by prieits, who, mocking his condi¬
tion, called upon him to pray to the virgin, that (he
might intercede with her Son for mercy to him. “ For¬
bear to tempt me, my brethern,” was his mild reply
to them. A black coat of linen was put upon him
by one executioner, and bags of powder were fattened
to his body by another. Some pieces of ordnance
were pointed to the place of execution. He fpoke to
the fpeftators, intreating them to remember that he
was tp die for the true gofpel of Chrift. Five was
communicated to the faggots. From a balcony in a
tower of his cattle, which was hung with tapeftry, the
cardinal and the prelates, reclining upon rich cufhions,
beheld the inhuman feene. This infolent triumph,
more than all his affliftions, affedled the magnanimity of
the fufterer. He exclaimed, that the enemy, who fo
proudly folaced himfelf, would perifh in a few days, and
be expofed ignominioufly in the place which he now oc¬
cupied.
Cardinal Beaton took a pleafure in receiv'ng the
congratulations of the clergy upon a deed, which, it
was thought, would fill the enemies of the church with
terror. But the indignation of the people was more
excited than their fears. All ranks of men were dif-
s
o
j'eo'Iard, guftetl with an exerclfc of power which tlefpifed every
ro boundary of moderation and juftiee. The predi&ion
Cardinal of Mr Winiart, fujrgelled by the general odium which
Button af* attended the cardinal, was confidered by the difciples
laifinated 't 0f this martyr as the effufior! of a prophet; and per¬
haps gave occafion to the aflaffination that followed.
Their complaints were attended to by Norman Lefly,
the eldeil fon of the earl of Rothes, whom the cardinal
had treated with indignity, though he had profited by
his tervices. He confented to be their leader. The
cardinal was in his.callle at St Andrew’s, which he was
fortifying after the ftrongeft fafhion of that age. The
conlpirators, at different times, early in the morning,
entered into it. i he gates were fecured ; and appoint-
a guard, that no intimation of their proceedings
might go to the cardinal, they difmifled from the caftle
all his workmen feparately, to the number of too, and
all hi* domeilics, who amounted to rfo fewer than yo
perfons. The eldeft fon of the earl of Arran, whom
lie kept as an noftage tor his father’s behaviour, was
alone detained by them. The prelate, alarmed with
their node, looked from his window, and was informed
that his callle was taken by Norman Lelly. It was in
vain tnat he endeavoured to fecure the door of his
chamber by bolts and chefts. The confpirators bfouglit
fire, and were ready to apply it, when, admitting them
into his prefence, he implored their mercy. Two of
them ftruck him haftily with their fwords. But James
Melyil, rebuking their palfion, told them, that this work
and judgment of God, though fecret, ought to be done
with gravity. He reminded the cardinal, in general
terms, of the enormity of his fins, and repraached him
in^ a more particular manner with the death of Mr
v\ ifhart. He fwore, that no hopes of his riches, no
dread of his power, and no hatred to his perfon, were
any motives which aftuated him ; but that he was moved
to accomphfh his deflrudlion, by the obftinacy and zeal
mamfefted by him againfl Chriil Jefua and his holy
gofpel. Waiting for no anfwer to his harangue, he
thruft the cardinal three times through the body with
his dagger, on the 29th of May 1546.
1 he rumour that the callle was taken giving an alarm
to the inhabitants of St Andrew’s, they came in crowds
to gratify their curiofity, and to offer their afliftance, ac¬
cording to the fentiments they entertained. The adhe¬
rents and dependents of the cardinal were clamorous to
fee him ; and the confpirators, carrying his dead body
to the very place from which he had beheld the fuffer-
ings of Mr Wifhart, expofed it to their view.
The truce,- in the mean time, which had been con-
:ween £ ,, c^U(;T'd with England was frequently interrupted ; but
Und, ^ 6 n.° memorable battles were fought. Mutual depreda-
ifrance, and thms kept alive the hollde fpirit of the two kingdoms;
Scotland, and while the regent was making military preparations,
which gave the promife of important events, a treaty of
peace was finifhed between England and France, in
which F rancis I. took care to comprehend the Scottifh
nation. In this treaty' it was ftipulated by Henry, that
he was not .to wage war againlt Scotland, unlefs he
fhould be provoked by new and juft caufes of hoftility.
But they murderers of cardinal Beaton, apprehenfive
of their fafety, had difpatched meffengers into England,
with applications to Henry for afliftance; and being
joined by more than 120 of their friends, they took
the refolution .of keeping the caftle, and of defending
49r
Treaty of
peace be-
fcweer
laud,
24 1 SCO
tliemfdre,. Hmry, notwitMandins his treaty with Scotland,
rrancc> rcfolvcd to embrace thia opportunity of aug* —v
menting the difturbances of Scotland. Ele haftened to
colled: troops ; and the regent and his counfellors preft*
ed Fiance for lupplies in men and money, and military
ftores and artillery. ' „ 4gz
I he high places which the cardinal occupied were fdnceed-
filled up immediately upon his death. John Hamilton a^am{l
abbot of Paifley was eleded archbifhop of St Andrew’s,
and George earl of Huntley was promoted to be chan-clrdinal.
cellor. By thefe officers the regent was urged to pro¬
ceed with vigour againfl the confpirators 5 and it was a
matter of the greateft anxiety to him to recover his
eldeft fon, whom they detained in cuftody. ’The clergy
had, in the moft folemn manner, pronounced them to
be accurfed ; and agreed to furnilh, for four months, a
monthly fubfidy of 3000 1. to defray the expence of re¬
ducing them to obedience. I he queen dowager and
the French fadion were eag^r, at the fame time, to
concur in avenging the affaflination of a man to whofc
countels and fervices they were fo greatly indebted. —
And that no dangerous ufe might be made of the eldeft
fon of the earl of Arran, who, after his father, was
the heir of the monarchy', an ad of parliament was
paffed, excluding him from his birthright while he re¬
mained m the pofl’effion ot the enemies of his country,
and fubftituting his brothers m his place, according to
their feniority. The dark politics of Henry fuggefted
the neceflity of this expedient; and in its meaning and
tendency there may be remarked the fpirit and greatnefs
of a free people.
A^powerful army laid fiege to the caftle of St An-Caftleof
drew’s, and continued their operations during four StAudrew*!
months ; but no fuccefs attended the affailants. ThebclieKed’
fortifications were ftrong ; and a communication with
the befieged was open by fea to the king of England,
who fupplied them with arms and provifions. The gar-
rifon received his ^>ay, and the principal confpirators
had peufions from him. In return for his generofity,
they were engaged to promote the marriage of his fon
with the young queen ; to advance the reformation ; and
to keep in cuftody the eldeft fon of the regent. Nego-
ciation fucceeded to hoilility ; and as the regent expedl-
ed afliftance from France, and the confpirators had the
pi*)fpea of fupport from an Englifh army, both parties
were difpofed to gain time. A treaty was entered into
and iranlatted, in which the regent engaged to procure
fiom Rome an abfolution to the confpirators, and to
obtain to them from the three eftates an exemption
from profecutions of every kind. Upon the part of
the befieged, it was ftipulated, that when thefe condi¬
tions were fulfilled, the caftle fhould be furrendered, and
the regent’s fon be delivered up to him. In the mean n 4?4f
time Henry v HI. died; and a few weeks after Fran-HemyVIIf,
cis I. alfo paid his debt to nature. But the former, be-Fiaa-
fore his death, had recommended the profecution of the cis L
Scottiih war ; and Henry II. the fucceflbr of Francis,
was eager to fhow his attention to the ancient ally of
his nation. When the abfolution arrived from Rome,
the confpirators refufed to coniider it as valid ; and an
expreflion ufed by the pope, implying an abfurdity, fur-
mfhed an apology for their conduct. They knew that
tne counfellors of Edward VI. were making vigorous
preparations to invade Scotland ; they were confident
of their prefent ability to defend themfdves; and the
7 advocates
, 49*
John Knox
begins to
diftinguiih
himfeif.
496 .
Caftle or
t An¬
drew’s ta¬
ken.
Scotland.
SCO [ 25 ] SCO
the reformation encouraged them with without taking advantage of the ftrength of his fitua* Scotland.
497
Scotland
invaded by
the Eng-
Lifli,
advocates for
hopes and with flattery.
The favourers ot the reformation, in the mean time,
adopting the intolerant maxims of the Roman Catho¬
lics, were highly pleafed with the aflaflination of Bea¬
ton ; and many of them congratulated the confpirators
upon what they called their godly deed and enterprife.
John Rough, who had formerly been chaplain to the
regent, entered the caftle and joined them. At this
time alfo John Knox began to diftinguifh himfeif in an
eminent manner, both by his fuccefs in argument and
the unbounded freedom of his difcourfe ; while the
Roman clergy, every where defeated and aftiamed, im¬
plored the affiftance of the regent and his council, who
allured them that the laws againft heretics fhould be
put in execution.
In the mean time the caftle of St Andrew’s being in-
vefted by a fleet of 16 fail under admiral Strozzi from
France, was obliged to capitulate. Honourable condi¬
tions w ere granted to the confpirators; but after being
conveyed to France, they were cruelly ufed, from the
hatred entertained by the Catholics againft the Protef-
tants. Many were confined in prifons ; and others,
among whom, fays Dr Stuart, was John Knox, were
fent to the galleys. The caftle itfelf was rafed to the
ground.
The fame year, 1547, Scotland was invaded by an
Englilh army under the duke of Somerfet, who had
been chofen proteftor of England during the minority
of Edward VI. The defign ©f this invafion was to
oblige the Scots to comply with the fcheme of Hen¬
ry VIII. and conclude a marriage between Edward and
the young queen of Scotland. The Englilh army con-
fifted of j 8,000 men ; befides which the proteftor had
a fleet of 60 fail, one half of which were (hips of war,
and the others confifted of veflels laden with provifions
and military ftores. On the other hand, the regent op-
pofed him with an army of 40,000 men. Before the
commencement of hoftilities, however, the duke of So¬
merfet addrefleti a letter or manifefto to the government,
in which he prefled the marriage with fuch powerful ar¬
guments, and fo clearly Ihowed the benefits which would
refult from it to both nations, that the regent and his
party, who were averfe to peace, thought proper to
fupprefs it, and to circulate a report that the Englilh
had come to force away the queen, and to reduce the
kingdom to a ftate of dependence. All hopes of an
accommodation being thus removed, the Englilh army
advanced in order to give battle to the Scots. They
found the latter polled in the moft advantageous fitua-
tion, around the villages of Muflelburgh, Invereflc, and
Monckton ; fo that he could not force them to an ac¬
tion, at the fame time that he found himfeif in danger
of having his communication with his Ihips cut off, which
would have totally deprived his army of the means of
fubfiftence. In this dangerous fituation he had again
recourfe to negociation, and offered terms ftill more fa¬
vourable than before. He now declared himfeif ready
to retire into England, and to make ample compenfa-
tion for the injuries committed by his army, if the Scot-
tilh government would promife that the queen Ihould not
be contracted to a foreign prince, but Ihould be kept at
home till Ihe was of age to choofe a hulband for herfelf,
with the confent of the-nobility. Thefe conceflions in-
creafed the confidence of the regent fo much, that,
Vox,. XVII. Parti.
tion, he refolved to come to a general engagement.—
The protestor moved towards Pinkey, a gentleman’s 0f
houfe to the eallward of Muffelburgh ; and the regent Pinkcy.
conceiving that he meant to take refuge in his fleet,
changed the llrong ground in which he was encamp¬
ed. He commanded his army to pafs the river Elk,
and to approach the Englifh forces, which were polled
on the middle of Falide-hill. The earl of Angus led
on the van ; the main body of the battle inarched un¬
der the regent; and the earl of Huntley commanded
in the rear. It was the regent’s intention to feize the
top of the hill. The lord Gray, to defeat this purpofe,
charged the earl of Angus, at the head of the Englilh
cavalry.* They were received upon the points of the
Scottilh fpears, which were longer than the lances of
the Englilh horfemen, and put to flight. The carl of
Warwick, more fuccefsful with his command of infan¬
try, advanced to the attack. The ordnance from the
fleet affifted his operations ; and a brilk fire from the
Englilh artillery, which was planted on a riling ground,
ferved ftill more to intimidate the Scottilh foldiery.—.
The remaining troops under the proteCtor were moving
flowly, and in the belt order, to take a lhare in the
engagement. The earl of Angus was not well fup-
ported by the regent and the earl of Huntley. A pa¬
nic fpread itfelf through the Scottilh army. It fled in
different ways, prefenting a' feene of the greateft havoc
and confufion. Few perilhed in the fight; but the
chafe continuing in one dire&ion to Edinburgh, and in 499
another to Dalkeith, with the utmoll fury, a prodigi-The Scot*
ous flaughter was made. The lofs of the conquerors de/eated
did not amount to yco men; but 10,000 foldiers pe-fla^htcr^
rilhed on the fide of the vanquilhed. multitude of ^
prifoners were taken ; and among thefe the earl of
Huntley, the lord high chancellor.
Amidft the confternation of this decifive victory,
the duke of Somerfet had a full opportunity of effec¬
tuating the marriage and union projected by Hen¬
ry VIII. and on the fubjedt of which fuch fond anxie¬
ty was entertained by the Englilh nation. But the ca¬
bals of his enemies threatening his deftru&ion at home,
he yielded to the neceflities of his private ambition, and
marched back into England. He took precautions, Duke of
however, to fecure an entry into Scotland, both by fea Somerfet
and land. A ganifon of 200 men was placed in the r?turns
ifle of St Columba in the Forth, and two Ihips of war El,Sland\
were left as a guard to it. A garrifon was alfo ftation-
ed in the caftle of Broughty, which was lituated in
the mouth of the Tay. When he paffed through the
Merfe and Teviotdale, the leading men of thefe countiea
repaired to him ; and taking an oath of allegiance to
king Edward, furrendered their places of ftrength.
Some of thefe he demolilhed, and to others he added
new fortifications. Hume caftle was garrifoned with
200 men, and intrufted to Sir Edward Dudley ; and
he polled 300 foldiers, with 200 pioneers, in the calllc
of Roxburgh, under the command of Sir Ralph Bul-
mer.
The only refource of the regent now was the hope
of afllftance from France. The young queen was lodged
in the caftle of Dumbarton, under the care of the lords
Erlkine and Livingftone ; and ambaffadors were fent to
Henry II. of France, acquainting him with the difaller
at Pinkey, and imploring his affiftance. The regent
D had
Scotland.
Farther
fuc.effes
of the
Er.glifh.
50a
The queen
fent to
France.
toj
The Kng-
lifli mtct
wth f'eve-
!tal checks.
SCO [
had aflced permiffion from the protestor to treat of
peace, and the earl of Warwick was appointed to wait
for them at Berwick ; but none were ever fent on the
part of Scotland. It was not long, therefore, before
hoftilities were recommenced by the Englifh. Lord
Gray led an army into Scotland, fortified the town of
Haddington, took the caftles of Yefter and Dalkeith,
laid wafte the Merfe, and the counties of Eafl and Mid
Lothian. On the other hand, in June 154^’ Monfieur
de Deffe, a French officer of great reputation, landed
at Leith with 6000 foldiers, and a formidable train of
artillery.
In the mean time, the regent was in difgr?ce on ac¬
count of the difafter at Pinkey ; and the queen-do vager
being diipofed to fuperfede his authority, attempted to
improve this circumftance to her own advantage. As
Ihe perceived that her power and interefl could beft be
fupported by France, fire refolved to enter into the
jtricteft alliance with that kingdom. It had been pro-
pofed that the dauphin of France fhould marry the
queen of Scotland ; and this propofal now met with
many partizans, the hollilities of the Englifir having
loft a great number of friends to the caufe_ of that
country. It was refolved to fend the queen immediate¬
ly to France, which would remove the caufe of the
prefent contentions, and her fubfequent marriage with
the dauphin would in the fulled manner confirm the
friendfhip betwixt the two nations. I he French go¬
vernment alfo entered deeply into the fcheme ; and in
order to promote it made prefents of great value to
many of the Scottifh nobility. T. he regent himleli was
gained over by a penfioii of 1 2,000 hvres, and the title
of duke of ChatelhCrault. Monfieur de Villegagnon,
who commanded four galleys in the harbour of Leith,
making a feint as if he intended to proceed inftantly to
France, tacked about to the north, and, failing round
the ifles, received the queen at Dumbarton ; whence he
conveyed her to France, and delivered her to her
uncles the princes of Lorraine, in the month of July
^ ^
Thefe tranfaftions did not put an end to the military
operations. The fiege of Haddington had been un¬
dertaken as foon as the French auxiliaries arrived, and
was row conduced with vigour. To reinforce the
garrifon, 1500 horfe advanced from Berwick ; but an
ambufcade being laid for them, they were intercepted,
and almoft totally dcftroyed. Another body of Lng-
liffi trooos, however, which amounted only to 300 per-
fons, was more fuccefsful. Eluding the vigilance of
the Scots and the French, they were able to enter
Haddington, and to fupply the befieged with ammuni¬
tion and provifions. The lord Seymour, high admiral
of England, made a defcent upon Fife with 1200
men, and fome pieces of artillery ; but was driven back
to bis {hips with great {laughter by James Stuart, na¬
tural brother to the young queen, who oppofed him at
the head of the militia of the county. A fecond de¬
fcent was made by him at Montrofe ; but being equally
unfuccefsful there, he was obliged to leave Scotland
without performing any important or memorab.e at-
chievement. , ,,
Having coUefted an army of 17,000 men, and add¬
ing to k 3000 German Proteftants, the prote&or put
It under the dire&ion of the earl of Shrewfbury. Up¬
on the approach of the Eugliffij Deffej though he nad
26 ] SCO
been reinforced with 15,000 Scots, thought it more Scotland
prudent to retreat than to hazard a decifive battle. He 1
raifed the fiege of Haddington, and mai’ched to Edin¬
burgh. The earl of Shrewfoury did not follow him to c;o4
force an engagement ; jealoufies had arifen between the Q^arr^Is
Scots and the French. The infolence and vanity ofbt: weenthe
the latter, encouraged by their fuperior {kill in military
arts, had offended the quick and impatient fpiiit of the
former. The fretfulnefs of the Scots was augmented
by the calamines infeparable from war ; and after the
conveyance of the young queen to France, the efficaci¬
ous and peculiar advantage conferred upon that king¬
dom by this tran fait ion was fully uaderftood, and ap¬
peared to them to be highly difgraceful and impolitic.
In this ftate of their humour, Deffe found not at Edin¬
burgh the reception he expe&ed. The quartering of
his foldiers produced difputes, which ended in an infur-
re&ion of the inhabitants. The French fired among
the citizens. Several perfons of diftin&ion fell, and
among thefe were the provoft of Edinburgh and his fon.
The national difcontents and inquietudes were driven,
by this event, to the moft dangerous extremity ; and
Deffe, who was a man of ability, thought of giving
employment to his troops, and of flattering the people
by the fplendour of fome martial exploit. 505
The earl of Shrewfbury, after Applying Hadding-Unfuccefs-
ton with troops, provifions, and military ftores, retired ^
with Ins army into England. Its garrifon, in the cn-(jjngton>
joyment of fecurity, and unfufpicious of danger, might
be furprifed and overpowered. Marching in the night,
Deffe readied this important poll ; and deftroymg a
fort of obfervation, prepared to ftorm the main gates
of the city, when the garrifon took the alarm. A
French deferter pointing a double cannon to the thickeft
ranks of the affailants, the {hot was incredibly de-
ftru&ive, and threw them into confufion. In the
height of their conflernation, a vigorous fally was
made by the befieged. Deffe renewed the affault in
the morning, and was again difeomfited. He now 506
turned his arms againft Broughty caftle ; and, though the
L Li 1 IIV-Vi. 11LO cn mo lit ^**■»*». ~  J  7 ' O T-. »
unable to reduce it, he yet recovered the neighbouring
. r TA J~ ...LL.K foliar* tntrv tVi#* w\o{TVfTirm /•
town of Dundee, which had fallen into the p°lfciht>n^onie a(j
of the enemy. Hume caftle was retaken by ftratagem. vantages,
Deffe entered Jedburgh, and put its garrifon to the
fvvord. Encouraged by this fuccefs, he ravaged the
Englifh borders in different incurfions, and obtained fe-
veral petty viftories. Leith, which from a fmall village
had grown into a town, was fortified by him; and the
Hand of Inchkeith, which is nearly oppofite to that
harbour, being occupied by Englifh troops, he under¬
took to expel them, and made them priioners after a
brifk encounter.
His aftivity and valour could not, however, com-
pofe the difcontents of the Seottifh nation ; and the
queen-dowager having written to Henry II. to recal
him, he was fucceeded in his command by Moniieur de
Thermes, who was accompanied into Scotland by Mon-
luc biffiop of Valence, a perfon highly efteemed for his
addrefs and ability. I his ecclefiaitic was deligned to
fupply the lofs of cardinal Beaton, and to difeharge the
office of lord high chancellor of Scotland. But the
jealoufies of the nation increafing, and the queen-dow¬
ager herfelf fufpeaing his ambition and turbulence, he
attained not this dignity, and foon returned to his own
country'
Vo
$c3
eace con-
uded.
sco r
Scadar.d. Dc Thermcs brought with him from Fiance a rein-
   forcement of icoo foot, 2000 horfe, and 100 men-
artherfic at-Hrms* erefted a fort at Aberlady, to diftrefs
Ves of the the garrifon of Haddington, and to intercept its fup*
rench. plies of provifion. At Coldingham he deftroyed a
troop of Spaniards in the Englifh pay. Faft-caftle
was regained by furprife. Diltraftions in the Engliih
court did not permit the prote&or to adf vigoroufly in
the war. The earl of Warwick was diverted from
inarching an army into Scotland. An infedbious dif-
temper had broke out in the garrilbn at Haddington ;
and an apprehenfion prevailed, that it could not hold
out for any length of time again ft the Scots. The earl
of Rutland, therefore, with a body of troops, entered
the town ; and after fetting fire to it, conduced the
garrilbn and artillery to Berwick. The regent, in the
poftelfion of Haddington, was felicitous to recover the
other places which were yet in the power of the Eng¬
liih. De Thermes laid liege to Broughty callle, and
took it. He then befieged Lawder ; and the garrifon
was about to furrer.der at difcrction, when the news ar¬
rived that a peace was concluded between France, Eng¬
land, and Scotland.
By ^this treaty Henry IT. obtained the reftitution
of Boulogne and its dependencies, which had been
taken from him by the king of England, and for
which he paid 400,000 crowns. No oppofition was
to be given to the marriage of the queen of Scotland
with the dauphin: the fortreftes of Lawder and Dou¬
glas were to be rellored to the Scots, and the Englilh
were to deftroy the caftTes of Roxburgh and Eymouth.
'he queen-After the ratification of the articles, the queen-dowoiger
owager embarked wfith Leon Strozzi for France, attended by
i06'’'° .many of the nobility. Having arrived there, Ihe com-
.hemes a- rnumcated to the king her defign of alTumimr the go¬
vernment of Scotland, and he promifed to aflift her to
the utmoft of his power. But the jealoufy which pre¬
vailed between the Scots and French rendered the ac-
complifhment of this delign very difficult. To remove
the regent by an aft ef power might endanger the
fcheme altogether ; but it might be poffible to perfuade
him to refign his office voluntarily. For this purpofe
intrigues were immediately commenced ; and indeed the
regent himfelf contributed to promote their fehemes by
his violent perfecution of the reformed. The peace was
hardly proclaimed, wffien he provoked the public re-
5to fentment by an aftion of fanguinary infolence. Adam
^damWal-Wallace, a man of fimple manners, but of great zeal
m account for the reformation, was accufed of herefy, and brought
?f religion t0 tr‘a^ *n t^ie church of the Black Friars at Edinburgh.
In the prefence of the regent, the earls of Angus,
Huntley, Glencairn, and other perfons of diftinftion
and rank, he was charged wuth preaching without any
authority of law, with baptizing one of his own chil¬
dren, and with denying the doftrine of purgatory ;
and it was ftrenuoufly objefted to him, that he ac¬
counted prayers to the faints and the dead to be an ufe-
lefs fuperftition, that he had pronounced the mafs to be
an idolatrous fervice, and that he had affirmed that the
bread and wine in the facrament of the altar, after the
words of the confecration, do not change their nature,
but continue to be bread and wine. Thefe offences
were efteemed too terrible to admit of any pardon.—
The earl of Glencairn alone protefted againll his pu-
.,.n *■ The pj0U3 fufferer bore with refignation the
5©9
amft the
egent.
-tiifhment.
27 r sco
contumelious infults of the clergy; and by his courage Scotian-!,
and patience at the ftake gave a fanftion to the opinions v
he had embraced. 511.
Other afts of atrocity and violence ftained the admi-2t^ier inr
niftration of the regent. In his own palace, William ^
Crichton, a man of family and reputation, wras affaffina-inhumanity
nated by the lord Semple. No attempt w-as made to aiic!‘nW-
puniffi the murderer. His daughter was the concubine Ul>c-
of the archbifhop of St Andrew’s, and her tears and in-
treaties were more powerful than jutlice. John Melvil,
a perfon refpeftable by his birth and his fortune, ha.i
written to an Englifh gentleman, recommending to hi*
care a friend who at that time was a captive in Eng¬
land. This letter contained no improper information
in matters of ftate, and no fufpicion of any crime agairtft
Melvil could be inferred from it. Yet the regent brought
him to trial upon a charge of high treafon ; and, for
an aft of humanity and fricndffiip, he was condemned
to lofe his head. The eftate of Melvil, forfeited to Ins
family, was given to David the youngeft fon of the re¬
gent. 511
Amidft the pleafures and amufements of the French Schemes of
court, the queen-dowager was not inattentive to the ^'e <lll'-‘en-
fcheme of ambition which ihe had projefted. The earls
of Huntley and Sutherland, Marifchai and Caffilis, with regency,
the lord Maxwell, and other perfons of eminence who
had accompanied her to France, were gained over to her
interefts. Robert Carnegie of Kinnaird, David Panter
bifhop of Rofs, and Gavin Hamilton commendatof of
Kilwinning, being alfo at this time in that kingdom,
and having the greatell weight with the regent, -were
treated with a moft punftilious rel'peft. Henry decla¬
red to them his earneft wifh that the queen-dowager
might attain the government of Scotland. In cafe the
regent fhould confent to this meafure, he expreffed a
firm intention that no detriment ihould happen to his
eonfequence and affairs ; and he defired them to inform
him, that he had already confirmed his title of of
Chatelheraulty had advanced his fon to be captain of the
Scots gendarmes in France, and was ready to tender
other marks of favour to his family and relations. Up¬
on this bufmefs, and with this meffage, Mr Carnegie was
difpatched to Scotland; and a few days after, he was
followed by the bifhop of Rofs. The bifhop being a
man of eloquence and authority, obtained, though with
great difficulty, a promiie from the regent to refign his
high office ; and for this fervice he received, as a recom-
penTe, an abbey in Poitou. ^,,
The queen-dowager, full of hopes, now prepared to She returns
return to Scotland, and in her way thither made ufe oft0
a fafe-conduft obtained from Edward VI. by the king *anc*'
of France. The Englifh monarch, however, had not
yet forgot the beautiful queen of Scotland; and did
not fail to urge his fuperiority of claim to her over the
dauphin. The queen-dowager did not ferioufly enter
upon the bufinefs ; only in general terms complained of
the hoftilities committed by the Englifh ; and two days
after this converfation, file proceeded towards Scotland,
where fhe was condufted by the earl of Bothwel, lord
Hume, and fome other noblemen, to Edinburgh, amidft
the acclamations of the people. She had not long been
returned to the capital, when the bad conduft of the
regent afforded her an opportunity of exerting her in¬
fluence and addrefs to the advantage of her projeft.
The regent having propofed a judicial circuit through
D 2 the
Scotland,
5H
Rapacity
and it ju ■
fHce of the
regent.
515
He religns
his ofSce,
which is
given to
the queen-
dowager.
J16
She renden
herfelf un¬
popular.
SCO 1 28
tKc kingdom, under pretence of reprefling crimes and
diforders, molefted the people by plunder and rapine.
Great fines were levied for offences pretended as well as
real; and the Proteftants in particular feemed to be the
obje&s of his difpleafure and feverity. In his progrefs
he was accompanied by the queen-dowager j and as fhe
affe&ed to behave in a manner dire&ly oppofite, the
moft difagreeable comparifons were made between her
and the regent. The bifliop of Rofs, to whom he had
promifed to refign his office, did not fail to put him in
mind of his engagements ; but he had now altered his
mind, and wifhed ftill to continue in power. His refo-
lution, however, failed him on the firfl intimation of a
parliamentary inquiry into the errors of his adminiftra-
tion. An agreement with the queen-dowager then took
place ; and it was ftipulated, that he fhould fucceed to
the throne upon the death of the queen without iffue ;
that his fon fhould enjoy the command of the gen¬
darmes ; that no inquiry fhould be made into his expen¬
diture of the royal treafures ; that no fcrutiny into his
government fhould take place ; and that he fhould en¬
joy in the moft ample manner his duchy and his pen-
fion. Thefe articles were ratified at an affembly of par¬
liament, and the queen-dowager was formally invefted
with the regency.
Mary of Lorraine, the new regent, though fhe had
with great difficulty attained the fummit of her wifhes,
feemed to be much lefs verfant in the arts of govern-
*ment than of intrigue. She was fcarcely fettled in her
new office when fhe rendered herfelf unpopular in two
refpedts ; one was by her too great attachment to France,
and the other by her perfecution of the reformed reli¬
gion. She was entirely guided by the councils of her
brothers the duke of Guife and the cardinal of Lor-
and paid by far too much attention to M. d’Oy-
SCO
5'»
Attempts
in vain to
eftahiifh a
ftatidiug
army.
fel the French ambaftador, whom they recommended to
her as an able and faithful minifter. Several high of¬
fices were filled with Frenchmen, which excited in the
higheft degree the refentment of the Scottifh nobility ;
and the commonalty were inftantly prejudiced againft
her by the partiality fhe {bowed to the Papifts. At
firft, however, fhe enafted many falutary laws ; and
while fhe made a progiefs herfelf through the fouthern
provinces of the kingdom to bold jufticiary courts,
fhe endeavoured to introduce order and law into the
weftern counties and ifles; firft by the earl of Hunt-
ley, and afterwards by the earls of Argyle and Athole,
to whom fhe granted commiffions for this purpofe with
effe&ual powers. In another improvement, which the
queen regent attempted by the advice of her French
council, ftie found herfelf oppofed by her own people.
It was propofed that the pofftffions of every proprietor
of land in the kingdom fhould be valued and entered in¬
to regifters ; and that a proportional payment fhould be
made by each. The application of this fund was to
maintain a regular and handing body of foldiers. This
guard or army, it was urged, being at all times in readi-
nefs to march againft an enemy, would proteft effedtu-
ally the frontiers ; and there would no longer be any
neceffity for the nobles to be continually in motion on
every rumour of hoftility or incurfion from Englifh in- Scotlaad.
vadera. No art, however, or argument, could recom- ~—v—“■'*
mend thefe meafures. A perpetual tax and a (landing
army were conceived to be the genuine charadleriftics
of defpotifm. All ranks of men confidered themfelves
infulted and abufed ; and 300 tenants of the crown
aflembling at Edinburgh, and giving way to their in¬
dignation, fent their remonftrances to the queen-regent
in fuch ftrong and expreffive language, as induced her
to abandon the fcheme. Yet ftill the attempt which fhe
had made left an impreffion in the minds of the people.
They fufpedled her to be a fecret enemy to their go¬
vernment and liberties ; and they were convinced that
Henry II. was engaging her in refinements and arti¬
fices, that he might reduce Scotland to be a province
of France.
While an alarm about their civil rights was fpread-John Knox
ing itfelf among the people, the Proteftants were rifing encouragei'
daily in their fpirit and in their hopes. John Knox(p),c^e reform*
whofe courage had been confirmed by misfortunes, and
whofe talents had improved by exercife, was at this time
making a progrefs through Scotland. 1’he charadlerif-
tic peculiarities of Popery were the favourite topics of
his declamation and cenfure. He treated the mafs, in
particular, with the moft fovereign contempt, reprefent-
ing it as a remnant of idolatry. Many of the nobility
and gentry afforded him countenance and protection.
They invited him to preach at their houfes, and they
partook with him in the ordinances of religion after the
reformed method. Religious focieties and affemblies
were held publicly, in defiance of the Papifts ; and ce¬
lebrated preachers were courted with affiduity and bribes
to refide and officiate in particular diftrifts and towns.
The clergy cited him to appear before them at Edin¬
burgh, in the church of the Black-friars. On the ap¬
pointed day he prefented himfelf, with a numerous at¬
tendance of gentlemen, who were determined to exert
themfelves in his behalf. The priefthood did not choofe
to proceed in his profecution ; and Knox, encoura¬
ged by this fymptom of their fear, took the refolution
to explain and inculcate his do&rines repeatedly and
openly in the capital city of Scotland. In 1556, the
earl of Glencairn allured the earl Marifchal to hear the ^
exhortations of this celebrated preacher; and they were \vYjtes an
fo much affefted with his reafonings and rhetoric, that offenfive
they requefled him to addrefs the queen-regent up-fttter to
on the fubjedl of the reformation of religion. In com-r "e ^een“
pliance with this requeft, he wrote a letter in very difsu
greeable terms; and the earl of Glencairn delivered it
with his own hand, in the expectation that fome advan¬
tage might in this manner be obtained for the reformed.
But the queen-regent was no lefs offended with the
freedom of the nobleman than the preacher ; and, after
perufmg the paper, fhe gave it to James Beaton arch-
bifhop of Glafgow, with an expreffion of difdain, “ Here,
my lord, is a pafquil.”
Amidft thefe occupations, John Knox received an in-Q(J^0
vitation to take the charge of the Englifh congregation Geneva,
at Geneva ; which he accepted. The clergy called up-and i« burnt
on him, in his abfence, to appear before them, condemn-”1 e®a7*
ed
(p) When he was fent to France (fays I)r Stuart), with the confpirators againft Cardinal Beaton, he wa&
confined to the galleys; but had obtained his liberty in the latter end of the year 1549-
SCO [2
Scotland, ed him to death as a heretic, and ordered him to be
—v burned in effigy.
of The injurious treatment of John Knox did not m the
lefelor- leaft obftruft the progrefs of the reformation. Defer-
lation. tions were made from Popery in every town and village;
and even many members of the church, both fecular
and regular, were forward to embrace the new princi¬
ples, and to atone for their pad miitakes by the bitter-
eft railleries againft the corruptions and the folly of the
Romiffi faith. The priefts were treated in all places
with ridicule and contempt. The images, crucifixes,
and relics, which ferved to roufe the decaying fervours
of fuperftition, were ftolen from the churches, and tram¬
pled under foot. The bifhops implored the affiftance of
the queen-regent. Citations were given to the preach¬
ers to appear in their, defence. They obeyed; but
with fuch a formidable retinue, that it was with diffi¬
culty {he was permitted to apologife for her conduft.
James Chalmers of Gaitgirth, preffing forward from the
crowd, addrefled himfelf to her : “ We vow to God,
that the devices of the prelates {hall not be carried into
execution. ^Ve are opprefled to maintain them in their
.idlenefs. They feek to undo and murder our preachers
and us; and we are determined to fubmit no longer to
this wickednefs.” The multitude, applauding his fpeech,
put their hands to their daggers.
A trufty meffenger was difpatched to Geneva, invi¬
ting John Knox to return to his own country. But in
the infancy of their connection, the Proteftants being
apprehenfive of one another, uncertain in their counfels,
or being deferted by perfons upon whom they had re¬
lied, it appeared to them that they had adopted this
meafure without a due preparation ; and, by oppofite
difpatches, Knox was requefted to delay his journey for
fome time.
To this zealous reformer their unfteadinefs was a mat¬
ter of ferious affliction ; and in the anfwer he tranfmit-
ted to their letters, he rebuked them with feverity : but
amidll this correction, he intreated them not to faint
under their purpofes, from-apprehenfions of danger,
which, he faid, was to feparate themfelves from the fa¬
vour of God, and to provoke his vengeance. To par¬
ticular perfons he wrote other addrelfes ; and to all of
them the greateft attention was paid. In 1557, a for¬
mal bond of agreement, which obtained the appellation
of the JirJl covenant, was entered into, and all the more
eminent perfons who favoured the reformation were in-
vi'ed to fubfciibe it. The earls of Argyle, Glencairn,
and Morton, with the lord Lorn, and John Erfkine of
Dun, led the way, by giving it the fanCtion of their
names. All the fubfcribers to this deed, renouncing
the fuperftitions and idolatry of the church of Rome,
promifed to apply continually their whole power and
wealth, and even to give up their lives, to forward and
eftablifti the word of God. They diftinguiftied the re¬
formed, by calling them the Congregation of Chriji; and
by the opprobrious title of the Congregation of Satan,
they peculiarized the favourers of Popery.
After the leaders of the reformation had fubfcribed
md Calvin the firft covenant, they addrefled letters to John Knox,
urging in the ftrongeft terms his return to Scotland;
and that their hopes of his affiftance might not be dif-
appointed, they lent an addrefs to John Calvin, the ce¬
lebrated reformer, begging him to join his commands to
their intreaties. The archbifflop of St Andrew’s, who
Scotland.
524
Fhe firft
5*3
rohn Knox
5U
9 ] s c . 0 .
perceived the rifing ftorm, was in a difficult fituation.
A powerful combination threatened ruin to the church;
and he had feparated himfelf from the politics of the
queen-regent. The zeal of the Roman Catholics point¬
ed out ftrong meafures to him ; and his difpofitions
were pacific. The clergy were offended with his re-
miflhefs and negleft of duty. The reformers detefted
his loofenefs of principles, and were {hocked with the
diflblute depravity of his life and converfation. He re-
folved to try the force of addrefs, and did not fucceed.
He then refolvcd to be fevere, and was ftill more uniuc-
cefsful.
The earl of Argyle was the moft powerful of the re-The arch
formed leaders. To allure him from his party, theh|fll0P°f
archbifhop of St Andrew’s employed the agency of Sir
David Hamilton. But the kindnefs he affe&ed, and j,.mpts ,n~
the advices he bellowed, were no compliment to the urn vain to fe-
derftanding of this nobleman ; and his threats were re-Seethe
garded with fcorn. The reformers, inftead of lofing' a^eot Ar*
their courage, felt a fentiment of exultation and tvi-k
umph.; and the earl of Argyle happening to die about
this time, he not only maintained the new doftrines in
his laft moments, but intreated his fon to feek for ho¬
nour in promoting the public preaching of the gofpel
and Jefus Chrift, and in the utter ruin of fuperftition
and idolatry.
It was determined by the archbifflop and the prelates,
that this difappointment fflould be fucceeded by furious
perfecution of the reformed. Walter Mill, a prieft, had Walter
neglected to officiate at the altar ; and having been long
under the fufpieion of herefy, was carried to St An-^courit
drew’s, committed to prifon, and accufed before thereijgiou>
archbifflop and his fuffragans. He was in an extreme
old age ; and he had ftruggled all his life with poverty.
He funk not, however, under the hardnefs of his fate.
To the articles of his accufation he replied with fignal
recolleftion and fortitude. The firmnefs of his mind,
in the emaciated ftate of his body, excited admiration.
The infults of his enemies, and their contempt, ferved
to difeover his fuperiority over them. When the cler¬
gy declared him a heretic, no temporal judge could be
found to condemn him to the fire. He was refpited to
another day; and fo great fympathy prevailed for his
misfortunes, that it was neceflary to allure one of the
archbifflop’s domeftics to fupply the place of the civil
power, and to pronounce the lenience of condemnation.
When brought to the flake, the refolution of this fuf-
ferer did not forfake him. He praifed God, that he
had been called to feal up the truth with his life; and
he conjured the people, as they would efcape eternal
death, not to be overcome by the errors and the arti¬
fices of monks and priefts, abbots and bifhops. 5,5
The barbarity of this execution affefted the refer-The Pro-
mers with inexpreffible horror. Subfcriptions for mu-*erta’ ^ Tr
tual defence were taken. The leaders of the reforma-~
tion, difperfing their emiflaries to every quarter, encou-jights.
raged the vehemence of the multitude. The cove¬
nant to eftabliffl a new form of religion extended far
and wide. The fflarp point of the fword, not the calm
exertions of inquiry, was to decide the difputes of theo-
logy-
When the leaders of the reformation were apprifed
of the ardent zeal of the people, and conlidered the
great number of fubferiptions which had been colle&ed
in the different counties of the kingdom, they affembled
to
Scotlmd.
5*7
Petition
SCO' [30
to deliberate concerning the Heps to be purfued. It
wavS refolved, accordingly, that a public and common
fupplication of the whole body of the Protdlants fhould
the queen, be prefcnted to the queen-regent; which, after com*
»e6eut
5*8
Articles of
the refor-
aiation.
plaining of the injuries they had fuffercd, fiiould require
her to bellow upon them her fupport and afiiitance, and
urge her to proceed in the work ol a reformation. To
explain their full meaning, a fchedule, containing parti¬
cular demands, was at the fame time to be prefented
to her lerutiny. To Sir Tames Sandilands of Calder
they committed the important charge of their manifefto
and articles of reformation ; and in appointing him to
this commifiion, they confulted the refpeft which was
due both to the government and to themfelves. His
chara&er was in the highett eftimation. His fervices to
his country were numerous; his integrity and honour
were fuperior to all fufpicion ; and his age and experi¬
ence gave him authority and reverence.
The petition or fupplication of the Protdlants was
exprefl’ed in ftrong but refpedlful terms. They told
the queen-regent, that though they had been provoked
by great injuries, they had yet, during a long peiiod,
abllained from affembling themfelves, and from making
known to her their complaints. Banifhment, confifca-
tion of goods, and death in its moll cruel fhape, were
evils with which the reformed had been affli&ed; and
they were Hill expofed to thefe dreadful calamities*
Compelled by their fufferings, they prefumsd to aflc a
remedy againll the tyranny of the prelates and the eHate
ecclefiaHical. They had ufurped an unlimited domina¬
tion over the minds of men. Whatever they command¬
ed, though without any fan&ion from the word of God,
muH be obeyed. Whatever they prohibited, tho’ from
their own authority only, it was neceHary to avoid. All
arguments and remonHrances were equally fruitlefs and
vain. The fire, the faggot, and the fword, were the
weapons with which the church enforced and vindica¬
ted her mandates. By thefe, of late years, many of
their brethren had fallen ; and upon this account they
were troubled and wounded in their confciences. For
conceiving themfelves to be a part of that power which
God had efiablHhed in this kingdom, it was their duty
to have defended them, or to have concurred with them
in an open avowal of their common religion. They
now take the opportunity to make this avowal. They
break a filence which may be mifinterpreted into a juf-
tification of the cruelties of their enemies. And dif-
daining all farther diffimulation in matters which con¬
cern the glory of God, their prefent happinefs, and
their future falvation, they demand, that the original
purity of the ChriHian religion fiiall be reftored, and
that the government (hall be fo improved, as to afford
to them a fecurity in their perfons, their opinions, and
their property.
With this petition or fupplication of the Protefiants,
Sir James Sandilands prefented their fchedule of de¬
mands, or the preliminary articles of the reformation.
They were in the fpirit of their fupplication, and of the
following tenor.
I. It fiiall be lawful to the reformed to perufe the
Scriptures in the vulgar tongue; and to employ alfo
their native language in prayer publicly and in private.
II. It firall be permitted to any perfon qualified by
knowledge, to interpret and explain the difficult paf-
iages in the Scriptures.
1 SCO
III. The ele&ion.of minifters fitall take place accord. Scotland.
ing lo the rules of the primitive church ; and thofe who  v~—
ele& (hall inquire diligently into the lives and do&rines
of the perfons whom they admit to the clerical office.
TV. The holy facrament of baptifm fhall be celebra¬
ted in the vulgar tongue, that its inHitution and nature
may be the more generally underfiood.
V. The holy facrament of the Lord’s fupper {hall
bkewife be adminiHered in the vulgar tongue ; and in
this communion, as well as in the ceremonial of bap¬
tifm, a becoming refpedt fiiall be paid to the plain m-
ftitution of Chrifi Jefus.
VI. 'The wicked and licentious lives of the bifhops
and efiate ecclefiaHical fiiall be reformed; and if they
difeharge not the duties of true and faithful pafiors,
they fhall be compelled to defifi from their minifiry and
funftions.
The queen-regent now found it neceHary to flatter The Protef.
the Protefiants. She affured them by Sir James San-t int^ Ha'-
dilands, their orator or commiffioner, that every thingtered
they could legally defire fliould be granted to them ;
and that, in the mean time, they might, without mo- b
lelfation, employ the vulgar tongue in their prayers and
religious exercifes. But, upon the pretence that no
encouragement might be given to tumults and riot, Hie
requefted that they would hold no public affemblies in
Edinburgh or Leith. The Congregation, for this name
was now affumed by the Protefiants, were tranfported
with thefe tender proofs of her regard ; and while they
fought to advance Hill higher in her efieem by the in-
offenfive quietnefs of their carriage, they were encou¬
raged in the undertaking they had begun, and anxious
to accomplifli the work of the reformation.
Nor to the clergy, who at this time were holding a
provincial council at Edinburgh, did the Congiegation
Icrupie to communicate the articles of the intended re¬
formation. The clergy received their demands with a
ftorm of rage, which died away in an innocent debility. 5-0
Upon recovering from their paffions, they offered to They offer
fubmit the controverfy between them and the reformed to.dl*Pute
to a public difputation. The Congregation did
refufe this mode of trial; and defired, as their only con-clergy,
ditions, that the Scriptures might be confidered as the
Handards of orthodoxy and truth, and that thofe of
their brethren who were in exile and under perfecution
might be permitted- to affifi them. Thefe requefis,
though realonable in a high degree, were not complied
with ; and the church would allow no rule of right but
the canon law and its own councils. Terms of recon¬
ciliation were then offered on the part of the eflate ec-
clefiafiicaL It held out to the Protefiants the liberty
of praying and adminifiering the facraments in the vul¬
gar tongue, if they would pay reverence to the mafs,
acknowledge purgatory, invoke the faints, and admit
of petitions for the dead. To conditions fo ineffedlual
and abfurd the Congregation did net deign to return
any anfwer.
The meeting of the parliament approached. The
parties in contention were agitated with anxieties, ap-
prehenfions, and hopes. An expeftation of a firm and
open affiftance from the queen-regent gave courage to
the reformed ; and, from the parliamentary influence of
their friends in the greater and the leffer baronage, they
expected the mofi important fervices. They drew up
with eagernefs the articles which they wifhed to be
* pafied
Scotland,
53i
prcfent
tjgeir arti¬
cles to the
queen-re¬
gent.
S31
Proteft a-
gainft her
proceed¬
ings.
8 G ° [3
pafTed Into a law j and as the fpirit and fenfe of their
tranfa&ions are to be gathered in the completefl man¬
ner from the papers which were framed by themfelves,
it is proper to attend to them with a punftilious exaft-
nefs. Their petitions were few and explicit.
I. They could not, in confequence of principles which
they had embraced from a conviftion of their truth, par¬
ticipate in the Romifh religion. It was therefore their
dcfire, that all the atts of parliament, giving authority
to the church to proceed againft them as heretics, Ihould
be abrogated; or, at lead, that their power fhould be
fufpended till the difputes which had arifen were deter¬
mined and brought to a conclulion.
II. They did not mean that all men (hould be at li¬
berty to profefs what religion they pleated, without
the controul of authority. They confented that all tranf-
greffors in matters of faith (hould be carried before the
temporal judge. But it was their wi(h that the clergy
{hould have only the power to accufe ; and they thought
it conformable to juftice, that a copy of the criminal
charge {hould be lodged with the party upon trial, and
that a competent time {hould be allowed him to defend
himfelf. ^
III. They infilled, that every defence confillent with
law Ihould be permitted to the party accufed ; and that
obj eft ions to witnefles, founded in truth and reafon,
{hould operate to his favour.
IV. They defired that the party accufed {hould have
permiflion to interpret and explain hitf own opinions ;
and that his declaration fhould cany a greater evidence
than the depofition of any witnefs : as no perfon ought
to be puniflred for religion, who is not cbllinate in a
wicked or damnable tenet.
V. In fine, they urged, that no Proteftant {hould be
condemned for herety, without being convifted, by the
word of God, of the want of that faith which is necef-
fary to falvation.
The Congregation prefented thefe articles to the
queen-regent, expefting that Ihe would not only pro-
pofe them to the three ehates affembled in parliament,
but employ all her influence to recommend them.
But finding themfelves difappointed, they began to fuf-
peft her fincerity ; and they were fenfible that their pe¬
titions, though they {hould be carried in parliament,
could not pafs into a law without her confent. They
therefore abfiained from prefenting them ; but as their
complaints and defires were fully known in parliament,
they ordered a folemn declaration to be read there in
their behalf, and demanded that it {hould be inferted in
the records of the nation. In this declaration, after ex-
preffing their regret for having been difappointed in
their fcheme of reformation, they protelled, that no
blame {hould be imputed to them for continuing in their
religion, which they believed to be founded in the word
of God ; that no danger of life, and no political pains,
{hould be incurred by them, for di{regarding flatutes
which fupport idolatry, and for violating rites which
are of human invention ; and that, if infurreftions and
tumults (hould difturb the realm, from the diverfity of re¬
ligious opinions, and if abufes (hould be correfted by
violence, all the guilt, .diforder, and inconvenience thence
aniing, inftead 'of being applitd to them, (hould be aferi-
oed to thofe folely who had refufed a timely redrei's of
wrongs, and who had defpifed petitions prefented with
the humility of faithful fubjefts, and for the purpofes of
I 1 SCO
eftablifliing the commandments of God, and a mod juft Scotlawh
and falutary reformation. ——y—j
The three eftates received this formidable proteft with
attention and refpeft ; but the intention of inferting it in
the national records was abandoned by the Congrega¬
tion, upon a formal promife from the queen-regent, that
all the matters in controverfy Ihould fpeedily be brought
by her to a fortunate iflue.
While the Protdtants were thus making the mod vi¬
gorous exertions in behalf of their fpiritual liberties, the
queen-regent, in order to eftablifli herfelf the more ef-
feftually, ufed every effort to promote the marriage of
her daughter with the dauphin of France. In 1557,
commiffioners were appointed to negociate this marri¬
age ; but while thefe negociations were going on, the 5,33
court of France afted in the moft perfidious manner. p£,(idirui»
At the age of t <;, after folemnly ratifying the indepen- the court°o£
dency of Scotland, and the fucceffion of the crown in trance,
the houfe of Hamilton, queen Mary was influenced by
the king and her uncles the princes of Lorraine to figti
privately three extraordinary deeds or inftrmnents. By
the firft (he conveyed the kingdom of Scotland to the
king of France and his heirs, in the default of children
of her own body. By the fecond (lie afligned him, if
(he (hould die without children, the poffefiion of Scot¬
land, till he (hould receive a million of pieces of gold,
or be amply recompenfed for the fums expended by
him in the education of the queen of Scotland in
F ranee. By the third (lie confirmed both thefe grants
in an exprefs declaration, that they contained the puie
and genuine fentiments of her mind ; and that any pa¬
pers which might be obtained, either before or after
her marriage, by means of the Scottifli parliament, .
(hould be invalid, and of no force nor efficacy. On the MaVrfagc
24th of April, the nuptials were celebrated ; and the of the °
dauphin, Francis, was allowed to affume the title of king'!06™ cf,
of Scotland. The French court demanded for him the th^dau'*
crown and other enligns of royalty belonging to Scot-phin of
land; but the commiffioners had no power to comply France..
with their requeft. It was then defired, that when
they returned home, they (hould ufe all their influence
to procure the crown-matrimonial of Scotland for the
dauphin. This alfo was refufed j the court of France
was difgufted ; and four of the commiffioners died, it
was fuppofed of poifon, given them by the princes of
Lorraine. This fubjeft, however, was preffed, on the
return of the furviving commiffioners, by the king of
France himfelf, the queen of Scotland, and the queen-
regent. The Proteftants alfo joined their interelt, ho-
ping by that means to gain over the queen and queen-
regent to their party ; fo that an aft of parliament was 5.33
at length paffed, by which the crown-matrimonial was 0^,ainj *
given to the dauphin during the time of his marriage ih.e crown
with queen Mary ; but without any prejudice to the li-laV^ but
bemes of the kingdom, to the heirs of her ,body, or to under cer-
the order of fucceffion. With fo many reftraincs, it *'’0 reihic-
is difficult to fee the advantages which could accrueU01S'
from this gift fo earneftly fought after; and it is very
probable, that the ufurpations of France in confequence
of it, would have been produftive of many difturbanc ♦ •
but thefe were prevented by the death of Francis in
December 1560.
But before this event took place, Scotland was, by .'
the intrigues of France, involved in confuiion on ano-
ttier account. After the death of Mary queen of Eng¬
land,
SCO [ 32 1 SCO
Scotland, laru!, and daughter to Henry VIII. the princes of
    Gnife infided on the claim of Mary queen of Scots to
The'aieen t^ie crown England, in preference to that of Lliza-
of Sco s beth, whom they looked upon as illegitimate. This
claims the claim was fupported by the king of France, who pre-
erov.n of -vailed with the queen of Scots herfelf to aflame the
England, ^ ^ qUeeQ Qf England, and to ftamp money under
that charadter. The arms ot England were quartered
with thofe of France and Scotland ; and employed as
j;37 ornaments for the plate and furniture of Mary and
Which 'ays the dauphin. Thus was laid the foundation of an ir-
thc frunda-^concileable quarrel between Elizabeth and Mary ;
quarrela an^ to this, in fome meafure, are we to afcribe the in-
with Eliza-veteracy with which the former perfecuted the unhap-
beth. py queen of Scotland, at every time (he had it in her
power.
But while they imprudently excited a quarrel with
England, tkey yet more imprudently quarrelled alfo
with the majority of the people of Scotland. As Eli¬
zabeth profefled the Proteftant religion, it was eafxly
forefeen, that the Congregation, or body of the reform-
ed in Scotland, would never confent to aft againft her
Scheme to in favour of a Popifh power ; and as they could not
dehroy all be gained, it was refolved to deftroy them at once,
thfe'ea<Jer9 by putting to death all their leaders. The queen re-
teftant par-gent gave intimation of her defign to re-eftablifh Pope-
ty in Scot- ry, by proclaiming a folemn obfervance of Eafter, re-
land. ceiving the facrament according to the Romifh commu¬
nion, herfelf, and commanding all her houfehold to re¬
ceive it in the fame manner. She next exprefled her¬
felf in a contemptuous manner againft the reformed, af¬
firmed that they had infulted the royal dignity, and de¬
clared her intention of reftoring it to its ancient luftre.
The preachers of the Congregation were next cited to
appear at Stirling, to anfwer the charges which might
be brought againft them. Alexander earl of Glen-
cairn, and Sir Hugh Campbell of Loudon, were depu¬
ted to admonifli her not to perfecute the preachers, unlefs
they had been obnoxious by circulating erroneous doc-
Treacher- trines, or difturbing the peace of government. The
©us beha- queen-regent in a pafilon told them, that the preachers
viour of ftould be baniftied Scotland, though their doftrines
regeru*611 were 33 f°und as thofe of St Paul. The deputies ur-
* * ged her former kind behaviour and promifes ; but the
queen-regent anfwered, that “ the promifes of princes
ought not to be exaffed with rigour, and that they
were binding only when fubfervient to their convenien-
cy and pleafure.” To this they replied, that in fuch a
cafe they could not look upon her as their fovereign, and
-4q muft renounce their allegiance as fubjefts.
Proceed- Soon after this tranfaftion, the queen-regent recei-
ings againfl; vecj tbe nevvs that the reformation was eftabliflied in
Perth* k°rtl Ruthvcn t^e prov°ft of the city was
fummoned to anfwer for this innovation ; but his reply
was, that he had no dominion over the minds and con-
fciences of men. The provoft of Dundee, being or¬
dered to apprehend an eminent preacher, named Paul
Methven, feat him intelligence of the order, that he
might provide for his fafety. The proclamation for
*>bferving Eafter was everywhere defpifed and neglect¬
ed, and people exclaimed againft the mafs as an idol.
541 New citations, in the mean time, had been given to
come for- preachers to appear at Stirling. They obeyed the
midable by fummons; but attended by fuch multitudes, that the
their num- queen-regent, dreading their power, though they were
without arms, intreated Mr Erfkine of Dun, whom Scotland,
they had fent before as a deputy, to ftop their march ;
afluring him that all proceedings againft the preachers
fhould be ftopped. In confeqtience of this, the multi¬
tude difmifled; yet, when the day came on which the
preachers fhould have appeared, the queen-regent, with
unparalleled folly as well as treachery, caufed them to
be declared traitors, and procla'med it criminal to afford
them any fubliftence.
Mr Evflcine, exafperated by this fhameful conduft,
haftened to the Congregation, apologifed for his con-
duCft, and urged them to proceed to the laft extremi-
ties. At this critical period alio John Knox returned John Kim*
from Geneva, and joined the Congregation at Perth, returns to
The great provocations which the Proteftants had al-::ico^ai1^*
ready received, joined to the impetuous paffions of the
multitude, were now productive of the greateft difor-
ders. Images were deftroyed, monafteries pulled down,
and their wealth either feized by the mob or given to
the poor. The example of Perth was followed by
Cupar in Fife ; and fimilar infurre&ions being appre¬
hended in other places, the queen-regent determined to
punith the inhabitants of Perth in the moft exemplary
manner. With this view fhc collected an army : but
being oppofed with a formidable power by the Prote¬
ftants, {he thought proper to conclude an agreement. 543
The Proteftants, however, dreaded her infincerity ; and Second cc*
therefore entered into a new covenant to ftand by and^^*
defend one another. Their fears were not vain. Theofr^
queen-regent violated the treaty almoft as foon as made, queen-re»
and began to treat the Proteftants with feverity. Thg^enc.
earl of Argyle, and the prior of St Andrew’s, who
about this time began to take the title of lord James
Stuart, now openly headed the Proteftant party, and
prepared to colled their whole ftrength. The queen-
regent oppofed them with what forces fhe had, and
which indeed chiefly confifted of her French auxiliaries;
but, being again afraid of coming to an engagement,
(he confented to a truce until commiflioners fluould be
fent to treat with the lords of an effedual peace. No
commiflioners, however, were fent on her part; and
the nobles, provoked at fuch complicated and uncea-
fing treachery, refolved to pufli matters to the utmoft j 544
extremity. The firft exploit of the reformed was the Penh ta-
taking of the town of Perth, where the queen-regent ^en b7 ths
had placed a French garrifon. The multitude, elated
with this atchievement, deftroyed the palace and abbey
of Scone, in fpite of all the endeavours of their leaders,
even of John Knox himfelf, to fave them. The queen-
regent, apprehenfive that the Congregation would com¬
mit farther ravages to the fouthward, refolved to throw
a garrifon into Stirling; but the earl of Argyle and
lord James Stuart were too quick for her, and arri¬
ved there the very day after the demolition of the ab¬
bey and palace of Scone. The people, incapable of
reftraint, and provoked beyond meafure by the perfidi¬
ous behaviour of the Catholic party, demolifhed all
the monafteries in the neighbourhood, together with
the fine abbey of Cambuflcenneth, fituated on the north
bank of the Forth. From Stirling they went to Lin-ThJ4* ^
lithgow, where they committed their ufual ravages ; af-reger t flies
ter which, they advanced to Edinburgh. The queen- to Dunbar,
regent, alarmed at their approach, fled to Dunbar ; and and the
the Proteilants took up their refidence in ^Edinburgh. b^'^iean
Having thus got poffenion of the capital, the Con-mafter50f
gregation Edinburgh*
fall into
diftrefs.
547
A treaty
concluded.
SCO' t 33
$fptlsnd- ffyeg&tlen aHumed to themfelves the ruling power of
the kingdom, appointed preachers in all the churches,
and feized the mint, with all the inftruments of coin¬
ing. The queen-regent, unable to difpute the matter
in the field, publiihed a manifeflo, in which fhe fet
forth their feditious behaviour, commanding them to
leave Edinburgh within fix hours, and enjoining her
, fubjefts to avoid their fociety under the pain of trea-
They lofe f°n- Congregation having already loft fomewhat
their poj 11- of their popularity by their violent proceedings, were
Jarity,and now incapable of coping with government. As they
had not eftabliftied themfelves in any regular body, or
provided a fund for their fupport, they felt their
ftrength decay, and multitudes of them returned to
their habitations. Thofe who remained found them¬
felves obliged to vindicate their conduct ; and, in an
addrefs to the regent, to difclaim all treafonable inten¬
tions. Negociations again took place, which ended as
ufual; the queen-regent, who had taken this opportu¬
nity of collecting her forces, marched againft the Con¬
gregation on the 23d of July 1539. The Proteftants
now found themfelves incapable of making head againft
their enemies ; and therefore entered into a negociation,
by which all differences were for the prefent accommo¬
dated. The terms of this treaty were, that the town
of Edinburgh fhould be open to the queen-dowager
and her attendants ; that the palace of Holyroodhoufe
and the mint ftiould be delivered up to her; that the
Proteftants ftrould be fubjeft to the laws, and abftain
from molefting the Roman Catholics in the exercife of
their religion. On the queen’s part, it was agreed, that
the Proteftants ftiould have the free exereife of their
religion, and that no foreign troops ftiould enter the ci¬
ty of Edinburgh.
Notwithftanding this treaty, however, the reformed
had no confidence in the queen’s fincerity. Having
heard of the death of Henry If. of France, and the
acceffion of Francis IT. and Mary to that kingdom,
they feem to have apprehended more danger than ^ver.
They now entered into a third covenant ; in which they
engaged themfelves to refufe attendance to the queen-
dowager, in cafe of any meffage or letter; and that im¬
mediately on the receipt of any notice from her to any of
their number, it ftiould be communicated without re-
ferve, and be made a common fubjeft of fcrutiny and
deliberation. It was not long before they had occafion
The"treaty for all thefr conftancy and ftrength. The queen-regent
broken by repented of the favourable terms file had granted the
il^Cen‘ reformed ; and being denied the favour which (he re-
quefted of faying mafs in the high-church of Edinburgh,
fhe ordered them to be everywhere difturbed in the ex¬
ercife of their religion.
In this imprudent meafure, the queen-regent was
confirmed by letters which now came from Francis and
Mary, promifing a powerful army to fupport her inte-
refts. The envoy who brought thefe difpatches alfo
carried letters to the lord James Stuart, now the prin¬
cipal leader of the Proteftants, and natural brother to the
queen. The letters were filled with reproaches and me¬
naces, mixed with intreaties ; and along with them the
envoy delivered a verbal meffage, that the king his ma¬
tter was refolved rather to expend all the treafures of
54*
Third co.
venant.
549
regent.
5 SO
France fup
ports the
Catholic
party.
France than net to be revenged on the rebellious nobles
who had difturbed the peace of Scotland. The lord
James Stuart was not to be frightened by thefe mena-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
1 SCO
Ccs. He returned a cool and deliberate anfwer, apolo- Scotland,
gizing for the Proteftants, and vindicating them from —
the charge of rebellion ; but at the fame time intima¬
ting his full refolution of continuing to head the reform¬
ed as he had already done. 551
The letters of Francis and Mary were foon followed French au«
by 1000 French foldiers, with money and military
ftores ; and the commander was immediately difpatched a|ar^ns tjie
again to France, to folicit the affiftance of as manyuatioa.
more foldiers, with four {hips of war, and 100 men-
at-arms. But before he could fet out, La Broffe, ano¬
ther French commander, arrived with 2000 infantry ;
and that the Congregation might be defeated not only
by arms but in difputation, the fame {hip brought three
doftors of the Sorbonne, to {how the pernicious ten¬
dency of the new do&rines. Thus matters were pufh-
ed on beyond all hopes of reconciliation. The nation
was univerfaliy alarmed on account of the introJud ion
of French troops, to which they faw no end. The
queen-regent attempted to quiet the minds of the pub¬
lic by a proclamation ; but their fears increafed the
more. The Congregation afftmbled at Stirling, where
they were joined by the earl of Arran, and foon after
by his father the duke of Chatelherault. They next
deliberated on the meafures to be followed with the
queen-regent ; and the refult of their confultations was,
that an expoftulatory letter ftiould be addrefl’ed to her.
This was accordingly done ; but as the queen behaved
with her ufual duplicity, the nobles called the people
to arms. Mutual manifeftos were now publifhed ; and
both parties prepared to decide the conteft by the
fword. The Congregation having feized Broughty
caftle, marched from thence to Edinburgh. The 551,
queen-regent retired to Leith, which {he had fortified Hie noblei
and filled with French troops. T hither the nobles fentf™^ t^e'r
their laft meffage to her, charging her with a defign
to overthrow the civil liberties of the kingdom. Theyqueen-
requelted her to command her Frenchmen and merce-regent,
naries to depart from Leith, and to make that place
open and patent, not only to the inhabitants Svho had -
been difpoffeffed of their houfes, but to all the inhabi¬
tants of Scotland. They declared, that her denial of
this requeft fhould be confidered by them as a proof of
her intention to reduce the kingdom to flavery ; in
which cafe, they were determined to employ their ut-
moft power to preferve its independency. Two days „
after this meffage, the queen-regent fent to them the unfavour-
lord Lyon, whom lire enjoined to tell them, that fhe able au-
confidered their demand not only as prefumptuous, but^wcr*
as an encroachment on the royal authority; that it
was an indignity to her to be di&ated to by fubje&s;
that Frenchmen were not to be treated as foreigners,
being entitled to the fame privileges with Scotfmen ;
and that fhe would neither dilband her troops, nor
command the town of Leith to be made open and pa¬
tent. The lord Lyon then, in the name of the queen,
regent, commanded the lords of the Congregation to
depart from Edinburgh, and difperfe themfelves, under
the pain of high treafou. The Proteftants: irritated rhe^tle.
by this anfwer, after fome deliberation degraded the grade her
queen-regent; and to this purpofe the nobility, barons, Iwr
and burgeffes, all agreed in fubferibing an edidl, which °®ce»an<*
was fent to the principal cities in Scotland, and publifh- £eith 8C **
ed in them.
The next ftep taken by the Congregation was to
E fiam-
SCO
Scotland.
555
Diviflons
take place
amonj/ft
them.
556
They fall
fummon Leith to furrender ; but meeting with defiance
inftead of fubmiflion, it was refolved to take the town
by fcalade. For this fervice ladders were framed in
the church of St Giles ; a bufinefs which, interrupting
the preachers in the exercife of public worfhip, made
them prognofticate misfortune and mifcarriage to the
Congregation. In the difpleafure of the preachers, the
common people found a fource of complaint ; and the
emiflaries of the queen-dowager a&ing with indefatigable
induftry to divide her adverfaries, and to fpread chagrin
and diflatisfa&ion among them, difcontent, animolity,
and terror, came to prevail to a great degree. The
duke of Chatelherault difcouraged many by his example.
Defection from the Pioteftants added ftrength to the
queen-dowager. The moll fecret deliberations of the
confederated lords were revealed to her. The foldiery
were clamorous for pay ; and it was very difficult to
procure money to fatisfy their claims. Attempts
to foothe and appeafe them, difcovering their confe-
quence, engendered mutinies. They put to death a
domeftic of the earl of Argyle, who endeavoured to
compofe them to order : they infulted feveral perfons
of rank who difcovered a folieitude to pacify them ; and
they even ventured to declare, that, for a proper re¬
ward, they were ready to fupprefs the reformation, and
to re-eftablifh the mafs.
. . It was abfolutdy neceflary to give fatisfaftion to
t'eat t^e Pi'utellant foldiers. The lords and gentlemen of
with queen Congregation collefted a confiderable fum among
Elizabeth, them ; but it was not equal to the prefent exigency.
The avarice of many taught them to withhold wdiat
they could afford, and the poverty of others did not
permit them to indulge their generofity. It was re-
lolved, that each nobleman ffiould furrender his lilver-
plate to be llruck into money. By the addrefs, how¬
ever, of the queen-dowager, the officers of the mint
were bribed to conceal, or to convey to a dillance, the
Itamps and inllruments of coinage. A gloomy defpair
gave difquxet to the Congregation, and threatened their
ruin. Queen Elizabeth, with whofe minillers the con¬
federated lords maintained a correfpondence at this
time, had frequently promifed them her affiftance ; but
they could not now wait the event of a deputation to
the court of England. In an extremity fo preffing,
they therefore applied for a fum of money to Sir
Ralph Sadler and Sir James Croft, the governors of
Berwick ; and Cockburn of Ormifton, who was en-
trufted with this comaiiffion, obtained from them an aid
of 4000 crowns. Traitors, however, in the councils
of the Congregation, having informed the queen-dow¬
ager of his errand and expedition, the earl of Bothwel,
by her order, intercepted him upon his return, dif-
comfited his retinue, and made a prize of the Englilh
fublidy.
To roufe the fpirit of the party, an attack was pro-
jefted upon Leith, and fome pieces of artillery were
planted againft it. But before any charge could be
made, the French foldiers fallied out to give battle to
the troops of the Congregation, poffefled themfelves of
their cannon, and drove them back to Edinburgh. A
report that the viftors had entered this city with the
fugitives, filled it with diforder and difmay. The earl
of Argyle and his Highlanders haltened to recover the
honour of the day, and harafied the French in thei^
retreat. This petty conflift, while it elated the queen-
[ 34 1
SCO
55-l
English
frMidy
taken by
the queen-
regent.
558
The Pro-
teftants
defeated.
dowager, ferved to augment the dcfpondence of the Scotland,
Protellants. —-v'-*
Vain of their prowefs, the French made a new Tally
from Leith, with a view to intercept a fupply of pro-
vifions and ftores for the Congregation. The earl of
Arran and the lord James Stuart advanced to attack
them, and obliged them to retire. But purfuing them
with too much heat, a frefh body of French troops ^
made its appearance. It was prudent to retreat, but rife pr<j.
difficult. An obftinate reliftance was made. It wasteflauts
the objefl of the French to cut off the foldiery of the dc-
Congregation from Edinburgh, and by thefe means to
divide the ftrength of that ffatien. The earl of Ar¬
ran and the lord James Stuart had occafion for all their
addrefs and courage. Though they were able, how¬
ever, to effe£l their efcape, their lofs was eonliderable,
and the victory was rnanifellly on the fide of their ad¬
verfaries.
About this time William Maitland of Lethington, Maitland
fecretary to the queen-dowager, withdrew fecretly from the queen-
Leith, and joined himfelf to the confederated nobles. d )WKger'i
He had been difgufted with the jealoufies of the French I
counfellors, and was expofed to danger from having tjie protc,
embraced the dodtrines of the reformed. His reception Hants,
was cordial, and correfponded to the opinion enter¬
tained of his wifdom and experience. He was fkilled
in bufinefs, adorned with literature, and accultomed
to refledtion. But as yet it was not known, that his
want of integrity was in proportion to the greatnefs of
his talents.
The acceffion of this ftatefman to their party could
not confole the lords of the Congregation for the un»
promifing afpedl of their affairs. The two diicomfi-
tures they had received funk deeply into the minds of
their followers. Thole who affedted prudenee, retired
privately from a caufe which they accounted to be de-
fperate ; and the timorous fled with precipitation. The
wailings and dillruft of the brethren were melancholy
and infedtious ; and by exciting the ridicule and fcorn
of the partifans of the queen-dowager, were augment¬
ed the more. A diffrefs not to be comforted feem- ^
ed to have invaded the Proteftants ; and the affociated They retire
nobles confented to abandon the capital. A little after from Ednu
midnight, they retired from Edinburgh ; and fo great*111/!?*1 to
was the panic which prevailed, that they marched to6tir in*»‘
Stirling without any Hop or intermiffion.
John Knox, who had accompanied the Congregation j, hn Knox]
to Stirling, anxious to recover their unanimity and encourages
courage, addreffed them from the pulpit. He repre-t*lem•
fented their misfortunes as the confequences of their
fins ; and intreating them to remember the goodnefs
of their caufe, affured them in the end of joy, honour,
and vidlory. His popular eloquence correfponding to
all their warmeft wilhes, diffufed fatisfaftion and cheer-
fulnefs. They palfed from defpair to hope. A coun¬
cil was held, in which the confederated nobles deter¬
mined to folicit, by a formal embaffy, the aid of queen
Elizabeth. Maitland of Lethington, and Robert Mel-
vil, were chofen to negociate this important tranfac-
tion ; and they received the fulleil inftruftions concern¬
ing the ffate and difficulties of the Congregation, the
tyrannical defigns of the queen-dowager, and the danger
which threatened England from the union of Scotland
with France.
The queen of England having maturely confidered'
the
5<SJ
They are
oppofed
with fuc-
SCO [35
Scotland, the cafe, determined to afiift the reformers; whofe
v  leaders now difperfed themfelves, and went to different
Elizabeth Parts t^ie ‘n ortJer t0 empl°y t^eir activity
determines there for the common caufe. The queen-dowager,
to afiift the imagining that the lords were fled, conceived great
reformers, hopes 0f being able to crufh the reformed at once. Her
fanguine hopes, however, were foon checked, on re¬
ceiving certain intelligence that queen Elizabeth was
refolved to give them afliftance. She now took the
bell meafures pofiible, as circumftances flood ; and de¬
termined to crufh her enemies before they could receive
564 any afliflance from England. Her French troops took
^“the road to Stirling, and wafted in their march all the
wafte the grounds which belonged to the favourers of the refor-
eflates of mation. After renewing their depredations at Stir-
thereform-jjHg^ they paffed the bridge there; and proceeding
along the fide of the river, exercifed their cruelties and
oppreffions in a dillridl which had diftinguifhed itfelf
by an ardent zeal againft popery. While the terror
of their arms was thus diffufing itfelf, they refolved to
feize the town and caftle of St Andrew’s, which they
confidered as an important military flation, and as a
convenient place of reception for the auxiliaries they
expefted from France.
But the lord James Stuart employed himfelf to in¬
terrupt their progrefs and retard their attempts ; and
cefs b lordlt; W3S ^1S at t^ie ^ame ti™6* to keep the force of
Tames t^ie Congregation entire, to hazard no action of import-
Stuart. ance, and to wait the approach of the Englifh army.
A fmall advantage was obtained by the French at Pet-
ticur ; and they pofTeffed themfelves of Kinghorn. The
lord James Stuart, with 500 horfe and 100 foot, enter¬
ed Dyfart. With this inconfiderable flrength he pro-
pofed to a£l againft an army of 4000 men. His ad¬
mirable fkill in military affairs, and his heroic courage,
were enrrrrentiy tiifplayed. During 20 days he prevent¬
ed the march of the French to St Andrew’s, intercept¬
ing their prpvifions, haraffing them with fkiimrfhes,
and intimidating them by the addrefs, and the boldnefs
of his ftratagems.
Monfieur d’Oyfel, enraged and afhamed to be dif-
concerted and oppofed by a body «f men fo difpropor-
% tioned to his army, exerted himfelf with vigour. The
lord James Stuart was obliged to retire. Dyfart and
Wemyfs were given to the French troops to be pilla¬
ged ; and when d’Oyfel was in full march to St An¬
drew’s, he difeovered a powerful fleet bearing up the
Arrival of ^ was conc^ude^> that the fupplies expedled
the Engliihfr°m France were arrived. Guns were fired by his
leet. foldiers, and their joy was indulged in all its extrava¬
gance. But this fleet having taken the veffels which
contained their provifions, and the ordnance with
which they intended to improve the fortifications of
the caftle at St Andrew’s, a period was put to their
rejoicings. Certain news was brought, that the fleet
they obferved -w as the navy of England, which had
come to fupport the Congregation. A conflernation,
heightenedby the giddinefs of their preceding tranfports,
jgj invaded them. Monfieur d’Oyfel perceived now the
The French value and merit of the fervice which had been perform-
eneral edby the lord James Stuart; and thinking no more of
St Andrew’s and conquefl, fled to Stirling, in his way
to Leith, from which he dreaded to be intercepted;
but he reached that important ftation after a march of
three days.
SCO
treaty was now concluded between the Scotland.
]'
A formal
lords of the Congregation and queen Elizabeth ; and
in the mean time the queen-dowager was difappointedTreaty
in her expectations from France. The violent admi- between
niftratiou of the houfe of Guife had involved that na-Elizabeth
troubles and diftrefs. Its credit was greatly a,nd ^
scots Pro-
lion in
lies.
funk, and its treafury was nearly exhaufted. Perfe*teftants.
cutions, and the fpirit of Calvinifm, produced com- ^
motions and confpiracies ; and amidft domeftic and The queen-
dangerous intrigues and ftruggles, Scotland failed to regent dif-
engage that particular ditlinilion which had been pro- appointed
mifed to its affairs. It was not, however, negle&ed
altogether. The count De Martigues had arrived at from
Leith with 1000 foot and a few horfe. The marquis France.
D’Elbeuf had embarked for it with another body of
foldiers ; but, after loling feveral fhips in a furious
tempeft, was obliged to return to the haven from which
he had failed. $7o
In this fad reverfe of fortune many forfook the queen-she is de¬
dowager. It was now underflood that the Englifh lerted by-
army was upon its march to Scotland. The Scot-
tifh lords who had affefted a neutrality, meditated anfubje£3
union with the Proteftants. The earl of Huntley gave
a folemn affurance that he would join them. Procla¬
mations were iflued throughout the kingdom, calling
upon the fubjedls of Scotland to allemble in arms at
Linlithgow, to re-eftablifh their ancient freedom, and
to affift in the utter expulfion of the French foldiery.
The Englifh fleet, meanwhile, under Winter the
vice-admiral, had taken and deilroyed feveral fhips, had
landed fome troops upon Inchkeith, and difeomfited a
body of French mercenaries. Upon the foundation of pjlc pr;[JCi.s
thefe a6ls of hoftility, the princes of Lorraine difpatch- of Lorraine
ed the chevalier de Seure to queen Elizabeth, to makeattempt
reprefentations aerainft this breach of the peace, and to to.nf^oc,afe
urge the recal of her fhips. This ambaffador affected £]izai^cth
likewife to negociate concerning the evacuation of Scot-in vain,
land by the French troops, and to propofe methods by
which the king of France might quarter the arms of
England without doing a prejudice to queen Elizabeth.
But to prevent the execution of vigorous refolutions
againft the queen-dowager, and to gain time, were the
only obje&s he had in view. With fimiliar intentions,
John Monluc bifhop of Valence, a man of greater
addrefs and ability, and equally devoted to the houfe of
Guife, was alfo fent at this time to the court of Eng¬
land. Qjieen Elizabeth, however, and her miniflers,
were too wife to be amufed by artifice and dexterity.
The lord Grey entered Scotland with an army of 1200 An Eng-
horfe and 6000 foot; and the lord Scroop, Sir Jamesllfil army
Croft, Sir Henry Percy, and Sir,Francis Lake com-Scot"
manded under him. By an inclement policy, the queen-
dowager had already wafted all the - country around
the capital. But the defolation fhe had made, while
it was ruinous to the Scottilh peafants, affefted not
the army of England. The leaders of the Congrega¬
tion did not want penetration and forefight, and had
provided themfelves againft this difficulty. The duke
of Chatelherault, the earls of Argyle, GlenCairn, and
Menteith, ihe lord James Stuart, and the lords Ruth-
ven, Boyd, and Ochiltree, with a numerous and formi¬
dable force, joined the Englifh commander at Prefton.
Struck with the fad condition of her affairs, defpair-
ing of a timely and proper fuccour from France, and
reminded by ficknefs of her moi tality, the queen-dowager
E 2 retired
SCO [ 36 J SCO
^Scotland, retired from Leith to the caftle of Edinburgh, and put fponded with the fplrlt of Intrigue which had uniformly Scotland.
herfelf under the proteftion of the lord Erfkine. At diftinguiflied the queen-dowager; and it Is probable,
The queen- the period when (he was appointed to the regency, that her engagements with France did not permit her
dowager the lord Erfkine had received from the three eftates the to be open and explicit.
E(HrbS,°h c^arSe °f this important fortrefs, with the injunftion to The combined armies marched towards Leith. A The French
«allle.U1^ hold it till he fhould know their farther orders; and body of the French, polled upon a rifing ground call-cl^eated ty
giving way to the folicitations of neither fa&ion, he ed Hawk-hill, difputed their progrefs. During five teftant°*
had kept it with fidelity. By admitting the queen- hours the conflict was maintained with obftinate valour, allies,
dowager, he yielded to fentiments of honour and hu- At length the Scottifh horfemen charged the French
manity, and did not mean to depart from his duty. A with a fury which they were unable to refill. They
few only of her domeftics accompanied her, with the fled to Leith with precipitation ; and might have been
archbifhop of St Andrew’s, the bilhop of Dunkeld, and cut off from it altogether, if the Englilh cavalry had ex-
574 eai'l Marifchal. erted themfelves. Three hundred of the French fol-
The Pro- The confederated nobles now afiembled at Dalkeith diers perilhed in this aft ion, and a few combatants only
V^herin" t0 a council; and comforming to thofe maxims fell on the fide of the Congregation.
anaocom0 Pruc^ence and equity which, upon the eve of hollili- Leith was invelled. The pavilions and tents of the Who lay
modation. ties, had been formerly exercifed by them, they invited Englilh and Scottilh nobility were planted at Reflal-fiege to
the queen-dowager to an amicable conclufion of the rig, and around it. Trenches were call; and the ord-L,c“^*
prefent troubles. In a letter which they wrote to her,
they called, to her remembrance the frequent manifellos
and mtfiages in which they had prefled her to difmifs
the French foldiery, who had fo long opprefled the
lower ranks of the people, and who threatened to re¬
duce the kingdom itfelf to fervitude. The averfion,
however, with which Ihe had conllantly received their
fuit and prayers, was fo great, that they had given way
to a llrong necefiky, and had intreated the afiiftance of
the queen of England to expel thefe ftrangers by the
force of arms. But though they had obtained the
powerful proteftion of this princefs, they were yet ani¬
mated with a becoming refpeft for the "mother of their
fovereign ; and, abhorring to llain the ground with
Chrillian blood, were difpofed once more to folicit the
dilmilfion of thefe mercenaries, with their officers and
captains. And that no jull objeftion might remain
againlt the grant of this their lall requell, they affured
her, that a fafe paflage by land, to the ports of Eng¬
land, fhould be allowed to the French ; or that, if they
judged it more agreeable, the navy of queen Elizabeth
Ihould tranfport them to their own country. If thefe
propolals Ihould be rejefted, they appealed and pro-
tefted to God and to mankind, that it fhould be under-
ftood and believed, that no motive of malice, or ha¬
tred, or wickednefs of any kind, had induced them to
employ the fatal expedient of arms and battles; but
that they had been compelled to this difagreeable and
diltrefsful remedy, for the prefervation of their com¬
monwealth, their religion, their perfons, their ellates,
and their pollerity. They begged her to weigh the
equity of their petition, to confider the inconveniences
of war, and to think of the reft and quiet which were
necelfary to relieve the affliftions of her daughter’s
kingdom ; and they befought her to embalm her own
memory, by an immortal deed of wifdom, humanity,
and juftice.
To give authority and weight to the letter of the
aflbciated lords, the lord Grey direfted Sir George
Howard and Sir James Croft to wait upon the queen-
575 dowager, and to ftipulate the peaceable departure of the
Sheftill be Englilh troops, upon the condition that the French
haves with mercenanes were immediately difmifled from her fervice,
ceri and prohibited from refiding in Scotland. Returning
no direft anfwer to the applications made to her, Ihe de-
fired time to deliberate upon the refolution which it be¬
came her to adopt. This equivocal behaviour corre-
nance from the town annoying the combined armies, a
mount was raifed, upon which eight cannons were ereft-
ed. A continued fire from thefe, againft St Anthony’s
tower in South Leith, being kept up and managed with
Ikill, the walls of this fabric were lhaken, and the
French found it neceflary to difmount their artillery.—
Negligent from fecurity, and apprehenfive of no attack,
the Englilh and Scottilh officers occupied themfdves in
amufements, and permitted a relaxation of military dif-
cipline. The French, informed of this fupinenefs and 57^
levity, made a fally from Leith. While fome of thg^cut ^
captains were diverting themfelves at Edinburgh, and0ffmCUt
the foldiery were engaged at dice and cards, they en¬
tered the trenches unobferved, and, pulhing their advan¬
tage, put 600 men to the fwovd. After this daughter,
the Protellants were more attentive to their affairs.—
Mounts were built at proper diftances, ,which, being
fortified with ordnance, ferved as places of retreat and
defence in the event of fudden incurfions ; and thus
they continued the blockade in a more effeftual man¬
ner.
The army under the marquis D’Elbeuf, promifed
fo often to the queen-regent, was in vain expefted by
her; but Ihe received, at this time, fupplies in money
and military ftores ; and Monluc bifhop of Valence,
though defeated in dexterity by Elizabeth and her mi-
nifters, had arrived in Scotland to try anew the arts of
delay and negociation. Conferences were held by him 579
with the queen-dowager, with the Englilh commanders, Fruitlef’s.
and with the confederated nobles ; but no contraft or^’^'j^1011
agreement could be concluded. His credentials neither
extended to the demolition of Leith, nor to the recal
of the French mercenaries : and though he obtained
powers from his court to confent to the former of thefe
meafures, they were yet burdened with conditions which
were difgraceful to the Congregation ; who, in the
prefent profperous ftate of their fortunes, were not dif¬
pofed to give up any of the objefts for which they had
ftruggled fo long, and to the attainment of which they
now looked forward with a fettled hope and expefta-
tion. ^ ^
Though the grave and meafured orations of Monluc
could not overpower the plain and ftubborn fenfe of
the Congregation, yet as he affefted to give them ad*
monitions and warnings, and even ventured to infult
them with menaces, they appear to have conceived a
high indignation againft him. Under this impulfe, and
'■ that
S C O’ [
5cet!and. that in fo advanced a ftage of their affairs, they might
— v—' exhibit the determined hrmnefs of their refolutions, and
bind to them by an indiffoluble tie the earl of Huntley
and the other perfons who had joined them in confe-
580 quence of the Englifh alliance, they thought of the af-
'he fourth furance and liability of a ntiv league and covenantt more
jvenant. f0iemn> expreflive, and rel'olute, than any which they
had yet entered into and fubferibed.
The nobles, barons, and inferior perfons, who were
parties to this bond and affociation, bound themfelves
in the prefence of Almighty God, as a fociety, and
as individuals, to advance and fet forward the reforma¬
tion of religion, and to procure, by every poffible
means, the true preaching of the gofpel, with the pro¬
per adminillration oi the lacraments, and the other or¬
dinances in connedlion with it. Deeply affected, at the
fame time, with the mifeonduft of the French ftatef-
men, who had been promoted to high offices; with the
oppreffions of the French mercenaries, whom the queen-
with the manifeft danger of conquell to which the
country was expofed, by different fortifications upon
the fea-coaft, and by other dangerous innovations ; they
piomifed and engaged, generally and individually, to
join with the queen of England’s army, and to concur
in an honeft, plain, and unreferved relolution to expel
all foreigners from the realm, as oppreffors of public li¬
berty ; that, by recovering the ancient rights, privi¬
leges, and freedom of their nation, they might live for
the future under the due obedience of their king and
queen, be ruled by the laws and cuftoms of the coun¬
try, and by officers and ftatefmen born and educated
among them. It was likewife contradled and agreed by
the fubferibers to this bond and covenant, that no pri¬
vate intelligence by writing or meffage, or communica¬
tion of any kind, fhould be kept up with their adverfa-
ries; and that all perfons who refilled the godly enter-
prife in which they were united, Ihould be regarded as
their enemies, and reduced to fubjedlion and obedi-
581 ence*
The queen- When the ftrong and fervid fentiment and expref-
dowager fion of this new affociation were communicated to the
8*v^herfelf queen.(lowager> ffie refigned herfelf to furrow. Her
<pair° C min(h inclined to defpondence by the increafe of her
malady, felt the more intenfely the cruel diftraftions and
difquiets into which the kingdom had been driven by
the ambition of France, her own doating affection for
the princes of Lorraine, and the vain prognoftications
of flatterers and courtiers. In the agony of paffion,
ffie befought the malediilion and curfe of God to alight
upon all thofe who had counfelled her to perfecute the
preachers, and to refufe the petitions of the moll ho¬
nourable portion of her fubjefts.
In the mean time the fiege of Leith was profecuted.
But the llrength of the garrifon amounting to more
than 4000 foldiers, the operations of the befiegers were
flow and languid. An accidental fire in the town,
which deftroyed many houfes and a great part of the
581 public granary, afforded them an opportunity of play-
The Fro- ing their artillery with fome advantage; and a few
te(tanf*n days after they made a general affault. But the fealing-
37 ] SCO
failed of fuccefs, and 1000 men were dellroyed. The Scotland,
combined armies, however, did not lofe their refolu- v*-"*
tion or their hopes. The Engliffi and Scots animated
the conllancy of one another ; and in the ratification of
the treaty of Berwick, which was now made, a new
fource of cordiality opened itfelf. Letters alfo had
come from the duke of Norfolk, promifing a powerful
reinforcement, giving the expectation of his taking up¬
on him the command of the troops in perfon, and or¬
dering his pavilion to be ereCted in the camp. Leith
began to feel the mifery of famine, and the French to ^
give themfelves to defpair. The befiegers abounded in a rein-
every thing ; and the arrival of 2000 men, the expeCt-forcement
ed reinforcement from England, gave them the moll de-^J®^
cilive fuperiority over their adverfaries. Frequent Tallies
were made by the garrifon, and they were always un-
fuccefsful. Difcouraged by defeats, depreffed with the
want of provifions, and languilhing under the negli¬
gence of France, they were ready to fubmit themielvea
dowager kept up and maintained under the colour of to the mercy of the Congregation. _ 584.
authority; with the tyranny of their captains ; and Amidff this dillrefs the queen-dowager, walled with Death of
- -   • ~ •’ ... .1 a lingering dillemper and with grief, expired in the'he q116611*
callle of Edinburgh. A fewr days before her death, ffiere^eut*
invited to her the duke of Chatelherault, the lord James
Stuart, and the earls of Argyle, Glencairn, and Mari-
fchal, to bid them a lall adieu. She expreffed to them
her forrow for the troubles of Scotland, and made it
her earned fuit, that they would coniult their conllitu-
tional liberties, by difmiffing the French and Englilh
from their country ; and that they would preferve a du¬
tiful obedience to the queen their fovereign. She pro-
ftffed an unlimited forgivenefs of all the injuries which
had been done to her; and entreated their pardon for
the offences ffie had committed againft them. In to¬
ken of her kindnefs and charity, ffie then embraced
them by turns ; and, while the tear ftarted in her eye,
prefented to them a cheerful and fmiling afpeCl. After
this interview, the ffiort portion of life which remained
to her was dedicated to religion ; and that ffie might al¬
lure the Congregation to be compaffionate to her Po»
piffi fubjefts and her French adherents, ffie flattered
them, by calling John Willocks, one of the moll popu¬
lar of their preachers, to affill and comfort her by his
exhortations and prayers. He made long difeourfes to
her about the abominations ©f the mafs ; but ffie appears
to have died in the communion of the Romiffi church ;
and her body being tranfported to France, was depofit-
ed in the monaftery of St Peter, at Rheims, in Cham¬
pagne, where her filler Renee was an abbefs. ^
The death ot the queen-dowager, at a period foThe French
critical, broke altogether the fpirit of the French tr<?0l>s
troops. They were blocked up fo completely, that11111*
it was almoll impoffible for any fupplies to reach them
either by lea or land ; and France had delayed fo long
to fulfil its magnificent promifes, that it was no longer
in a capacity to take any Heps towards their accompliffi-
ment. Its internal diftrefs and difquiets were multiply¬
ing. The nobility, impoveriffied by wars, were court¬
ing the rewards of fervice, and ftruggling in hollilityo
The clergy w'ere avaricious, ignorant, and vindi&ive.
The populace, knowing no trade but arms, offered
make an . o their fwords to the fa61 ions. Francis II. the hulband
unfuccefsful ^a<^er.s w^'c^ were applied to the walls being too ffiort, . of Mary, was without dignity or underllanding. Ca-
attack on an^ Sir James Croft, who had been gained to the queen- tharine de Medicis his mother was full of artifice and
Leith. dowager, having a&ed a treacherous part, the attempt faliehood. Infurre&ions were dreaded in every pro¬
vince.
SCO [38] SCO
. fe'll*n<1’ vi’npe. The houfe of Guife was encompaflcd with dit- fortifications of Leith Ihonld be demolilhed. They Scotland,'
Acuities, and trembling with apprehenfions, fo that agreed that commifiioners fliould be appointed to viht '•**
they could not think of perfifting in their views of dif- Dunbar, and to point out the works there which ought
tant conquefts. It was neceflary jhat the*f ihould aban- to be deftroyed ; and they bound and engaged them-
don for a time all the proud proje&s they had formed felves to build no new fortrefs or place^ of ftrength
for the extenfion of the French monarchy. It was within the kingdom, and to repair no old one, without
chiefly in the exemption from foreign wars that they a parliamentary authority and fan&ion. They con-
could hope to fupport their own greatnefs, and apply a fented to extinguifh all debts which had been contrad-
586 remedy to the domeftic difturbances of France. ed for the maintenance of the French and Scotch fol-
Francis and It appeared to Francis and Mary, that they could diery in their fervice. They appointed the eftates of
huo'I ne-'1" trCf a dIrcA method with the Congregation, the realm to hold a parliament for the difcuffion of af-
gocjafion . ?m t affe<?:ed to confider as rebellious fubjeds, fairs of Hate ; and they obliged themfelves to confider
with Eliza-w.1.ou^ derogating from their royal dignity. In nego- the ads of this aflembly as valid and effedual in every
beth. mating a peace, they therefore addrefled themfelves to refped. They confirmed the ancient law of the
queen Elizabeth. It was by her offices and interfe- country, which prohibited the princes of Scotland from
rence that they projeded a reconciliation with the con- making peace and war without the advice of the three
federated lords, and that they meant to extinguifh the eflates. It was accorded and agreed by them, that the
animofities which, with fo much violence, had agitated three eftates, in concurrence with the queen, ftiouli
t 1 at11*!1 nat.10ru They granted their commilflon to eled a council for the adminiftration of affairs during
John Monluc bilhop of Valence, Nicholas Pelleve hi- her majefty’s abfence. They became b@und to employ
fhop of Amiens, Jacques de la Brofle, Henry Clentin the natives of Scotland in the management of juftice
fteur d’Oyfel, and Charles de la Rochefaucault iieur de both civil and criminal, in the offices of chancellor,
Ranaan ; authonfing them in a body, or by two of keeper of the feals, treafurer, comptroller, and in other
their number, to enter into accords and agreements ftations of a fimilar nature; and to abftain from the
with the queen of England. T he Englifh commiffion- promotion of all foreigners to places of trult and honour,
ers were Sir William Cecil principal fecretary of ftate, and from invefting any clergyman in the charge of af-
Nmolas Wotton dean of Canterbury and York, Sir fairs of the revenue. They determined to eftablifh an
Ralph Sadler, Sir Henry Percy, and Sir Peter Crew; ad of oblivion, and to forget and bury for ever the
and the powers of treaty were to be exercifed by them memory of all the late tranfadions of war and offence.
587 all in conjundion, or by four, three, or two of them. It was concluded by them, that a general peace and
Promife an i he plenipotentiaries of France, though empowered reconciliation fliould take place among all parties.
to^the^P y). °n ^ t-^T.trCat W“t^1 Eng^and> were yet, by a feparace They expreffed their determination, that no pretence
Celtauts. entrufted to affure the Congregation, that, ihould be aflumed by them, from the late contentions,
notwithftanding the heinous guilt incurred by them, to deprive any of their fubjeds of their eftates or offices.
F rancis and Mary were inclined to receive them into fa- And they referred the reparation which might be pro-
vour, upon their repentance and return to obedience ; per to compenfate the injuries that had been fuftained
and to abftain for ever from all inquiry into their con- by biftrops and ecclefiaftics, to the judgment of the
dud. I hey had full authority, at the fame time, by three eftates in parliament.
this new deed, to hear, in conjundion with the com- Uptm tire fubjed of the reformation, the plenipo-
miffioners of Elizabeth, the complaints of the Congre- tentiaries of England and France did not choole to de-
gation, and to grant, with their confent, the relief liberate and decide, although articles with regard to it
which appeared to them to be the moft proper and fa- had been prefented to them by the nobles and the peo-
lutary. pie. They referred this delicate topic to the enfuing
The nobility and people of Scotland, choofing for meeting of the parliament; and the leaders of the Com
their reprefentatives the lord James Stuart, the lord gregation engaged, that deputies from the three eftates
Ruthven, and Maitland of Lethington, expreffed their fliould repair to the king and queen, to know their in-
willingnefs to concur in reafonable meafures for the re- tention concerning matters of fuch high importance,
eftabhftiment of the public union and tranquillity. By After having granted thefe coHcefiions to the 11 obi-
the mode oi a formal petition, they enumerated their h'ty and the people of Scotland, upon the part of their
grievances, kid claim to a redrefs of them, and befought refpe&ive courts, Monluc and Randan, Cecil and Wot-
528 an uniform protection to their conftitution and laws. To ton, concluded another deed of treaty and agreement.
And at lad this petition the interceffion of queen Elizabeth effedl- By this convention it was determined, that the Eng lift -<9°
fetkion. ed the friendlF a«ention of Francis and Mary; and and French troops fliould depart out of Scotland ; thatArtidesre,!
upon a foundation concerted with fo much propriety, all warlike preparations fliould ceafe ; that the fort of ^he^Freneliy
Monluc and Randan, Cecil and Wotton, the afting Eymouth fliould be razed to the ground, in terms oftroops.
plenipotentiaries of England and France, drew up and the treaty of Cambray; that Francis and Mary fliould
authenticated the celebrated deed of relief and concef- abftain from bearing the title and arms of England or
lion which does fo much honour to the fpirit, perfe- Ireland ; that it fliould be confidered, whether a far-
380 verance, and magnanimity of the Scottifh nation. ther compenfation fliould be made to Elizabeth for the
Kature of BF this accord and agreement, Francis and Mary injuries committed againft her; and that the king and
their treaty ftipulated and confented, that no French foldiers and no queen of Scots fliould be fully and fincerely reconciled
with the foreign troops fliould ever be introduced into Scotland to the nobility and the people of their kingdom. The
iroteftants. without the counfel and advice of the three eftates. interefts of England and France were the particular ob- -
They concurred in the opinion, that the French mer- je&s °f this agreement. But though the conceffions to
cenaries Ihould be fent back into France, and that the the Proteftants were not inferted in it at full length, an
4 cxprellive
SCO
591
eaca pro-
ain.ed.
Scodand. exptefHve reference was made to them ; and they re-
ceived a confirmation in terms which could not be mif-
underftodd or controverted. This deed recorded the
clemency of Francis and Mary to their iubje&s of Scot¬
land, the extreme willingnefs of the nobility and the
people to return to their duty and allegiance, the repre¬
sentation they had offered of their grievances, and the
requeft of queen Elizabeth that redrefs fhould be af¬
forded to them ; and it appealed to the confequent cou-
cefiions which had been ffipulated to their advantage.
By thefe important negociations, the Proteftants,
while they humbled France, flattered queen Elizabeth ;
and while they acquired a power to a£t in the efla-
blifhmeut of the reformation, rdtored its civil conflitu-
tion to Scotland. The exclufion of foreigners from
offices of ftate, the limitatioir of the Scottilh ptinces
with regard to peace and war, the advancement of the
three elfates to their ancient confequence, and the adt
of oblivion of all offences, were acquifitions molt ex-
tenfxvely great and ufeful; and, while they gave the full-
eft fecurity to the reformed, gratified their moft fan-
guine expectations.
The peace, fo fortunately concluded, was immedi¬
ately proclaimed. The French mercenaries embarked
for their own country, and the Engliih army took the
road to Berwick. Amidft events fc joyful, the preachers
exhorted the confederated nobles to command the fo-
lemnity of a thankfgiving. It was ordered according¬
ly ; and after its celebration, the commiffioners of the
boroughs, with feveral of the nobility, and the tenants
in capite, were appointed to choofe and depute minifters
to preach the gofpel in the principal towns throughout
the kingdom. John Knox was called to difeharge the
paftoral fun&ions at Edinburgh, Chriftopher Goodman
eychersin at St Andrew’s, Adam Heriot at Aberdeen, John
Row at Perth, Paul Methven at Jedburgh, William
Chriftifon at Dundee, David Fergufon at Dunfermline,
and David Lindfey at Leith. That the bulinefs of the
church, at the fame time, might be managed with pro¬
priety, fuperintendants were eledled to prefide over the
ecclefiaftical affairs of particular provinces and diftvidfts.
Mr John Spotfwood was named the fuperintendant for
the divifion of Lothian, Mr John Willocks for that
of Glafgow, Mr John Winram for that of Fife, Mr
John Evflcine of Dun for that of Angus and Merns, and
Mr John Carfewell for that of Argyle and the Ifles.
This inconliderable number of minifters and fuperinten¬
dants gave a beginning to the reformed church of Scot-
J93 land.
he parh?- Amidft the triumph and exultation of the Protef-
entmeet .tants, the meeting of the parliament approached. All
perfons who had a title from law, or from ancient cuf-
tom, to attend the great council of the nation, were
called to affemble there. While there was a full con¬
vention of the greater barons and the prelates, the in¬
ferior tenants in capite^ or the leffer barons, upon an
occafion fo great, inftead of appearing by reprefenta-
tion, came in crowds to give perfonally their affiftance
and votes ; and all the commiffioners for the boroughs,
without exception, prefented themfelves.
I 39 ]
SCO
592
, ppoint-
ent of
fferent
' aces.
L’roteftant*
It was cbje&ed to this parliament when it was af- Scotland.'
fembled, that it could not be valid, fince Francis and '"-’V **
Mary w'ere not prefent, and had not empowered any
perfon to reprefent them. But by the terms of the
late conceffions to the nobility' and the people, they
had in tffe£t dilpenfed with this formality ; and the ob-
jeftion, after having been agitated with heat for fome
days, was rejected by a majority of voices. The lords
of the articles were then chofen ; and as the Proteftant
party were fuperior to the Popiffi fa&ion, they were
careful, in dealing the members of this committee, to
favour all thofc who were difpofed to forward the work
of the reformation. The firil objed which the lords Suppika-
of the articles held out to the parliament was the fup- tion of the
plication of the nobility, gentry, and all the other per- "
fons who profeffed the hew dodtrines. It required, that
the Romiffi church fhould be condemned and abolifhed.
It reprobated the tenet of tranfubftantiation, the merit
of works, papiftical indulgences, purgatory, pilgrim¬
ages, and prayers to departed faints ; and coniidering
them as peftilent errors, and as fatal to falvation, it de*
manded, that all thofe who fhould teach and maintain
them fhould be^xpofed to corre&ion and punifhment.
It demanded, that a remedy fhould be applied againft
the profanation of the holy facraments by the Roman
Catholics, and that the ancient difeipline of the church
fhould be reftored. In fine, it infilled, that the fupre-
macy and authority of the pope fhould be abolifhed ;
and that the patrimony of die church fhould be em¬
ployed in fupporting the reformed miniftry, in the pro-
vifion of fchouls, and in the maiutenance of the poor.
This fupplication of the Proteftants was received in
parliament with marks of the greateft deference and
refpeft. The popifh doftrines it cenfured, and the
ftrong language it employed, excited no difpute or al¬
tercation. The nobility, however, and the lay mem¬
bers, did not think it expedient that the patrimony
of the church, in all its extent, fhould be allotted to
the reformed miniftry, and the fupport of fchools and
the poor. Avoiding, therefore, any explicit ferutiny
into this point, the parliament gave it in charge to the
minifters and the leading men of the reformation, to
draw up, under diftin& heads, the fubftance and fenfe
of thofe dodtrines which ought to be eftablifhed over A Confef-
the kingdom. Within four days this important bu-ri‘inof FaitJi‘
fmefs was accomplifhed. The writing or inftrumentdraWn UF*
to which the reformed committed their opinions was
termed, w The Confeffion of Faith, profeffed and be¬
lieved by the Proteftants within the realm of Scot¬
land (oj.” It was read firft to the lords of the articles.
It was then read to the parliament; and the prelates
of the Romifh church were commanded, in the name
of God, to make publicly their objections to the doc¬
trines it propofed. They preferved a profound filence.
A new diet was appointed for concluding the tranf-
adtion. The articles of the Confeffion were again read
over in their order, and the votes of the parliament
were called. Of the temporal nobility, three only re-
fufed to beftow upon it their authority. The earl of
Athol, and the lords Somerville and Bothwell, proteft-
ed,
595
pari^156^13 S1Ven St lengtl1 *n ^nox’in the collection of confeffions of faith, vol. 2. and in the ftatute book;
SCO
[ 40 ]
s c o
Rf f^nt) $3, « they would believe as their father* had done
w**v**~' before the^T^.,, The bidiops and the ellate ecclefiafli-
cal, from a confeioufnefs of the weaknefs of popery,
feemed to have loft all power of fpeech. No diffent,
no vote, was (riven by them. ,l It is long (faid the
earl Marifchal), fince I entertained a jealoufy of the
Romiih faith, and an affedfion to the reformed doc¬
trines. But this day has afforded me the completeft
convidlion of the falfehood of the one, and the truth
of the other. The biihops, who do not conceive them-
felves to be deficient in learninc;, and whofi^ zeal for
the maintenance of the hierarchy cannot bp doubted,
have abandoned their religion, and their iniereft in it,
as obje&s which admit of no defence or ju|Ufication.”
All the other conftituent members of this great coun¬
cil were zealous for the eilablifhment of the reforma¬
tion, and affirmed the propriety of its dodtrines. Thus
the high court of parliament, with great deliberation
and folemnity, examined, voted, and ratified the con-
5^6 fefiion of the reformed faith.
Abolition A few days after the eftablifhment of the Confefiion
oi themafs.0f Faith, the parliament paffed an adt againft the mafs
and the exercife of the Romifti worfhip. And it feru-
pled not to ordain, that all perfons faying or hearing
rrafs (hould, for the firft offence, be expofed to the
confifcation of their eftates, and to a corporal chaftife-
ment, at the diferetion of the magiftrate ; that for the
fecund offence, they fhould be baniffied out of the king¬
dom ; and that for the third offence they {hould incur
Perfecutingand fuffer the pains of death. This fiercenefs, it is to
fpirir of thebe acknowledged, did not fait the generofity of vidtory;
Proce{lants.an3 while an excufe is fought for it in the perfidiouf-
nefs of the Romifti priefthood, it efcapes not the obfer-
vation of the tnoft fuperficial hiftorians, that thefe fe-
verities were exadtly thofe of which the Proteftants had
complained fo loudly, and with fo much juftice. By
another ordination, the parliament, after having de¬
clared, that the pope, or biffiop of Rome, had inflidted
a deep wound and a.humiliating injury upon the fove-
reignty and government of Scotland, by his frequent
interferences and claims of power, commanded and de¬
creed, that, for the future, his jurifdi&ion and authori¬
ty {hould be dead and extindf ; and that all perfons
maintaining the fmalleft connedtion with him, or with
his fedf, ftiould be liable to the lofs of honour and offi¬
ces, profeription, and banifhment.
Thefe memorable and decifive ftatutes produced the
. overthrow of the Romifti religion. To obtain to thefe
598 proceedings, and to its other ordinances, the appro-
Fnuici? andbatioH of Francis and Mary was an objedt of the great-
Marvrefufctft anxiety, and of infinite moment to the three eftates.
1° C°<5irm James Sandilands ^or(i St John was therefore ap-
thls parl a P0’nt;ed to go to France, and to exprefs to the king
snent. and queen the affe&ion and allegiance of their fub-
jedts, to explain what had been done in confequence of
the late conceffions and treaty, and to folicit their royal
ratification of the tranfadlions of the parliament. The
fpirited behaviour of the Congregation had, however,
exceeded all the expedlations of the princes of Lorraine;
and the bufineis of the embaffy, and the ambaffador
Rimfelf, though a man of charadter and probity, were
treated not only with ridicule, but with infult and con¬
tumely. He returned accordingly without any anfwer
to his commiffion. Inftead of fubmitting the heads
and topics of a reformation to Francis and Mary, by a ScotHnJ,
petition or a narrative, the parliament had voted them vr^<
into laws ; and from this informality the validity of its
proceedings has been fufpedted. But it is obferv^ble
of the Proteftants, that they had not concealed tlfeir
views with regard to religion and the abolition of Po¬
pery ; that in the grant of redrefs and conceffion, and
in the deed of treaty, no actual prohibition was made
to bar the eftablilhment of the reformation ; that a ge¬
neral authority was given to the parliament to decide
in affairs of ftate; and that Francis and Mary were fo-
lemnly bound to authenticate its tranfadtions. Though
a formality was invaded, the fpirit of the treaties was
yet refpe£ted and maintained. The nation, of confe¬
quence, imputed the condufl of Francis and Mary to
political reafons fuggefted by the princes of Lorraine,
and to the artifices of the Popifh clergy; and as Eli¬
zabeth did not refufe, upon her part, the ratification
of the agreements, and folicited and prefled the French
court in vain to adopt the fame meafure, a ftrength and
force were thence communicated to this conclulion.
When the three eftates difpatched Sir James Sandi-
lands to France, they inftruCfted the earls of Morton
and Glencairn, with Maitland of Lethington, to re¬
pair to the court of England. By thefe ambaffadors
they prefented to Elizabeth their lincere and refpeftful
thanks, for the attention fhown by her to Scotland,
in her late molt important fervices. And while they
folicited the continuance of her favour and protedtion,
intreated, in an earneft manner, that her majefty, for
the eftablifhment of a perpetual peace and amity,
would be pleafed to take in marriage the earl of Ar¬
ran, the next heir after his father to the Scottiffi mo¬
narchy. The queen made new and fervent protefta-
tions of her regard and attachment; and gave the pro-
mife of her warmeft aid when it ftiould be neceffary,
in their juft defence, upon any future occafion. She
fpoke in obliging terms of the earl of Arran ; but as
{he found in herfelf no prefent dilpofition to marriage,
{he defired that he might confult his happinefs in ano¬
ther alliance. She expreffed a favourable opinion of
the Scottifti nobility ; and as a demonftration of her
affedlion and efteem, ftie took the liberty to remind
them of the pradlices which had been employed to o-
verturn their independency, and begged them to confi-
der the unanimity and concord of their order as a ne¬
ceffary guard againft the ambition and the artifice of
the enemies of their nation.
The fuccefs of the Congregation, though great and
illuftrious, was not yet completely decifive. The re-
fufal of Francis and Mary to ratify their proceedings
opened a fource of bitternefs and inquietude. The
Popifti party, though humbled, was not annihilated.
Under the royal proteftion it would foon be formi¬
dable. Political confiderations might arife, not only
to cool the amity of England, but even to provoke it*
refentment. And France, though it could now tranf-
port no army againft Scotland, might foon be able to
adopt that expedient. Cruel diftradtions and fevere ca¬
lamities were ftill to be dreaded. la the narrownefs
of their own refources they could find no folid and
permanent fecurity againft the rage and weight of
domeftic fa&ion, and the ftrenuous exertions of an ex-
tenfive kingdom. All their fair atchievements might
„ be
s c
$rot!*nd. ‘fei* Mailed and overthrown.
up her towers, and a fano;u inary domination deilroy
o r 4i 1 sco
Popery mi(?ht again build the Prefbyterian eftabliihment, encouraged the ardour
599
Death cf
Francis I
6eo
alike their religious and civil liberties.
While the anguifh ot melancholy anprehenfions re-
prefTed the triumph of the Congregation, the event
which could operate mod to their interells was an¬
nounced to them. This event was the death of Fran¬
cis If. The tie which knit Scotland to France was
thus broken. A new fcene of politics difplays it-
felf. Catharine de Medicis, the queen-mother, ruled
Charles IX. and was the perfonal enemy of tire queen
of Scots. The power and the credit which Mary had
lent to her uncles, and the frequent and humiliating
difappointments which the queen-mother had fuffered
from her influence over Francis, were now repaid with
a ftudied indifference and negle£t. In the full perfec¬
tion .of her charms, with two crowns upon her head,
and looking towards a third, Ihe felt herfelt to be with¬
out grandeur and without confequence. Leaving a
court where fhe had experienced all the enjoyments of
which humanity is fufceptible, fire retired to Rheims, to
indulge her forrow.
In the humiliation of their queen, and in the change
produced in the councils of France, the Protelfants of
Scotland found every pofiible encouragement to pro¬
ceed with vigour in the full eftablilhment of the re¬
formed dodfrines. After the diffolving of the pailia-
ment, they turned their thoughts and attention to the
plan of policy which might fuit beft the tenets and re¬
ligion for which they had contended. The three e-
ftates, amidil their other tranfadtions, had granted a
Ecclefiafti- commiflion to Mr John Winratn, Mr John Spottif-
ral govern- wood, John Willocks, Mr John Dougl as, Mr John
Scotland ^ovv> ar|d J°hn Knox, to frame and model a fcheme
new-mo- or platform of ecclefiaftical government. They were
felled. not long in complying with an order fo agreeable to
them, and compofed what is termed the Firjl Book of
Difciplint in which they explained the uniformity and
method which ought to be preferved concerning doc¬
trine, the adminiftration of the facraments, the elec¬
tion and provifion of minifters, and the policy of the
church.
A convention of the eftates gave its fanftion to the
Prefbyterian fcheme of government. But while the
Book of Difcipline (ketched out a policy beautiful for
its fimplicity, yet it required that the patrimony and
ues of the the rich pofiefiions of the ancient church fhould be
hurch're- all°^^e<^ new eftabliihment. T he reformers,
ufed to the l)OW<:ver» fuccefsful in the dodfrines and the policy
e/ormed they had propofed, were here very unfortunate. This
convention of the eftates did not pay a more refpeftful
regard to this propofal than the celebrated parliament
had done, which demoliftied the mafs and the jurif-
diaion of the fee of Rome. They affeded to con¬
sider it as no better than a dream. The expreflion “ a
devout imagination" was applied to it in mockery ;
and it was not till after long and painful ftruggles,
♦hat the new cflabliftiment was able to procure to it-
felf a becoming and neceftary provifion and fupport.
The Romifh clergy were ftrenuous to continue in tlieir
ftofieffiona, and to profit by them; and the nobles and
the laity having feized upon great proportions of the
property of the church, were no lels anxious to retain
the acquifitions they had made.
1 he aveihon^entertained item heft owing riches upon
«©T
The reve-
ireach ers.
which prevailed for advancing all the other views and
interefts of the reformed. And this end was alfo pro¬
moted in no inconliderable degree by the infidious po¬
licy of Catharine ^ie Medicis. She was willing to in-
creafe and to fofter all the difficulties and dangers in
the fituation of the queen of Scots and her fubjc&s.
Upon this account ftie had engaged Charles IX. to dif-
patch Monfieur Noailles to the Scotch parliament, to
urge it in ftrong terms to renew the ancient league be¬
tween the two kingdoms, to diiTolve the alliance with
England, and to re-eftablifh over Scotland the Popilh
doitrinea and the Popiih clergy. A new meeting of the
eftates was aflembled, which confidered thefe ftrange
reqnifttions, and treated them with the indignation
they merited. Monfieur Noailles was inftrufted to in¬
form his fpvereign, that France having ailed with cruel¬
ty and perfidioufnefs towards the Scots, by attacking
their independency and liberties under the cover and
pretence of amity and marriage, did not deferve to
know them any longer as an ally; that principles of
juftice, a love of probity, and a high fenfe of grati¬
tude, did not permit the Scottiih parliament to break
the confederacy with England, which had generoufly
proteiled their country againft the tyrannical views of
the French court, and the treacherous machinations of
the houfe of Guile ; and that they were never to ac¬
knowledge the Popiffi clergy to be a diftinft order of
men, or the legal poffeflbrs of the patrimony of the
church ; fince, having aboliffied the power of the pope,
and renounced his do&rines, they could bellow no fa¬
vour or countenance upon his vafials and fervants.
To this council of the eftates a new fupplication was
prefented by the Proteftants. They departed from the
high claim which they had made for the riches and
patrimony of the Popiffi church ; and it was only re-
quelled by them, that a reafonable or decent provifion
ftiould be allotted to the true preachers of the gofpel.
This application, however, no lefs than their former
exorbitant demand, was treated with negledt and in¬
difference. But amidil the anxiety manifefted by the
nobles and the tenants of the crown to hold the Pref¬
byterian clergy in fubje&ion and in poverty, they dif-
covered the warmeft zeal for the extenfion and conti¬
nuance of the reformed opinions. For in this fuppli-
cation of the Proteftants, an ardent delire being inti¬
mated and urged, that all the monuments of idolatry
which remained ffiould be utterly deftroyed, the fuileft
and moll unbounded approbation was given to it. An
att accordingly was paffed, which commanded that <5o*
every abbey-church, every cloifter, and every memo-Final
, / - —7 - —/ c.uu tYciy memo-*
rial whatfoever of Popery, ftiould be finally overthrownllrudl0n
and dpmnli'OjAd .  r • . , monalte-
and demoliffied : and the care of this cruel, but popu-‘ie, and
lar employment, was committed to thofe perfons who every mark
were molt remarkable for their keermefs and ardour in °f the Po-
the work of the reformation. Its execution in thepiftlieli~
weftern counties was given in charge to the earls ofKw
Arran, Argyle, and GIcncairn ; the lord James Stuart
attended to it in the more northern diftri&s ; and in the
imand divifions of the country, it was intruded to the
barons in whom the Congregation had the greateft con¬
fidence. A dreadful devaftation enfued. The popu
lace, armed with authority, fpread their ravages over
the kingdom.. It was deemed an execrable lenity to
ipare any fabric or place where idolatry had been exer-
^ cifed.
SCO
r 42 i
SCO
603
Mary fo-
licited to
return to
her own
country.
Scotland, cifed. The churches and religious houfes were every-
where defaced, or pulled to the ground ; and their fur¬
niture, utenlils, and decorations, became the prizes and
the property of the invader. Even the fepulchres of
the dead were ranfacked and violated. The libraries of
the ecclefiaitics, and the regifters kept by them of their
own tranfa&ions and of civil affairs, were gathered into
heaps, and committed to the flames. Religious anti¬
pathy, the fan&ion of law, the exhortation of the cler¬
gy, the hope of fpoil, and, above all, the ardour to put
the laft hand to the reformation, concurred to drive the
rage of the people to its wildefl fury ; and, in the midft
of havock and calamity, the new eftablifhment furveyed
its importance and its power.
The death of Francis II. having left his queen, Ma¬
ry, in a very difagreeable fituation while fhe remained
in France, it now became neceflary for her to think on
returning to her own country. To this fhe was foli-
cited both by the Proteftants and Papifts ; the former,
that they might gain her over to their party; and the
latter, hoping that, as Mary was of their own perfua-
lion, Popery might once more be eftablifhed in Scot¬
land. For this deputation, the Proteftants chofe lord
James Stuart, natural brother to the queen ; and the
Papifts, John Lefty, official and vicar-general of the
diocefe of Aberdeen. The latter got the ftart of the
Proteftant ambaflador, and thus had the opportunity
of firft delivering his meftage. He advifed her ftrong-
lv to beware of the lord James Stuart, whom he re-
prefented as a man of unbounded ambition, who had
cfpoufed the Proteftant caufe for no other reafon than
that he might advance himfelf to the higheft employ¬
ments in the ftate ; nay, that he had already fixed his
mind on the crown itfelf. For thefe reafons he advi¬
fed that the lord James Stuart fhould be confined in
France till the government of Scotland could be com¬
pletely eftablifhed. But if the queen was averfe to
this meafure, he advifed her to land in fome of the
northern diftri&s of Scotland, where her friends were
mo ft numerous ; in which cafe an army of 20,000 men
would accompany her to Edinburgh, to reftore the
Popifh religion, and to overawe her enemies. The
next day the lord James Stuart waited upon her, and
gave an advice very different from that of Lefly. The
fureft method of preventing infurre&ions, he faid, was
the eftablifhment of the Proteftant religion ; that a
Handing army and foreign troops would certainly lofe
the affeeftions of her fubjc&s ; for which reafon he ad¬
vifed her to vifit Scotland without guards and without
foldiers, and he became folemnly bound to fecure their
obedience to her. I o this advice Mary, though fhe
diftrufted its author, liftened with attention ; and lord
James, imagining that fhe was prejudiced in his favour,
took care to improve the favourable opportunity ; by
which means he obtained a promife of the earldom of
Marre.
Before Mary fet out from France, fhe received an
mzahTth1 embafly from queen Elizabeth, preffing her to ratify
the treaty of Edinburgh, in which fhe had taken care
to get a claufe inferted, that Francis and Mary ffiould
/or ever abftain from affuming the title and arms of
England and Ireland. But this was declined by the
queen of Scotland, who, in her conference with the
Englifh ambaflador, gave an eminent proof of her poli¬
tical abilities *. Her refufal greatly augmented the
in Scot¬
land.
te ft ants.
604
Her dif-
* See Ro-
bertfon of
JDalmeny's
Hi/ory of
JVJary
Queen of
Sutland.
jealoufies which already prevailed between her and E- Scotland,
lizabeth, infomuch that the latter refufed her a fafe paf-
fage through her dominions into Scotland. This was
contidered by Mary as a high indignity; fire returned
a very fpirited anfwer, informing her rival, that fhe
could return to her own dominions without any affift-
ance from her, or indeed whether Are would or not.
In the month of Auguft 1 561, Mary fet fail from Ca¬
lais for Scotland. She left France with much regret;
and at night ordered her couch to be brought upon
deck, defiring the pilot to awaken her in the morning
if the coaft of France fhould be in view. The night
proved calm, fo that the queen had. an opportunity
once more of indulging herfelf with a fight of that be¬
loved country. A favourable wind now fprung up,
and a thick fog coming on, fhe efcaped a fquadron of
men of war which Elizabeth had fet out to intercept 60s
her ; and on the 20th of the month fhe landed fafely at ^ary lan<h
Leith.
But though the Scots received their queen with the
greateft demonilrations of joy, it was not long before
an irreconcileable quarrel began to take place. The
Proteftant religion was now eftablifhed all over the
kingdom; and its profeflbrs had fo far deviated from
their own principles, or what ought to have been their
principles, that they would grant no toleration to the
oppofite party, not even to the fovereign herfelf. In
confequence of this, when the queen attempted to cele-
brate mafs in her own chapel of Holyroodhoufe, a vio- Is infulted
lent mob aflembled, and it was with the utmoft diffi-by„the Pro“
culty that the lord James Stuart and fome other per-
fons of high diftinftion could appeafe the tumult. Ma¬
ry attempted to allay thefe ferments by a proclama¬
tion, in which fhe promifed to take the advice of the
ftates in religious matters ; and, in the mean time, de¬
clared it to be death for any perfon to attempt an in¬
novation or alteration of the religion which fhe found
generally eftablifhed upon her arrival in Scotland. A-
gainft this proclamation the earl of Arran protefted,
and formally told the herald, the queen’s proclamation
fhould not protefl her attendants and fervants if they
prefumed to commit idolatry and to fay mafs. John
Knox declared from the pulpit, that one mafs was
more terrible to him than if 10,000 armed enemies
had landed in any part of the kingdom to re-eftablifh
Popery. The preachers everywhere declaimed againft
idolatry and the mafs ; keeping up, by their miftaken
zeal, a fpirit of difeontent and fedition throughout the
whole kingdom. John Knox was called before the
queen to anfwer for the freedom of his fpeeches; but
his unbounded boldnefs when there gave Mary much
difquiet, as not knowing in what manner to deal with
him. The freedoms, however, which were taken with
the queen, could not induce her to depart from that
plan of government which fhe had laid down in France.
To the Proteftants fire refolved to pay the greateft at¬
tention ; from among them fhe chofe her privy-council,
and heaped favours upon the lord James Stuart, who
in which fhe had taken care for his a&ivity in promoting the reformation was the
moft popular man in the kingdom ; while to her cour¬
tiers of the Roman Catholic perfuafion ffie behaved with
a diftant formality.
In the mean time, the difference between the two
rival queens became every day greater. The queen
of Scotland preffed Elizabeth to declare her the neareft
heir
SCO
[ 43 ]
SCO
607
Bigotry of
he magi¬
strates of
Scotland, heir to the crown of England, and Elizabeth prefled
—'■'V"’’- Mary to confirm the treaty of Edinburgh. With this
the latter could not comply, as it would in fact have
been renouncing for ever the title to that crown for
which Ihe was fo earneflly contending. Endlefs nego-
ciations were the confequence, and the hatred of Eli¬
zabeth to Mary continually increafed. This year the
queen of Scotland amufed herfelf by making a circuit
through part of her dominions. From Edinburgh fire
proceeded to Stirling; from thence to Perth, Dun¬
dee, and St Andrew’s. Though received everywhere
with the greateil acclamations and marks of affection,
ftie could not but remark the rooted averfion which
had univerfally taken place againll Popery ; and upon
her return to Edinburgh, her attention was called to
an exertion of this zeal, which may be confidered as
highly charaderiflic of the times. The magiftrates of
this city, after their ele&ion, ena&ed rules, according
Edinburgh.to cuftom> f°r the government of their borough. By
one of thefe ads, which they publifhed by proclama¬
tion, they commanded all monks, friars, and priefts, to¬
gether with all adulterers and fornicators, to depart
from the town and its limits within 24 hours, under
the pains of corredion and punilhment. Mary, juftly
interpreting this exertion of power to be an ufurpation
of the royal authority, and a violation of order, dif-
placed the magillrates, commanded the citizens to eled
others in their room, and granted by proclamation a
plenary indulgence to all her fubjeds not convided of
any crime, to repair to and remain in her capital at
their pleafure.
Befides thefe dillurbances on account of religion, the
608 kingdom was now in confufion on another account.
Difordered The long continuance of civil wars had left a pronenefs
Slate of the tumults and infurredions everywhere ; and thefts,
rapine, and licentioufiiefs of every kind, threatened to
fubvert the foundations of civil fociety. Mary made
confiderable preparations for the fuppreflion of thefe
3uppreffed diforders, and appointed the lord James Stuart her chief
julliciar and lieutenant. He was to hold two criminal
courts, the one at Jedburgh, and the other at Dum¬
fries. To afiilt his operations againft the banditti, who
who were aimed, and often aflbciated into bodies, a
military force was neceflary ; but as there were at pre-
fent neither {landing army nor regular troops in the
kingdom, the county of Edinburgh, and ten others,
were commanded to have their strength in readinel’s to
aflifl: him. The feudal tenants, and the allodial or free
proprietors of thefe diftricls, m complete armour, and
with provifions for 20 days, were appointed to be fub-
fervient to the purpofes of his commilfion, and to obey
his orders in eilablilhing the public tranquillity. In
this expedition he was attended with his ulual fuccefs.
He dellroyed many of the ftrong-holds of the banditti;
hanged 20 of the molt notorious offenders ; and order¬
ed 50 more to be carried to Edinburgh, there to fuller
the penalties of law on account of their rebellious beha¬
viour. _ He entered into terms with the lord Grey and
Sir John Toiler, the wardens of the Englifh borders,
for the mutual benefit of the two nations; and he com¬
manded the chiefs oi the diforderly clans to fubmit to
the queen, and to obey her orders with regard to the
fecuring of the peace, and preventing infurre&ions and
depredations for the future.
In the mean time the queen was in a very difagree-
nation.
jy lord
fames
i tuart.
able fituation, being fufpe&ed and dillrufled by both Scotland,
parties. From the concetfions fhe had made to the Pro-
tellants, the Papifts fuppofed that flie had a defign of Mary
renouncing their religion altogether ; while, on the trufted by
other hand, the Protellants could fcarcely allow them- both par-
felves to believe that they owed any allegiance to an ties-
idolater. Difquiets of another kind alio now took 611
place. The duke of Chatelherault, having left the Ca- Cbara&er*
tholics to join the oppolite party, was neglected by his
fovereign. Being afraid of fome danger to himfelf, he ticl.5>
fortified the caftle of Dumbarton, which he x-efolved to
defend; and in cafe of neceflity to put himfelf under
the protedlion of the queen of England.—The earl of
Arran was a man of very flender abilities, but of bound-
lefs ambition. The queen’s beauty had made an im-
prefllon on his heart, and his ambition made him fancy
himfelf the fitted perfon in the kingdom for her huf-
band. But his fanaticifm, and the violence with which
he had oppofed the mafs, difgutled her. He bore her
diflike with an uneafineis that preyed upon his intellefts
and difordered them. It was even fuppofed that he had
concerted a fcheme to poflefs himfelf of her perfon by
armed retainers ; and the lords of her court were com¬
manded to be in readinefs to defeat any projedl of this
fort. The earl of Bothwel was dillinguiflred chiefly
by his prodigalities and the licentioufnels of his man¬
ners. 'The earl of Marifchal had every thing that was
honourable in his intentions, but was overwary and flow.
The earl of Morton poflefled penetration and ability,
but was attached to no party or meafures from any
principles of reftitude: His own advantage and inte-
rells were the motives which governed him. The earl
of Huntley the lord chancellor, was unquiet, variable,
and vindidlive : His paffions, now fermenting with vio¬
lence, were foon to break forth in the moil dangerous
practices. The earls oi Glencairn and Menteith were
deeply tindlured with fanaticifm ; and their inordinate
zeal for the new opinions, not lefs than their poverty,
recommended them to queen Elizabeth. Tier ambaf-
iador Randolph, advifed her to fecure their fervice, by
addrefling herfelf to their neceflities. Among courtiers
of this defeription, it was difficult for Mary to make a
feleclion of miniilers in whom to confide. The confe-
quence and popularity of the lord James Stuart, and
of Maitland of Lethington, had early pointed them out
to this diftindlion ; and hitherto they had adled to her
fatisfadlion. They were each of eminent capacity:
but the former was fufpedled of aiming at the fove-
reignty ; the latter was prone to refinement and dupli¬
city ; and both were more connected with Elizabeth
than became them as the miniilers and fubjedls of an¬
other fovereign.
Beftde the policy of employing and trufting ftatef-
men who were Protellants, and the precaution of main¬
taining a firm peace with England, Mary had it alfo at
heart to enrich the crown with the revenues of the an¬
cient church. A convention of ellates was aflembled She obtains
to deliberate upon this meafure. The bilhops werea part of
alarmed with their perilous fituation. It was madethe eccle'
known to them, that the charge of the queen’s houfe- flaftical re‘
hold required an augmentation ; and that as the rents VenUeS'
qf the. church had.flowed chiefly from the crown, it was
expedient that a proper proportion of them Ihould now
be refumed to uphold its fplendour. After long cou-
lultations, the prelates and ellate ecclefiaitical, confider-
F 2 ing
SCO [ 44-
$co*UtKt. mg that they exi(ted merely by the favour of the queen, turera
confented to refign to her the third part of their bene¬
fices, to be managed at her pleafure; with the referva-
tion that they ftlould be fecured during tlieir lives againft
all farther payments, and relieved from the burden of
contributing- to the maintenance of the reformed clergy.
With this offer the queen and the convention of eftates
were fatisfied. Rentals, accordingly, ot all their bene¬
fices throughout the kingdom, were ordered to be pro¬
duced by the ancient eccleiiaftics; the reformed mini-
llers, fuperintendaiits, elders, and deacons, were enjoin¬
ed to make out regiiters of the grants or provilions ne-
ceffary to fupport their eftablifhment; and a fuperemi-
nent power of judging in thefe matters was committed,
to the queen and the privy-council.
While the, prelates and eflate ecckfiaftical fubmitted
to this offer from the neceffity of their affairs, it was by
no means acceptable to the reformed clergy, who at this
time were holding an affembly. It was their earneft
wifh to effett the entire deftruftion of the ancient efta-
blifhment, to fucceed to a large proportion of their emo¬
luments, and to be altogether independent of the crown.
But while the Proteftant preachers were naturally and
unanimoufly of thefe fentiments, the nobles and gentle¬
men who had promoted the reformation were difpofed
To think very' differently. To give too much of the
wealth of the church to the reformed clergy, was to in¬
veil them with a dangerous power. To give too great
a proportion of it to the crown, was a flep (till more
dangerous. At the fame time it was equitable, that
the ancient clergy fhould be maintained during their
lives ; and it coniiited with the private interefts of the
noblemen and gentlemen, who had figured during the
reformation, not to confent to any feheme that would
deprive them of the fpoils of which they had already
pofTeffcd themfelves out of the ruins of the church, or
which they might flill be enabled to acquire.
Thus public as well as private confiderations contri¬
buted to feparate and divide the lay Proteflants and the
preachers. The general affembly, therefore, of the
church, was not by any means fuccefsful in the view's
which had called them together at this time, and which
they fubmitted to the convention of eftates. Doubts
were entertained whether the church had any title to
afiemble itfelf. The petition preferred for the complete
abolition of idolatry, or for the utter prohibition of the
roafs, was rejefted, notwithftandmg all the zeal mam-
fefted by the brethren. The requtft that Mary fhould
give authority to the book of difeipline, w'as not only
refufed, but even treated with ridicule. The only point
prefled by the church, which attra&cd any notice, was
its requifition of a provifion or a maintenance 5 but the
meafure invented for this end was in oppofitien to all
its warmeft defires.
This meafure, however, fo unpromifing to the preach¬
ers in expectation, was found to be ftiH more uftfatis-
faftory upon trial. The wealth of the Romifh church
had been immenfe, but great invafions had been made
upon it. The fears of the ecclefiaftics, upon the over¬
throw of popery, induced them to engage in fraudulent
tranfaftions with their kinfmen and relations; in con-
iequence of which many poffeflions were conveyed from
the church into private hands. For valuable confider¬
ations, leafes of church-lands, to endure for many years,
or in perpetuity, were granted to itrangers and advCn-
613
Bad fuccefs
tlie de¬
mands of
the Proie-
ftants.
J SCO
Sales alfo of ecclefiaftical property, to 3 great Scotland
extent, had been made by tl*& ancient incumbents ; and
a validity was fuppofed to be given to thefe tranfaCtiona
by confirmations from the pope, who was zealous to af-
fift his votaries. Even the crown itfelf had contribu¬
ted to make improper difpofitions of the eccleiiaftical
revenues. Laymen had been prefented to bilhoprica
and church-livings, with the power of difpofing of the
territory in connection with them. In this dtffufion of
the property of the church, many fair acquifitions, and
much extenfive domain, came to be invefted in the no¬
bles and the gentry.
From thefe cauies, the grant of the third of their be¬
nefices, made by the ancient eceleftaftics to the queen,
with the burden of maintaining the reformed clergy,
was not near fo confiderable as might have been ex¬
pected. But the direction of the Icheme being lodged
in the queen and the privy-council, the advantage to the
crown was ftill greater than that bellowed upon the
preachers. Yet the carrying the projeCt into execu¬
tion was not without its inconveniences. There were
ftill many opportunities for artifice and corruption; and
the full third of the ecclefiaftical benefices, even after
all the previous abftraCtions of them which had been
made, could not be levied by any diligence. For the
eccleiiaftics often produced falfe rentals of their bene¬
fices ; and the collectors for the crown were not always
faithful to the truft repofed in them. The complete
produce of the thirds did not amount to a great ium ;
and it was to operate to the expences of the queen, as
well as to the fupport of the preachers. A fcanty pro¬
portion went to the latter; and yet the perfons who for*
were chofentofix and afeertain their particular ftipends the k*rote»
or provilions were the fall friends of the reformation, ftant
For this bufinefs was committed in charge to the earls Preac^ere®
of Argyle and Morton, the lard James Stuart, and
Maitland of Lethington, with James Mackgill the clerk-
regifter, and Sir John Ballenden the juftice-clerk. One
hundred Scottilh merks were deemed fufftcient for a
common minffter. To the clergymen of greater inte-
rell or confideration, or who exercifed their funClions in
more exteniive parifhes, 300 merks were allotted ; and,
excepting to fuperintendants, this fum was feldom ex¬
ceeded. To the earl of Argyle, to the lord James
Stuart, to Lord ErUrine, who had large ecclefiailica!
revenues, their thirds were ufually remitted by the
queen ; and upon the eftablifhment of this fund or re¬
venue, fhe alio granted many penfions to perfons about
her court and of her hotifehold.
The complaints of the preachers were made with little
decency, and did not contribute to better their condi-parl.y jifc
tion. The coldnefs of the Proteftant laity, and the hn-fatisfied.
manity fhown to the ancient clergy-, were deep wounds
both to their pride and to their interefts. To a mean
fpirit of flattery to the reigning power, they imputed
the defection of their friends; and againil the queen
they were animated with the bittereft animofity. The
poverty in which they were fuffered to remain inflamed
614.
Provition1
all their pafiions. They induftrioufiy fought to indulge
their rancour and turbulence ; and inveterate habits of
infult fortified them into a contempt of authority.
To the queen, whofe temper was warm, the rudenefs
of the preachers was a painful and endleis inquietude,
which, while it foftered her religious prejudices, had
ihe good effect to confirm her conltancv 10 her friends-,
and
f
SCO
Scotland and to keep alive her gratitude for their a&ivity. The
lord James Stuart, who was intitled to her refpeft and
efteem from his abilities, and his proximity to her in
blood, had merited rewards and honours by his public
fervices and the vigour of his counlels. After his fuc-
eefsful difcharge of her commiffion as chief jufticiar and
lord lieutenant, fhe could not think of allowing him to
defcend from thefe offices, without bellowing upon him
a folid and permanent mark of her favour. She advan¬
ced him into the rank of her nobility, by conferring up¬
on him the earldom of Marre. At the fame time fhe
contributed to augment his confequence, by facilitating
his marriage with Agnes the daughter of the earl of
Marifchal; and the ceremonial of this alliance \$as cele¬
brated with a magnificence and oftentation fo extrava¬
gant in that age, as to excite the fears of the preachers
left feme avenging judgment or calamity fliould afBufl
the land. They "exclaimed with virulence againft his
riotous feafting and banquets ; and the maiquerades
which were exhibited upon this oceafion, attracting in
a {till greater degree their attention, as being a fpecies
of entertainment hitherto unknown in Scotland, and
45 1 SCO
After employing againft the earl of Marre thofe arts Scothaj.
of detraction and calumny which are fo
fti6
onours
nferred
pon lord
|inne‘s
usut.
617
nmity of
earl of
luntley
awards
im.
618
fnrtley
Ireffes the
’,ieen to
eftore the
'opifh re¬
gion.
which was favourable to the profanenels of gallantry,
they pointed againft them the keenneft flrokes of their
cenfure and indignation.
The abilities of the earl of Marre* the afcendency lie
maintained in the councils of his fovereign, and the di-
ftinctions which he had acquired, did not fail to ex-
pole him to uncommon envy. The molt detperate of
his enemies, and the molt formidable, was the earl of
Huntley. In tlxeir rivalfhip for power, many cauies of
difguft had arifen. The one Was at the head the
Proteftants, the other was the leader of the Papilla.
Upon the death of Francis II. Huntley and the Popiih
faction had fent a deputation to Mary, inviting her to
return to Scotland, and offering to fupport her with an
army of 20,000 men. His advances were treated with
attention and civility, but his offer was rejeCted. The
invitation of the Proteftants, prefented by the earl of
Marre, was more acceptable to her. Huntley had ad-
vifed her to detain his rival in confinement in France
till the Roman Catholic religion fhould be re-eftablifhed
in Scotland. This advice (he not only difregarded, but
careffed bis enemy with particular civilities. Upon her
arrival in her own country, Huntley renewed his ad¬
vances, offering to her to fet up the mafs in all the
northern counties. He even converfed in a preffmg
maimer upon this fubjeCt with her uncles and the French
courtiers who attended her. Still no real attention was
paid to him. He came to her palace, and was recei¬
ved only with refpeft. He was lord high chancellor
without influence, and a privy counfellor without trull.
The earl of Marre had the confidence of his fovereign,
and was drawing to him the authority of government.
Thefe were cruel mortifications to a man of high rank,
inordinate ambition, immenfe wealth, and who com¬
manded numerous and warlike retainers. But he was
yet to feel a ftroke ftill more feverely excruciating, and
far more deftrudive of his confequence. The opulent
eftate of Marre, which Mary had eroded into an earl-
dom, and conferred, upon his rival, had been lodged in
his lamily for forne time. He confidered it as his pro¬
perty, and that it was never to be torn from his houfe.
j his blow -was at once to infult molt fenfibly his pride,
and to cut molt iatally the fu.ev.y oi his greatnefs.
are lo common in
courts, he drew up and fubferibed a formal memorial, ^vrcs
in which he accufed him of aiming at the fovereignty the lord*
of Scotland. This paper he prefented to the queen ; James
but the arguments with which he fupported his charge Su,art '
being weak and inconclufive, Ihe was the more confirm-treaioR’
ed in her attachment to her minifter. Huntley then
addreffing himftlf to the earl of Bothwel, a man difpofed
to defperate courfes, engaged him to attempt to involve
the earl of Marre and the houfe of Hamilton in open
and violent contention. Bothwel reprefented to Marre
the enmity which had long fubfilted between him and g3o
the houfe of Hamilton. It was an obilacle to his And at-
greatnefs ; and while its deftruttion might raife him to tt‘mtts c<>.
the higheft pinnacle of power, it would be molt ac- ^^'inate
ceptable to the queen, who, befide the hatred which
princes naturally entertain to their fuccefibrs, was ani¬
mated by particular caufes of offence againft the duke
of Chatelherault and the carl of Arran. Fie concluded
his exhortation with making an unlimited offer of his
molt ftrenuous fervices in the execution of this flagi¬
tious enterprife. The earl of Marre, however, abhor¬
ring the bafenefs of the project, fulpicious of the fin-
cerity of the propofer, or fatisfied that his eminence
did not require the aid of fuch arts, rejected all his ad¬
vances. Bothwel, difappointed upon one fide, turn¬
ed himfelf to the other. He pra&ifed with the houfe
of Hamilton to affaffmate the earl of Marre, whom
they confidered as their greateft enemy. The bull-
uefs, he faid, might be performed with eafe and ex¬
pedition. The queen was in ufe to hunt the deer in
the park of Falkland; and there the earl of Marre,
uufufpedting any danger, and flenderly attended, might
be overpowered and put. to death. Tire perfon of the
queen, at the fame time, might be feized ; and by de¬
taining her in cuftody, a fanftion and fecurity might
be given to their crime. The integrity of the earl of
Arran revolting againft this confpiracy, defeated it*
purposes. Dreading the perpetration of fa cruel an
aftion, and yet fenfible of the refolute determination
ot his friends, he wrote privately to the earl of Marre,
informing him of his danger. But the return of Marre
to his letter, thanking him for his intelligence, being
intercepted by the confpirators, Arran was confined
by them under a guard in Kenneil-hbufe. He effected *
notwithilanding his efcape, and made a full difeovery of 6 .
the plot to the queen. Yet in a matter fo dark he But tuns
could produce no witneffes and no written vouchers to'n his at.
confirm his accufations. Fie therefore, according to temPt*
the fafhion of the times, offered to prove his informa¬
tion, by engaging Bothwel in fingltf combat. And
though, in his examinations before the. privy council,
his love to the queen, his attachment to the earl of
Marre, the atrocity of the fcheme he “revealed, and,
above all, his duty and concern fpr his father the duke
ol Chatelherault, threw him into a perturbation of mind
which expreffed itfelf violently in his fpeech, his coun¬
tenance, and his a&ions ; yet his declarations, in gene¬
ral, were- fo confiltent and firm, that it was thought
advifable to take the command of the caftle of Dum¬
barton Irom the duke of Chatelherault, to confine the
other confpirators to different prifons, and to wait the
farther difeaverieu which might be made by accident
and time..
The
sco r 46 ] sco
Scotland, The earl of Huntley, inflamed by thefe difappoint-
l~~"v"1 ' ments, invented other devices. He excited a tumult
while the queen and the earl of Marre were at St An¬
drew’s with only a few attendants ; imagining that the
latter would fally forth to quell the infurgents, and
that a convenient opportunity would thus be afforded
for putting him to the fword without dete&ion. The
caution, however, of the earl of Marre, defeating this
purpofe, he ordered fame of his retainers to attack, him
in the evening when he ffiould leave the queen j but
thefe afiaflins being furprifed in their llation, Huntley
affe&ed to excufe their being in arms in a fuipicious
place and at a late hour, by frivolous apologies, which,
though admitted, could not be approved.
About this period, too, letters were received by
Mary from the pope and the cardinal of Lorrain, in
confequence of the intrigues of the earl of Huntley
and the Roman Catholic fa&ion. They prefied her
to confider, that while this nobleman was the molt
powerful of her fubjedts, he was by far the molt zeal-
lous in the interefts of the church of Rome. They
intreated her to Hatter him with the hope of her mar¬
riage with Sir John Gordon his fecond fon ; held out
to her magnificent promifes of money and military fup-
plies, if (he would fet herfelf ferioufly to recover to
• power and fplendour the ancient religion of her coun¬
try; and recommended it to her to take meafures
to deftroy the more itrenuous Proteffants about her
court, of whom a roll was tranfmitted to her, which
included the name of her confident and minilter the
earl of Marre. Thefe letters could not have reached
her at a jundbire more unfavourable for their fuccels.
The earl of Marre, to whom Ihe communicated them,
was encouraged to proceed with the greateft vigour
in undermining the defigns and the importance of his
enemies.
Sir John New incidents exafperated the animofities of theene-
Gordon j^g 0f the earl of Marre and his own. Sir John Gor-
krd'ohl ^on anc* t^ie having a private difpute, hap-
vy. and is pened to meet each other in the high ftreet of Edin-
apprehend- burgh. They immediately drew their fwords ; and
c<1; the lord Ogilvie receiving a very dangerous wound,
Sir John Gordon was committed to prifon by the ma-
giftrates. The .queen, at this time in Stirling, was
informed by them of the riot ; and while they expref-
fed a fear left the friends of the prifoner Ihould rife up
in arms to give him his liberty, they mentioned a fuf-
picion which prevailed, that the partizans of the lord
Ogilvie were to affemble themfelves to vindicate his
quarrel. The queen, in her reply, after commending
their diligence, inftrudfed them to continue to have a
watch over their prifoner ; made known her defire that
the law ffiould take its courfe ; and counfelled them to
have no apprehtnfions of the kindred of the parties at
61^ variance, but to rely upon the earl of Marre for pro-
Bue efcapes viding a fufficient force for their proteftion. Sir John
from pri- Gordon, however, found the means to break from his
confinement ; and flying into Aberdeenfhire, filled the
retainers of his family with his complaints, and added
to the difquiets ot his father the earl ol Huntley.
The queen, upon returning to Edinburgh, held a
confultation upon affairs of ftate with her privy coun¬
cil ; and foon after fet out upon a progrefs to tire
northern parts of her kingdom. At Aberdeen (he
was met by' the lady Huntley, a woman of deep diffi-
mulation and of refined addrefs; who endeavoured to Scotland
conciliate her affe&ions, was prodigal of flattery, ex- -v—•<
prefled her zeal for the Popifh religion, and let fall in-
linuations of the great power of her hulband. She
then interceded with the queen for forgivenefs to her
fon : and begged with a keen importunity, that he
might be permitted to have the honour to kifs her hand.
But Maty having told her, that the favour Ihe had fb-
licited could not poflibly be granted till her fon ffiould
return to the prifon from which he had efcaped, and
fubmit to the juftice of his country, the ladyr Huntley
engaged that he fhould enter again into cuftody, and -
only intreated, that, inffead of being confined at Edin¬
burgh, he Ihould be conducted to the caftle of Stirling.
This requeft was complied with ; and in the profecution
of the bufinefs, a court of jufticiary being called, Sir
John Gordon made his appearance, and acknowledged
himfelf to be the queen’s prifoner. The lord Glamis
was appointed to condudt him to the caftle of Stirling. 624
But upon the road to this fortrefs, he deceived the vi-And at-
gilance of his guards, haitened back, and gathering teI1ipts t0
1000 horfemen among his retainers, entruffed his fe-^
curity to the fword.
In the mean time, the queen continued her progrefs.
The earl of Huntley joined himfelf to her train. His
anxiety to induce her to allow him to attend her to his
houfe of Strathbogy was uncommon ; his intreaties
were even prefled beyond the bounds of propriety. The
intelligence arrived of the efcape and rebellion of Sir
John Gordon. The behaviour of the father and the
fon awakened in her the moll alarming fufpicions. Af-
fembling her privy-council, who, according to the fafhion
of thofe times, conftituted her court, and attended her
perfon in her progreffes though her dominions; fhe,
with their advice, commanded her heralds to charge
Sir John Gordon and his adherents to return to their
allegiance, and to furrender up to her their houfes of
ftrength and caftles, under the pains of high treafon and
forfeiture. Difdaining now to go to the houfe of the
earl of Huntley, where, as it afterwards appeared, that
nobleman had made fecret preparations to hold her in
captivity, Ihe advanced to Invernefs by a different rout.
In the caftle of .Invernefs Ihe propofed to take up her
reffdence ; but Alexander Gordon the deputy governor,
a dependent of the family of Huntleyq refufed to admit
her. She was terrified with the profpeSt of a certain
and imminent danger. Her attendants were few in
number, the town was without walls, and the inhabi¬
tants were fufpefted. In this extremity, fome fhips in
the river were kept in rea<A»nefs as a laft retuge ; and
ftie iffued a proclamation, commanding all her loyal fub-
jedls in thofe parts immediately to repair to her for her
proteftion. The Frafers and Monroes came in crowds
to make her the offer of their fwords. The Clan Chat-
tan, though called to arms by the earl of Huntley, for-
fook his llandard for that of their fovereign, when they
difeovered that his intentions were hoftile to her. She
employed this ftrength in laying fiege to the caftle,
which furrendered itfelf upon the firit aflault. The
lives of the common foldiers were fpared, but the deputy-
governor was inftantly executed. The queen, full of
apprehenfions, returned to Aberdeen.
To intimidate the earl of Huntley, to punifh the
troubles which his family had created to the queen,
and to convince him that his utter ruin was at hand,
a mea»
s c
Stofland. a meafure in^nitely humiliating
put in praftice. The eatl of Marre refigned the rich
eflate of that name to the lord Erlkine, who laid claim
to it as his right; and received in recompenfe, after
its ereftion into an earldom, the territory of Murray,
which made an extenfive portion of the poffeffions of the
earl of Huntley.
The lady Huntley haftened to Aberdeen to throw
herfelf at the feet of her fovereign, to make the offer
of the molf humble fubmiffions on the part of her huf-
band, and to avert by every poffible means the downfal
of his greatnefs. But all accefs to the queen was re-
fufed to her; and the earl of Huntley was fummoned
to appear in perfon before the privy council, to anfwer
for his condinff, and to make a full refignation of all
his caftles and fortreffes. He did not prefent himfelf,
and was declared to be in open rebellion. A new pro¬
clamation was circulated by the queen to colleft together
n 615 a fufficient ftrength to fubdue the infurgents. The
l1^ command of her troops was given to the earl of Mur-
■feated by ray> w^° Put them inflantly into motion. Huntley
t: earl of advancing towards Aberdeen to give them battle, was
I array, informed of their approach. He halted at Corrichie,
folacing himfelf with the hope of a decifive vibfory.
The army of the queen was the moft numerous ; but
there were feveral companies in it in whom little con¬
fidence could be placed. Thefe the earl of Murray
polled in the front of the battle, and commanded them
to begin the attack. They recoiled upon him in dif-
order, according to his expeftation ; but a refolute
band in whom he trufled, holding out their fpears,
V obliged them to take a different courfe. Their con-
fufion and flight made Huntley conceive that the day
was his own. He therefore ordered his foldiers to
throw afide their lances, and to rufh upon the enemy
fword in hand. His command was obeyed, but with no
precaution or difcipline. When his men came to the
place where the earl of Murray had ftationed himfelf,
the points of the extended fpears of his firm battalion
put a termination to their progrefs. The panic cem-
municated by this unexpended refiftance was improved
by the vigour with which he preffed the affailants. In
their turn they took to flight. The companies of the
queen’s army which had given way in the beginning of
the conflict were now difpofed to atone for their mif-
conduft; and taking a fhare in the battle, committed
a fignal daughter upon the retainers of the earl of
Huntley. This nobleman himfelf expired in the throng
of the purfuit. His Tons Sir John Gordon and Adam
Gordon were made prifoners, with the principal gentle¬
men who had aflifled him.
Mary, upon receiving the tidings of this fuccefs, dif-
covered neither joy nor forrow. The paffions, how¬
ever, of the earl of Murray and his party were not yet
completely gratified. Sir John Gordon was brought
immediately to trial, confefTed his guilt, and was con¬
demned to fuffer as a traitor. The fentence according¬
ly was executed, amidft a multitude of fpeftators,
whofe feelings were deeply affe&ed, while they con-
fidered his immature death, the manlinefs of his fpirit,
and the vigour of his form. Adam Gordon, upon ac¬
count of his tender age, was pardoned ; and fines were
levied from the other captives of condition according to
their, wealth. The lord Gordon, after the battle of
Corrichie, fled to his father-in-law the duke of Chatel-
o [ 47 1 . s c .0
was now concerted and herault, and put himfelf under his prote&ion ; but was Scotland.
delivered up by that nobleman, all whofe endeavours —v—
in his favour were ineffectual. He was convi&ed of
treafon, and condemned; but the queen was fatisfied
with confining him in prifon. The dead body of the
earl of Huntley was carried to Edinburgh, and kept
without burial, till a charge of high treafon was pre¬
ferred againft him before the three eftates. An oflen-
tatious difplay was made of his criminal enterprifes, and
a verdict of parliament pronounced his guilt. His
eftates, hereditary and moveable, were forfeited; his
dignity, name, and memory, were pronounced to be
extinCt; his enfigns armorial were torn from the book
of arms; and his pofterity were rendered unable to en¬
joy any offices, honour, or rank, within the realm. 626
While thefe fcenes were tranfaCting, Mary, who was inter-
fincerely felicitous to eilablilh a fee are amity between
the two kingdoms, opened a negociation to effeCtuate
an interview with Elizabeth. Secretary Maitland, ry and e_
whom {he employed in this bufmefs, met with a mofl'izaketh,
gracious reception at the court of London. The city^ut v,l‘n*
of York was appointed as the place where the two
queens fhould exprefs their mutual love and affedion,
and bind themfelves to each other in an indiffoluble
union ; the day of their meeting was fixed ; the fafhion
and articles of their interview were adjufled ; and a
fafe-condud into England was granted to the queen of
Scots by Elizabeth. But in this advanced ftate of the
treaty it was unexpectedly interrupted. The diflur-
bances in France, the perfecution of the Proteftants
there, and the dangerous confequence which threatened
the reformed countries, feemed to require Elizabeth to
be particularly upon her guard, and to watch with
eagernefs againft the machinations of the adverfaries of
her religion. Upon thefe pretences fire declined for a
feafon the projefted interview ; fending to Mary with
this apology Sir Henry Sidney, a minifter of ability,
whom fhe inftru&ed to dive into the fecret views of the
Scottifh queen. This was a fevere difappointment to
Mary ; but it is reafonable to believe, that Elizabeth
a&ed in the negociation without fincerity, and upon'
principles of policy. It was not her intereft to admit
into her kingdom a queen who had pretenlions to her
crown, and who might {Lengthen them ; who might
raife the expectations of her Roman Catholic fubjeCls,
and advance herfelf in their erteem ; and who far fur-
pafled her in beauty, and in the bewitching allurement
of convcrfation and behaviour. ^
Amidft affairs of great moment, a matter of fmaller Cha-elard
confequence, but which is interefting in its circum-fa!ls in !ovc
fiances, deferves to be recorded. Chatelard, a gentle-W|th the
man of family in Dauphiny, and a relation of'the che-11 tU1’
valier de Bayard, had been introduced to queen Mary
by the fieur Damviile, the heir of the houfe of Mont¬
morency. Polifhed manners, vivacity, attention to
pleafe, the talent of making verfes, and an agreeable
figure, were recommendations to this man. In the
court they drew attention to him. He made himfelf
neceffary in all parties of pleafure at the palace. His
affiduities drew to him the notice of the queen ; and,
at different times, fhe did him the honour to dance with
him. His complaifance became gradually more fami¬
liar. He entertained her with his wit and good-hu¬
mour ; he made verfes upon her beauty and accomplifh-
ments ; and her politenefs and condeleenfion iniinuated
6 inu>
SCO
[ 43 ]
SCO
628
Is put to
■rfeath.
Scotland, into him othrr fentiments than gratitude and reverence.
~ J^e could not behold her charms without feeling their
power: arid inftead of Hiding in its birth the molt
dangerous of all the pafiions, he encouraged its growth.
In an unhappy moment, he entered her apartment ;
and, concealing himfelf under her bed, waited the ap¬
proach of night. While the queen was undreffing, her
maids difcovcred his littiation, and gave her the alarm.
Chatelard was difmiffed with difgrace ; but foon after
received her pardon. » The frenzy, however, of his love
compelling him to repeat his crime, it was no longer
proper to fliow any companion to him. The delicate
htuation oi Mary, the noife of thefe adventures, which
had gone abroad, and the rude fufpicions of her fubje&s,
required that he fnould be tried for his offences and
punifhed. This imprudent man was accordingly con¬
demned to lofe his head ; and the fentence was put in
execution.
The difagreeable clrcumftances in which Mary found
herfelf involved by reafon of her quarrel with Eliza¬
beth, the excefiive bigotry and overbearing fpirit of her
Proteftant iubje&s, together with the adventure of
Chatelard, and the calumnies propagated in confequencc
of it, determined her to think of a fecond- marriage.
Her beauty and expeftations of the crown of England,
joined to the kingdom which lire already poffeffed,
brought her many fuitors. She was addreffed by the
king of Sweden, the king of Navarre, the prince of
Condc, the duke of Ferrara, Don Carlos of Spain, the
arch-duke Charles of Aultria, and the duke ot Anjou.
Her own inclination was to give the preference, among
thefe illuitrious lovers, to the prince of Spain ; but her
determination, from the firll moment, was to make her
willies bend to other confiderations, and to render her
decifion upon this important point as agreeable as pof-
fible to queen Elizabeth, to the Englilh nation, and to
the Proteftants in both kngdoms. Her fucccflion to
the crown of England was the objeft neareit her heart;
and Elizabeth, who wifhed to prevent her from mar¬
rying altogether, contrived to imprefs upon her mind
an opinion that any foreign alliance would greatly ob-
ftrufi that much deiired event. She therefore pitched
upon two of her own fubjetts, whom fhe fucceflively re¬
commended as fit matches for the queen of Scots ; and
flie promifed, that upon her acceptance of either of
them, her right ot inheritance Ihould be inquired into
and declared. Lord Robert Dudley, afterwards earl of
Le ice Her, was the fcrfl perfon propofed ; and except a
manly face and fine figure he had not one quality that
could recommend him to the Scottifh princefs. Whilft
Mary received this fuitor with fome degree of compo-
fure, die did not altogether reprefs her fcorn. “ She
had heard good accounts (die owned) of he gentle¬
man; but as queen Elizabeth had faid, that in propofmg
a huiband to her, die would confult her honour, Ihe alk-
ed what honour there could be in marrying a fubjeft
619
•Ivlary in¬
clines to a
fecoml
marriage,
and is ad-
drefled by
a number
of fuitoxs.
Scotland merely with the view of diverting the atten# 3coihn4
of the Queen from the continent, {he threw every ob- -—v—«•'
ftacle in the way of the marriage which art and violence
could contrive. When die found Mary fo much en¬
tangled, that die could hardly draw back, or make any
other choice than that of Darnley, Elizabeth attemoted
to prevent her from going farther on ; and now intima¬
ted her difapprobation of that marriage, which die her¬
felf had not only originally planned, but, in thefe latter
ffages, had forwarded by every means in her power.
The whole council of Elizabeth declared again ft the
marriage. Even from her own fubjefts Mary met with
confiderable oppofition. An inveterate enmity had
taken place between the duke of Chatelherault and the
earl of Lenox, in confequence of which the former
deferted the court, and very few of the Hamiltons re¬
paired to it. The lord James Stuart, now earl of Mur¬
ray, fought to promote the match with lord Dudley.
In confequence of this he was treated openly with dif-
refpeft by the earl of Lenox ; he loft the favour of his
fovereign, and Darnley threatened him with his ven- 631
geance when he Ihould be married to the queen. John
Knox in the mean time behaved in the moft furious
manner, forgetting not only the meek and peaceable John Knox,
behaviour of a Chriftian, but the allegiance of a fubjedl.
This preacher even interfered with the marriage of his
fovereign. He warned the nobility, that, if they allow¬
ed a Papill or an infidel to obtain her perfon and the
government of Scotland, they would be guilty, to the
full extent of their power, of baniihing Jefus Chrift from
the kingdom, of bringing down upon it the vengeance
of God, of being a curfe to themfelves, and of depri¬
ving their queen of all comfort and confolation. As
Darnley was a Papift, he was of confequence execrated
by the whole body of Proteftants, laity as well as clergy;
while, on the other hanu, ae was fupported by the earls
of Athol and Caithnefs, the lords Ruthven and Hume,
and the whole Popifli faiftion.
It was exceedingly unfortunate for the queen, that
neither lord Darnley himfelf, nor his father the earl of
Lenox, had any talents for bufinefs; and as they na¬
turally had the diredtion of the queen’s affairs, it is no
wonder that they were very ill managed. But a fource
of oppofition, more violent than any imperfedtions of
their own, rofe up to them in the attachment which
they difeovered to a perfon upon whom the queen had of
late beftowed her favour with an imprudent prodigality, .^ountof
David Rizzio from a mean origin raifed himfelf to a dif-J^via Riz-
tinguiftied eminence. He was born at Turin, where hiszio.
father earned a fubfiftence as a mufician. Varieties of
fituation and adventure, poverty, and misfortunes, had
taught him experience. In the train of the count de
Morette, the ambafiador from the duke of Savoy, he
had arrived in Scotland. The queen, defirous to com¬
plete her band of mufic, admitted him into her fervice.
In this humble ftation he had the dexterity to attraft
<630
Sbe makes
choice of
lord Darn-
Trie Englilh queen then brought under tiie eye of Mary her attention ; and her French fecretary falling into dif-
nnotner fintnr. Dfl- Her trinnrrkte /k.-.n'M „    f.     J  i.   ^
another fuitor, left her thoughts fhould return to a
foreign alliance. 1 his was lord Darnley, of the houf'e of
Stuart itfelf, whofe birth was almoft equal to her own, and
whom the Scott ah princefs was induced to accept as a
hufoand by motives which we have detailed elfewhere,
(fee Mary.) Elizabeth however was not more fin cere
in this propofal than in the former ; for after permitting
Darnley and his father the earl of Lenux. to vifit
grace, from negligence and incapacity, he was promoted
to difeharge the duties of his office. A neceffary and
frequent admiflion to her company afforded him now the
fulleft opportunity to recommend himfelf to her ; and
while fhe approved his manners, fhe was fenfibfe of hi#
fidelity and his talents. His mind, however, was not
fufficiently vigorous to bear with fuccefs and profpe-
rity. Ambition grew upon him tvith preferment. He
5 interfered
I
W<"' v'- “
i p
The earl of
Murray
|<>t'e^ the
ueen’s fa-
our.
B C O
iniijrfgrrj*! >;i effairs of moment,
(lie convention* of the nobles at the palace, ami was .
candidate for (rreatnefs. The queen confalred with
him upon the mod difficult and important bufmefs, and
iutruftcd him with real power, d'he fupplenefs, fervi-
hty, and unbounded complailance which had charafter*
ifed hia former condition, w'ere cxch'myed for infolence,
pftentation, and pride. He exceeded the molt potent
barons in the Itatelinefs of his demeanour, the fumptu-
oufnefs of his apparel, and the fplendour of his retinue.
The nobles, while they defpifed the (owned of his birth,
and detefted him as a foreigner, and a favourite, were
rnoitided with his grandeur, and miuited with his arro¬
gance. . Their anger and abhorrence were driven into
fury ; and while this undeferving minion, to uphold Ins
power, courted Darnley, and with officious affiduities
advanced his fuit with the queen, he haftened not only
Ids own ruin, but laid the foundation of cruel outrages
and of public calamity.
To the earl of Murray the exaltation of Riz/.io, fo
[ 49 1 SCO
srtrpded himfelf into raph'jd, that nrltterq were gone too far to be recalled ;
and that hdizabeth had no folid eaule of difpleafute,
lince, by her advice, (he had fixed her affe&iona not
upon a foreigner, but upon an Englilhman ; and fince
the perfon the favoured was defeended of a didinguiihed
lineage, and could boall of having in his veins the royal
blood of both kingdoms. Immediately after this audi¬
ence file created lord Darnley a lord and a knight. The
oath of knighthood was admtnidered to him. He was
made a baron and a banneret, and called lord slrmanngb*
He was belted earl of Rofs. He then promoted
gentlemen to the honour of knighthood, and did ho¬
mage to the queen, without any refervation of duty to
the crown of England, where his family had for a long
time refided. His advancement to be duke of Albany
was delayed for a little time; and this was fo much
relented by him, that, when informed of it by the lord
lluthven, he threatened to Itab that nobleman with his
dagger,
-v, v.t wv tv.i/.iu, iu in the mean time the day appointed for the afiembly
oflenfive in general to the nation, was humiliating in a of parliament, which was finally to determine the fub-
more particular degree. His interference for the earl je& of the marriage, was now approaching. The earl
flood
of Leicefier, the partiality he entertained for Eliza¬
beth, his connections with fecretary Cecil, and the fa-
\our he had fhown to Knox, had all contributed to
create in Mary a fufpicion of his integrity. The prac¬
tices of Darnley and Rizzio were thence the more ef¬
fectual ; and the fulled weight of their influence was
employed to undermine his power. His paffions and
of Murray, encouraged by the apparent fit mnd's of E-
lizabeth, goaded on by ambition, and alarmed with the
approbation heft owed by the convention of tire ellates
on the queen’s choice of lord Darnley, perceived that
the moment was at hand when a decifive blow fhould
be {truck. To infpirit the refentraents of his friends,
and to jultify in fome rneafure the violence of his pro-
i . ■ , : . . . ,r 7 ... .i.vanut me violence or ms pro
dugulis were vioknt; and in his mind he meditated re- jects, he aifected to be under apprehenfions of being ai
venerc* Marv* aware of her critical i’tnation.
venge. Mary, aware of her critical fit nation, was foli-
citous to add to her itrength. Bothwel, who had
been impriioned lor confpiring againft the life of the
earl of Murray, and who had eicaped from confinement,
was recalled from France ; the earl of Sutherland, an
exile in Flanders, was invited home to receive his par-
don ; and George Gordon, the Ion of the earl of Hunt-
ley, was admitted to favour, and was foon to be rtin-
iiated in the wealth and honours of his family.
As foon as Both we 1 arrived, the earl of Murray in-
lifted that he fhould be brought to a trial for having
plotted agaiuit his life, and for having broke from the
place of his confinement. This was agreed to ; and on
the day et trial Murray made his appearance with boo
%>i his adherents. Bothwel did not chufe to contend
with fuch a formidable enemy ; he therefore fled to
France, and a proteftatiou was made, importing that
his fear of violence had been the caufe of his flight.
The queen commanded the judge not to pronounce
knrence. Murray complained loudly of her partiality,
and engaged deeper and deeper in cabals with queen
Elizabeth. Darnley, in the mean time, prefled his
fiut with eagernefs. The queen ufed her utmolf en-
(Favours to caufe Murray fubferibe a paper expreffing
a content to her marriage ; but all was to no purpofe.
However, many of die nobility did iubferibe this pa-
per ; feud flic ventured to futnmon a convention of the
vllates at Stirling, to whom (he opened the bufiuefa of
the marriage; and who approved of her choice, pro¬
vided the Proteftant religion Ihould continue to be the
eftablifiunent.
In the mean time ambaflhdors arrived from England,
with a mefiage importing Elizabeth’s entire difappro*
oution and difallowance of the queen’s marriage with
'lord Darnley. But to thefe ambafiadors Mary only
Vou XVII. Pan I. ' ^
a cl
t;y-
icen
Darn.
iaffiliated by the lord Darnley. Idis fears were found¬
ed abroad ; and he avoided to go to Perth, where he
affirmed that the plot againft him was to be carried in¬
to execution. He courted the enemies of Darnley
with uuceafing affiduity ; and he united to him in a
confederacy the duke of Chatelheranlt, and the earls An aflJc.V
of Argyle, Rothes, and Glencairn. jt was not the foie bon a^ainft
objedf ol their anociation to oppole the marriage. ’I’hey
engaged in more criminal enterprifes. 1 hey meditated1
the death of the earl of Lenox and the lord Darnley ;
and while the queen was upon the road to Calander
place to vilit the lord Livingfton, they propofed to in- '
tercept her and to hold her in captivity. In this ftate
ol her humiliation, Murray was to advance himfelf into
the government of the kingdom, under the character of
its regent. . But Mary having received intelligence of
their confpiracy, the earl of Athol and the lord Ruth-
ven raffed fuddcnly 300 men to protect her in her jour¬
ney. Defeated in this foheme, the earl of Murray and
his affociates did not relinquiih their cabals. They
thought of new atchievements ; and the nation was fill¬
ed with alarms, fufpicions, and terror.
A audit the arts employed by the Scottiffi malcon-ry/'V
tents to inflame the animoiities of the nation, they for- cel raifcd*
got not to infill upon the dangers which threatened the by the Pro-*
1 roteftant religion from the advancement of lord Darn-te^anW*
ley, and from the rupture that muft enfue with England.
Letters were everywhere difperfed among the fafthfufi
reminding them of what the'eternal God had wrouAit
for them in the abolition of idolatry, and admonilhW
them to oppofe the rdloration of the mafs. A fuppli-
cation was prelented to the queen, complaining o( ido¬
laters, and infilling upon their purtifhmeut. ° In the
pi dent juncture ol affairs it was received with unufual
refped ; and Mary iuflructed the Popiffr ecclefzaltfcs to
abllai i
v
SCO
[ 5° ]
SCO
ico'lanJ. abtlain from giving offence of any kind to the Protef-
xw—'-y-"-— rants* A prlett, however, having celebrated the mafs,
was taken by the brethren, and expofed to the infults
and fury of the populace at the market-place of Edin¬
burgh, in the garments of his profeffion, and with the
chaiice in his hand ; and the queen having given a check
to this tumultuous proceeding, the Proteftants, riling in
their wrath, were the more confirmed in the belief that
(he meant to overthrow their religion. 1 he mod learned
and able of the clergy held frequent confultations to¬
gether ; and while the nation was difturbed with dan¬
gerous ferments, the general affembly was called to de¬
liberate upon the affairs of the church. 1 heir hope of
fuccefs being proportioned to the difficulties in the fi-
tuation of the queen, they were the lefs ferupulous in
forming their refolutions; and the commiffioners, whom
they deputed to her, were ordered to demand a parlia¬
mentary ratification of their defires.
They infifted, that the mafs, with every remain what
636
Their de
ttiands.
perfuaded that her people would not urge her to adopt |cctl£nd.
tenets in contradiftion to herown confcience, and thereby v —'
involve her in remorfe and uneafmefs. She had been
nourifhed and brought up in the Romifh faith ; fhe con¬
ceived it to be founded on the word of God ; and fhe
was defirous to continue in it. But, fetting afide her
belief and religious duty, fhe ventured to affure them,
that flic was convinced from political reafons, that it
was her intereft to maintain herfelf firm in the Roman
Catholic perfuafion. By departing from it, fhe would
forfeit the amity of the king of France, and that of
other princes who were now ftrongly attached to her ;
and their difaffedtion could not be repaired or compen-
fated by any new alliance. To her fubjedts fhe left the
fulleft liberty of confcience ; and they could not ftirely
refufe to their fovereign the fame right and indulgence.
With regard to the patronage of benefices, it was a pre¬
rogative and property which it would ill become her to
violate. Her neeeffities, and the charge of her royal
foeverof popery,fhould be univerfally fuppreffed through- dignity, required her to retain in her hands the patn-
out the kingdom ; that in this reformation, the queen’s mony of the crown. After the purpofes, however, of
perfon and houfehold fhould be included ; and that all her ftation, and the exigences of government, were fa-
Papifts and idolaters fhould be punifhed upon convic- tisfied, fhe could not objeft to a fpecial affignment of
tion according to the laws. They contended, that per- revenue for the maintenance of the miniftry ; and, on
fons of every defeription and degree fhould refort to the fubjed of the other articles which had been fub-
the churches upon Sunday, to join in prayers, and to mitted to her, fhe was willing to be dire&ed by the
attend to exhortations and fermons ; that an indepen¬
dent provifion fhould be affigned for the fupport of the
prefent clergy, and for their fucceffors ; that all vacant
benefices fhould be conferred upon perfons found to. be
qualified for the miniftry, upon the trial and examina¬
tion of the fuperintendants ; that no biffiopric, abbey,
priory, deanery, or other living, having many churches,
fhould be beftowed upon a fingle ptrfon ; but that, the
plurality of the foundation being diffolved, each church
fhould be provided with a minifter ; that the glebes and
manfes fhould be allotted for the refidence of the mini-
fters, and for the reparation of churches; that no charge
Jn fchools or univerfities, and no care of education, ei¬
ther public or private, fhould be intrufted to any per¬
fon who was not found and able in doftrine, and who
was not approved by the fuperintendants ; that all lands
which of old had been devoted to hofpitality, fhould
again be made fubfervient to it ; that the lands and
rents which formerly belonged to the monks of every
order, with the annuities, alterages, obits, and the other
emoluments which had appertained to priefts, fhould be
employed in the maintenance of the poor and the up¬
holding of fchools ; that all horrible crimes, fuch as
idolatry, blafphemy, breaking of the fabbath, witch¬
craft, forcery, inchantment, adultery, manifeft whore¬
dom, the keeping of brothels, murder, and oppreffion,
fhould be punifhed with feverity ; that judges fhould be
appointed in every diftrift, with powers to pronounce
fentences and to execute them; and, in fine, that for
the eafe of the labouring hufbandmen, fome order ffiould
be devifed concerning a reafonable payment of the
tythes.
Moderati n To thefe requifitions, the queen made an anfwer full
of the 0f moderation and humanity. She was ready to agree
with the three eftates in eftablifhing the reformed reli¬
gion over the fubjefts of Scotland ; and fhe was fteadily
refolved not to throw into hazard the life, the peace, or
the fortune, of any perfon whatfoever upon account of
his opinions. As to herfelf and her houfehold, fhe was
637
queen.
three eftates of the kingdom, and to concur in the re¬
folutions which ffiould appear to them the moil reafon¬
able and expedient.
The clergy, in a new affembly or convention, expref- phe prote.
fed a high difpleafure with this return to their addrefs. ^ants are
They took the liberty to inform the queen, that the difpleafed
doftrines of the reformation which fhe refufed to adopt, wnhheran.
were the religion which had hee:n revealed by Jefusfvver*
Chrift, and taught by the apoftles. Popery was of all
perfuafions the leaft alluring, and had the feweft recom¬
mendations. In antiquity, confent of people, authority
of princes, and number of profelytes, it was plainly in¬
ferior to Judaifm. It did not even reft upon a founda¬
tion fo folid as the do&rines of the alcoran. They re¬
quired her, therefore, in the name of the eternal God,
to embrace the means of attaining the truth, which
were offered to her in the preaching of the word, or
by the appointment of public difputations between them
and their adverfaries. The terrors of the mafs were
placed before her in all their deformity. The fayer of
it, the aftion itfelf, and the opinions expreffed in it,
were all pronounced to be equally abominable. To
hear the mafs, or to gaze upon it, was to commit the
complicated crimes of facrilege, blafphemy, and idolatry.
Her delicacy in not renouncing her opinions from the
apprehenfion of offending the king of France and her
other allies, they ridiculed as impertinent in the higheft
degree. They told her, that the true religion of Chrift
was the only means by which any confederacy could en-
diue ; and that it was far more precious than the al¬
liance of any potentate whatfoever, as it would bring to
her the friendffiip of the King of kings. As to patro-
nages, being a portion of her patrimony, they intend¬
ed not to defraud her of her rights: but it w'as their
judgment, that the fuperintendants ought to make a
trial of the qualifications of candidates for the miniftry;
and as it was the duty of the patron to prefent a perfon
to the benefice, it was the bufmefs of the church to
manage his inftitution or collation. For without this
reftraint,
SCO
r 5
6.39
'hey rife
arms,
ut are
Scotland, reftniint, there would be no fecurlty for the fitnefs of
t}je incumbent; and if no trials or examinations of mi-
nifters took place, the church would be filled with mif-
rule and ignorance. Nor was it right or juft that her
majefty fhould retain to herfelf any part of the revenue
of benefices ; as it ought to be all employed to the
ufes of the clergy, for the purpofes of education, and
for the fupport of the poor. And as to her opinion,
that a fuitable aflignment fhould be made for them,
they could not but thank her with reverence : but they
begged to folicit and importune her to condefcend upon
the particulars of a proper fcheme for this end, and to
carry it into execution ; and that, taking into a due
confideration the other articles of their demands, fhe
would ftudy to comply with them, and to do jultice to
the religious eftablifhment of her people.
From the fears of the people about their religion,
difturbances and infurrections were unavoidable; and
before Mary had given her anfwer to the petitions or
j ^11 “ addrefs of the clergy, the Proteftants, to a formidable
number, had marched to St Leonard’s Craig ; and, di¬
viding themfelves into companies, had chofen captains
to command them. But the leaders of this tumult be-
ing apprehended and committed to clofe cuftody, it
fublided by degrees ; and the queen, upon the intercef-
fion of the magiftrates of Edinburgh, inftead of bring¬
ing them to trial, gave them a free pardon. To quiet,
at the fame time, the apprehenfions which had gone
abroad, and to controvert the infidious reports which
had been induftrioully fpread of her inclination to over¬
turn the reformed do&rines, fhe repeatedly ifiued pro¬
clamations, affuring her fubjects, that it was her fixed
determination not to moleft or difturb any perfon what*
foever upon account of his religion or conference ; and
that flie had never prefumed even to think of any inno¬
vation that might endanger the tranquillity or do a
prejudice to the happinefs of the commonwealth.
trLuesof While Mary was conducing her affairs with difeern-
e rebel- ment and ability, the earl of Murray and his confede-
kh rates continiied their confultations and their intrigues.
After their difappointment in the confpiracy againft the
queen and the lord Darnley, they perceived that their
only hope of fuccefs or fecurity depended upon Eliza¬
beth ; and as Randolph had promited them her protec¬
tion and affiftance, they fcrupled not to addrefs a letter
to her, explaining their views and fituation. The pre¬
tences of their hoftility to their fovereign upon which
they affe&ed to infift, were her fettled defign to over¬
turn the Proteftant religion, and her rooted defire to
break all correfpondence and amity with England. To
prevent the accomplifhment of thefe purpofes, they faid,
w'as the objeeft of their confederacy ; and with her fup¬
port and aid they did not doubt of being able to ad¬
vance effeftually the emolument and advantage of the
two kingdoms. In the prefent ftate of their affairs,
they applied not, however, for any fupply of her troops.
An aid from her treafury was now only neceffary to
them ; and they engaged to beftow her bounty in the
manner the moft agreeable to her inclinations and her
interelts. The pleafure with which Elizabeth receive !
their application was equal to the averfion fhe had eon.
ceived againft the queen of Scots. She not only grant¬
ed to them the relief they requefted, but affured them
by Randolph of her efteem and favour while they
should continue to uphold the reformed religion and the
i ] SCO
c@nne<ftion of the two nations. Flattered by her aflu- Scotland,
ranees and generofity, they were ftrenuous to gain par- J
tizans, and to ditunite the friends of their fovereign ;
and while they weie fecretly preparing for rebellion,
and for trying ttieir ftrength in the field, they diffemi-
nated among the people the tenets, That a Papift could
not legally be their king ; that the queen was not at li¬
berty of herfelf to make the choice of a hufhand ; and
that, in a matter fo weighty, fhe ought to be entirely
direfted by the determination of the three eftates affem-
bled in parliament.
641
Elizabeth, at the fame time, carrying her diffimula-'Treachery
tion to the moft criminal extremity, commanded Ran-of Eliza-
dolph to afk an audience of Mary ; and to counfcl herbeth*
to nourifh no fufpicions or the earl of Murray and- his
friends ; to open her eyes to their fincerity and honour;
and to call to mind, that as their iervices had hitherto
preferved her kingdom in repoie, her jealoufies of them
might kindle it into combuftion, make the blood of her
nobles to flow, and caft into hazard her perfon and her
crown. Full of aftonifhment at a meffage fo rude and
fo improper, the queen of Scots delired him to inform
his miftrefs, that fhe required not her inftruftions to di-
ftinguifh between patriotifm and treachery ; that fhe
was fully ienfible when her will or purpofe was refifted
or obeyed; and that fhe poffelled a power which was
more than fufficient to reprefs and to punifli the enor¬
mities and the crimes of her fubje&s. The Englifh re-
fident went now to the earl of Lenox and the lord
Darnley, and charged them to return to England. The
former expreffed an appreheniion of the feverity of his
-queen, and fought an affurance of her favour before he
could venture to vifit her dominions. The latter, ex-
erting greater fortitude, told him, that he acknowledged
no duty or obedience but to the queen of Scots. The
refident treating this anfwer as difrefpe&ful to Eliza¬
beth, turned his back upon the lord Daraley, and re¬
tired without making any reverence, or bidding him an
adieu.
The behaviour of Elizabeth, fo fierce and fo perfi¬
dious, was well calculated to confirm all the intentions
of Mary ; and this, doubtlefs, was one of the motives
with which fire Was afluated. But while the queen of
Scots w'as eager to aecomplifh her marriage, fhe w'as
not inattentive to the rifing troubles of her country.
'1 he parliament which fhe had appointed could not now
be held : it was therefore prorogued to a more diftant
day ; and the violence of the times did not then per¬
mit it to affcmble. By letters flic invited to her, with
all their retainers, the moft powerful and the moft emi¬
nent of her fubjeifts. Bothwel was recalled anew from
trance; and by general proclamations fhe fummoned
to her ftandard the united force of her kingdom. The
caftle of Edinburgh was likew'ife provided amply wuth
ftores and ammunition, that, in the event of misfortunes,
it might afford her a retreat and defence. The ala¬
crity with which her fubjefts flocked to her from every
quarter, informed her of her power and popularity;
and v- hile it ftruck Murray and his adherents with the
danger to which they were expofed, it declared to them
the opinion entertained by the nation of the iniquity
and the felfifhnefs of their proceedings. ,
. 0° the 29th of July 1565, the ceremony of mar-Mainage
nage between the queen and lordLarnley was perform*01 Mary
ed. The latter had been previoufly created duke ofwith lord
0 2 ' Albany.
4
Scotland.
He is pro*
claimed
kin? of
Scotland.
v
644 ,
The rebel¬
lious noble:
driven into
England.
SCO [ 5
Albany. The day before the marriage, a proclamation
was published, commanding him to be ilyled iing of the
realm, and that all letters after their marriage fhould be
direfted in the names of her hufband and herlelf. The
day after it, a new proclamation was iflued confirming
this ail : he was pronounced king by the found of
trumpets, and affociated with the queen in her govern¬
ment. This meafure feems to have been the riTedt of
the extreme love the queen had for her hufband, which
did not permit her to fee that it was an infringement of
the conftitution of the kingdom ; though perhaps fhe
might alfo be urged to it by the preffing eagernefs of
lord Darnley himfelf, and the partial counfels of L'avid
Rizzio. The earl of Murray made loud complaints, re-
monflrated, that a king was impofed upon the nation
without the confent of the three eftates, and called up¬
on the nation to arm againil the beginnings of tyranny.
The malcontents accordingly were immediately in arms;
but their fuccefs was not anfwerable to their wifhes.
The bulk of the nation were fatisfied with the good in¬
tentions of their fovereign, and fhe herfelf took the ear-
licit opportunity of crufhing the rebellion in its mfan-
cy. The earl of Murray was declared a traitor ; and
fimilar fteps were taken with others of the chiefs of the
rebels. She then took the,field againft them at the
bhead of a confideruble army : and having driven them
from place to place, obliged them at laft to take refuge
in England. Queen Elizabeth received them wuth that
duplicity for which her conduct was fo remarkable.
Though fhe herfelf had countenanced, and even excited
them to revolt, fhe refufed to give an audience to their
deputies. Nay, fhe even caufed them to emit a public
declaration, that neither fhe, nor any peri on in her
name, had ever excited them to their rebellious prac¬
tices. Yet, while the public behaviour of Elizabeth
was fo acrimonious, fhe afforded them a fecure retreat
in her kingdom, treated the earl of Murray in private
with reljpedf and kindntfs, and commanded the earl of
Bedford to iupply him w'ith money. Mary, however,
relolved to proceed againft the rebels with an exem¬
plary rigour. The fubmiffions of the duke of Chatel-
lierault alone, who had been lefs criminal than the reft,
were attended to. But even the favour which he ob¬
tained was precarious and uncertain ; for he was com¬
manded to ufe the pretence of licknefs, and to pafs for
fome tune into foreign countries. A parliament was
called ; and a fummons of treafon being executed againft
the earls of Argylc, Gle.ncairn, and Rothes, with others
s ] SCO
of the principal rebels, they were commanded to appear Srodsnif,
before the three eftates ; in default of which their lives v—
and etlates were declared to be forfeited.
In the mean time Throgmorton the Englifh ambaf-
fador folicited the pardon of the rebels; which Mary ^ .
was at firlt inclined to grant. However, by the per-Mary ac*
fuafion of the court of France, fhe was not only indu-ce(fi's tl^h8
ced to proceed againit them with rigour, but acceded
to the treaty of Bayonne, by which the deftrudtion of J w
the Proteflants was determined. This meafure filled
the w hole court with terror and diimay. The rebels
were acquainted wnth the danger of their fituation ; and
being now driven defperate, they were ready to engage
in the moft atrocious defigns. Unhappily, the fitua¬
tion of affairs in Scotland rendered the accomplifhment
of their purposes but too eafy. Violent difgufts tiad
taken place between the queen and her hufband. Her Quarrel*
fondnefs had been excefiive ; but file foon perceived l)ctweentT
that the qualities of his mind w^ere not proportioned to
his perfonal accomplifhments. He was proud, difdain- t)aa4> .
ful, and fufpicious. No perfuafions could coiredt his
wiltulnefs ; and lie w’as at the fame time giddy and ob-
ftinate, infolent and mean. The queen in confequence
began to fhow an indifference towards him; which he
took care to augment, by {bowing the like indifference
towards tier, and engaging in low intrigues and amours,
indulging himfelf in diflipation and riot, &c. Howr-
ever, the defire of dominion wras his ruling paffion ; and
the queen, finding his total incapacity for exereifing
his power to any good purpofe, had excluded him from
it altogether. He was therefore at prefent a proper
objeft for the machinations of the rebels, and readily
entered into an agreement with them to depute the
queen ; vainly thinking by that means that he fhould
fecure the crown to himfelf. However, as the parlia¬
ment w'as foon to afiemble, in which the rebels had
ever}- reafon to believe that they would be condemned
for high tieafon, it was necefiary that the kingdom
fhould be thrown into diforder before that time came,.
otherwife their fate wras inevitable. Praftifing on the
imbecillity of Darnley, they- perfuaded him that a cri- ^47
minal correfpondence fubfifted between the. queen and kir“
David Rizzio (r). For this reafon the king relolvedthe deibuo
upon his deffrudtion ; and the confpirators hoped there-tion of Da.
by not only to get an indemnity to themfelves, but to v'^
efleet a total revolution at couit, and the entire humi-^^^
liation of Bothwel, Huntley, and Athol, who were the robics.
allociates of Rizzio. However, in cmder to fave them-
felves*
(r) That there fubfifled a criminal intercomfe between Mary and Rizzio is a fcandal which is now given up
by her enemies. It items to reft on the authority of Buchanan and Knox ; and their evidence in this cafe is
clearly of no w-eight, not only from their being the ftrenuous pavtizans of her adverfaries, but from the multitude
of falfehoods which they anxioufly detail to calumniate her. The love fire felt for Darnley was extreme, and
their acquaintance commenced a month or two after the appointment of Rizzio to be her fecretaiy for French
affairs. She became pregnant foon after her marriage ; and it was during her pregnancy that kizzio was ai*
fafiinated. Thefe are finking preemptions in her favour. And what feems to put her innocence out of all
queftion, is the filence of the fpies and refidents of Elizabeth with regard to this amour; for, if there had been
any thing real in it, they could not have made their court to their queen more effectually than by declaring to
her its peculiarities ; and their want of delicacy, fo obiervatlc in other circumftances, would have induced them
upon this occafion to give the greatefl foulnefs and deformity to their information.
It appears that Rizzio was ill-favoured, and of a difagrteable form. Buchanan fays of him, “ Non faciem
cultus honeftabat, fed facies cultum deftruebat. Hill. Scot. lib. xvii. This expreflion is very ftrong ; but it
would have little weight other authors had not concurred in giving afimilar defeription of Rizzio, In a book
intitkd
Iglotlird.
64S
Rizzio
p nelly
murtitred.
sco r S3
ftlvcSj they engaged the king to fubfcrfbe a bond, af¬
firming that the projeft of affalfinating Rizzio was al¬
together of his own deviling ; acknowledging that he
had folicited them to take a part in it, from the appre-
henlions that reliftance might be made to him; and
agreeing, upon the word and honour of a prince, to
protect"and fecure them againft every hazard and injury
to which they might be expofed from the atchievement
of his enterprife. Having procured this fecurity, and
having allured the eail of Lenox the king’s father to
approve their meafures, they adjufted the method of
the proje&ed murder ; and difpatched a meffenger to
the Englilh frontier, ad vert i bug the earl of Murray and
the rebels of their intentions, and inviting them to re¬
turn to the court.
Upon the 9tli day of March, about 7 o’clock in the
evening, armed men, to the number of500> furrounded
the palace of Holyroodhoufe. The earl of Morton
and the Lord Lindlay entered the court of the palace,
with 160 perfons. The queen was in her chamber at
fupper, having in her prelence her natural filter the
countefs of Argyle, her natural brother Robert com-
mendator of Holyroodhoule, Reton of Creich mailer of
the houfehold, Arthur Eifkine, and David Rizzio.
The king entering the apartment, feated himfelf by her
fide. He was followed by the Lord Ruthven, who be¬
ing waited with licknefs, and cafed in armour, exhibi¬
ted an appearance that was hideous and terrible. Four
ruffians attended him. In a hollow voice he com-
manded Rizzio to leave a place which did not become
him. The queen, in aftomlhment and coniternation,
applied to the king to unfold to her this myllerious en-
tevprife. Lie affedted ignorance. She ordered Ruth¬
ven from her prefenee, under the pain of treafon ; de¬
claring to him at the lame time, that if Rizzio had
committed any crime, Ihe would produce him before the
parliament, and punilh him according to the laws.
Ruthven drawing his dagger, advanced towards Rizzio.
The queen rofe to make an exertion of her authority.
The unfortunate ftranger laid hold of her garments,
crying out for jullice and mercy. Other confpirators
rulhing into the chamber, overturned the table, and in-
crealed the dilmay and confulion. Loaded piltols were
prefented to the bolom of the queen. The king held
her in his arms. George Douglas, fnatching the dag¬
ger of his fovereign, plunged it into the body of Riz¬
zio. The wounded and fereaming vittim was dragged
into the antichamber; and fo eager were the affaffins
] ' ;S C O
to complete their woik, that he was torn and mangled Scotland;.
with 56 wounds. _ ——y—w
While the queen was preffing the king to gratify
her inquiries into the meaning of a deed lo execrable,
Ruthven returned into their prefence. She gave a full
vent to indignation and reproach. Ruthven, with an
intolerable coldnefs and deliberation, informed her, that
Rizzio had been put to death by the counfel of her hut-
band, whom he had dilhonoured ; and that by the per-
fuafion of this minion Ihe had refufed the crown-matri¬
monial to the king, had engaged to re-eltablilh the an¬
cient religion, had refolvtd to punilh the earl of Murray
and his iriends-, and had entrufted her confidence to
Bothwel and Huntley, who were traitors. The king,
taking the part of Ruthven, remonltrated againit her
proceedings, and complained that from the time of her
familiarity with Rizzio, Ihe had neither regarded, nor
entertained, nor milted him. His fufpicions and in¬
gratitude fhocked and tortured her. His connection
with the confpirators gave her an ominous anxiety. Ap-
prehenfions of outrages itill more atrocious invaded her.
In thefe agitated and miferable moments the did not
lofe herfelf in the helpldfnefs of forrow. The lottinefs
of her Ipirit communicated relief to her ; and wiping
away her tears, the exclaimed, that it was not now a
fealon for lamentation, but for revenge.
The earls of Huntley, Bothwel, and Athol, the
lords Fleming and Levingfton, and Sir James Balfour,
who were obnoxious to the confpirators, and at this
time in the palace, found all refiltance to be vain.
Some of them eluding the vigilance of Morton, made
their efcape ; and others were allowed to retire. The
provoll and magiilrates of Edinburgh getting intelli¬
gence of the tumult, ordered the alarm bell to be rung. ^
The citizens, apprehtnlive and anxious, approached in The queen
crowds to inquire into the welfare of their fovereign ; confined,
but fhe was not permitted to addrels herlelf to them. ^1^c*ireaU
The confnirators told her, that if Ihe prefumed to make*'1 'r
any harangue, they would “ cut her in pieces, and call
her over the walls.” The king called to the people that
fire was well, and commanded them to dilperlt. 1 he
queen was fhut up in her chamber, uncertain of her
fate, and without the confolation or attendance of her
women.
In the morning a proclamation was iffued by the
king, without the knowledge of his queen, prohibiting
the meeting of the parliament, and ordering the mem*
bers to retire irom the city. The rebellious lords now
intitled, “ Le Livre de la Morte de la Reyne d’Ecofie,” and printed in the year 1587, he is faid to be “ degra¬
de de corps.” Cauffin, ap. Jebb, p. 37. This work, too, while it records the unkindnefs of nature to his per*
ion, has obferved, that he was in his old age when he made a figure in the court ol Mary. “ Elle traittoit or-
dinairement avec David Riccio ien lecretaire, homme aage et prudent, qui poffcduit fon oreille.” Ibid. And
other authors give their teftirnonies to the fame purpofe.
It is probable that the panegyrilts of Mary exaggeiate fomewhat the imperfections as well as the good quali¬
ties of Rizzio. But there feems in general to be no reafon to doubt his fidelity and talents, any more than his
uglinefs and fenility. He had therelore a better title to be her fecretary than her lover.' It is an ablurdity to
think that a queen fo young and beautiful would yield herfelt to deformity and old age. A common profiitute
mult be brought to endure this misfortune. The capacity ot the man was a recommendation to him ; and as he
owed every thing to her bounty, and was a ftranger, ftie had the greatell reafon to rely upon his faithrulncfs.
The perfidioufneis and duplicity ot her courtiers drew clofer the tie of their connection ; and as Rizzio was ftu*
•lions to make himfelf agreeable, and was fkilful in games of hazard, he was always ready to be a party with her
iu thofe innocent amufements which fill up the iiftlefs intervals of life. Keith. Append, p. 124.
SCO t
'S-.otaad. returned from England, and arrived at Edinburgh
6^0" vv^^11'n 2 4 hours after the aflaffination of Rizzio. The
She endea- knowing of how much coniequence it was for
vours in her to gain the earl of Murray, invited him to wait
'theVarl^cfn U^°n ^er" hlotwithftanding the extreme provocatian
Murray. 'yhich flic had met with, Mary fo far commanded her
651
But pre-
fpirators.
paflions, that fire gave him a favourable reception.
After informing him of the mdenefs and feverity of
the treatment (lie had met with, the queen obferved,
that it he had remained in friendfhip with her at home,
he would have protected her again(l fuch exceffes of
hardfhip and infult. Murray, with an hypocritical
compaflion, fhed abundance of tears ; 'while the queen
feemed to entertain no doubt of his fincerity, but gave
him room to hope for a full pardon of all his offences.
In the mean time, however, the confpirators held fre¬
quent confultations together, in which it was debated,
whether they fhould hold the queen in perpetual capti-
vity, or put her to death ; or whether they fhould eon-
tent themfelves with committing her to clofe cuflody in
Stirling caftle till they fhould obtain a parliamentary
lanftiori to their proceedings, eftablifh the Proteftant
religion by the total overthrow of the mafs, and inveft
the king with the crown-matrimonial and the govern
ment of the kingdom.
_ r..- Mary now began to perceive the full extent of her
vails on the wretchednefs ; and therefore, as her laft refource, ap-
«° th P!ied t0 the whom treated with all thefe blan-
caufe of difhments ufually employed by the fair fex when they
the con- want to gain the afcendency over the other. I he king,
who, with all his faults, had a natural facility of temper,
was eafrly gained over. The confpirators were alarmed
at his coldnefs, and endeavoured to fill his mind with
fears concerning the duplicity of his wife ; but, finding
they could not gain their point, they at laft began to
treat of an accommodation. The king brought them
a meffage, importing, that Mary was difpofed to bury
in oblivion all memory of their tranfgreffions ; and he
offered to condudf them into her prefence. The earls
of Murray and Morton, with the lord Ruthven, attend¬
ed him into her prefence ; and, falling on their knees
before the queen, made their apologies and fubmiffions^
She commanded them to rife ; and having defrred them
to recoiled her abhorrence of cruelty and rapacioufnefs,
fhe affured them with a gracious air, that inftead of de-
figning to forfeit their lives, and poffeJs herfelf of their
eftates, fhe was inclined to receive them into favour, and
to give a full pardon, not only' to the nobles who had
come from England, but to thofe who had affaffinated
David Rizzio. They were accordingly ordered to pre¬
pare the bonds for their fecurity and forgivenefs, which
the queen promifed to take the earlieft opportunity of
fubfcnbmg ; but in the mean time the king obferved,
that the cenipirators ought to remove the guards which
th*y ^ P.Iaced around the queen, that all fufpicion of
•Andefcapes-reftraint might be taken away. This meafure could
lrom thcn)- n°t ^th any propriety be oppofed, and the guards
were therefore difmiffed ; upon which the queen, that
very night, left her palace at midnight, and took the
road to Dunbar, accompanied by the king and a few
attendants.
The news of the queen’s efcape threw the confpira¬
tors into the utmoft confternation ; as flic immediately
iftued proclamations for her fubjefts to attend her in
arms, and was powerfully fupported. They lent there
54 1 sco
fine the lord Semple, requelling, with the utn’ofl hit- Scotia.,,
muty, her lubfcnption to their deeds of pardon and
feennty ; but to this meffage fhe returned an unravour-
able anfwer, and advanced towards Edinburgh with an
aimy of 8000 men. The confpirators now fled with
the utmoft precipitation. Even John Knox retired to
Kyle till the ftorm fhould blow over. On the queen’s 653
arrival at Edinburgh, a privy council was inftantly caU-lS'nrti;
ed, in which the confpirators were charged to appear are declared
as guilty of murder and treafon ; their places of ftremrth t,ait0'r»-
were ordered to be rendered up t« the officers of the
crown ; and their eftates and poffeffions were made li-
able to confifcation and forfeiture.
But while the queen was thus eager to punifh the
confpirators, {he was fenfible that fo many of the nobi¬
lity, by ~ ---    f ■
uniting in a common caufe, might raife
65*
powerful party in oppofition to her ; for which reafon
fhe endeavoured to detach the earl of Murray from the
reft, by making him offers of pardon. Sir James Mel-
vil accordingly pledged himfelf to produce his pardon
and that of his adherents, if he would feparate from
Morton and the confpirators. He accordingly became
cold and diftant to them, and exclaimed aoainft the
murder as h moft execrable a&ion ; but notwithftanding
his anecled anger, when the confpirators fled to Eng¬
land, he furnifhed them with letters of recommendation
to the earl of Bedford. After the flight of the confpi- 6*4
rators, the king thought it neceffary for him to deny ,S.
h,s having any flare in the aSion. He therefore em lion of Si
braced an opportunity of declaring to the privy councilk»ng.
his total ignorance of the confpiracy againlt Rizzio •
and not fatisfied with this, he, by public proclamations
at the market place of his capital, and over the whole
kingdom, protefted to the people at large that he had
never bellowed upon it, in any degree, the famftion of
his command, confent, afliftance, or approbation. ,
In the mean time the queen granted a full and am-Murray
pie paidon to the earls ot Murray, Argyle, Glencairn, and f-me
and Rothes, and their adherents ; but towards the con-otlie s of
Ipirators fhe remained inexorable. This lenity, to Mur-the reb^Is
ray elpecially, proved a fource of the greateft inquietude ed! P3rd°n‘
to the queen j for this nobleman, blind to every motive
o . a^T10n dliIin& from his own ambition, began to con¬
trive new plots, which, though difappointed for a time,
loon operated to the deftruttion of the queen, and al-
molt to the ruin ot the nation.
In 1566, the queen was delivered of a prince, who Jw
received the name of jW. This happy event, how- Jame^VI.
ever did not extinguifh the quarrel betwixt her and
the king. His deflre to intrude himfelf into her autho¬
rity, and to fix a ftain upon her honour, his fhare in
the murder of Rizzio, and his extreme meannefs in
publicly denying it afterwards, could not fail to imprefs
her with the ftrongeft fentiments of deteftation and con-
tempt. Unable, however, totally to diveft herfelf of
regard for him, her behaviour, though cold and diftant,
was yet decent and refpe&ful. Caftelnau, at this time . ,
ambaffador extraordinary from France, conceived that
a reconciliation might be effeaed, and employed himfelf ^ "he
fome time in this friendly office. Nor were his endea- tvten the
vours altogether ineffeaual. The king and queen fpentH ''ud
two nights together ; and proceeded, in company with'
each other, to Meggatland in Tweeddale in order to en-
joy the diverfion of the chace, attended by the carls of
Huntley, Bothwel, Murray, and other nobles. From
thence
queen.
SCO [
fcVotlandi. thence they pafled to Edinburgh, and then took the
road to Stirling. Had the king been endowed with
■hkh is any Prudence, he would have made the beft ufe of this
1 (jken off opportunity to have regained the affeftions of his
] the queen ; but, inftead of this, finding that he was not
lug’sisn- immediately iittrufted with power, his peevifhnefs fug-
^ viour £ gifted to him a defign of going abroad. To Monfieur
[ ’ du Croc, the French retident, who had atten led Mary
at Stirling, he ventured to communicate his chimerical
projeft. This ftatefman reprefented to him its wildnefs
and inefficacy ; and could hardly believe that he was
ferious. To his father the earl of Lenox, who paid
him a vifit at this place immediately upon Mary’s de¬
parture from it, he likewife communicated his inten¬
tion ; and all the intreaties, arguments, and remonflran-
ces of this nobleman to make him drop his defign, were
without fuccefs. He provided a veffel, and kept it in
readinefs to carry him From his dominions. The earl
of Lenox, after returning to Glafgow, where he ufual-
ly refided, gave way to his paternal anxieties, and foli-
clted the queen by letter to interfere with her authority
and perfuafions; and upon the evening of the day in
which fire received this difpatch, the king alighted at
Holyroodhoufe. But the names of the nobles who
were with the queen being announced to him, he ob-
jefted to three of them, and infifted that they fhould
be ordered to depart, before he would enter within the
gates of the palace. The queen, alarmed with a de¬
meanour fo rude and fo unwarrantable, condefcended to
leave her company and her palace to meet him; and it
was with great difficulty that fire was able to entice him
into her own apartment. There he remained with her
during the night. She communicated to him his fa¬
ther’s letter, and employed every art and blandifirment
to engage him to explain his perverfe defign. But he
I gave her no return or fatisfaftion. He was unmoved
with her kindnefs ; and his filence, dejection, and pee-
vifirnefs, augmented her diftrefs. In the morning, fire
t called her privy council to aflemble in the palace, and
invited to her Monlieur du Croc the French envoy. By
the bifirop of Rofs fire explained the intention of the
king, and made known the difpatch of the earl of Le¬
nox. The privy council were urgent to know the rea-
fons of a voyage that appeared to them fo inexplicable ;
and earneftly preffed the king to unbofom himfelf. If
his refolution proceeded from difcontent, and if there
were perfons in the kingdom who had given him caufes
of offence, they affured him, that they were ready, upon
his information, to take the neceffary fteps to make
him eafy and happy. No quality or rank firould exempt
thofe from inquiry and punifirment who had committed
mifdenreanors againtt him. This, they faid, confifted
with his honour, with the honour of the queen, and
with their own. If, however, he had received no fuffi-
cient provocation to juftify his behaviour, and if he
had no title to complain of aftual injuries, they admo-
nifired him to remember, that his flight from a queen
fo beautiful, and from a kingdom fo ancient and noble,
would expofe him to the greateft ridicule and difgrace.
fIhey pointed out the happinefs of his fortune, and
counfelled him not to part lightly with all its flattering
advantages. The queen herfelf, taking his hand into
her’s, and preffing it with affeftion, befought him to
fay by what aft or deed file had unfortunately induced
hint to conceive fo fatal a purpofe. Her memory did
55 I . s c 0 .
not reproach her with any crime or indiferetion which Scotland/
affefted his honour or her integrity : yet if, without any  v—
defign upon her part, file had incurred his difpleafure,
fhe was difpofed to atone for it; and fhe begged him
to fpeak with entire freedom, and not in any degree to
fpare her. Monfieur du Croc then addreffed him, and
employed his interelt and perfuafions to make him re¬
veal his inquiettides. But all this refpeftful attention
and ceremonious duty were ineffeftual. Obftinately
frovvard, he refufed to confd's that he intended any voy¬
age, and made no mention of any reafons of difeontent^
He yet acknowledged with readinefs, that he could not
with juftice accufe the queen of any injury or offence.
Opprefled with uneafinefs and perturbation, he prepared
to retire ; and, turning to her, faid, “ Adieu, Madam !
you (hall not fee me for a long time.” He then bowed
to the French envoy, and to the lords of the privy
council.
He haftened back to Stirling, leaving the queen and
her council in furprife and afionifliment. They refolved
to watch his motions with anxiety, and could not con-
jefture what ftep he would take. Mary, to prevent
the effeft of rumours to her difadvantage, difpatched a
courier to advertife the king of France and the queen-
mother of his conduft. It was not poffible that a
prince fo meanly endowed with ability could make any
impreffion upon her allies. Nor did it appear to be in
his power to excite any domeftic infurreftion or difturb-
ance. H» was universally odious ; and, at this time,
the queen was in the higheft eftimation with the great
body of her fubjefts. After palling fome days at Stir¬
ling, he addreffed a letter to the queen, in which, after
hinting at his defign of going abroad, he xnlinuated his
reafons of complaint. He was not trufted by her witb>
authority, and (he was no longer lludious to advance
him to honour. He was without attendants ; and the
nobility had deferted him. Her anfwer was fenfible and -
temperate. She called to his remembrance the diftinc*
tions file had conferred upon him, the ufes to which he
had put the credit and reputation accruing from them,
and the heinous offences he had encouraged in her fub¬
jefts. Though the plotters againff Rizzio had repre¬
fented him as the leader of their enterprize, ffie had
yet abftained from any accufation of him, and had even
behaved as if file believed not his participation in the
guilt of that projeft. As to the defefts of his retinue,
fhe had uniformly offered him the attendance cf her
own fervants. As to the nobility, they were the fup-
ports of the throne, and independent of it. Their
countenance was not to be commanded, but won. He
had difeovered too much ftatelinefs to them ; and they
were the proper judges of the deportment that became
them. If he wifhed for confequence, it was his duty
to pay them court and attention ; and whenever he
fhould procure and conciliate their regard and com¬
mendation, file would be happy to give him all the -
importance that belonged to him.
In the mean time, the earls of Murray and Both*-
wel were induftrjoufly ftriving to widen the breach be¬
tween the king and queen, and at the fame time to fo¬
ment the divifion between the king and his nobles.
The earl of Morton excited difturbances on the bor¬
ders ; and as no fettled peace had taken place there
fince Mary’s marriage, there was the greateit reafon to
believe that he would fucceed in his attempts. Pro¬
clamations-
*59
'Mar> f i'U
;iic k, but
*«covsrs
S C O [ 5*
T^otUml. were thererorc iiraed Ly the ^neen tp call her
——- fubje&a to arms ; and ihe proceeded to Jedburgh, to
hold juih’cc-courts, ar»d to punifh traitors and dilordei-
]y pcrfons, In the eourfe of this journey Ihe was ta,
hen danoeroufly ill; info much that, believing her death
to be at hand, Hie called for the bilhop ot Rolls, telling
him to bear witnefs, that {he had perlevcred in that re-
lin’on in which ihe had been nonrilhed and brought up;
taking the promife of her noble#, that a'ter her death
they would open her lalt will and teitamentj and pay
ihe refpeft to it that confided with the laws; recom¬
mending to them the rights of her infant {on, and the
charge of educating, him in fuch a manner a$ might en¬
able him to rule the kingdom oi his anceftora with ho¬
nour ; and intreating them to abltain from all cruelty
and perfecutlon of her Roman Catholic fubjects. I\ot-
withdanding her spprehenfons, however, and the ex¬
treme violence of her diftemper, the queen at laft reco-
vered perfed health. Aa foon as fire was able to tra¬
vel, (he viCited Kelfo, Werk cattle, Hume, Langton,
and Weddcrburn. The licentious borderers, on the
full news of her recovery, laid down their arms. Be¬
ing defitous to take a view of Berwick, the queen ad¬
vanced to it with an attendance of icoo horde. Sir
John Forder, the deputy warden of the Englifh marches,
came forth with a numerous retinue, and conducted her
to the mod proper Station for furveyiug it, and paid her
ail the honours in his power, by a full difcharge of the
artillery, and other demonflrations of joy, Continu¬
ing her journey, fhe paffed to Eymoufh, Dunbar, and
Tantalum; proceeding thence to Graigmillar cattle,
where fhe propofed to remain till the time of the bap-
tifm of the prince, which was foon to be celebrated at
66a Stirling.
TTnCndrir'k During the fevere ficknefs of the queen, her huf-
*! the king, baud kept himftlf at a distance ; but when fhe was fo
far recovered as to be out of danger, he made his ap¬
pearance ; and being received with fume coldnefs and
formality, he retired fuddenly to Stirling. This cruel
negledt was a moil fenfible mortification to her ; and
while She fullered from his ingratitude and haughtinefs,
fhe was not without fufpicions that he was attempting
to dillurb the tranquillity of her government. She
was Seized with a fettled melancholy j and, in her an¬
guish, often wifhed for death to put a ueriod to her ex-
iftence. Her nobles, who were caballing again Si her,
remarked her condition, and took advantage of it.
Bothwei, who liad already recommended himfelf by
his fervices, redoubled lus efforts to heighten the fa¬
vour which thefe Services had induced her to conceive
for him. At this time, it is probable, he fought to
66x gain the affection of the queen, with a view to marry
A rjvorce her himfelf, providing a divorce from her hufband
T propo- could be obtained, which was now become the Subject
ie<i‘ of eonfultation by Murray and his aSlbciate*. After
much deliberation, the queen herfelf was acquainted
with this project ; and it was told her, that provided
fhe would pardon the carl of Morton and his afibciates,
the means Should be found of effectuating the divorce.
This vAiS urged as a matter of Hate by the earls of
Murray, Lethington, Argyle, and Huntley ; and the
linear was invited to consider it. as an affair which
might be managed without any interference on her
part. The queen replied, that fhe would liften to
them, upon condition that the divorce could be ob-
] SCO
tained according to the laws, and that it Should not be 'ionUnt,
any way prejudicial to her fon : but {f they meant to  
operate their purpofe by a disregard to thefe points,
they muff not think any more of it r for rather than
confent to their views, fhe would endure all the tor¬
ments, and abide by all the perils, to which her Situa¬
tion expoled her,
Lethingtoja upon this, in the name of the reft, en¬
gaged to make her quit of her hufband, without preju¬
dice to her fon ; words which could not be understood
otherwife than as pointing at murder. Ford Murray
(added he), who is here prefent, fcrupulous as he is,
will eonoive ; and behold our proceedings without
opening his lips. The queen immediately made anfwer,
I defire that you will do nothing from which any
flain may be fixed upon my honour or confcience ; and
I therefore require the matter to reft as it is, till God
of his goodnefs fend relief; What you think to be
of fervice to roe may turn out to my difpleafure and
harm. ”
It appears, however, that from this moment a plot was
formed by Murray, Bothwei, and Lethington, againft.
the life oS* Hartley, and by Some of them probably n-
gainft the queen herfelf;. and that Morton, who with
the otSier confpirators againft Rixaio had received a
pardon, was clofely aflbeiated with them in their nefari¬
ous defigns. That profligate peer was, in his way to"
Scotland, met at Whittingham by Bothwel and the fe-
cretary. They proposed to him the murder of the
king, and required his aSTiftance, alleging that the queen
herfelf confented to the deed ; to which Morton by lua
own account replied, that he was difpoi'ed to concur,
provided he were fare ol adting under any authority
from her ; but Bothwel and Lethington having return¬
ed to Edinburgh, onjmrpofe to obtain fuch an autho¬
rity, fent him back a melfage, That the queen would
not permit any conversation upon that matter.
In the mean time, preparations were made for the
baptiS’m of the young prince ; to aftift at which the
queen left Craigmillar and went to Stirling. 1 he ce¬
remony was performed on the i yth of December i c6G,
After the haptifmal rites were performed, the name
and titles of the prince were three times proclaimed
by the heralds to the found of trumpets. He waa
called and designed, Charles Janies, James Charles,
prince and Steward of Scotland, duke of Rothefay,
earl of Garrick, lord of the ISles, and baron of Ren¬
frew. Amidft the Tcenes of joy difplayed on this oc¬
casion, the king Showed his folly more than he had 66j
done before.’ As Elizabeth did not mean to acknow- AMurd b?,
ledge him in his fovereign capacity, it was neitlier con-^v‘“ur^
fillent with the dignity of the queen, nor his own, thaC lC
he Should be prefent at the baptiim. He did not in¬
deed prefent InroSclf either at the ceremony or the en¬
tertainments and mafquerades with which it was ac¬
companied, At this jun&ure, however, though he had
often kept at a greater dHlance before, he took up lun
refidence at Stirling, as if he had meant to offend the
queen, and to expofe their quarrels to the world. Du
Croc, who was inclined to be favourable to him, was fo
(truck with the impropriety of his behaviour, that he
affedled to have initruftions from Fiance to avoid all
intercourfc with him : and when the king propofed to
pay him a visit, he took the liberty to inform hun, that
there were two paffages in his chamber ; and that if his
i nwiefty
SCO
r 57 1
SCO
66j
e fails
:k,
664.
nd is
.urdered.
6^5
.ttempts
l> difcover
:e mur-
:rers.
fliouiii enter by the one, he ftould be conftrain-
ed to go out by the other.
. While he refuted at Stirling, the king chiefly con¬
fined himfelf to his chamber. His flrange behaviour
to vhe queen did not give the public any favourable idea
of him ; and as the earl of Murray and his fattion took
care to augment the general odium, no court was paid
to him by foreign ambaffadors. His fituation, there¬
fore, was exceedingly uncomfortable ; bur though he
muft have been confcious of his imprudence and folly,
he did not alter his condudf. In a fallen humour he
left Stirling, and proceeded to Glafgow. Here he fell
fick, with fuch fymptoms as feemed to indicate poifon.
He was tormented with violent pains, and his body
was all covered over with puflutes of a bluifh colour ; fo
that his death was daily expedted. Mary did not re¬
pay his coldnefs to her by negligence. She fet out
immediately for Glafgow, and waited on him with all
the affiduity of an affectionate wife, until he recovered:
after which (he returned with him to Edinburgh ; and
as the low fituation of the palace of Holyroodhoufe
was thought to render it unhealthy, the king was
lodged in a houfe which had been appointed for the
fuperior of the church, called S/ Mary's in the Fields.
This houfe flood upon an high ground, and in a falu-
brious air ; and here fhe fluid with him fome days. —
Here the confpirators thought proper to finifh their
plot in the moll execrable manner. On the loth of
February 1567, about two o’clock in the morning,
the houfe where the king refided was blown up by
gunpowder. The explofion alarming the inhabitants,
excited a general curiofity, and brought multitudes to
the place from whence it proceeded. The king was
found dead and naked in an adjoining field, with a fer-
vant who ufed to Deep in the fame apartment with him.
On neither was there any mark of fire or other exter¬
nal injury.
The queen was in the palace of Holyroodhoufe, ta¬
king the diver fion of a malked ball, which was given to
honour the marriage of a favourite domdlic, when the
news of the king’s death was brought to her. She
fhowed the utmoft grief, and appeared exafperated to
the lall degree againll the perpetrators of a deed at
once fo {hocking and barbarous. The moll exprefs
and peremptory orders were given to inquire after the
perpetrators by every poffible method. A proclama¬
tion was iflued by the privy-council, alluring the people,
that the queen and nobility would leave nothing un¬
done to difcover the murderers of the king. It offer¬
ed the fum of 2000 1. and an annuity for life, to any
perfon who fhould give information of the devifers,
xxmnfellors, and perpetrators of the murder ; and it held
out this reward, and the promife of a full pardon, to
the confpirator who fiiould make a free confeflion of
his own guilt, and that of the confederates. On the
fourth day after this proclamation was publilhed, a
placard was affixed to the gate of the city-prifon, af¬
firming, that the earl of Bothwel, James Balfour, Da¬
vid Chalmers, and black. John Spence, were the mur¬
derers. No name, however, was fubferibed to this in¬
telligence, nor was any demand made for the proffered
reward; fo that it was difficult to know whether this
advemfement had been dictated by a fpirit of calumny
or the love of jullice.
In the mean time, the earl of Murray conducted
Vox,. XVII. Bart. I.
himfelf with his ufual circumfpe&ion and artifice. Up- Scotland,^
on a pretence that his wife was dangeroufly fick at
his callle in Fife, he, the day before the murder, ob-Strong pre.
taint'd the queen’s permiffion to pay a vifit to her. By fumpttin
this means he propofed to prevent all fufpicion what- "j. ^
ever of his guilt. He was fo full, however, of the in- ^
tended project, that white he was proceeding on his
journey, he obferved to the perfon who accompanied
him, “ This night, before morning, the lord Darntey
fiiall lofe his life.” When the blow wasfftruck, he re¬
turned to Edinburgh to carry on his praftices. A-
mong foreign nations, the domeflic difputes of the
queen and her hulband being fully known, it was with
the greater cafe that reports could be propagated to 6^7
her difadvantage. To France tetters were difpatched, He accufes
expreffing, in fervent terms, her participation in the
murder. In England, the minifters and courtiers of
Elizabeth could not flatter that princefs more agree¬
ably, than by indullrioufiy detracting from the honour
and the virtue of the Scotti£h queen. Within her own
dominions a fimilar fpirit of outrage exerted itfelf, and
not' without fuccefs. As her reconciliation with her
hufhand could not be unknown to her own fubjeCls, it
was interpreted to be diffimulation and treachery. The
Proteilant clergy, who were her mod determined ene¬
mies, pofteffed a leading direction among the populace;
and they were the friends and the partizans of the earl
of Munay. Open declamations from the pulpit were
made againft Bothwel, and ftrong infinuations and bit¬
ing furmifes wrere thrown out againfl the queen. Pa¬
pers were difperfed, making her a party with Bothwtl
in the murder. Every art was employed to provoke
the frenzy of the people. Voices, interrupting the
filence of the night, proclaimed the infamy of Both¬
wel ; and portraits of the regicides were circulated over
the kingdom.
Tiie queen’s determination, however, to ferutinize
into the matter was unabated; and to the earl of Len-determine*
nox, the king’s father, {he paid an attention which he to find out
could only have expedled from her upon an emergency
of this kind. Having preffed her by letter to the jerCr3,
diligent inquiry after the regicides, fhe returned an an-
fwer fo completely to his wifhes, that lie was fully con¬
vinced of the fincerity and rigour with which fhe in¬
tended to proceed againil them : and he urged her to
affemble the three tflates, that their advice might di-
red; the order and manner of their trial. She wrote
to him, that an aitembly of the eilates was already
proclaimed ; and that it was her earneft and determi¬
ned will and purpofe, that no ilep fhould be negleded
that could conduce to the advancement and execution
ofjuflice. Yielding to his anxieties, he addreffed her
anew, intreating that the trial might not be delayed ;
obferving, that it was not a matter of parliamentary in¬
quiry ; advifing, that it would be more proper to pro¬
ceed to it with the greatefl expedition ; and urging her
to commit to prifon all the perfons who had been na¬
med and deferihed in the papers and placards which,
had been fet up in the public places of the city. The
queen informed him, that although fhe had thought it
expedient to call a meeting of the parliament at this
junfture, it was not her meaning that the proceedings
againfl the regicides fhould be delayed till it was a£la-
ally affembkd. As to the placards and papers to which
he alluded, they were fo numerous and contradiftoiy,
H that
SCO r j8 1
^Scotland, that {he could not well determine upon which to a& : queen
w—y——.j- wouu condefeend to mention the names which,
in his opinion, were moil fufpicious, Ihe would inftantly
My command that thofe Heps (hould be taken which the
ILenox ac- laws direfted and authorifed. He in return named the
cufes five- earl of Bothwel, James Balfour, David Chalmers, black
*alj>erfons, j0|in gpence, Francis Sebaftian, John de Burdeaux,
and Jofeph the brother of David Rizzio ; and afTured
her majefty, that his fufpicions of thefe perfons were
weighty and ftrong. In reply to his information, Ma¬
ry gave him her folemn promife, that the perfons he
had pointed out Ihould abide and undergo their trial
in conformity to the laws, and that they {hould be pu-
nifhed according to the meafure of their guilt: and
fhe invited him to leave immediately his retirement,
and to meet her at her court, that he might witnefs the
proceedings againft them, and the zoal with which fhe
was animated to perform the part that became her.
While the queen carried on this correfpondence with
the earl of Lenox, fhe refided partly at the palace of
the lord Seton, at the diftance of a few miles from
her capital, and partly at Holyroodhoufe. By the time
that fhe fent her invitation to him, fhe was refiding in
her capital. She delayed not to confer with her coun-
fellors, and to lay before them the letters of the earl of
Lenox. Bothwel* was earneft in his proteftations of
innocence ; and he even expreffed his wifh for a trial,
that he might eftablifh his integrity. No fafts point¬
ed to his guilt; there had appeared no accufer but the
earl of Lenox ; and no witneffes had been found who
could eftablifh his criminality. Her privy-coupcil feem-
ed to her to be firmly perfuaded that he was fuffering
under the malice of defamation. Murray, Morton,
and Lethington, whatever might be their private ma¬
chinations, were publicly his molt ftrenuous defenders ;
and theyr .explained the behaviour of the earl of Le¬
nox to be the effect of hatred and jealoufy againft a
nobleman who had outrun him fo far in the career of
ambition. But though all the arts of Murray and
Bothwel, Morton and Lethington, were exerted to
their utmoft extent to miflead the queen, they were not
able to withhold her from adopting the flrain of con-
<iuft which was the mofl proper and the moft honour¬
able to her. It was her own ardent defire that the re¬
gicides fhould be punifhed ; fhe had given her folemn
promife to the earl of Lenox, that the perfons whom
lie fufpedled fhould be profecuted ; and amidtl all the
appearances in favour of Bothwel, and all the influence
employed to ferve him, it is to be regarded as a ftriking
proof of her honour, vigour, and ability, that fhe could
accomplifh this meafure. An order, accordingly, of
the privy-council was made, which dire£led, that the
earl of Bothwel, and all the perfons named by Le¬
nox, fhould be brought to trial for the murder of
the king, and that the laws of the land fhould be car¬
ried into full execution. The 12th of April was ap¬
pointed for the trial. A general invitation was given
to all perfons whatfoever to prefer their accufations.
The earl of Lenox was formally cited to do himfelf
670
And is in¬
vited to
prove his
eccul'ations.
juftice, by appearing in the high court of jufticiary,
and by coming forward to make known the guilt of
the culprits.
In the mean time, it was proper to reprefs that fpi-
jit of outrage that had maniieikd itfelf againft the
SCO
No dffcoveries, however, were made, except Scotland,
againft James Murray, brother to Sir William Murray
of Tullibardin, who at different times had publifhed
placards injurious to her. He was charged to appear
before the privy-council: but refufing to obey its ci¬
tation, it was made a capital offence for any com-
mander of a veffel to convey him out of the kingdom ;
and the refolution was taken to punifh him with an ex¬
emplary feverity. • Effecting, however, his efcape, he
avoided the punifhment due to his repeated and deteft-
able a£ls of calumny and treafon.
The day for the trial of Bothvvel approached. The
confpirators, notwitnftanding their power, were not
without apprehenfions. Their preparations, however,
for their fafety had been anxious ; and, among other
practices, they neglected not to attempt to throw a 67r
panic into the earl of Lenox. They were favoured He is inti,
by bis confcioufnefs of his unpopularity, and his want nutated,
of ftrength, by his timidity and his fpirit of jealoufy.
Sufpicions of the queen’s guilt were infinuated into
him ; and the dangers to which he might be expofed
by infilling on the trial were let before him in the
ftrongeft colours. 1 le was fenfible of her averfion to
him; and his weaknefs and the fovereign authority
were contrafted. His friends concurred with his ene¬
mies to intimidate him, from the foirit of flattery, or
from a real belief that his fituation was critical. By
the time he had reached Stirling, in his way to Edin¬
burgh, his fears predominated. He made a full flop. ^
He was no longer in hafte to proceed againft the re- An I wiflws
gicides. He addreffed a letter to the queen, in which to defer the
he laid he had fallen into fuch ficknefs, that he could tria^»
not travel ; and he affirmed, that he had not time to
prepare for the trial and to affemble his friends. He
complained, too, that Bothvvel and his accomplices
had not been committed to cuftody ; he infifted, that
this ftep fhould be taken ; and he requefted, that a day
at a greater diftance might be appointed for the trial.
After the lengths to which matters had gone, this con-
dutft was moft improper ; and it is only to be account¬
ed for from terror or capricioufnefs. His indifpofition
was affected ; he had been invited by Mary to wait
upon her at Edinburgh at an early period, to concert
his meafures ; and the delay he alked w^as in ftrong
contradiction to his former intreaties. After the invi¬
tation fent to him, he might have relied with fafety
upon the protection of the queen, without any gather¬
ing of his friends ; from the time of her private intima¬
tion to him, and of the legal citations of her officers,
there had paffed a period more than fufficient for the
purpofe of calling them together; and indeed to fup-
pofe that there was any neceffity for their afliftance,
was an infult to government, and a matter of high in¬
decency. There was more juftice in the complaint,
that the earl of Bothwel and his accomplices had not
been taken into cuftody ; and yet even in this peculi¬
arity, he was himfelf to blame in a great degree. For
he had not obferved the precaution of that previous
difplay of evidence, known in the Scottifh law under
the term of a precognition, which is common in all
the groffer offences, and which the weighty circum-
ftances of the prefent cafe rendered fo neceffary as a
foundation for the confinement and conviction of the
criminals.
An
SCO [
Scotland. An application for the delay of a trial fo important,
r~~ tipon the night immediately preceding the day Hated
I pg for it, and reciting reafons of no conclufive force, could
tion is re- not with propriety be attended to. T he privy council
fed. refufed the demand of the earl of Lenox. The court
of jufticiary was affembled. The earl of Argyle afted
in his charafter of lord high jufticiar ; and was aided
by four aflelfors, Robert Pitcairn, commendator of
Dunfermline, and the lord Lindfay, with Mr James
Macgill and Mr Henry Balnaves, two lords of the
fefiion. The indiftment was read, and the earls of
Bothwel and Lennox were .called upon ; the one as the
defender, the other as the accufer. Bothwel, who had
come to the court with an attendance of his vaffals, and
a band of mercenary foldiers, did not fail to prefent
himlelf: but Lenox appeared only by his fervant Ro¬
bert Cunnyngham ; who, after apologizing for his ab-
fence, from the fhortnefs of the time, and the want of
the prefence of his friends, defired that a new day fhould
be appointed for the trial ; and protefled, that if the
jury fhould now enter upon the bufmefs, they fhould
incur the guilt of a wilful error, and their verditt be of
no force or authority.
This remonftrance and proteflation appeared not t<3
the court of fufficient importance to interrupt the trial.
They paid a greater refpeft to the letters of the earl of
Lenox to the queen iniHting upon an immediate pro-
fecution, and to the order of the privy-council confe
quent upon them. The jury, who confided of men of
rank and condition, after confidering and reafoning up-
674 on ^ie indictment for a confiderable time, were unani-
lihwel mous in acquitting Bothwel of ail fhare and knowledge
quitted. 0p kjng’g murder. The machinations however of
Morton, which we have mentioned in the life of Ma¬
ry, were fo apparent, that the earl of Caithnefs, the
chancellor of the afiize, made a declaration in their
name and his own, that no wilful error ought to be
imputed to them for their verdiCt; no proof, vouchers,
or evidence, to confirm or fuppoit the criminal charge
having been fubmitted to them. At the fame time,
he odered a protedation for himfelf, that there was a
midake in the indictment, the 9th day of February in-
dead of the icth being exprefl'ed in it as. the date of
the murder. It is not to be doubted, but that this
flaw in the indi&ment was a matter of defign, and with
a view to the advantage of Bothwel, if the earl of
Lenox had made his appearance againd him. And
it has been remarked as mod indecent and fufpicious,
that foldiers in arms fhould have accompanied him to
the court of judice ; that during the trial, the earl ©f
Morton dood by his fide to give him countenance and
to afiiit him ; and that the four afl'tfib”s to the chief
judiciar were warm and drenuous friends to the earl of
Murray.
Immediately after his trial, Bothwel fet up in a con-
fpicuous place a writing, fubferibed by him, challen¬
ging to fmg'e combat, any perfon of eejual rank with
himlelf, who fhould dare to affiim that he was guilty
of the king’s murder. To this challenge an anlwer
was prbl fired, in which the defiance was accepted, up¬
on the cord t ern that fecunty fhould be given tor a
fail and equa-' cor.fi,eft : but no name being fubferibed
to tins p per, it v.is not ur.derdocd to comfpond
wuh the law oi arms j and of confequer.ee rio dtp was
50 ] . SCO
taken for the fighting of the duel. Two days after Scotlarrf,*
the parliament met, and there the party of Bothwel  ^
appeared equally formidable. The verdift in his favour
was allowed to be true and jud. He was continued in
his high offices ; and obtained a parliamentary ratifica¬
tion of the place of keeper of Dunbar cadle, with the
edates in connexion with it ; and other favours were
conferred upon Murray, with the red of the noblesfuf-
peCfed as accomplices in the murder. ^
A very fhort time after the final acquitment of Both- He afyires
" el, he began to give a greater loofe to his ambition, af a mar.
and conceived hopes of gaining the queen in marriaoe. ria^e wi h
It has been already remarked, that he had infidioufly ttle ?Ucei''
endeavoured to gain her affe&ion during the liletime of
her hufband ; but though he might have fucceeded in
this, the recent death of the kin<r in fuch a drocking
manner, and the drong fufpicions which mud necedari-
ly dill red upon him, notwithdanding the trial he had
undergone, necedarily prevented him from making his 6 ^
addreffes openly to her. He therefore endeavoured to Is ncorn-
gain the nobility over to his fide ; which having done mended by
one by one, by means of great promifes, he invited ,he n<)biliry
them to an entertainment, where they agreed to ratify T a Pror"
a deed pointing him out to the queen as a perfon wor- her.
thy of her hand, and expreffing their refolute determi¬
nation \o fuppoit him in his pretenfions. This extra- g.
ordinary bond was accordingly executed ; and Murray’s Schemes of
name w^as the firil in the lili of fubferibers, in order to the earl of
decoy others to fign after him ; but that he might ap- Mu ray to
pear innocent of what he knew was to follow, he had,,lurt t^1<:
before any ufe was made of the bond, afked and ob-
tained the queen’s permiffion to go to France. In his
way thither he vifited the court of Elizabeth, where he
did not fail to confirm all the reports which had arifen
to the difadvantage of Mary ; and he now circulated
the intelligence that fire was foon to be married to
Bothwel. Her partizans in England were exceeding¬
ly alarmed ; and even queen Elizabeth herfelf addrefied
a letter to her, in which die cautioned her not to afford
fuch a mifehievous handle to the malice of her enemies.
Mary, upon the didblution pf the parliament, had b, thwd
gone to Stirling to vifit the young prince. Bothwel, cume* hep
armed with the bond of the nobles, affembled icoo <,fftoi)ua-
horie, under the pretence of prote&ing the borders, ofbar‘
which he was the warden ; and meeting her upon her
return to her capital, dilmifled her attendants, and car¬
ried her to his cadle of Dunbar. The arts which he
ufed there to effeA the accomplifhment of his wiihes
we have mentioned under another article, (fee Mary).
But having been married only fix months before to
Lady Jane Gordon, filler to the earl of Huntley, it
was necefiary to procure a divorce before he could marry
the queen. This was eafily obtained. The parties were
coufins within the prohibited degrees, and had not ob¬
tained a difpenfation from Rome. 1 heir marriage,
therefore, in the opinion of the queen and her Roman
Catholic fubjedts, was illicit, and a profane mockery of
the facrament of the church. The hufband had alfb
been unfaithful ; fo that twro actions of divorce w'ere in- 5-
diluted. The lady commenced a fuit againd him in Is d.Jorced
the court pf the commidaries, charging him as guilty h-' m
of adultery with one of her maids. The earl himfelfwifc*
brought a fuit againd his wife before the court of the
archbifhop of St Andrew’s, upon the plea of confan-
^ 2 guinity.
SCO r 60 3 SCO
Scotland, guinity. By both courts their marriage was decided to
1*" jr-*— vojj . an(j tjlug two fentences of divorce were pro¬
nounced.
Bothwel now conduced the queen from Dunbar to
her capital. But initead of attending her to her pa¬
lace of Holyrood houfe, his jealoufy and apprehenfions
induced him to lodge her in the caftle of Edinburgh,
where he could hold her in fecurity againll any at¬
tempt of his enemies. To give latisfadlion, however,
to her people, and to convince them that fhe was no
longer a prifoner, a public declaration upon her part
appeared to be a meafure of expediency. She pre-
fented herfelf, therefore, in the court of feflion ; the
lords chancellor and prefident, the judges, and other
perfons of diftinftion, being prefent. After obferving
that fome ftop had been put to the adminiftration of
juftice upon account of her being detained at Dunbar
againil her will by the lord Bothwel, {he declared, that
though Hie had been highly offended with the outrage
offered to her, fhe was yet inclined to forget it. His
courteoufnefs, the fcnfe fhe entertained of his paft fer-
vices to the ftate, and the hope with which fhe was im-
preffed of his zeal and ailivity for the future, compelled
her to give him and his accomplices in her imprifon-
ment a full and complete pardon. She at the fame
time defired them to take notice, that (lie was now at
her freedom and liberty ; and that file propofed, in
conikleration of his merits, to take an early opportuni-
gSo ty of promoting him to new and diitinguifhed honours,
of It was underfiood that the queen was immediately
the mar- to advance him to be her hufband. The order was
riage pro- g;ven for t]ie proclamation of the banns ; and Mr John
claimed. Craig, one of the minifters of Edinburgh, was defired
to perform this bufmefs. But though the order was
fubfcribed by the queen, he refufed abfolutely his com¬
pliance without the authority of the church. The
brethren, after long reafonings, granted him permiffion
to difcharge this duty. His fcruples, notwithftanding,
and delicacy, were not yet removed. He protetted,
that, in obeying their defire, he (hould be allowed to
fpeak his own fentiments concerning the marriage, and
that his publiihing the banns fhould infer no obligation
in him to officiate in the folemnity. In his congrega¬
tion, accordingly, before a crowded audience, and in
the prefenee of feveral noblemen and privy coimfellors,
he declared that the marriage of the queen and the earl
of Bothwel was unlawful, and that he was prepared to
give his reafons for this opinion to the parties them-
felves- He added, that if leave to do this was denied
him, he would either abftain altogether from proclaim¬
ing the banns, or take the liberty, after proclaiming
them, to inform his people of the caufes of his difap-
probatron of the marriage. He was carried before the
lords of the privy-council ; and the earl of Bothwel
Jorritude called upon him to explain his behaviour. He anfwer-
»f Mr John tfcat church had prohibited the marriage of per¬
fons feparated for adultery ; and that the divorce he- Scotland,
tween him and his wife mull have been owing to collu- —v—
fiori; fince the fentence had been given with precipita¬
tion, and fince his new contract was fo fudden ; and he.
objected to him the abdudtion and ravifliment of the
queen, and the fufpicion of his guilt in the king’s
murder. This bold language drew no reply from
Bothwel that was fatisfadtory to Mr*Craig, or that
could intimidate him. He proclaimed in his church
the banns of the marriage; but he told the congrega¬
tion, that he difeharged the fuggellions of his confcience
in pronouncing it to be a detdlable and fcandalous en¬
gagement. He expreffed the forrow he felt for the
condudl of the nobility, who feemed to approve it from
their flattery or filence ; and addreffing himfelf to the
faithful, he befought them to pray to the Almighty
that he would turn a refolution intended againll law,
reafon, and religion, into a comfort and benefit to the
church and the kingdom. Thefe freedoms were too
great to pafs unnoticed. Mr Craig was ordered anew
to attend the privy-council ; and he was reprimanded
with feverity for exceeding the bounds of his commif-
lion. He had the courtige to defend himfelf. His
commiffion, he faid, was founded in the word of God,
politivc law, and natural reafon ; and upon the founda¬
tion of thefe topics he was about to prove that the
marriage mull be univerfally foul and odious, when the
earl of Bothwel commanded him to be filent. The
privy-council, llruck with the vigour of the man, and
apprehenlive of the public dilcontents, did not dare to
inllidt any punilhment upon him ; and this victory over
Bothwel, while it heightened all the fufpicions againtt
him, ferved to encourage the enemies of the queen, and
to undermine the refpeft of her fubjedls.
Mary, before fire rendered her hand to Bothwel,The mar*
created him duke of Orkney. The ceremony was per-riage cele*
formed in a private manner, after the rules of the Po„Crated,
prlh church ; but, to gratify the people, k was like-
wife folemnized publicly according to the Proteflant
rites by Adam Bothwel bilhop of Orkney, an ecclefiaf-
tic who had renounced the Epifcopal order for the re¬
formation. It was eelebiated with little pomp and fef-
tivity. Many of the nobles had retired to their feats
in the country ; and thoi'e who attended w^ere thought¬
ful and fad. Du Croc, the French ambaffador, feniible
that the match wrould be difplealing to his court, re¬
fufed to give his countenance to the folemnity. There
w7ere no acclamations of the common people. Mary
herfelf was not inconfcious of the imprudence of the
choice fhe had made, and looked back with furprife
and forrow to the train of circumllances which had
conduced her to this fatal event. Forfaken by her
nobles, and imprifoned at Dunbar, fire was in fo peril¬
ous a fituation that no remedy could fave her honour
but death. Her marriage was the immediate and ne-
ceffiuy confequence of that lituation (s). It was the
point
(s) “ The queen (fays Melvil) could not but marry him; feeing he had ravilhed her and lain with her againft
her will.” Memoirs, p. tyq. In the following pafi'age, from a writer of great authority, in our hillory, this
topic is touched with no lefs exa£lnefs, but with greater delicacy. After Mary had remained a fortnight under
the power of a. daring profligate adventurer, fays .Lord Hailes, few foreign princes would have folicited her
hand.
gcotland-
683
Bothwel
owr.g
'rince in
his
lower.
684
sco r 61
point far wWck her enemies had laboured with a wicked
and relentlefs policy.
Mary was unfortunate in her fecond marriage, but
much more fo in her third. Bothwel had neither ta¬
lents for bufmefs nor affe&ion for his wife. Ambitious
and jealous to the 1# degree, he fought only to efta-
blilh himfelf in power, while his fears and jealoufies
made him take the moft improper means. The marri¬
age had already thrown the nation into a ferment; and
the leaft improper exercife of power, or indeed an ap¬
pearance of it, even on the part of the queen, would
be fufficient to ruin them both for ever. Perhaps the
only thing which at this jun&ure could have pacified
the people, would have been the total abolition of
Popery, which they had often required. But this was
not thought of. Inftead of taking any Hep to pleafe
ttempts to the people, Bothwel endeavoured to force the earl of
et the Marre to deliver up the young prince to his cuftody.—-
This was fufficient to make the flame, which had hi¬
therto been fmothered, break out with all its violence.
It was univerfally believed that Bothwel, who had been
the murderer of the father, defigned to take away the
life of the fon alfoy and the queen w^as thought to
participate in all his crimes. The earl of Murray now
took advantage of the queen’s unfortunate fituation to
j^uriay ca-^grandize himlelf and effeft her ruin. After having
liimmates vifited the Erglifh court, he proceeded to France,
tl.e queen. whcre he affidnoufly difleminated all the reports againlt
the queen which wrere injurious to her reputation ; and
where, without being expofed to fufpicion, he was able
to maintain a clofe correfpondence with his friends
Morton and Lethington, and to infpirk their machina¬
tions. His affociates, true to his ambition and their
own, had promoted ail the fchemes of Bothwel upon the
queen with a power and influence which had infured
their fuccefs. In confederacy with the earl of Murray
himfelf, they had confpired with him to murder the
king. Affifted with the weight of the earl of Murray,
they had managed his trial, and operated the. verdidt
which acquitted him. By the fame arts, and with the
fame views, they had joined with him to procure the
bond of the nobles recommending him to the queen as
a hufband, aflerting his integrity and innocence, re¬
counting his noble qualities, exprefiing an unalterable
refolution to fupport the marriage againft every oppofer
and adverfary, and recording a wifh that a defedfion
from its objedts and purpofes fhould be branded with
everlafting ignominy, and held out as a mofi faithlefs
and perjured treachery. When the end, however, was
accomplifhed for which they had been io zealous, and
W'hen the maniage of the queen was adlually celebrated,
they laid afide the pretence of friendfhip, and were in
hafte to entitlethemfelves to the ignominy which they
had invited to fall upon them. The murder of the
king, the guilt of Bothwel, his acquittal, his divorce,
and his marriage, became the topics of tlieir complaints
and declamation. Upon the foundation of this hated.
Scotland
6S<
I SCO
marriage, they even ventured privately to infer the pri¬
vity of the queen to all his iniquity and tranfadlions ;
and this Hep feemed doubtlefs, to the mafs of her own
fubjefts and to more diilant obfevvers, a flrong confirm¬
ation of all the former fufpicions to her-fhame which
had been circulated with fo much artifice. Their im¬
putations and devices excited againft her, both at home
and abroad, the rnoft indignant and humiliating odium.
Amidll the ruins of her fame, they thought to bury
for ever her tranquillity and peace ; and in the convul-
fions they had meditated, they already were anticipating
the downfal of Bothwel, and fnatching at the crown
that tottered on her head.
But while this cabal were profecuting their private ^ confede-
ends, feveral noblemen, not lefs Remarkable for their racy formed'
virtue than their rank, were eager to vindicate the na-againft
tional integrity and honour. The earl of Athol, uponISottlwe1'
the king’s murder, had retired from the court, and was
waiting for a proper feafon to take revenge upon the
regicides. The earl of Marre, uneafy under the charge
of the young prince, was folicitous to make himielt
ftrong, that he might guard him from injury. Mo¬
tives fo patriotic and honourable drew applaufe and
partizans. It was fufEcient to mention them. By pri¬
vate conference and debate, an afibciation was infenfibly
formed to punifh the murderers of the king, and to pro¬
tect the perfon of the prince. Morton and Lethington
encouraged and promoted a combination from which,
they might derive fo much advantage. A convention
accordingly was appointed at Stirling, for the purpofe
of confulting upon the meafures which it was moil ex¬
pedient to purfue. They agreed to take an early op¬
portunity to appear in the field ; and when they fepa-
rated, it was to collect -their retainers, and to uifpirit
their pafiions.
Of this confederacy, the leading me» were the earls
of Argyle, Athol, Morton, Marre, and Glencairn ; the
lords Hume, Semple, and Lindiay ; the barons Kir-
kaldy of Grange, Murray of Tullibaidiri, and Maitland
of Lethington. The earl of Bothwel was fenfible,
that if he was to fit upon a throne, he mult wade to it
through blood. By his advice, two proclamations vvera-p.^®
iflued in the name of the queen, under the pretence of.
fuppveffing infurre&ions and depredations upon the for war;,
borders. By the former, (he called together in arms,
upon an early day, the earls, barons, and fiecholders of
the diUriels of Forfar and Perth, Strathern and Men-
teith, Clackmannan, Kinrofs, and Fife. By the latter
Are charged the greater and leffer baronage, with all
the inferior proprietors of the (hires of Linlithgow and
Edinburgh, and the conflabulary of Haddington and
Berwick, to prepare immediately for war, and to keep
themfelves in readinefs to march upon her order. The(e
military preparations admonifhed the aflociation. to be
firm and active, and added to the public inquietudes
and difeontents. The rumours againtt the queen were
moft violent and loud. It was faid, that (he meant to.
han k Some of her fubjedts might (till have fought that honour 5 but her compliance wouU have been humili¬
ating beyond rneafure. If would have left her at the mercy of a capricious hulband ; it would have expofed her
to the difgrace of being reproached, in fome fullen hour, for the adventure at Dunbar. Mary was fo fituated,
at this critical period, that (he was reduced to this horrid alternative, either to remain in a friendlefs and ha¬
zardous celibacy, or to yield her hand to Bothwel,” Remarks on the Hiftory of Scotland, p. 204,.
Stottand,
687
But is cbli
ged to fly
to Dun-
bdr.
688
Proclama-
Sion by the
rebellious
Sobles.
SCO f
to overturn the confUtution and the laws ; that {he had
been careltls of the health of her fon, and was altogether
indifferent about his prefervation ; that {he had fcparated
herfclf from the councils and afiiftance of her nobles ;
and that {lie widted to make her whim or difcretion
the only rule of her government. Agitated with the
hazardous Hate of her affairs, {he publiihed a new pro¬
clamation, in which {he employed herfelf to refute thefe
acccufations ; and in which {he took the opportunity
to exprefs, in a very forcible manner, not only her at¬
tachment to her people and the laws, but the fond af-
fedlion that {he bore to the prince, whom fne conlidered
as the chief joy of her life, and without whom all her
days would be comfbrtlefs.
The declarations of the queen were treated with
fcorn. The nobles, abounding in vafials, and having
the hearts of the people, were foon in a fituation to
take the field. They were advancing to the capital.
The royal army was not yet affembled ; and the queen
and Bothwel fufpected that the caftle of Edinburgh
would fhut its gates upon them. The fidelity of Sir
James Balfour the deputy-governor had been ftagger-
ed by the practices of the earl of Marre and Sir James
Melvil. Mary left her palace of Holyroodhoufe, and
was conduced to Borthwick caftle. The affociated
lords, informed of her flight, took the road to this for-
. trefs with 2000 horfe. "The lord Hume, by a rapid
march, prefented himfelf before it with the divilion un¬
der his command: but being unable to guard all its
avenues, the queen and Bothwel effe&ed their efcape
to Dunbar; where the ftrength of the fortifications
gave them-a full fecurity againft a furprife.
Upon this fecond difappointment, the nobles refol-
ved to enter Edinburgh, and to augment their ftrength
by new partizans. The earl of Huntley and the lord
Boyd were here on the fide of the queen, with the arch-
biftiop of St Andrew’s, the bithop of Rofs, and the
abbot of Kilwinning. They endeavoured to animate
the inhabitants to defend their town and the caufe
of their fovereign. But the tide of popularity was fa¬
vourable to the confederated lords. The magiftrates
ordered the gates of the city to be {hut ; but no farther
refiftance was intended. The lords, forcing St Mary’s
port, found an eafy admittance, and took pofteflion of
the capital. The earl of Huntley and the queen’s
friends fled to the caftle, to Sir James Balfour, who
had been the confident of Buthw’d, and who agreed to
prctedl them, although he was now concluding a treaty
with the infurgents.
The aflbeiated lords now formed themfelves into a
council, and circulated a proclamation. By this paper
they declared, that the queen being detained in capti¬
vity, was neither able to govern her realm, nor to com¬
mand a proper trial to be taken of the king’s murder.
In an emergency fo prefling, they had not defpaired of
their country ; but were determined to deliver the queen
from bondage, to protedt the perfon of the prince, to
revenge the murder of the king, and to vindicate the
nation from the infamy it had hitherto fuffered through
the impunity of the regicides. They therefore com¬
manded in general all the fubje&s of Scotland whatfo-
ever, and the burgefles and inhabitants of Edinburgh in
particular, to take a part wnth them, and to join in the
advancement of purpofes fo beneficial and -falutary.
The day after they had publiihed this proclamation,
62 ] SCO
they iflued another in terms that were ftronger and Scotland,
more reiolute. They definitively exprdfed their per- v—
fuafion of Bothwel s guilt in the tape and ftduftion of
the queen, and in his perpetration ot the king’s murder,
in order to accomplifh his marriage. They inculcated
it as their f rm opinion, that Bothwel was now inftiga-
ted with a deiign to murder the young prince, and that
he was collecting troops wfith this view. Addrefling
themfelves, therefore, to all the fubje&s of the realm,
whether they relided in counties or in boroughs, they
invited them to come forward to their ftandard ; and
defired them to remember, that all perfons who fhould
prefume to diiobey them fhould be treated as enemies
and traitors.
Bothwel, in the mean time, was not ina&ive ; and
the proclamations of the queen had brought many of
her vaflals to her afliftance. Four thouland comba¬
tants ranged themfelves on her fide. This force might
augment as ihe approached to her capital; and Both¬
wel was impatient to put his fortunes to the iflue of a
battle. He lelt the ftrong caftle of Dunbar, where the
nobles were not prepared to aflail him, and where he
might have remained in fafety till they difperfed them¬
felves. For their proclamations were not fo fuccefsful
as they had expedfed ; their provtfions and {lores were
fcanty ; and the zeal of the common people, uniup-
ported by profperity, would foon have abated. Im¬
prudent precipitation ferved them in a moft effedlual
manner. When the queen had reached Gladlmuir, fhe
ordered a manjfefto to be read to her army, and to be
circulated among her fubjeCts. By this paper, {he re- Maniiefto
plied to the proclamations of the confederated nobles, by the
and charged them with treachery and rebellion. Shel112611,
treated their teafons of hoftility as mere pretences, and
as inventions which could not bear to be examined.
As to the king’s murder, {he protefted, that {he herfelf
was fully determined to revenge it, if fhe could be fo
fortunate as to difeover its perpetrators. With regard
to the bondage from which they w’ere fo delirous to
relieve her, fhe obferved, that it was a faliehood fo no-
torious, that the iimpleft of Ter iubjeCls could confute
it ; for her nwriage had been celebrated in a public
manner, and the nobles could hardly have forgotten
that they had fubferibed a bond recommending Both¬
wel to be her hufbaand. With regard to the mduftri-
ous defamations of this nobleman, it was urged, that he
had difeovered the utmoft lolicitude to ertablifh his in¬
nocence. He had invited a ferutiny into his guilt;
the juftice of his country had abfolved him ; the three
eftates affembled in pailiament were fatisfied with the
proceedings ot his judges and jury ; and he had offered
to maintain his quairel againft any perfon whatfoever
who was equal to him in rank and of an honelt reputa¬
tion. The nobles, fhe faid, to give a fair appearance
to their treafon, pretended, that Bethw'cl had Ichcmed
the deftrudion of the prince, and that they were in
arms to proted him. The prince, however, was adual-
ly in their own cultody ; the ufe they made 01 him was
that of a fkreen to their perhdiouftiels ; and the real
purpofes with which they were animated, were the
overthrow of her gieatneis, the ruin ot her pofteritv,
and the ulurpation of the royal authority. She there¬
fore intreated the aid ot her faithrul iubjeds ; and as
the piize of their valorous fervice, {he held out to them
the eftates and pofftfiions of the rebels.
2
The
SCO
Scotland.
690
’The two
lirniies ap¬
proach
;ach other
dpi
Du Croc
negi xiares
with the
[rebels.
The aflToctated nobles, pleafed at the approach of the
queen, put themfelves in motion. In the city of Edin¬
burgh they had gathered an addition to their force ; and
it happened that the Scottifh officer who commanded the
companies, which, in this period, the king of Denmark
was permitted to enlift in Scotland, had been gained to
•affifl them. He had juft completed his levies ; and
he turned them againft the queen. The nobles, after
advancing to Muffelbnrgh, refrefhed their troops. In¬
telligence was brought that the queen was upon her
march. The two armies were nearly equal in numbers ;
but the preference, in point of valour and difcipline, be¬
longed decifively to the foldiers of the nobles. The
queen polled herfelf on the top of Carberry hill. The
lords, taking a circuit to humour the ground, feemed
to be retreating to Dalkeith ; but wheeling about,
they approached to give her battle. They were ran¬
ged in two divifions. The one was commanded by the
earl of Morton and the lord Hume. The other was
directed by the earls of Athol, Marre, and Glencairn,
with the lords Lindfay, Ruthvcn, Sempil, and San¬
quhar. Bothwel was the leader of the royal forces ;
and there ferved under him the lords Seton, Yeller, and
Borthwick.
It was not without apprehenfions that Mary furvey-
ed the formidable appearance of her enemies. Du
Croc, the French amhaffador, haftened to interpofe his
good offices, and to attempt an accommodation. He
affured the nobles of the peaceful inclinations of the
queen ; and that the generality of her nature difpofed
her not only to forgive their prefent infurrettion, but
to forget all their former tranfgreffions. The earl of
Morion informed him, that they had not armed them-
felves againft the queen, but againft the murderer of
the late king ; and that if Ihe would funender him up
to them, or command him to leave her, they would
confent to return to their duty. The earl of Glencairn
delired him to obferve, that the extremity to which
they had proceeded might have inftrufted him that they
meant not to afk pardon for any offences they had com¬
mitted, but that they were refolved to take cognizance
of injuries which had provoked their difpleafure. This
afpiring language confounded Du Croc, who had been
accuftomed to the worfhipful fubmiffions that are paid
to a defpot. He conceived that all negociation was
fruitlefs, and withdrew from the field in the expefta-
tion that the fvvord would immediately give its law and
determine every difference.
Mary was full of perturbation and dift' efs. The ftate
into which fhe had been brought by Bothwel did not
fail to engage her ferious refleftion. It was with in¬
finite regret that fhe confidered the confequences of her
iituation at Dunbar. Nor had his behaviour finee her
marriage contributed to allay her inquietudes. 'The
violence of his paffions, his fulpieions, and his guilt, had
induced him to furround her with his creatures, and to
treat her with infult and indignity. She had been al-
moft conftantly in tears. His demeanor, which was
generally rude and indecent, was often favage and bru¬
tal. At different times his provocations were fo inftilt-
ing, that fhe had even attempted to arm her hand againft
her life, and was defirous to relieve her wretchednefs1
by fpilling her blood. Upon his account, fhe was now
encompalfed with dangers. Her crown was in hazard.
Under unhappy agitations, fhe rode through the ranks
[ 63 ] s c. °.
of her army, and found her foldiers difpirited. What- Scodan-h^
ever refpeft they might entertain for her, they had none ——v'"’"-
for her hufband. His own retainers and dependents
only were willing to fight for him. He endeavoured Bothwel
to awaken the royal army to valour, by throwing down challenged
th£ gauntlet of defiance againft any of his adverfaries1^
who fhould dare to encounter him. His challenge wasrom
inftantly accepted by Kirkaldy of Grange, and by
Murray of Tullibardin. He objetted that they were not
peers. The lord Lindfay difeovered the greateft im¬
patience to engage him, and his offer was admitted;
but the queen interpofing her prerogative, prohibited
the combat. All the pride and hopes of Bothwel
funk within him. His foldiers in fmall parties were
fecretly abandoning their ftandards. It was equally
perilous to the queen to fight or to fly. The moft pru¬
dent expedient for her was to capitulate. She delired
to confer with Kirkaldy of Grange, who remonftrated
to her againft the guilt and wickednefs of Bothwelj
and counfelled her to abandon him. She expreffed her
willingnefs to difinifs him upon the condition that the
lords would acknowledge their allegiance and continue
in it. Kirkaldy pafled to the nobles, and received their
authority to allure her that they would honour, ferve,
and obev her as their princefs and fovereign. Fie
693.
communicated this intelligence to her. She advifed He is obliV
Bothwel to provide for his faftly by flight; and Kirk-ged to Af*'
aldy admonifhed him not to negledt this opportunity
of effecting his efcape. Overwhelmed with fhame, dil-
appointment, terror, remorfe, and defpair, this mifer-
able vi&im of ambition and guilt turned his eyes to her
for the lafl time. To Kirkaldy of Grange fhe ftretch-
ed out her hand : he killed it ; and taking the bridle *
of her horfe, condufted her towards the nobles. They
were approaching her with becoming reverence. She 694
faid to them, “lam come, my lords, to exprefs myMary lur=-
refpeft, and to conclude our agreement; I am ready
to be inftru&ed by the wifdom of your counfels-; andthe
I am confident that you will treat me as your fove¬
reign.” The earl of Morton, in the name of the con¬
federacy-, ratified their promifes, and addrefled her in
thefe wcrls: “Madam, you are here among us in
your proper place ; and we wiil pay to you as much
hohour, fervice, and obedience, as ever in any former
period was offered by the nobility to the princes your
predeceffors.” 69s
This gleam of funfhine was foon overcaft. She re-By whorrq
mained not many hours in the camp, till the common
foldiers, inttigated by her enemies, prefumed to infult y
her with the moft unfeemly reproaches. They ex¬
claimed indignantly againft her as the murderer of her
hufband, They reviled her as a lewd adulterefs in
the moft open manner, and in a language the moft coarfe
and the moft opprobrious. The nobility forgot their
promifes-, and feemed to have neither honour nor hu¬
manity. She had changed one miferable feene for a
diftrefs that was deeper and more hopelefs. They fur-
rounded her with guards, and conducted her to her ca¬
pital. She was carried along its ftreets, and friovvn to
her people in captivity and fadnefs. She cried out to
them to commiferate and protect her. They withheld
their pity, and afforded her no protection. Even flew
infults were offered to her. The loweft of the popu¬
lace, whom the declamations of the clergy had driven
into rage and madnefs, vied with the foldiery in the ii-
eentiousti
SCO
ycHt’ani]. etntmus outrage of invctflive and execration.
fought Maitland to foliclt the lords to reprefs the in-
fuppottable atrocity of her treatment. She conjured
him to let them know, that Are would fubmit herfelf
implicitly to the determination of the parliament. Her
in treaties and her fnfferings made no impreffion upon
the nobles. They continued the favage cruelty ot their
demeanour. She implored, as the lalt requell (he would
prefer to them, that they would lead her to her palace.
This confolation, too, was refufed to her. They wifh-
ed to accultom her fubjecls to behold her in difgrace, and
to teach them to triumph over her misfortunes. In
the moll mortifying and afflitling hour Ihe had ever
experienced, oppreffed with fatigue, and disfigured with
dull and forrow, they (hut her up in the houfe of the
lord provoll: leaving her to revolve in her anxious and
agitated mind the indignities (he had already endured,
and to fuffer in anticipation the calamities they might
yet inflict upon her.
The malice ot Morton and his adherents was {till far
from being gratified. In the morning, when the queen
looked from the window of the apartment to which
flic had been confined, Ihe perceived a white banner
dil'played in fuch a manner as to fix her attention.
There was delineated upon it the body of the late king
flretched at the foot of a tree, and the prince npon his
knees before it, with a label from his mouth, contain¬
ing this prayer, “ Judge and revenge my caufe, O
Lord!” This abominable banner revived all the bit-
ternefs of her affliftions. The curiolity of the people
[ 64 ] SCO
She be* tore, and that baautiful humanity which characterized 3eotlani
u   '  1—1..  :  c 1 
her even in the mod, melancholy lituations of her life,
they prevailed with her to inform the people, that _ 697
Ihe was pacified, and that Ihe wifhed them to difperfe fil'e
of
696
The com.
mon people drew them to a feene fo new and fo aflFe&ing. She
take her exclaimed againll the treachery of her nobles ; and Ihe
part.;
begged the fpeftators to relieve her from their tyranny.
The eventful (lory of the preceding day had thrown
her capital into a ferment. The citizens of a better
condition crowded to behold the degraded majelly of
their fovereign. Her (late of humiliation, fo oppofite
to the grandeur from which Ihe had fallen, moved them
with compaflion and fympathy. They heard her tale,
and were filled with indignation. Her lamentations,
her diforder, her beauty,-all ftimulated their ardour for
her deliverance. It was announced to the nobles, that
the tide of popular favour had turned towards the
queen. They hallened to appear before her, and to
allure her, with fmiles and courtefy, that they were im¬
mediately to conduft her to her palace, and to reinftate
her in her royalty. Impofing upon her credulous na-
tbemfelves. They feparated in obedience to her defirc. the nobles
The nobles now conveyed her to Holyroodhoufe. But ififmif,
nothing could be farther from their intentions than her rc- A‘eIn.
ellablilhment in liberty and gwmdeur. They held acouncil,
in which they deliberated concerning the manner in which
they ought to difpofe ot her. It was refolved, that Ihe
Ihould be confined during her life in the fortrefs of Loch-
leven ; and they lubferibed an order for her commitment.
A refolution fo fudden, fo perfidious, and fo tyran¬
nical, filled Marg' with the utmoft. allonilhment, and
drew from her the moll bitter complaints and exclama¬
tions. Kirkaldy of Grange, perceiving with furprife ge
the lengths to which the nobles had proceeded, felt his feuded by
honour take the alarm for the part he had ailed at their Kirkd ly oi
defire. He expollulated with them upon their breach G'nvr'8c*
of trull, and cenfured the extreme rigour of the queen’s
treatment. They counfelled him to rely upon the in¬
tegrity of their motives ; fpoke of her palfion for Both-
wel as mod vehement, and infilled on the danger of
intruding her with power. He was not convinced by
their fpeeches ; and earnedly recommended lenient and
moderate meafures. Difcreet admonitions, he faid,
could not fail of imprelling her with a full fenfe of the
hazards and inconveniences of an improper palfion, and
a little time would cure her of it. They allured him,
that w'hen it appeared that Ihe deteded Bothwel, and
had utterly abandoned his intereds, they would think of
kindnefs and moderation. But this, they urged, could But he 19
hardly be expedled ; for they had recently intercepted filenced by
a letter from her to this nobleman, in which Ihe ex-a^'^ei-y
prefled, in the drongeil terms, the warmth of her love, ^
and her fixed purpofe never to forfake him ( r). Kir¬
kaldy was defired to perufe this letter; and he prelfed
them no longer with his remonilrances. The queen,
in the mean time, fent a meflage to this generous fol-
dier, complaining of the cruelty of her nobles, and
reminding him that they had violated their engagements.
He inllantly addrefled an anfwer to it, recounting the
reproaches he had made to them ; dating his advice j
deferibing the furprife with which he had read her in¬
tercepted letter; and conjuring her to renounce and
forget a moll wicked and flagitious man, and, by this
victory over herfelf, to regain the love and refpedl of
‘ her
(t) “ Mr Hume is candid enough to give up the authenticity of this letter ; and indeed, fo far as I have ob-
ferved, there is not the flighted pretence of a reafon for conceiving it to be genuine; f Hijl. of England, Vol. V.
p. 120.) It was not mentioned by the earl of Morton and his adherents to Throgmorton, when Elizabeth in¬
terfered in the affairs of Scotland upon the imprifonment of the queen in the cadle of Lochleven : a period of
time when thefe datefmen were defirous to throw out every imputation to her prejudice, and when in particu¬
lar they were abufing her with vehemence for her attachment to Bothwel; (Keith, p. 419.) Nor was it made
life of by Murray before'the Englilh commiflioners. Mary, in the condition to which the nobles had reduced
her, could not well think of a dep of this fort, although her attachment to Bothwel had been as flrong as they
were pleafed to pronounce it. For, not to fpeak of the greatnefs of her didrefs, Ihe was guarded by them fo
driftly, as to make it vain for her to pretend to elude their vigilance. In regard, too, to her love of Bothwel,
it is not clear that it was ever real. While the king was alive, there are no traces of their improper intercourfe.
The affair of Dunbar was a criminal feduftion. 'The arts of a profligate man overcame her. There was no
fentiment of love upon either fide. After her marriage, his rudenefs extinguilhed in her altogether any remain
of kindnefs and refped ; and hence the coldnefs with which (he parted with him.” Stuart's Hdiory of Scotland*
1. p.253. note. 1
SCO
C 6s 1
SCO
joo
[ary con
ided in
! bj
701
he rebel-
)uslords
getJaud. tier fu^jefts. The device of a letter from her to Both-
—y——‘ wel completed the amazement of the queen. So un¬
principled a contempt of every thing that is moil fa-
Cred,.fo barbarous a perfeveranee in perfidioufnefs and
injuftice, extinguiihed every fentiment of hope in her
bofom. She conceived that ihe was doomed to inevi¬
table deftru&ion, and funk under a pang of unutterable
anguifh.
The Lords Ruthven and Lindfay arrived in this pa¬
re xyfm of her diilrefs, to inform her, that they were
dUeeVen commanded to put in execution the order for her com¬
mitment. They charged her women to take from her
all her ornaments and her royal attire. A mean drefs
was put upon her; and in this difguife they conveyed
her with precipitation to the prifon appointed for her.
The Lords Seton, Yeiter, and Borthwick, endeavour¬
ed to reicue her, but failed in the attempt. She was
delivered over to William Douglas the governor of the
caftle of Lochleven, who had married the mother of
the earl of Murray, and was himfelf nearly related to
the earl of Morton. See Mary,
Upon the fame day on which the nobles fubferibed
the order for the imprifonment of the queen, they en-
Mter into atered into a bond of concurrence or confederacy. By
md of af-^gtl jhey l>oun(! and cemented themfelves into a
rtafmn ,
body for the itreimous profecutron of their quarrel;
and it detailed the purpofes which they were to for¬
ward and purfue. They propofed to punifh the mur¬
derers of the king, to examine into the queen’s rape,
to diffolve her marriage, to preferve her from the bond¬
age of Bothwel, to protect the perfon of the prince,
and to reftore juftice to the realm. The fan&ion of a
moft folemn oath confirmed their reliance upon one an¬
other ; and in advancing their meafures, they engaged
to expofe and employ their lives, kindred, and for¬
tunes.
It is eafy to fee, notwithftanding all the pretended
patriotifm of the rebels, that nothing v/as farther frorti
their intentions than to profecute Bothwel and reftore
the queen to her dignity. They had already treated
her in the vileft manner, and allowed Bothwel to efcape
when they might eafily have apprehended and brought
him to any trial they thought proper. To exalt them-
felves was their only aim. Eleven -days after the capi¬
tulation at Carberry hill, they held a convention, in
which they veiy properly affirmed the name of lords of
the fecret council, and iffued a proclamation for appre¬
hending Bothwel as the murderer of the king ; offer¬
ing a reward of loco crowns to any perfon who ffiould
bring him to Edinburgh. A fcarch had been made for
the murderers of the king that very night in which the
queen was confined in Lochleven caftle. One Sebaftian
a Frenchman, and captain Blackader, were then appre-
ing's mur-bended ; and foon after James Edmondftone, John
er* Blackader, and Mynart Frafer, were taken up and im-
prifoned. The people expefted full and fatisfaftory
proofs of the guilt of Bothwel, but were difappointed.
The affirmation of the nobles, that they were poffeffed
of evidence which could condemn him, appeared to be no
better than a pretence or artifice. Sebaftian found means
to efcape *, the other perfons were put to the torture,
and fuftained it without making any conieffion that the
^nobles could publifti. They were condemned, how¬
ever, and executed, as being concerned in the murder.
In their dying moments they protefted their innocence.
Vox-,XVII. Parti.
70a
sveral
erfons
aken up
n account
f the
A fangulne hope was entertained that captain Black*- Seedinl;
der would reveal the whole fecret at the place of exe- " v——■*
cut ion; and a vail multitude of fpedlators were prefent.
No information, however, could be derived from what 7°3
he faid with regard to the regicides; but while he fo- ^
lemnly protefted that his life was unjuftly taken away, confefiion.
he averred it as his belief that the earls of Murray and
Morton were the contrivers of the king’s murder.
The lords of the fecret council now proceeded to the
greateft enormities. They robbed the palace of Holy- Robberiw
roodhoufe of its furniture and decorations; converted and out-
the queen’s plate into coin ; and poffeffed themfelves ofrag^s°f
her jewels, which were of great value ; and while the‘
fadtion at large committed thefe adls of robbery, the
earl of Glencairn with folemn hypocrify deiftoliffied the
altar in the queen’s chapel, and defaced and deftroyed
all its pictures and ornaments. Thefe exceffive outra¬
ges, however, loft them the favour of the people, and
an affociation was formed in favour of the queen. The
jeourt of France, as foon as the news of Mary’s impri-
fonment arrived, difpatched M. de Villeroy to condole
with her upon her misfortunes: but the lords of the
fecret council would not admit him to fee her, upon
which he immediately returned to his own country".
The earl of Murray, however, was at this time in
France; and to the promifes of this ambitious and
treacherous wretch the king trufted, imagining him to
be a fteady friend to the unfortunate queen. Elizabeth
alfo pretended friendfhip, and threatened the affociated
lords; but as they had every reafon to doubt her fince-
rity, they paid no regard to her threats, and even refil¬
led to admit her ambalfador to Mary’s prefence.
From all thefe appearances of friendfhip Mary nei- Ma^-y com,
ther did nor could derive any real affiftance. On thepelled to
24th of July 1567, the lord Lindfay, whofe imperious a,re-
behaviour, fays Dr Stuart, approached to infanity, was^^^
ordered by the lords to wait upon the queen at Loch-Clown,
leven. He carried with him three deeds or inftruments,
and was inffruCded not to be fparing in rudenefs and
menaces in order to compel her to fubferibe them. By
the firft, fhe was to refign her crown to her infant-fon ;
by the lecond, ftie appointed the earl of Murray regent
of Scotland ; and by the third, fhe conftituted" a coun¬
cil to direct the prince till this nobleman fhould arrive
in Scotland, or in the event of his death or refiifal of
the office. On the part of the queen all refiftance was
vain. Sir Robert Melvil affured her, that her bell
friends were of opinion, that what fhe did by compul-
fion, and in a prifon, could have no power to bind her ;
and of this fhe was alfo affured by Throgmorton, the
Englifh ambaffador, in a letter which Sir Robert Mel.
vil brought in the fcabbard of his fword. Mary there¬
fore, forlorn and helplefs, could not refift the barbarous
rudenefs with which Lindfay preffed the fubfeription
of the papers, though (he would not read them. Five 706
days after, the lords of the fecret council met at Stir-Coronat*olS
ling, for the coronation of the young prince, and con- ^ Jaiues
fidered themfelves as reprefenting the three eftates of *
the kingdom. A proteftation was made in the name
of the duke of Chatelherault, that this folemnity fhould
neither prejudge his rights of fucceffion nor thofe of
the other princes of the blood. The young prince be¬
ing prefented to them, the lords Lindfay and Ruthven
appeared, and in the name of the queen renounced in
his favour her right and title to the crown, gave up the
I
papers
Difappro-
vtd by
£lizabech.
SCO [ 65 ]
Gotland, papers {he had fubfcribed, and furrendered the fword, to defire it.
^ » fceptre, and royal crown. After the papers were read,
the earls of Morton, Athol, Glencairn, Marre, and
Menteith, with the mafter of Graham, the lord Hume,
and Bothwel bifhop of Orkney, received the queen’s
refignation in favour of her fon in the name of the
three ellates. After this formality, the earl of Morton,
bending his body, and laying his hand upon the Scrip¬
tures, took the coronation-oath for the prince, enga¬
ging that he Ihould rule according to the laws, and root
out all heretics and enemies to the<word of God. Adam
Bothwel then anointed the prince king of Scotland ; a
ceremony with which John Knox was difpleafed, as be¬
lieving it to be of Jewiih invention. This prelate next
delivered to him the fword and the fceptre, and finally
put the crown upon his head. In the procefiion to the
caftle from the church, where the inauguration was per¬
formed, and where John Knox preached the inaugura¬
tion fermon, the earl of Athol carried the crown, Mor¬
ton the fceptre, Glencairn the fword, and the earl of
Marre carried the prince in bis arms. Thefe folemnities
received no countenance from Elizabeth ; and '1 hrog-
morton, by her exprefs command, was not prefent at
708 them-
Murray re- Soon after this ceremony, the earl of Murray return-
tiirns from ed from France ; and his prefence gave fuch a ilrength
France. an(j firmnefs to his faifion, that very little oppofition
could be given by the partifans of Mary, who were un-
He"pay’s a fettled and defponding for want of a leader. A little
vifit to the time after his arrival, this monftrous hypocrite and trai-
queen at tor waited upon his diftrelfed and infulted fovereign at
Tochleven, Kochleven. His defign was to get her to defire him to
accept of the regency, which he otherwife pretended to
decline. The queen, unfufpicious of the deepnefs of
his arts, confcious of the gratitude he owed to her, and
trufting to his natural afftdlion, and their tie of a com¬
mon father, received him with a tender welcome. She
was in hafte to pour forth her foul to him ; and with
tears and lamentations related her condition and her fuf-
ferings. He heard her with attention : and turned oc-
cafionallyhis difeourfe to the topics which might lead her
to open to him her mind without difguife in thofe fitua-
tions in which he was moft anxious to obferve it. His
eye and his penetration were fully employed ; but her
diftrefs awakened net his tendernefs. He feemed to be
in fufpenfe ; and from the guardednefs ef his converfa-
tion {he could gather neither hope nor fear. She beg¬
ged him to be free with her, as he was her only friend.
He yielded to her intreaties as if with pain and reluc¬
tance ; and taking a comprehenfive furvey of her con¬
duit, deferibed it with all the feverity that could affeit
her moft. He could difeover no apology for her mif-
government and diforders; and, with a mortifying
plainnefs, he prefied upon her confcience and her ho¬
nour. At times {he wept bitterly. Some errors {he
confefled ; and againft calumnies fhe warmly vindicated
herfelf.' But all {he could urge in her behalf made no
imprefiton upon him ; and he fpoke to her of the mer¬
cy of God as her chief refuge. She was torn with ap-
prehenfions, and nearly diftraited with defpair. He
dropped fome words of confolation; and after expref-
fmg an attachment to her interefts, gave her his pro-
mife to employ all his confequence to feeme her life.
As to her liberty, he told her, that to atchieve it was
beyond all his efforts; and that it was not good for her
SCO
Starting from her feat, {he took him in Scotian,
her arms, and kiftlng him as her deliverer from the
fcaftbld, folicited his immediate acceptance of the re¬
gency. He declared he had many reafons to refufeAndb
the regency. She implored and conjured him not to duces hei
abandon her in the extremity of her wretchednefs. ‘o Preft
There was no other method, {he faid, by which {heh|mt<lac
herfelf could be faved, her fon protected, and her realm regency,11
rightly governed. He gave way to her anxiety and fe¬
licitations. She befought him to make the moft un¬
bounded ufe of her name and authority, defired him to
keep for her the jewels that yet remained with her, and
recommended it to him to get an early pofleffion of all
the forts of her kingdom. Fie now took his leave of
her, and embracing anew this pious traitor, fhe fent her
bleffing with him to the prince her fon.
In the mean time the wretched earl of Bothwel was Mil rabli
ftrnggling with the greatell difficulties. Sir William fate of
Murray and Kirkaldy of Grange had put to fea in tiothw'eh
fearch of him. He had been obliged to exercife pi¬
racy in order to fubfift himfelf and his followers. His
purfuers came upon him unexpectedly at the Orkney
Hands, and took three of his {hips ; but he himfelf
made his efcape. Soon after, having feized a Turkifli
trader on the coaft of Norway, two {hips of war be¬
longing to the king of Denmark gave chace to him as
a pirate. An engagement enfued, in which Bothweb
was taken. His officers and mariners were hanged in
Denmark ; but Bothwel himfelf, being known by fome
Scottifh merchants, had his life fpared. He was thrown,,
however, into a dungeon, where he remained ten years
and at laft died melancholy and diftraCied. The re¬
gent fent commiffioners to the king of Denmark to de¬
mand him as a prifoner j but that prince, confidering
him as a traitor and ufurper, totally difregarded his re-
queft.
The dreadful fate of Bothwel did not make any al-jjetter#
teration in the fituation of the queen.. Her enemies,forged
bent on calumniating her, produced letters,, which theybetween
faid were written and fent by her to that licentious no-
bleman during the life of the king. Thefe letters aro- °UW ’
now univerfally admitted to have been forged by the
rebels themfelves, who praClifed likewife upon fome fer-
vants of Bothwel to accufe the queen of the murder of
her hufband. The letters for fome time gained credit;Servants0
but the confeffions of the fervants were all in her fa- Bothwel
vour. When on the fcaffold, they addreffed themfelves executed>
to the people ; and. after having folemnly declared the ^°j^”lar
innocence of the queen, they protefted before God and ;ence of.th
his angels, that the earl of Bothwel had informed themquccn.
that the earls of Murray and Morton were the contri¬
vers of the king’s murder.
It was impoffible that fuch tranfa&ions as thefe could
advance the popularity of the regent. His unbounded
ambition and cruelty to his fovereign began at laft to
open the eyes of the nation ; and a party was forming
itfclf in favour of the queen. She herfelf had been
often meditating her efcape from her prifon , and {he at
laft effeCled it by means of a young gentleman. George r, £I4ueen
Douglas, brother to her keeper, who had fallen in loveefedpes
with her. On the 2d day of May 1568, about fevenfiom pri-
o’clock in the evening, when her keeper was at fupper^on*
with his family, George Douglas, poffeffing himfelf of
the keys of the caftle, haftened to her apartment, and
conducted her out of prifon. Having locked the gates
3 of
r
ru)
1
|lai
71*
lie
Ant
1715
e regent
I's an
my.
716
'Huy'*
1 ly de-
Jted at
igfide
r Ghf-
ir*
iP1!..
SI refolve
telly into
E^iand,
_.7i8
1 d puts
dtitgn
xecu-
719
nounces
• anival
Eiiza-
h.
SCO [
of the caftle, they immediately entered a boat which
waited for them ; and being rowed acrofs the lake, the
lord Seton received the queen with a chofen band of
horfemen in complete armour. That night he con¬
veyed her to his houfe of Niddrie in Weft Lothian ;
where having refted a few hours, fire fet out for Ha¬
milton.
The efcape of the queen threw her enemies into the
preateft confternation. Many forfook the regent open¬
ly ; and ftill more made their fubmiflions privately, or
concealed themfelves. He did not, however, defpond ;
but refolved to defend himfelf by force of arms. The
queen foon found herfelf at the head of 6000 men, and
the regent oppofed her with 4000. Mary, however,
did not think it proper to rifk a battle ; knowing the
capacity of the regent as a general, and that his offi¬
cers were all men of approved valour and experience.
But in this prudent refolution (he was over-ruled by the
impetuefity of her troops. A battle was fought on
the 13th of May 1568, at Langfide near Glafgow ;
in which Mary’s army was defeated, and her laft hopes
blafted. The unfortunate queen fled towards Kirkcud¬
bright ; where finding a place of fafety, flie deliberated
on the plan {he fhould afterwards follow. The refult
of her deliberations, as frequently happens in cafes of
perplexity, led her to take the worft itep poffible. Not-
withftandirtg all the perfidy which flie had found in E-
lizabeth, Mary could not think that flie would now re-
fufe to afford her a refuge in her dominions ; and there¬
fore determined to retire into England. To this flie had
sbeen folicited by Elizabeth herfelf during herconfinement
in Lochleven cattle ; and (he now refolved, in oppofi-
tion to the advice of her moft faithful counfellors, to
make the fatal experiment.
In obedience to her order, the lord Herries addref-
fed a letter to Mr Lauder, the deputy-commander at
Carlifk; and after detailing her defeat at Langfide,
defired to know if fhe might truft herfelf upon Eng-
jifh ground. This officer wrote inftantly an anfwer, in
which he faid, that the lord Scroop the warden of the
froijitiers being abfent, he could not of his private au¬
thority give a formal affurance in a matter which con¬
cerned the ftate of a queen : but that he would fend by
poll to his court to know the pleafure of his lovereign;
and that if in the mean time any necefiity ftiould force
Mary to Carlifle, he would receive her with joy, and
proteft her againft her enemies. Mary, however, be¬
fore the meffenger could return, had embarked in a fiffi-
ing boat with fixteen attendants. In a tew hours flie
landed at Wirkington in Cumberland ; and from thence
(he proceeded to Cockermouth, where (he continued
till Mr Lauder, having affembled the gentlemen of the
country, conduced her with the greateft refpeft to the
cattle of Carlifle.
To Elizabeth (he announced her arrival in a dif-
patch, which deferibed her late misfortunes in general
and pathetic terms, and in which flie expreffed an earneft
folicitude to pay her a vifit at her court, and the deep
fenfe {he entertained of her friendfliip and generofity.
The queen of England, by obliging and polite letters,
condoled with her upon her fituation, and gave her
affurances of all the favour and proteftion that were
due to the juftice of her caufe. But as they were not
accompanied with an invitation to London, Mary took
the alarm. She thought it expedient to inftrudt lord
67 ] SCO
Fleming to repair to France; and fhe intruded lord Scotland.^
Herries with a moft prefling remonftrance to Eliza-
beth. Her anxiety for an interview in order to vin-An^ prtiffes
dicate her conduct, her ability to do fo in the moft fa-her for an
tisfadtory manner, and her power to explain the ingra-interview,
titude, the crimes, and the perfidy of her enemies, were
urged to this princefs. A delay in the ftate of her af¬
fairs was reprefented as nearly equivalent to abfolute
deftrudtion. An immediate proof was therefore le-
quefted from Elizabeth of the flneerity of her profef-
fions. If ftie was unwilling to admit into her prefence
a queen, a relation, and a friend, flie was reminded,
that as Mary’s entrance into her dominions had been
voluntary, her departure ought to be equally free and
unreftrained. She valued the protection of the queen
of England above that of every other potentate upon
earth ; but if it could not be granted, {he would folicit
the amity*, and implore the aid, of powers who would
commiferate her afflictions, and be forward to relieve
them. Amidft remon{trances, however, which were
fo juft and fo natural, Mary failed not to give thanks
to Elizabeth for the courtefy with which {he had hi¬
therto been treated in the cattle of Carlifle. She took
the opportunity alfo to beg of this princefs to avert
the cruelty of the regent from her adherents, and to
engage him not to wafte her kingdom with hoftility aiid
ravages ; and flie had the prudence to pay her compli¬
ments in an afftCtionate letter to fecretary Cecil, and to
court his kind offices in extricating her from her diffi¬
culties and troubles.
But the queen of England was not to be moved by
remonftrances. The voluntary offer of Mary to plead y2T
her caufe in the prefence of Elizabeth, andtofatisfyD-jibera-
all her fcruples, was rejedled. Tier diiafters were ra-twins of
ther a matter of exultation than of pity. The deli-
berations of the Englifli queen, and thole of her ft^tef-^attf-men
men, were not directed by maxims of equity, of com- concerning
palfion, or of generofity. They confidered the flight Mary,
of Mary into England as an incident that was fortu¬
nate and favourable to them ; and they were felicitous
to adopt thofe meafures which would enable them to
draw from it the greateft profit and advantage. If the
queen of Scots were allowed to return to her own do¬
minions, it was probable that flie would foon be in a
condition to deltroy the earl of Murray and his fac¬
tion, who were the friends of England. The houfe of
Hamilton, who were now zealous in the interefts of
France, would rife into confideration and power. Eng¬
land would be kept in perpetual turmoils upon the fron¬
tiers ; Ireland would receive moleftation from the Scots,
and its difturbances grow important and dangerous.
Mary would renew with redoubled ardour her defigns
againft the Proteftant religion ; and a French army
would again be introduced into Scotland. For thefe
reafons, Elizabeth and her minifters determining not
to reftore the queen of Scots to her throne, coniidered
what would be the probable confequences of permit¬
ting her to remain at liberty in England. In this fitu¬
ation, flie would augment the number of her partizans,
fend to every quarter her emiffaries, and inculcate her
title to the crown. Foreign ambaffadors would afford
her aid, and take a fiiaie in her intrigues ; and Scot¬
land, where there was fo high an objedt to be gained,
would enter with cordiality into her views. This plan
being alfo hazardous, it was deliberated whether the
I 2
queen'
SCO r 68 ] SCO
Scotland.
7a»
They re-
folve to
confine her
for life.
7*3
Elizabeth
refufes to
admit the
queen into
her pre-
fence.
7H
IMary is
removed
from Car-
lille, and
clofely
^guarded.
, 725
Comm if.
fioners for
her trial
meet at
York.
716
Infamous
behaviour
of Murray.
queen of Scots might not he allowed to take a voyage
into France. But all the pretentions which had hither¬
to threatened the crown of Elizabeth would in this cale
be revived. A ftrong refentment to her would even
urge Mary and Charles IX. to the boldeil and molt
defperate enterprifes. The party of the queen of
Scots in England, Itrong from motives of religion and
affedtion, and from difeontents and the love of change,
would llimulate their anger and ambition. England
had now no territories in France. A war with that
country and with Scotland would involve the greatelt
dangers. Upon revolving thefe meafures and topics,
Elizabeth and her counfellors were induced to con¬
clude, that it was by far the wifell expedient to keep
the queen of Scots in confinement, to invent methods
to augment her dill refs, to give countenance to the re¬
gent, and to hold her kingdom in dependence and fub-
jedtion.
In confequence of this cruel and unjuft refolution,
Mary was acquainted, that (he could not be admitted
into Elizabeth’s prefence till (he had cleared herfelf of
the crimes imputed to her ; fire was warned not to
think of introducing French troops into Scotland ; and
it was hinted, that for the more fecunty (he ought to
be removed farther from the frontier. This meffage
at once Ihowcd Mary the imprudence of her condudt
in trufting herfelf to Elizabeth. But the error could
not now be remedied. She was watched to prevent
her efcape, and all her remonltrances were vain. The
earl of Murray had offered to accufe her ; and it was
at laft concluded that Elizabeth could not, conftftently
with her own honour and the tranquillity of her go¬
vernment, fuller the queen of Scots to come into her
prefence, to depart out of England, or to be reltored
to .her dignity, till her caufe Ihould be tried and decid¬
ed. An order was given to remove her from Carlille
caftle to a place of ftrength at a greater diftance from
the borders, to confine her more clofely, and to guard
againft all poffibility of an efcape.
In confequence of thefe extraordinary tranfaAions,
a trial took place, perhaps the moft remarkable for
its injuffice and partiality of any recorded in hiltory.
Mary, confined and apprehenlive, fubmitted to be tried
as they thought proper. The regent, who was to be
the accufer, was fummoned into England, and commif-
fioners were appointed on both lides. On the 4th of
October, the commifiioners met at York; and four
days after, the deputies of the queen of Scots were
called to make known their complaints. They related
the moft material circumftances of the cruel ufage Ihe
had received. Their accufations were an alarming in-
trodu&ion to the bulinefs in which the regent had em¬
barked ; and notwithftanding the encouragement Ihown
to him by Elizabeth, he was affaulted by apprehentions.
The artifices of Maitland added to his alarms. In-
llead of proceeding inftantly to defend himfeif, or to
accufe the queen, he fought permiffion to relate his
doubts and fcruples to the Englilh commiflioners. In
his own name, and with the concurrence of his affoci-
ates, he demanded td know whether they had fufficient
authority from Elizabeth to pronounce* in the cafe of
the murder, Guilty or not guilty, according to the evi¬
dence that ihould be laid before them ; whether they
would actually exercife this power ; whether, in the
event of her criminality, their fovereign ihould be deli¬
vered to him and hrs friends, or detained in England in Scotty
fuch a way as that no danger ihould enfue from her  v—<
activity ; and whether, upon her conviction, the queen
of England would allow his proceedings, and thole of
his party, to be proper, maintain the government of
the young king, and fupport him in the regency in
the terms ot the a£t of parliament which had confirmed
him in that office. To thefe requifitions, it was an-
fv/ered, upon the part of the Engliih deputies, that
their commiffion was fo ample, that they could enter
into and proceed with the controverfy ; and that they
had liberty to declare, that their fovereign would not
reftore the queen of Scots to her crown, if fatisfa&ory
proofs of her crime ihould be produced ; but that they*
-knew not, and were not inftrudfted to fay, in what man¬
ner (lie would finally conduct herfelf as to her perfon.
and puniihment. With regard to the fovereignty of
the prince, and the regency of the earl of Murray, they
were points, they obfei ved, which might be canvaffed
in a futurer period. Thefe replies did not pleafe the
regent and his affociaties ; and they requefted the Eng¬
liih commiflioners to tranfmit their doubts and fcruples
to be examined and anfwered by Elizabeth.
But whde tire regent difeovered in this manner his
apprehenfions, he yet affirmed that he was able to an-
fwer the charges imputed to him and his faction ; and
this being in a great meafure a diftinft matter from the
controverfy of the murder, he was defired to proceed
in it. It was contended, that Bothwel, who had the His accufi.
chief concern in the murder of lord Darnley, poffeffed ti,’n agatfi
fuch credit with the queen, that within three months Mary*
alter that horrible event, he feized her perfon and led
her captive to Dunbar, obtained a divorce from his
wife, and married her : that the nobility, being moved
with his crimes, did confederate to punifh him ; to re¬
lieve her from the tyranny of a man who had ravifiied
her, and who could not be her hufband ; and to pre-
ferve the life of the prince : that having taken arms
for thefe purpofes, the earl marched againft them ; but
that, propoliug to decide the quarrel by Angle combat,
his challenge was accepted: that he declined, notwith¬
ftanding, to enter the lifts, and fled : that the queen,
preferring his impunity to her own honour, favoured,
his efcape by going oyer to the nobility : that they
condutled her to Edinburgh, where they informed
her ot the motives of their proceedings, requefted her
to take the proper fteps againft him and the other re¬
gicides, and intreated her to diffolve her pretended mar¬
riage, to take care ot her fon, and to confult the tran¬
quillity ot her realm : that this treatment being offen-
tive to her, fhe menaced them with vengeance, and of¬
fered to furrender her crown if they would permit
her to poffefs the murderer of her hufband : that her
inflexible mind, and the neceffities of the ftate, com¬
pelled them to keep her at a diftance from him, and
out of the way ot a communication with his adhe¬
rents : that during her confinement, finding herfelf
fatigued with the troubles of royalty, and unfit for
them from vexation of fpirit and the weaknefs of her
body and intelled, fhe freely and of her own will re-
figned her crown to her fon, and conftituted the earl of
Murray to the regency; that the king accordingly had
been crowned, and Murray admitted to the regency ;
that the fan&ion of the three eftates affembled in par¬
liament having confirmed thefe appointments, an urffi
■verfal
Scotland*
‘ 748
'Confuted
by the de
jtuties of
Mary.
SCO [ 69 ] SCO
srcjfal obedience of the people had enfued, and a fteady
adminiftration of juftice had taken place : that certain
perfons, however, envious ot the public order and peace,
had brought her out of prifon, and had engaged to
fubvert the government ; that they had been difappoint-
ed m their wicked attempts ; and that it was molt jail
and equitable, that the king and the regent Ihould be
fupported in power, in oppodtion to a rebellious and
turbulent faction.
Tliis apology, fo imperfetl, fo impudent, and fo ir-
reconcileable with hiftory, received a complete confuta¬
tion from the deputies of the queen of Scots. To
take arms againft her became Bothwel had her favour,
was, they laid, a lame junification of the earl of Mur¬
ray and his friends ; lince it had never been properly
maiiifeded to her that he was the murderer of her hat¬
band. He had indeed been fufpected of this crime ;
but had been tried by his peets, and acquitted. His
acquittal had been ratihed in parliament, and had ob¬
tained the exprefs approbation of the party who were
now fo loud in accuiing him, and who had conipired
againil her authority. Thete rebels had even urged
her to accomplilh her marriage with him, had recom¬
mended him as the fitteil perfon to govern the realm,
and had iubfcribed a bond afierting his innocence, and
binding themfelves to challenge and punifh all his ad-
vtriaries and opponents. They had never, either before
or after the marriage, like true fubjedls, advertiied
the queen of his guilt, till, having experience ot their
ftrength, they iecretly took arms, and invelted her in
Borthwick caftle. The firil mark of their difpleafure
was the found of a trumpet in hoftility, and the dif-
play of warlike banners. She made her efcape to Dun¬
bar ; and they returning to Edinburgh, levied troops,
iffucd proclamations, took the field againft her, under
the pretence of delivering her from his tyranny, and
got poft'effion of her perfon. She was willing to pre¬
vent the effufion of blood, and was very far from pre¬
ferring his impunity to her honour. Kirkaldy of
Grange, in obedience to inllruClions from -them, de-
iired her to caufe him to retire, and invited her to pafa
to them under the promife of being ferved and obeyed
as their fovereign. She confented, and Kirkaldy ta¬
king Bothwel by the hand, recommended it to him to
depart, and allured him that no man would purfue
him. It was by their own contrivance that he fled j
and it was in their power to have taken him ; but they
fhowed not the frnalleft defire to make him their pri-
foner. He remained, too, for fome time in the king¬
dom, and was unmolefted by them; and it was not till
he was upon the feas that they affefted to go in fearch
of him. When fhe furrendered herfelf in the light of
their army, the earl of Morton ratified the ftipulations
of Kirkaldy, made obeifance to her in their names,
and promifed her all the fervice and honour which had
ever been paid to any of her predeceflbrs. They were
not Haves, however, to their engagements. They car¬
ried her to Edinburgh, but did not lodge her in her
palace. She was committed to the houfe of a burgefs,
and treated with the vileft. indignities. She indeed
broke out into menaces, and threatened them ; nor was
this a matter either of blame or of wonder. But it was
utterly falfe that ihe had ever made any offer to give
away her crown, if Ihe might poffefs Bothwel. In the
audit of her fufferings, Ihe had even required them by
fecretary Maitland to fpecify their complaints, and be-
fought them to allow her to appear in parliament, and
to join and affift in feeking a remedy to them from the
wifdom of the three effates. This overture, however,
fo falutary and fubrnifiive, they abfolutely rejected.—
They were animated by purposes of ambition, and had
not in view a relief from grievances. They forced her
from her capital in the night, and imprifoned her in
Lochleven ; and there, they aflirm, being exhaufted
with the toils of government and the languors of fick-
nefs, Ihe, without conftraint or felicitation, refigned her
crown to her fon, and appointed the earl of Murray to
be regent during his minority. This indeed was to
affume an unlimited power over fadls; but the truth
could neither be concealed, nor overturned, nor pallia¬
ted. She was in the vigour of youth, unaffailed by ma¬
ladies, and without any infirmity that could induce her
to furrender the govei nment of her kingdom. Nor was
it unknown to them that the earl of Athol and the ba¬
rons Tullibardin and Lethington, principal men of their
council, difpatched Sir Robert Melvil to her with a
ring and prefents, with a recommendation to fubferibe
whatever papers Ihould be laid before her, as the only
means in her power to lave her life, and with an aflurance
that what (he did under captivity could not operate any
injury to her. Melvil, too, communicated to Iier an
intimation in writing from Sir Nicholas Throgmorton,
which gave her the fame advice and the fame affurance.
To Sir Nicholas Throgmorton Ihe lent an anfwer, in¬
forming him tliat Ihe would follow his counfel; and en¬
joining him to declare to his millrefs her haplefs Hate,,
and that her refignation of her crown-was conllrained.-
Nor did this ambalfador negledt her coramiUkm ; and it
was a popular perfuafton that Elizabeth would have
marched an army to her relief, if Ihe had not been inti¬
midated by the threat of the rebels, that the blood of
the queen of Scots would be the wages of her foldiers..
It was alfo not to be contradicled, that when the lord-
Lindfay prefented to his lovereign the inftruments of
refignation, he menaced her with a clofer prifon and a
fpeedy death if fhe Ihould refufe to fubferibe them. It
was under an extreme terror, and with many tears, that
fhe put her name to them. She did not confider them
as her deeds ; did not read them ; and protefted, that
when flie was at liberty,.(he would dii'avow fubferiptions
which had been extorted from her. Even Douglas, the"
keeper of Eochleven, could not endure to be a witnefo-
of the violence employed againft her. He departed out
of her prefence, that he might not fee her furrender her
rights againft her will ; and he fought and obtained
from her a certificate, that he was not accefi'oi y to this
eompulfion and outrage. Nor did it conlift with the
flightell probability or reafon, that fhe would, of her
own will and accord, execute a refignation of her royal
eftate, and retain no provifion for her future mainte¬
nance. Yet by thefe extraordinary deeds, the condi¬
tion to which fhe was reduced was moll miferable and
wretched. For no portion whatever of her revenue
was referved to her, and no fecurity of any kind was
granted either for her liberty or her life. As to the
coronation of the prince, it could have no validity, as
being founded in a pretended and forced refignation.
It was alfo defefftive in its form ; for there were in Scot¬
land more than an hundred earls, bifhops, and lords *
and of thefe the whole, or at kail the major part, ought
4 to
Sotland;
I
SCO [ 70 ] SCO
-S^nd-to concur in matters of importance. Now there did riage and miftakes, ityetwas not the bufmefaof agood Scotland,
W ” not affift in it more than four earls, fix lords, one bi- fubjedl induftrioufly to hold her out to fcorn. Anxious —v—
fhop, and two or three abbots. Proteftations, too, and repeated conferences were held by them; and at
were openly made, that nothing tranfafted at that pe- length it was formally agreed, that the regent fhould
riod fhould be any prejudice to the queen, her eflate, not acetafe the queen of Scots; and that the duke in
and the blood-royal of Scotland. Neither could it be return fhould protect him in the favour of Elizabeth,
rightly conceived, that if the queen had willingly fur- and fecure him in the pofleflion of his regency.
rendered her dignities, fhe would have named the earl of But while the regent engaged himfelf in tins in-His ex-
Murray to the regency in preference to the duke of Cha- trigue with the duke of Norfolk, he was defirous not- treme infi.
telherault, who had a natural and proper claim to it, and withflanding of gratifying the refentments of Eliza-^,ournefs
who had deferved well of her country by difeharging beth, and of advancing his own interefls by undermi-
that high office during her minority. As to the ratifi- ning fecretly the fame and reputation of his fovereign.
cation of the inveftiture of the young prince, and the He fnftni&ed Maitland, George Buchanan, James Mac-
regency of the earl of Murray by the ellates, it was gill, and John Wood, to go to the duke of Norfolk, ‘
obfervable, that this was done in an illegal parliament, the earl of Suffex, and Sir Ralph Sadler, and to com-
It was an invalid confirmation of deeds which in them- municate to them as private perfons, and not in their
felves had no inherent power or efficacy. The princi- chara&er of commiffioners, the letters to Bothwel, and
pal nobility, too, objected in this parliament to this ra- the other proofs upon which he affirmed the guilt of
tification. Proteftations were made before the lords of the queen of Scots. It was his defire that they would
the articles, as w-ell as before the three eftates, to inter- examine thefe papers, give their opinion of them to E-
rupt and defeat tranfaftions which were in a wild hofti* lizabeth, and inform him whether fhe judged them fuf-
lity to the conftitution and the laws. Neither was it ficient evidences of Mary’s concern in the murder of her
true that the government of the king and the regent hufband. If this fttould be her opinion, heteflified his
was univerfally obeyed, and adminiftered with equity own readinefs, and that of his affociates, to fwear that
and approbation : for a great divifion of the nobility the papers were genuine, and of the hand-writing of
never acknowledged any authority but that of the the queen. By this Operation, he was folicitous to ef-
queen, and never held any courts but in her name ; and tablifh his vouchers as inconteftable, and as teftimonies
it was notorious, that the adminiftration of the ufurpers of record. The commiffioners examined his capers, and
had been marked and diftinguifiied by enormous cruel- heard the comments of Buchanan and his other affift-
ties and^ oppreffions. Many honourable families and ants; but they do not feem to have bellowed the ful-
loyal fubjefts had been perfecuted to ruin, and plunder* left credit upon them. They deferibed them, however,
ed of their wealth, to gratify the retainers and foldiers to Elizabeth ; pointed out the places of them which
who upheld this infolent domination ; and murder and were ftrongeft againft Mary ; and allowed that their
bloodfhed, theft and rapine, were prevalent to a degree force and meaning were very great, if their genuinenefs
unheard of for many ages. Upon all thefe accounts, it could be demonftrated. But of their genuinends they
was inferred, that Elizabeth ought to fupport the acknowledged that they had no other evidence than
queen of Scots, to reftore her to her crown, and to ftout aflertions, and the offer of oaths. The earl of
overthrow the power of a molt unnatural and rebellious Suffex, in a private difpatch to fecretary Cecil, does
7*9 more than infinuate*, that he thought Mary would be * Robtrtfa
"The regent 1 o thefe fadts the regent did not pretend to make able to prove the letters palpable forgeries ; and with °f Ual-
xcdv t0 3ny 0.bje6tl0n » and though required by the Engliffi refped to the murder of the king, he declares in plain meni's^ 1
f commiffioners to produce founder and better reafons for terms, that from all he could learn, Murray and his fac-book 4
his treatment the queen, he did not advance any tion would, upon a judicial trial, be found by “proofs
thing in his own behalf. He even allowed the char- hardly to be denied,” more criminal in that charge than
g,es of treafon and ufurpation to be prefled againft him, the queen herfelf. Elizabeth and her minifters, upon
without prefuming to anfwer. This furprifing beha- the receipt of fuch difpatches, did not think it expe-
viour, which might readily have been conftrued into an dient to empower them to adopt a method of proof fo
acknowledgment of his guilt, it feems, proceeded from palpably fufpicious, and in which ffie could not openly
fome conferences which he had with the duke of Nor- concur, without grofsly violating even the appearance
folk. 1 his nobleman was a zealous partizan for the of probity. The regent had before attempted to en-
jucceffion of Mary to the Enghfh crown. He was gage her in a diredl affurance of the validity of his pa-
n-r1 -U j-r Wrth the °Pinion’ tbat bl'3 miftrefs, pers, when he fubmitted copies of them to her infpec-
while ffie was difpofed to gratify her animofity and jea- tion by his fecretary Mr Wood. His attempt at this
V i°ui'es. a£amd flie of Scots, was fecretly refolved, jun&ure was of a fimilar kind ; and it could not recom-
oy fixing a ftain upon her, to exclude her altogether mend him to the Engliffi commiffioners.
from the fucceffion, and to involve her fon in her dif- Nor were thefe the only tranfadtions which took
grace. He was eager to defeat a purpofe, which he place during the continuance of the commiffioners at
, conceived to be not only unjuft in itfelf, but highly York. The inventive and refining genius of Lething-
detrimental to hts country. It was in his power to ton had fuggefted to him a project, which he commu-
ait with this view ; and he obferved with pleafure, that nicated in confidence to the bifhop of Rofs. It recei-
Maitland or Lethington was favourable to Mary. To ved the warm approbation of this ecclefiaftic ; and they
t is itatdman, accordingly, he ventured to exprefs his determined to put it to a trial. While they attended
urpnic, that the regent could be allured to think of the duke of Norfolk to the diverfion of hawking, they
an attempt fo blameable as that of criminating his fove- infinuated into him the notion of his allying himfelf
^eign. if Mary had really given offence by mifear- with the queen of Scots. Her beauty, her accompliffi-
meats.
Scotland.
73i p
Articles of
the queen’s
accusation.
73^
Renion-
ftrances of
the Scots
deputies.
SCO [
ments, and her kingdom, were high allurements to this
nobleman ; and as he was the greatell fubjeft of Eng¬
land, and perhaps of Europe, he feemed not to be un¬
worthy of them. The propofal was very flattering to
the admiration he entertained of Mary, to his ambition,
and to his patriotifm The more he thought of it, he
was the more convinced of its propriety. His accefs
to be informed of the piaftices of the regent, deftroyed
in him the operation of thefe Handers by which her ene¬
mies were fo aftive to traduce her. In this ftate of his
mind, the lady Sooop, his After, who refided at Bol¬
ton Cattle with Mary, completely confirmed his refolu-
tion. For from her he learned the orderly carriage and
the amiable difpofitions of the queen of Scots. He was
now impatient to have a fit feafon to make her formally
the offer of his hand.
Elizabeth in the mean time was thrown into confu-
flon by the refufal of the regent to accufe the queen
of Scots. To give a politive anfwer to his doubts and
fcruples was not coniiftent with her honour; and yet,
without this condefeeniion, fhe was affnred that the
Scottifh deputies would not exhibit their charge or cri¬
mination. Having deceived Mary therefore with fair
promifes, fhe was aftive in gaining over the regent to
her vieyvs ; which having done, he confented at laft to
prefer his accufation againlt Mary before the commif-
fioners, who now met at Weftmintter by the command
of Elizabeth. The charge was expreffed in general and
prefumptive terms. It affirmed, that as James earl of
Bothwel was the chief executor of the murder of king
Henry, fo the queen was his perfuader and counfel in
the device ; that fhe was a maintainer and fortifier of
this unnatural deed, by flopping the inquilition into it
and its punifhmcnt, and by taking in marriage the prin¬
cipal regicide ; that they had begun to exercife a cruel
tyranny in the commonwealth, and had formed a refo-
lution of deftroying the innocent prince, and of tranf-
ferring the crown from the true line of its kings to a
bloody murderer and a gsdlefs tyrant ; and that the
eftates of the realm, finding her unworthy to reign, had
ordered her to refign the crown, her fon to be crowned,
and the eail of Murray to be eftablifhed in the regen¬
cy. Before this accufation was preferred, the earl of
Lenox prefented himfelf before the Englifh commif-
fioners; made a lamentable declaration of his griefs,,
and produced to them the letters which had paffed be¬
tween him and Mary concerning the murder, with
a writing which contained a diredt affirmation of her
guilt.
The deputies of Mary were aftonifhed at this accufa*
tion, being a violent infringement of a proteftation which
they had formerly given in, and which had been accept¬
ed, namely, that the crown, eftate, perfon, and honour
of the queen of Scots, fhould be guarded againft every
affault and injury ; yet in all thei'e particulars fhe was
touched and affected. It was underftood that no judi¬
cial proceedings fhould take place againft her; yet fhe
was actually arraigned as a criminal, and her deputies
were called upon to defend her. They difeovered not,
however, any apprehenfion of the validity of the charge;
and while they fully explained the motives which actu¬
ated the earl of Murray and his faftion in their pro¬
ceedings, they imputed to perfens among themfelves
the guilt of the king’s murder. They affirmed, that
the queenVadverfories were the accomplices of Both-
7i ] SCO
wd ; that they had fubferibed a bond confpiring the Scotland,
death of the king ; and that their guilt had been at- ^ 1
tefted in the fight of 10,000 fpedators by thofe of
their confederates who had already been executed.
They exclaimed againft the enormous ingratitude, and
the unparalleled audacity of men, who could forget fo
completely all the obligations which they owed to their
fovereign ; and who, not fatisfied with ufurping her
power, could even charge her with a murder which they
themfelves had committed. They reprefented the ftrong
neceflity which had arifen for the fulleft vindication of
their miftrefs ; and they faid, that in fo weighty an ex¬
tremity, they could not pofiibly fuppofe that fhe would
be reftrained from appearing in her own defence. They
had her inftruCtions, if her honour was touched, to make
this requifition ; and till it was granted, they infilled,
that all proceedings in the conference fhould be at an
end. A refufal of this liberty, in the fituation to whick
fhe was driven, would be an infallible proof that no
good was intended to her. It was their wifh to deal
with fincerity and uprightnefs ; and they were perfua-
ded, that without a proper freedom of defence, their
queen would neceffarily fall a victim to partiality and
injuftice. They therefore earneftly preffed the Eng¬
lifh commiflioners, that fire might be permitted to pre-
fent herfelf before Elizabeth, the nobles of England,
and the ambaffadors of foreign nations, in order to ma-
nifeft to the world the injuries fhe had fuffered, and her
innocence. ;
After having made thefe fpirited reprefentations to
the Englifh commiflioners, the deputies of Mary de-
fired to have accefs to the queen of England. They They are
were admitted accordingly to an audience ; and in aadmitted
formal addrefs or petition they detailed what had hap- audienc*-
pened, infilled that the liberty of perfonal defence fhould iza'”
be allowed to their miftrefs> and demanded that the earl *
of Murray and his affociates fhould be taken into cufto-
dy, till they fhould anfwer to fuch charges as fhould
be preferred againft them. She delired to have fome
time to turn her thoughts to matters of fuch high im¬
portance ; and told them, that they might foon expedt
to hear from her.
The bifhop of Rofs, and the other deputies of Mary, And'make
in the mean time,, ftruck with the perfidious manage-
ment of the conference, convinced of the jealouiies and^-0Qmo“
pafiions of Elizabeth, ftnfible that her power over her
commiffioners was unlimited, and anxious for the de¬
liverance of their miftrefs, made an overture for an ac¬
commodation to the earl of Leicefter and Sir William
Cecil. They propofed, that the original meaning of
the conference fhould ftill be adhered to, notwithftand-
ing the accufation which had been prefented by the
earl of Murray ; and that Elizabeth, difregarding it as
an effort of fadtion, fhould proceed to a good agreement.
between Mary and her fubjedfs. For this fcheme,
which is fo expreflive of their fufpicions of Elizabeth
and of her commiflioners, they had no authority from
their miftrefs. They acknowledged accordingly, that
it was made without her inltrudlions, and intimated
that they were moved to it by their anxiety for peace
and the re-eftablifhment of the affairs of the Scottifh
nation. They were introduced at Hampton-court to
Elizabeth; who liftened to their motion, and was
averfe from it. They then repeated the defires of the
petition they had prefented to her j but fhe did not*
think.
\
SCO [ 72 ] SCO
tliink It right that the queen of Scots fliould yet have
^^ the liberty to defend herfelf in perfon. She confeffed,
Shameful indeed, that it was reafonable that Mary fhould be heard
conduft of in her own caufe ; but fhe affirmed, that fhe was at a
Elizabeth. l0fs at what time fhe fhould appear, in what place, and
to whom fhe fhould addrefs herfelf. While fhe let
fall, however, the hope that Mary might obtain the
-permiffion fo repeatedly and fo earneftly requefted, fhe
expreffed her refolution that the earl of Murray fhould
firil be heard in fupport of his charge, and that fhe
fhould attend to the proofs which he affirmed himfelf
in readinefs to produce. After this bufmefs fhould be
tranfacfed, fh<*told the deputies of Mary that fhe would
again confer with them. It was to no purpofe that
they objedied to a procedure fo ftrange and fo im>
proper. An accufation, faid they, is given ; the per¬
fon accufed is anxious to defend herfelf; this privilege
is denied to her ; and yet a demand is to be made for
the vouchers of her guilt. What is this but an open
violation of juftice ? It did not become them to difpute
her pleafure in her own dominions: but they would
net, they informed her, confent to a meafure which
was fo alarming to the interefts of their queen ; and
if it was adopted, fhe might expedl that a proteft
-againft its validity would be lodged with her commif-
736 fioners.
j&lercation qqie Englifli cotnmiffioners refumed the conference,
s he'com- an<^ wcre ab°ut to demand from the earl of Murray
«iil3ioners. the Pr°ofs with which he could fupport his accufation.
The bifhop of Rofs and his affociates being admitted
to them, expreffied themfelves in conformity to the con-
verfation they had held with Elizabeth. They decla¬
red, that it was unnatural and prepofterous in their fo-
vereign to think of receiving proofs of the guilt of the
queen ot Scots before fhe was heard in her own de¬
fence ; and they protefted, that in the event of this
proceeding, the negociation Ihould be diffolved, and
Elizabeth be difarmed of all power to do any prejudice
to her honour, perfon, crown, and eftate. The com-
miffioners of the Englifh queen were affe&ed with this
proteftation, and felt more for the honour of their mi-
ftrefs than for their own. They refuted to receive it,
becaufe there were engroffed in it the words of the re-
fufal which Elizabeth had given to the petition for
Mary. They did not choofe to authenticate the terms
of this refufal by their fubferiptions ; and were felicitous
to fupprefs fo palpable a memorial of her iniquity.
They alleged, that the language of her refufal had not
been taken down with accuracy ; and they preffed
Mary’s deputies to prefent a fimpler form of protefta¬
tion. The bifhop of Rofs and his colleagues yielded
not, however, immediately to their infidious importuni¬
ty ; but, repeating anew their proteftation as they had
at fir ft planned it, included the exprefs words of Eliza¬
beth ; and, when compelled by the power of the com-
miffioners to expunge the language of the Englifh
queen, they ftill iniifted upon their proteftation. An
interruption was thus given to the validity of any
future proceedings which might affed! the reputation
of the queen of Scots. The earls of Murray and
Morton, with their friends, were very much dilap-
pointed. For they had folaced themfelves with the
ihope of a triumph before there wTas a viftory; and
thought of obtaining a decree from Elizabeth, which,
while it Ihould pronounce the queen of Scots to be an
adult ere fs and a murderer,^ would exalt them into the ScofanJ.
ft at ion and character ot virtuous men and honourable ’    
fubjedls.
Though the conference ought naturally to have ter-Elizabeth
minated upon this proteftation of the deputies of Mary demands
again ft the injuftice of Elizabeth, yet it did not fatisfy vouch.ers
the latter princefs that the accufation only had beenfe^'M*
delivered to her commiffioners : fhe was ferioufly dif-ry's charge
pofed to operate a judicial produdion of its vouchers.
The charge would thus have a more regular afped,
and be a founder foundation upon which to build, not
only the infamy of the Scottifh queen, but her own
juftification for the part fhe had a6Ied. Her commrf-
fioners accordingly, after the bilhop of Rofs and his
colleagues had retired, difregarding their proteftation,
called upon the earl of Murray and his aflociates to
make their appearance. The pretence, however, em¬
ployed for drawing from him his papers was fufficient-
ly artful, and bears the marks of that fyftematic dupli¬
city which fo fhamefully charadcnzes all the tranfac*
tions of Elizabeth at this period. Sir Nicholas Bacon
the lord keeper addrefied himfelf to the earl of Mur¬
ray. He. faid, that, in the opinion of the queen of
England, it was a matter furprifing and ftrange, that he
Ihould accufe his fovereign of a crime moft horrible,
odious to God and man, againft law and nature ; and
which, if proved to be true, would render her infamous
in all the kingdoms of the world. But though he had
fo widely forgot his duty, yet had not Elizabeth re¬
nounced her love of a good filler, a good neighbour,
and a good friend ; and it was her will, that he and his
company fhould produce the papers by which they ima¬
gined they were able to maintain their accufation.
1 lie eail of Murray, in his turn, was not wanting in
diflimulation. Pie exprefted himfelf to he very forry
for the high difpleafure he had given to Elizabeth by
his charge againft Mary, and for the obftinacy of the
Scottifh queen and her deputies, which made it necef-
fary for him to vindicate himfelf by difeovering her
difhonour. Under the load of this double and affe&ed
foi row, he made an actual and formal exhibition of the
vouchers by which he pretended to fix and eftablifh her
criminality. A particular account and examination of
thefe vouchers, the reader will find in our life of Mary,
and in the works to which we have there referred.
To enumerate all the fhifts to which Elizabeth and
the adverfaries of Mary were pwt, in order to make the
ftrange evidence that was produced wear feme degree
of plaufibility, would far exceed our bounds. It is' fuf- ConclofiMS
ficient to lay, that after having wearied themfelves with°f Mary’s
prevarication and falfehood ; after having preffod MarytriaL
to abdicate her crown, a requifition with which Ihe never
would comply ; and after having finally refufed to hear
her in her own defence; Elizabeth, on the 10th of
January 1569, gave leave to the earl of Murray and
his accomplices to depart her dominions; telling them,
that fince they came into England, nothing had been
objefted to them which could hurt their honour as
men, or affieft their allegiance as fubjeds. At the fame
time file told them, that they had produced no infor¬
mation or evidence, by which Ihe was entitled to con¬
ceive any bad opinion of the queen of Scots. It was
. therefore her pleafure to allow the affairs of Scotland
to continue precifely in the condition in which they
were fituated at the beginning of the conference. Three
days
739
fear! . f
Murray,
|&c. char¬
ed with
he king’s
nurder,
,nd chal-
enged to
ingle com-
iat.
SCO [
gcotlanc!. days after this, they formally took their leave of the
* <jueen of England. The deputies of Mary remonllra-
ted, protefted, and argued, to no purpofe; the Eng-
liih privy-council, with the moft provoking indifference,
told them, that “ the earl of Murray had promifed to
their fovereign, for himfelf and his company, to return
t© England at arty time (he (hould call upon him. But,
in the mean time, the queen of Scots could not, for
many ftrong reafons, be fuffered to take her departure
out of England. As to her deputies, they would move
-Elizabeth to allow them to return to Scotland ; and
they believed that (he would not detain them.”
Mary was exceedingly difappointed and chagrined
by this fingular iffue of her caufe. Her friends during
this period had increafed, and the cruel and injurious
treatment (he had met with was fo flagrant, that the
earl of Murray and his faction were apprehenfive of a
fudden reverfe of fortune. The earls of Argyle and
Huntley protefted againft the injuftice of their pro¬
ceedings, at the fame time that they openly accufed
the earl of Murray and Maitland of Lethington as the
aflbciates of Bothwel in the murder of the king. This
charge, according to the cuftom of the times, they
offered to prove as true and certain by the law of
arms ; and they piotetted, that if their adverfaries
(hould delay to anfwer their challenge, they (hould be
held as confefling themfelves guilty ©f the murder. E-
hzabeth, however, forefeeing fomething of this kind,
had difmifltd Murray and his adherents with precipi¬
tation, fo that there could now be no formal produc¬
tion of it before the Englifh commiffioners. However,
it was known and publifhed in the court of Elizabeth.
Murray made an evafive reply, and Lethington made
none at all.
rtary com- This, however, afforded no relief to the unhappy
Uetco? <1Ueen °f ^er inveterate and treacherous
nement. fnemy her faftj and endeavoured by every method
in her power to render her life miferable. Mary, on
the other hand, never loft either her fpirit or her dig¬
nity. She attempted to roufe in the minds of her
nobles that paflion for liberty which had once fo much
diitinguifhed the Scottifh nation, but which now feem*
'ed to be exchanged for a fervile fubjeaion to the queen
of England. But fome dilpatches which preffed thefe
topics being intercepted, Mary was removed from Bol¬
ton to Tutbury caftle, where (he was intruded to the
earl of Shrewfcury, and committed to clofer confine¬
ment than (he had yet experienced; while Elizabeth
cifperfed manifeftoes all over the northern counties of
England, complaining of repgrts injurious to her ho¬
nour, and difclaiming all hoftile intentions towards the
74, liberties of Scotland.
he regent In the mean time Murray returned to Scotland,
cures where he took every .method to eftablifli himfelf in
his ill-acquired power. Mary had commanded the
duke of Chatelherault to return to Scotland, in order
to raife forces for her behoof; but this nobleman had
been long detained in England by the artifices of Eli¬
zabeth, fo that Murray had arrived there before him.
The duke, however, began to raife forces, and might
have proved a troublefome antagonift, had not Murray
deceived him by a pretended negociation, and got him
into his power; immediately after which he imprifoned
mm, and forced moft of the other lords who were on
that fide to fubmit.
Vol. XVII. Part I.
740
imfelf in
ower.
73 ] S . C 0
When the news of this important event reached the Scotland,
queen of Scots, (he inftruaed the bifhop of Rofs to —
repair to Elizabeth, and to make remonftrances in their Nejrocia,
behalf. By the agency: of this ecclefiaftic, whom (lie cions in
had conftituted her arnoaflador, (he meant to conduct England^
her tranfa&ions with the queen of England ; and from
the conclufion of the conferences, (he had been medita-
ting a proper plan upon which to accomplifh her liberty
and reftoration. The bifhop of Rofs, after complain¬
ing loudly of the rigorous proceedings of the regent,
and intimating the general belief which prevailed that
he was fupport’ed by the Englifh court, preffed the pro¬
priety of a final fettlement of the affairs of his miftrefs.
With this view, he was admitted by Elizabeth and her
privy-counfellors to frequent conferences; and they
even defired him to prefent to them in writing the
articles which he was commanded to propofe as the
foundation of a treaty. He failed not to comply with
this injun&ion ; and it was the import of his fchedule
of agreement, that Mary fhould engage never to moleft
Elizabeth, and the lawful heirs of her body, refpe6ting
the fucceflion to the crown of England and Ireland, iT
fhe could obtain fufficient fecurity that upon their de-
mife her rights would be refpe&ed ; that a new trea¬
ty of alliance and friendfhip fhould be concluded be¬
tween the two queens, by the advice of the eflates
of both kingdoms; that this league fhould be rati-
fied by their oaths and feals, and confirmed by par¬
liamentary afts ; and, if any farther affurance fhould be
deemed neceffary on the part of Mary, that fhe would
procure the kings of France and Spain to be the gua¬
rantees of her punduality and concord ; that in com-
phance with the pleafure of Elizabeth, fhe would extend
her clemency to all her fubjefts who had offended her,
under the provifion that they would fubmit to her fo-
vereignty, deliver up the prince her fon, reftore her
caftles, give back her jewels, and furrender to her
friends and fervants the effates and poffeffions of which
they had been deprived ; that the murder of the king
mould be punifhed againft all the a&ors in it without
delay, and according to the laws ; that, to prevent Both-
wel from returning to Scotland, and to pleafe thofe
who imagined that it was in his power to excite fer¬
ments and trouble, fhe would be bound to inftitute a
procefs of divorce againft him ; and that thefe articles
being adjufted, the queen of England fhould allow her
to proceed to Scotland, under a fafe. and honourable
convoy, to be re-eftabliflied by the three eftates in her
realm and government, and to be gratified with the dif-
(olution of all the a&s and ftatutes which had been paffed
to her prejudice. r
1 hefe heads of alliance were received with a refpeift Advances
and cordiality which were not ufually paid to the tranf-are made
actions of Mary in the court of Elizabeth ; and the ‘"A l’ro'
Whop Of Rofs was elated with expedation. Theirk.t 7"'
juftice, however, was not the foie, or even the chief, Mary
caufe of this attention and complaifance. A combina t*le
tion of the Englifh nobles had taken place againft Ce* NQrfoIk'
dl, whofe power and credit were obje&s of indignation
and jealoufy ; and the duke of Norfolk had been a&ive
and fuccefsiul in promoting the fcheme of his marriage
with the queen of Scots. Taking advantage of the
condiUon of parties, he had pra&ifed with the principal
nobility to encourage his pretenfions to Mary ; and
he fecretly communicated to them the promifes of
^ fupport
5 C O
t 74 1
SCO
f.icles to
Mary
Scotltnd fupport he had received from the earl of Murray. By
the advice aud influence of Sir Nicholas Lhrogmortoa,
he engaged in his behalf the earl of Leiceiter; ana
this nobleman imparted the matter to the earls of 1 en>
broke and Arundel. The duke himfelf was able to
conciliate the favour of the earls of Derby, Bedford,
Shrewfbury, Southampton, Northampton, Northum-
bei land, We.itmorcland, and Sufiex. In the mean
time, he was eagerly prefling Mary herfelf with his Juit
nnd importunities; aud had mutually exchanged the
tokens of a conftant and lincere love. It was m this
forward (late of the match, that the bifhop of Rois
drew up the fchedule of articles for the accommodation
of the rival queens. .
The Eng- At the deiire of Elizabeth, her privy-counctl con-
5i(h nobles ferred with the bifhop upon thefe articles at different
!'• opofc ar- times; and they expreffed themfelves to be highly pleafed
with their general import and meaning. Little doubt
was entertained of their fuccefs ; and the earl of Lei-
cefter, in order to complete the buiinefs, and to feive
the duke of Norfolk, undertook to give them a more
jpecial force, and to improve them by the introduction
of a ftipulation about the marriage of the queen of
Ejects. According to his icheme of argeement, it v/as
required of Mary, that fhc fhould be a party to no at¬
tempt agamft the rights and titles of the queen of Lng-
J-and, qr her heirs; that fhe fhould confent to a per¬
petual league, offenfive and defenfive, between the two
kingdoms*; that fhe fhould finally eftablilh the Pro-
teffant religion in Scotland; that fhe fhould admit to
her favour thofe of her fubje^fs who had appeared
againli her ; that if fhe had made any alignment of
her kingdom to the duke of Anjou, in the expectation
of a marriage to be contract'd between them, it fhould
he diffolved ; and that inftead of looking to a foreign
prince, whofe alliance would be dangerous, not only to
.the religion but to the liberty of the two realms, fhe
would agree to marry the duke of Norfolk, the firit
peer of England. Thefe articles being communicated
to the bifhop of Rofs, he was ddired to tranfmit them
to Mary ; but, as they touched upon fome points con¬
cerning which lie had no inftruCions, he declined this
office, and recommended the propriety of their employ¬
ing a fpecial meffenger of their own in a commiflion
of fuch high importance. They accordingly appoint¬
ed Mr Gandifh to go with them to the queen of Scots,
and, in a formal difpatoh, they extolled the merits of
the duke of Norfolk ; affured her of the general favour
and fupport of the Englifh nobility, if fhe fhould ap¬
prove of his love: and intimated their belief that
Elizabeth would not be averfe from a marriage which
their attention. The duke of Norfolk was now impa- ScotW
tient to conclude this great tranfaCion, in which he
had engaged himfelf; and admitted into his councils
many nobles whom he had hitherto negle&ed to court,
and many gentlemen who were confiderable from their
diftinCion and fortunes. The countenance and confent
of the kings of France and Spain were thought necef-
fary to the meafures in agitation, and were fplicited and
obtained. In the univerfality of the applaufe with
which they were honoured, it was fuppoftd that Eli¬
zabeth would be allured into a cordial acknowledgment
of their propriety, or be compelled to afford them a re-
hnffant approbation ; and fo ardent a belief prevailed of
their fortunate termination, that the marriage-contradt
was actually intrufted to the keeping of M. Fenelon the
French ambaffador.
The aftivity of the duke .of Norfolk with the Eng-
lifli nobles did not-Co much engrofs his attention as to
make him forget the regent. He kept up with him a
clofe correfpondence in confequence of the concert into
which they had entered, and received the moft ample
affurances of his fidelity and fervice. The moft fan-
guine and feducing hopes elated him. The regent,
while he ftipulated for terms of favour and fecurity to
himfelf and his faftion, appeared to be full of the mar¬
riage, as a meafure from which the greateft advantages
would arife to the two kingdoms, to the two queens,
and to the true religion. The match, in the mean¬
while, was anxioufly concealed from Elizabeth; but
fhe was zealoufly preffed to conclude an accommoda¬
tion with Mary, on the foundation of the fchedule of
agreement prefented by the bifhop of Rofs. After
having had many conferences with her privy-council,
fhe feemed inclined to treat definitively for the refto-
ration of the queen of Scots, and a&ually agreed to
open the tranfadfion to the regent. The lord Boyd
was fent into Scotland upon this bufmefs ; and while
he carried her letters, he was intrufted with difpatches
from Mary, the duke of Norfolk, and Sir Nicholas
Throgmorton. 745
As the regent was returning from his northern ex- The pM-
pedition, he was fainted at Elgin by the lord Boyd,
74S
Mary a
pofed to
her.
who immediately laid before him the difpatches and
mftru&ions with which he had been.charged. The
queen of England, in 'her letters, made three propofi-
tions in behalf of Mary, and intimated a defire that
one of them fhould be accepted. The queen of Scots,
fhe faid, might tbe reftored fully and abfolutely to
her royal eftate: fhe might be aflbeiated in the govern¬
ment with her fon, have the title of queen, and, till the
ituzacetn wotuu nut uc a ..-..w.- prince fhould attain the age of 17 years, the admini-
gave the certain promife of tranquillity and happinefs ftration might continue in the regent ; or file might be
two kingdoms. This diipatch was in the hand- permitted to return to Scotland m a private ftation,
writing of Leicefter; and it was fubferibed by tins and have an honourable appointment to maintain her 747
nobleman, and the earls of Arundel and Pembroke, and in a fafe and happy obfeurity. The difpatches fromThe re-£
Mary to the regent ddired, that judges might imme-<luetls 0i
diately be allowed to inquire into the legality of her‘vtaT
marriage with Bothwel: and that, if it was found to
have been concluded in oppofition to the laws, it fhould
be declared void, and that the liberty be granted to
her of entering anew into a matrimonial engagement. 74g
The duke of Norfolk expreffed to the regent the gra- Importu-
: me cuKe 01 rsorioiK in mcon- titude he felt for his friendfhip ; promiied him the^j-^y^
veniency and danger. This advice, the fuggeftion of command of the fulteft exertions of his confequence ‘ U i
her delicacy and prudence, [did not draw lufEckntly and power; intreated him to proceed expeditioufly in
’ £ piomcting
the lord Lumley.
Mary, in the folitude of her prifon, icoeived this
grees to the application with pleafure. By the lord Boyd fhe re-
neaty pi'o- ,turne(l a very favourable anfwer to it ; but took the li-
'r'r',“A berty to admoniih them of the neceffity of their f'ecu-
ring the good-will of Elizabeth, left her diflike of the
treaty of the marriage fhould excite new difafters and
misfortunes, and involve the duke of Norfolk in incon-
SCO [7.
Scotland, promoting the buime<3 of the marriage, and.referred
y him to the inttruftions of lord Boyd for a fatisfadory
anfwer to any doubts which might give him difgull or
uneafinefs. By the letters of Throgmorton, the regent
was advertifed that the marriage of the-queen of Scots
with the duke of Norfolk was a certain and decided
point ; and he was counfelled to concur heartily and
expeditioufly in this tranfadion, that his confent might
not feem to have been extorted. Maitland of Lething-
ton was recommended to him by this ftatefman, as
the perfon whom he (hould choofe to reprefent him in
the Englifh court, as he could negociate beft the terms
and mode of his fecurity and of that of his party. In
fine, Throgmorton intreated him not to be troubled
with any precife fcruples or obje&ions, for that his
overthrow, if he refifted, would be inevitable ; and, in
the view of his fervices and cordiality, he affured him,
that no man’s fricndfhip would be accepted with great¬
er affection, and no man’s eftimation be higher or
more fortunate. The zeal of Throgmorton induced
him alfo, upon this occafion, to addrfefs to Maitland a
-difpatch, in which he was infinitely importunate to ha-
ften his expedition to England, in the character to
which he recommended him. He complimented him
as the fitteft perfon to open the match to the Englifh
queen, on the part of the regent and the Scottiih no¬
bility ; and he reprefented the fucccfs of the Icheme to
be infallible, as Elizabeth would never be fo unwife as
to put her own fafety, the peace of her kingdom, and
the prefervation of her people, in competition with the
partial devices that might proceed from the vanity and
the paffions of any perfon whatfoever. He enumera¬
ted the names of the Englifh nobility who had confe¬
derated to promote the marriage. He enlarged upon
it as an expedient full of wifdom, and as advantageous
in the higheit degree to religion and the Hate. He
pointed out the lafting and infeparable connexion of
England and Scotland, as its happy and undoubted
eonfequence. For, if James VI. fhould die, the iceptres
of the two kingdoms might devolve to an Englifh prince;
and if he fhould attain to manhood, he might marry the
daughter of the duke of Norfolk, and unite, in his per-
749 fon, the two crowns.
elibera- Thefe weighty difpatches employed fully the thoughts
r>n of the of the regent. The calls of jullice and humanity were
e reflora- ^onc^ ,n ^ behalf of Mary ; his engagements to Nor-
n, &c. of folk ’Were precife and definitive ; and the commiffion of
e queen. Elizabeth afforded him the command of the molt im¬
portant fervices. But, on the other hand, the refto-
ration of Mary, and her marriage, would put an end
for ever to his greatnefs; and, amidft all the ftipula-
tions which could be made for his protection, the enor¬
mity of his guilt was fiill haunting him with fufpicions
and terror. His ambition and his felfifh fenfibilities
were an overmatch for his virtue. He praCtifed with
iris partisans to threw obftacles in the way of the trea¬
ty and the marriage; and, on the pretence of delibera^
ting concerning the refloration of Mary, and on her
divorce from Bothwel, a convention of the eftates was
fummoned by him to affemble at Perth. To this ai-
lembly the letters of Elizabeth were recited ; and her
proportions were conrfidered in their order. The full re-
ftoration of Mary- to her dignity was accounted injuri¬
ous to the authority of the king, and her aflbciation
with her fon in the government was judged improper
1
SCO
and dangerous ; but it was thought that her deliverance Scotland,
from priibn, and her reduction to a private itation, v—J
were reasonable expedients. No definitive decree, how¬
ever, was pronounced. The letters of Mary were then
communicated to this council, and gave rife to vehe¬
ment debates. She had written and fubferibed thenl
in her charaCter of queen of Scotland. This carriage
was termed info lent and imperioui by the friends of the
regent. They alfo held it unfafe to examine her re-
quefts, till they fhould be communicated to Elizabeth ;
and they iniinuated, that fome inclement and partial
device was concealed under the purpofe of her divorce
from the earl of Bothwel. The lavpurers of Mary
endeavoured to apologize £or the form of the letters,
by throwing the blame upon her fecretaries ; and en¬
gaged, that while the commiflaries, or judges, were
proceeding in the bufinefs of the divorce, new dif¬
patches in the proper method fhould be applied for and
procured. They were heard with evident fymptoms
of difpleafure ; and exclaimed, “ that it was wonder¬
ful to them, that thofe very perfons who lately had
been fo violent for the reparation of the queen and
Bothwel fhould now be fo ,averfe from it.” The
partifans of the regent replied, “ that if the queen was
fo eagerly felicitous to procure the divorce, fhe might
apply to the king of Dennuirk to execute Bothwel
as the murderer of her hufband ; and that then die
might marry the perfon who was moft agreeable to
her.” The paffions of the two factions were infla¬
med to a moft indecent extremity, and the convention
broke up with ftrong and unequivocal marks of hoflili-
ty and anger. 750
Notwithflanding the caution with which Mary and Elizabeth
Norfolk carried on their intrigues, intimations of them
had come to Elizabeth. Norfolk himfelf, by the ad- oHVlaryn*
vice of the earl of Pembroke, had ventured to difclofe and Nor-
his fecret to Sir William Cecil, who dffedted to be f-dk.
friendly to him. The regent, in anfwer to her letters,
tranfmitted to her the proceedings of fhe convention
at Perth. The application of Mary for a divorce was
a key to the ambitious hopes of the duke of Norfolk,
She commanded Sir William Cecil to apply himfelf
to difcovtir the confpiracy. This ftatefman betrayed
the confidence with which' he had been entruited ; and
Elizabeth, while the duke was attending her at Earn-
ham, difeovering a mixture of pleafantry and pafiton,
admonifhed him to be careful on what pillow he repo-
fed his head. The ear! of Teicefler, alarmed by his
fears, revealed to her at Titchfield the whole proceed¬
ings of the duke of Norfolk and his friends. Her
fury was ungovernable ; and at different times fhe load¬
ed Norfolk with the fevereft reproaches and contume¬
ly, for prefuming to think of a marriage with the
queen of Scots without the famftion of her concurrence.
Infulted with her difeourfe and her looks, abandoned
by Leicelter, and avoided by other nobles in whom
he had confided, he felt his courage to forfake him.
He left the court at Southampton without taking his
leave, and went to London to the earl of Pembroke.
New intimations of ♦her diiplealure were announced to
him, and he retired to his fcat at Kinninghail in Nor¬
folk. His friends prefled him to take the field, and to
commit his fafety to the fword; but having no incli¬
nation to involve his country in the miferies of war, he
rejected their advice ; and addrefiing an apology to E*
K 2 lizabeth,
SCO
Scotland.
r 7<5 i
SCO
75*
Miry ex
pofed to
new indig¬
nities.
75*
Noriolk
betrayed
fey the re-
gent.
Jnfurrec-
tion uy
Kngiaud.
lizabcth, protefted that he never meant t« depart, from
the fidelity which he owed to her ; and that it was his
fixed refolution to have applied for her confent to his
marriage with the queen of Scots. In return, fiie or¬
dered him to repair to her court at Windier ; and, as
he appeared to be irrefolute, a melfenger was difpatch-
ed to take him into cuftody. He was firft confined to
the houfe of Paul Wentworth, at Burnham, in the
neighbourhood of Windfor, and then committed to the
Tower. The earls of Pembroke and Arundel, the lord
Tumley, Sir Nicholas Throgmorton, and the bifhop of
Rofs, were alfo apprehended and confined.
Elizabeth, amidfl the ferment of her inquietudes,
forgot not to gratify her revenge by intuiting the queen
of Scots. The name of Mary was fufficient to con-
vulfe her with anger. The earl of Huntingdon, who
affe&ed to have pretenfions to the crown of England
that were preferable to thofe of the Scottiih princefs,
was joined with the earl of Shrewlbury in the office of
guarding her. His inftruftions were rigorous, and he
was difpofed to exceed them. The earl of Shrewf-
bury confidered it as an indignity to have an afibciate
who was a declared enemy to his charge, who had an
interell in her death, and who was remarkable for a
natural ferocity of difpofition. Mary exclaimed againft
the indelicacy and rudenefs of Elizabeth, and protefl-
ed that all her intentions were commendable and inno¬
cent. Huntingdon took a delight in her fufferings.
He ranfacked her coffers with a view of making dif-
coveries; but her prudence had induced her to deitroy
all the evidences of her tranfaftions with the duke of
Norfolk ; and the officious affiduity of this jailor was
only rewarded with two cyphers which he could not
comprehend. 'I he domeftics whom fhe favoured were
fufpefted and difmiffed. Her train of attendants was
diminifhed. An unrelenting watch was kept upon
her. No couriers were allowed to carry her dif-
patches. No meffengers were admitted to her pre¬
fence ; and all the letters from her friends were ordered
to be intercepted, and to be conveyed to the queen of
England.
The proceedings of the convention at Perth were af¬
flicting to Elizabeth, to Mary, and to the duke of
Norfolk. In the former they created fufpicions cTf the
regent; and they were a certain annunciation to the
latter, that he was refolved to fupport himfelf in the
government of Scotland. Uncertain rumours had reach¬
ed Elizabeth of the interviews he had held with Nor¬
folk in the bufinefs of the marriage. Her furprife
and indignation were infinite. Mr Wood, who brought
from the regent his anfwer to her letter, was treated
with difrefpedf. Secretary Cecil difpatched inftru&ions
to the loid Hunfdon, the governor of Berwick, to
watch his operations with a jealous eye. Elizabeth,
by a fpecial envoy, required from him an explanation
of his ambiguous carriage. The regent, true to his
interefls, apologized to her for his connexions with
the duke of Norfolk, by laying open the defign of
that nobleman to cut him off, in his way to Scotland,
by a full communication of whatever had paffed be¬
tween them in relation to Mary, and by offers of an
unlimited fubmiffion and obedience.
While the duke of Norfolk was carrying on his in¬
trigues with Mary, the fcheme of an infurreftion for
her deliverance was advancing under the direXion of
Seattani
the earls of Northumberland and Weftmoreland. Mo*
tives of religion were the chief foundation of this con.
fpiracy ; and the more zealous Catholics over England
were concerned in it. Mary, however, by' the advice
of the duke oL Norfolk, who was afraid of her match*-
ing with a foreign prince, did not enter into it with
cordiality. It advanced notwithflanding ; and the a-
gents of the pope were lavifh of exhortations and do-
natives. The duke of Alva, by the order of his ma-
fler the king of Spain, encouraged the confpirators
with the offer of 20,000 men from the Netherlands ;
and, under the pretence of adjufting commercial dif-
putes, he fent into England Chiapini Vitelli marquis
of Celona, an officer of ability, that he might be at
hand, and prepare to take the command of them.—
The report of an infurreXion was univerfal. Eliza¬
beth kept an army of 15,000 men near her perfon.
The queen of Scots was removed to Coventry, a place
of great ftrength ; and if a fuperior and commanding
force fhould appear before it, her ferocious keeper, it
is faid, had orders to affaffinate her. Repeated com¬
mands were fent to the earls of Northumberland and
Weftmoreland, to repair to court. But the imprifore.
ment of the duke of Norfolk and his friends had ftruek
a panic into them. They conceived that their confpi-
racy was difeovered ; and putting themfelves at the
head of their followers, they iffued their manifefW
The reftoration of Popery, the eftablifhment of the
titles of Mary to the Englifh crown, and the reforma¬
tion of abufes in the commonwealth, were the avowed
objeXs of their enterprife. But they had embarked
in a bufinefs for which they wTere altogether unequal.
Their efforts were feeble and defultory. The duke of
Alva forgot his promifes. Wherever the peace was
difturbed by infurgents, there were troops to oppofe
them. The vigilance of Elizabeth difconcerted with
eafe the operations of men whom no refources or po¬
pularity could have conduXed to greatnefs, and who
could neither conquer nor die. The earl of Weilmore-
land, after concealing himfelf for fome time in Scot¬
land, effeXed an efcape into Flanders, where he paffed’
a miferable and ufelefs exiltence ; and the earl of Nor¬
thumberland being taken by the regent, was imprifoned
in the caftle of Lochleven. ^
As the fury of Elizabeth abated, her refentment to Elizabeth
the duke of Norfolk loll its power; and fhe failed not liberate!
to diflinguiffi between the intrigues of an honourable Norfolk
ambition, aad the praXices of an obftinate fuperftition.
It was the refult of the examination of this nobleman,
and of the confeffions of the other prifoners, that Le-
thington had fchemed the bufinefs of the marriage, and
that the earl of Murray had encouraged it ; that her
confent was underftood to be neceffary to its comple¬
tion ; and that Mary herfelf had warmly recommended
the expedient of confulting her pleafure. Upon re¬
ceiving proper admonitions, the earls of Pembroke, A-
rundel, the lord JLumley, Sir Nicholas Throgmorton,
and the bifhop of Rofs, were releafed from confine¬
ment ; and, after a more tedious imprifonment, the
duke of Norfolk himfelf was admitted to his liberty.
This favour, however, was not extended to him till he
had not only fubmiffively acknowledged his prefump-
tion in the bufinefs of the marriage ; but had fully re¬
vealed whatever had paffed between Mary and him, and
folemnly engaged himfelf never more to think of this al¬
liance,
geottand.
755
Maitland
S C O f 77 1
Kanee, and never more to take any concern whatfoever bout this time, he
in her affairs.
The regent, in the meanwhile, was very anxious to
of Lethir e-recov€r good opinion of Elizabeth, tier treat-
ton accufed ment of Mr Wood, and her difeovery of his pra&iees,
of Darn- had excited his apprehenfions. He therefore affembled
ley’s mur- at Stirling a convention of the eftates ; and taking her
^€r* letters a fe'cond time into confideration, returned her a
reply to them by Robert Pitcairn abbot of Dunferm¬
line, in a ftyle Exited to her temper and jealoufxes, and
from which fhe could decilively infer, that no favour
of any kind would be (liown to the queen of Scots.
But this bafe condefcenfion, though afiifted. by his trea¬
chery to the duke of Norfolk, not being fufficient, in
his opinion, to draw completely to him the cordiality
©f the queen of England, he was preparing to gratify
her with another facrihce. The partiality of Maitland
to Mary, and his intrigues with Norfolk and the Eng-
lifh malcontents, had rendered him uncommonly ob¬
noxious to Elizabeth and her minittry. The late com¬
motions had been chiefly aferibed to his arts ; and it
was natural to dread new calamities and tumults from
the fruitful fpring of his invention. Under the pre¬
tence of employing his fervree in difpatches to Eng¬
land, the regent invited him to Stirling. Pie was then
with the earl of Athol at Perth ; and fufpe&ing fome
improper device, he obeyed the fummons with reluc¬
tance. When he took his place in the privy-council.
Captain Crawford, the minion of the earl of Lenox,
who had diftinguifhed himfelf in the trial of Mary,
accufed him, in dirett terms, of being a party in the
murder of the late king. The regent affected alto-
nifhment, but permitted him to be taken into cuflody.
He was foon after fent to Edinburgh under a guard,
and adnroniihed to prepare for his trial. Upon fimi-
lar charges, the lord Seton and Sir James Baltour
were feized upon and impiiloned.
Kirkaldy of Grange, the governor of the caftle of
Kirkady of Edinburgh, who was warmly attached to Maitland, af-
Grange. ter having remonftrated in vain with the regent on
the violence of his conduit, employed addrefs and ftra-
tagem in the fervice of his friend. Under the cover
of night, he went with a guard of foldiers to the lodge-
ing where Maitland was confined ; and Ihowing a for¬
ged warrant for taking his perfon into keeping, got
pofleffion of him. Kirkaldy had now in his caltle
the duke of Chatelherault, the lord Herries, and Mait¬
land. The regent fent for him to a conference ; but
he refufed to obey his meflage. He put himielf and
his fortrefs under the direction of his prifoners. The
regent, condefcending to pay him a vifit, was more
lavifh than ufual of his promifes and kindnefs. His
arts, however, only excited the difdain of this gene¬
rous foldier. Since he could not lead out Maitland to
the block, he initituted a procefs of treafon againft
him, in order to forfeit his eftates. Kirkaldy, by the
mouth of a trumpeter, defired him to commence fimi-
lar aftions againlt the earl of Morton and Mr Archi¬
bald. Douglas, as it was notorious that they were par¬
ties to the king’s murder. This meflenger was like-
wife charged with delivering a challenge from him to
Mr Archibald Douglas, and another from the lord
Herries to the earl of Morton. This difappointment,
and thefe indignities, made a deep impreffion upon the
regent; and, in a thoughtful diffatisfied humour, a-
s c o
made a fhort prog refs towards the Scotland.
Englifli border, courting popularity, and deferving it, v—^
by an attention to order and jullice. 757
756
He is pro-
tefttd by
Elizabeth, flattered by his fubmiflive advances, andE’Jzaljeth
pleafed with his ambition, was now difpofed to gratify
his fulled wifhes ; and fire perceived, that by delivering
to him the queen of Scots, fhe would effectually relieve the regenti
herfelf of a prifoner whole vigour and intrigues were a
conflant interruption to her repofe. A treaty for this
purpofe was entered into and concluded. The regent
was to march an army to the Englifh frontiers, and to
receive fr*>m her his fovereign into her own dominions,
the viftim of his power, and the fport of his paffions.
No hoftages and no fecurity were flipulated for her en¬
tertainment and good ufage. His authority over her
was to be without any limits. Upon his part, he was
to deliver to Elizabeth the young prince, to put her
in pofl'efiion of the principal forts of Scotland, and to
affift her with troops in the event of a war with France,
This treaty, fo fatal to Mary, and fo ruinous to the in¬
dependence of Scotland, efcaped not the vigilance of
the bifhop of Rofs. He complained of it in the ftrong-
eft terms to Elizabeth ; and declared it to be equiva¬
lent to a fentence of death againft his miflrefs. The
ambafTadors of France and Spain were alfo ftremious in
their remonftrances to her upon this fubjeCt. All re-
fiftance, however, was unavailing ; and the execution of
the treaty feemed inevitable. Yet how vain are the
loftiefl fchemes of human pride ! The career of the re¬
gent was hailening to its termination ; and the hand of
an affaffin put a period to his dream of royalty. Scot¬
land did not lofe its liberties ; but Mary continued to
be unfortunate.- 75S
James. Hamilton of Bothweihaugh, who had been-Seath of
taken a prifoner at the battle of Langiide, obtainedt! e rege:-*»
his liberty and life ; but his eftates w'ere forfeited. —
His wife, the heirefs of Woodhouflie, retired upon
this emergency to her paternal inheritance, in the hope
that it might efcape the rapacity of the regent. He
had, however, given it away in a gift to one of h>$
favourites, Sir James Ballenden; and the initruments
of his power having the inhumanity to ftrip her of her
garments, and to turn her naked out of her houfe, in
a cold and dark night, fhe became diftra&ed before
the morning. Hamilton vowed revenge ; and the re¬
gent made a mockery of his threats. This contempt'
infpirited his paflions ; and the humiliation of the houfe
of Hamilton, to which he was nearly allied, foftered the
eagernefs of his dlfcontents. The madnefs of party
fermented in him with the atrocioufnefs of rage. Flis
mind reconciled itfelf to aflaffination. After watch¬
ing for fome time a proper opportunity to commit his
horrible purpofe, he found it at Linlithgow. The re¬
gent was to pafs through this town in his way from
Stirling to Edinburgh. Intimations reached him that
Hamilton was now to- perpetrate his delign : and he
unaccountably neglefted them. The affainn, in a
houfe that belonged to the archbifttop of St Andrew’s,
waited deliberately his approach; and firing his mufket
from a window, fhot him through the body. The
wound, when examined, was not judged to be mortal;
but the regent finding its pain to increafe, prepared
himfelf for death; and in a few hours af ter he ex-
pired. A fleet horfe of the abbot of Arbroath’s
carried the affaflin to the palace of Hamilton; and
6 from
Scotland.
759
JLenox
chofen to
Succeed
him.
SCO [
from thence he foon after efFeifled his efcape into
France.
The death of the earl of Murray made no favourable
alteration in the affairs of Mary. Conhifion and difor-
der prevailed throughout the kingdom and though
the friends of the queen were promifed aflklance from
France, nothing effectual was done for therri. At laft
the regency was conferred upon the earl of Lenox ;
an enemy to his queen, and who treated her friends
with the utmoft rigour. At the fame time Elizabeth
continued to amufe with negociations her unhappy ri¬
val. She granted liberty to the bifhop of Rrifs to re¬
pair to the queen of Scots, who had been removed to
Chatfworth, and to confer with her on the fubjeft of
the intended accord and treaty. Mary, conforming to
the advances of Elizabeth, authorifed the lord Le-
vingflon to pafs to her dominions, and to defire her
friends to appoint a deputation of their number to give
their afliftance in promoting the falutary purpofe of
eftablifhing the tranquillity of their country : and af¬
ter meeting with feme interruptions upon the Englifh
borders from the earl of SufTex, this nobleman execu¬
ted fuccefsfully his commi/lion. The queen’s lords
gave powers to ten nobles to atf in a body, or by two
©f their number, in the intended negociation : and a
fafe-condudt from Elizabeth allowed them to enter the
Englifh realm, and to remain in it during the fpace of
760 fix months.
Articles of While the lord Levingfton was confulting the in-
proptvfecUo terefts Mary with her friends in Scotland, the bifhop
Wary by of Rofs was making earneft fuit with Elizabeth to pro-
filizabeih. ceed in the projedfed negociation. His folicitations
were not ineffedfual; and Sir William Cecil and Sir
Walter Mildmay received the inftrudlions of their mi-
flrefs to wait upon the queen of Scots at Chatfworth'.
The heads of accommodation which they propofed
were expliat and particular ; and the rigour they dif-
covered towards the Scottifb princefs feemed to vouch
their fincerity. It was propofed, that a perfedl amity
fhould take place between the two queens ; that all the
treaties which had formerly been concluded by the two
nations fhould receive an ample confirmation ; that the
queen of Scots fhould ratify the treaty of Edinburgh,
and forbear from advancing any title or claim to the
crown of England during the life of Elizabeth, or to
the prejudice of the heirs «f her body ; that in cafe of
foreign invafions, the two realms fliould mutually affiit
each other ; that all foreign foldiers fhould be ordered
to depart out of Scotland; that in the future, ftrantters
of the profefaon of arms fhould be prohibited from re¬
pairing to it, and from taking up their refidence in any
or its cables or houfes of flrength ; that Mary fhould
hold no correfpondence, diredfly or indiredlly, with any
iubjedt of England, without the permiflion of the
Englifh queen ; that the earl of Northumberland, and
the Ehgiilh rebels in Scotland, fhould be delivered up
to Elizabeth ; that redrefs fhould be given to the fub-
je&s of England for the fpoils committed upon them by
the Scottifh borderers ; that the murderers of the lord
Darnley and the earl of Murray fhould be duly and ef-
feftually punifhed; that before the queen of Scots
fhould he fet at liberty, the young prince her fon fhould
be brought into England, and that he fhould continue
in ihe keeping of Elizabeth till the death of his mo¬
ther, or till her refignatloa to him of her crown on at-
78 ] SCO
taining his majority ; that the queen of Scots fhould Scotian*,
not enter into a negociation for her marriage without ''■““v—
the knowledge of the queen of England, nor conclude
it without her approbation, or that of the greateft part
of the Scottifh nobility ; that none of tire fubje<Js of
Scotland fhould be fuffered to go to Ireland without
the fafe-conduft of Elizabeth ; and that Mary fhould
deliver to her fiber all the teftimonies and writings
which had been fent from France, renouncing and dif-
avowing the pretended marriage between her and the
duke of Anjou. Befides thefe articles of agreement, it
was propofed by another treaty to adjufl the differences
of the queen of Scots and her fubje£ts>; and Sir William
Cecil and Sir Walter Mildmay embraced the prefent op¬
portunity of conferring with her upon this bufinefs, un¬
der the pretence of facilitating its management in the
future ftages of its progrefs.
During their flay at Chatfworth, thefe flatefmen were Mary is de.
completely fatisfied with the behaviour of the queen of flrous t°
Scots. The candour, fincerity, and moderation, which! e^0Clate*
fhe difplayed, were full affurances to them that upon
her part there was no occafion to apprehend any im¬
proper policy or art; and * the calamities of her con¬
dition were a Hill fecurer f%dge of her compliance.
Elizabeth, upon hearing their report, affefled to be
highly pleafed with her filler, and fent a meffage tc
.the earl of Lenox, inflrpfting him in the conditiona
which had been fubmitted to Mary ; and defiring him
to difpatch commiffioners into England to deliberate in
the treaty, and to confult his interefl and that of his
fa&ion. Nor did Mary negledl to tranfmit to her
friends in Scotland the propofed terms of agreement ;
and the bifhop of Rofs, who had afiifled her in the
conferences with Sir William Cecil and Sir Walter
Mildmay, conveyed intimations of them to the pope,
the king of France, and the duke of Alva ; befought
their advice, and informed thefe princes, that unlefs an
efleftual relief could be expeiSled from their favour, the
neceflities of her condition would compel her to fub-
feribe to the hard and humiliating dictates of the queen
of England. _ . . 76*
But while Mary and her friends were indulging the The infin-
hope of a termination to her troubles, Elizabeth wascerity of
fecretly giving comfort to her adverfaries, and encou-'El,zatiet^*
raging them to throw obitacles in the way of the trea¬
ty. Sir William Cecil wrote to the regent, exprefs-
ing his difapprobation of the negociations at Chatf¬
worth ; defiring him not to be apprehenfive of the
boaflings of the adherents of the queen of Scots ; and
adviiing him to make choice of commiflioners, in the
name of the king, in whofe conflancy and fortitude he
could rely, and whom no addrefs could allure from his
intereft, or from the common caufe in which he and
his friends were embarked. The earl of Suffex alfo fent
him difpatches, in which he admonii'hed him to turn ids
anxious attention to the approaching negoeiation, and
to infill on fecure llipulations for the prefervation of
the prince, for his own faffety, and for a general indem¬
nity to the nobles and their adherents, whole party he
had efpouied. In every event, he repreiented it as pro¬
per for him to pay the greateft; refpeft to Elizabeth ;
and, if 110 treaty Ihould be concluded, he advifed him %
to be prepared for reducing the friends of Mary to o-
bedience, and for defending himlelf againit invaiions
from abuoad. By thefe artifices, the regent and his
fadlion
763
Mary’s
fomm.f
fi oners have
be tli,
15 € O
iw'knd. faftion were inclined to -to Elizabeth
—-Y.——- warm diffatisfaftion with the terms of agreement which
{he had propofed to Mary 5 and Pitcairn abbot of
JDunfermlijne, who had been appointed fecretary of
itate i.: the room of Maitland of Lethington, was de¬
puted to her upon this bulinefs. He exclaimed againft
the treaty as wild and impolitic ; kud contended, that
no (lipulations could bind Mary, whofe religion taught
iter to keep no faith with heretics ; that her claims to
the Engliih crown, and her refentment againft the
V)iveen of England, as well as her own fubjefts, would
immediately upon her reftoration, involve the two king¬
doms in blood ; and that no peace or quiet could be
.txpefted or enjoyed, but -by adhering to the falutary
maxim of detaining her in a fare and clofe captivity.
Elizabeth did not difeourage thefe inclement lenti-
meuts ; and Pitcairn was affurtd by her, that from her
.natural love to the king, and her regard to the nobles
who upheld his authority, {he would faithfully provide
for their fecurity ; and that if juilice fnould appear de-
ciiiveLy upon their tide, fhe would even ilrenuouily
.maintain their quarrel and their confequence.
Mary had been earned to Sheifield, and was reco¬
vering from a feveriih indilpofition. To this place the
an audiencebkhop of Galloway and the lord Levingftoa, who had
eg El za- been feletled by her friends to be her adtmg deputiee
in England, repaired in order to impart to her the
ftate of .affairs in Scotland, and to receive her com¬
mands. After repeated conferences on the fubjeit of
the approaching treaty, fhe gave them her commiftiou
and inftruetions, and joining them to the bilhop of Rofs,
fent them to Elizabeth. They claimed an audience of
this princefs, and were admitted to it at Hampion-
court. Having prefented their credentials, they inform¬
ed her, that they were ready to conclude a treaty of
concord and .agreement, upon principles the moft exten-
live and liberal ; and, reprefenting to her the impove-
riihed and tumultuous ftate of their country, they beg¬
ged her to proceed in the bulinefs with expedition.
The orders, they faid, which they had received, and
their own inclinations, difpofed them to follow her ad¬
vice and counfel in all points which were honourable
and confiftent with reafon ; and as her protection whs
the only refuge of the adverfaries of their queen, they
took the liberty to obferve, that it was completely in
her pow'er to put a period to all diilurbances and ani-
mofity, and to accomplifh an accord, which would not
only confer upon her the higheft reputation, but be of
the moft fignal utility to the twro kingdoms. Eliza¬
beth declared, that it would pleale and flatter her in
no common degree to advance in the negociation ; and
that it was a pain to her that the regent, by his delay
in fending commiffioners, fhould difeover any averfion
from it. This anfwer was deemed very favourable by
the blihop of Rofs and his affociates ; and they obtained
her authority to difpatch a meffenger to the regent to
haften his operations.
In the mean time, Mary received difpatches from the
pope, the king of France, and the duke of Alva ; and
they concurred in recommending it to her to accept of
the articles of accommodation which were offered by
Elizabeth. rl he Turk was giving employment to the
pope and the king of Spain ; Charles IX. already en¬
feebled by the obftinate valour of the Huguenots, was
bufy in deceiving them with appearances of peace, and
Scotland.
764
The Ro¬
man Ca¬
tholic pow¬
er? ad vile
Mary to
accept of
the accom¬
modation.
7(>S
f 7) J SCO
their in plotting their overthrow ; and the duke of Alva felt
himfelf infecure in his government of the Netherlands.
But while they ftrongly adviled Mary to conclude
an agreement with the queen of England, they were
yet laviih to her of their exprefiions of a coaftant ami¬
ty ; and if the treaty fhould mifearry, they promifed
to make the moft ftrenuous exertions in her behalf,
and to aflift her adherents with money', ammunition,
and troops.
The earl of Mortal, the abbot of Dunfermline, and The rearrri:
Mr James Macgill, had been appointed by the regent a.nd hi* fac-
and his faction to be their commiflioners in the name of^'’"^^
the king; and at length their arrival was announced judjfy t]ie
to Elizabeth. Conforming to the fpirit of their party, Hepofition
the earl of Morton and his colleagues took an early op-°f Mary,
portunity to juftify to her the depofition of the queen
of Scots, and by this means to interrupt the progrefs of
the treaty. In an elaborate memorial, they affe&ed to
confider Mary as unworthy to reign, and afferted the
conftitutional power of the people to curb her ambi¬
tion, and to throw her down from royalty. They en¬
deavoured to intrench themfelves within the authority
of laws, civil, canon, and municipal; and they recited
opinions to her prejudice by many pious divines. But
though the general pofition, that the people have a
title to reftft the domination of the fovereign is clear
and undubitable ; yet their application of it to the
queen of Scots was wildly precarious and improper. To
fpeak of her tyranny, and her violation of the rights of
her people, was even a wanton mockery of truth and
juftice ; for inftead of having affumed an illegal exorbi¬
tancy of power, fhe had fuffered in her own perfon and
rights, and had been treated by her fubje£ts with the
moft cruel and tyrannical infolence. Elizabeth, who was
unwilling and afraid to enter anew' into the conduct of
Mary, who was fully feniible of the infolence of her
adverfaries, and who did not approve of any maxims
that preffed agaiuft the majefty of princes, received their
memorial with iurprife and indignation. She perceived
not, fhe told them, any reafon that could vindicate the
feverity which had been fnovvn to the queen of Scots
by her enemies; and advifed them* to confider, that
in the prelent negociation it was their proper bufi-
r.efs to confult the fecurity of the king and of.their
faftion. _
Upon the part of Elizabeth, the commillioners were Elizabeth**
the lord keeper Bacon, the earls of Suffex and Leicef-r.ornm‘1'
ter, the lord Clynton, the lord chamberlain, Sir Wil- ^onf ^eiice^
liam Cecil, who about this time was created lord Bur-With thole*
leigh, Sir Francis Knollys, Sir James Croft, Sir Walter of the
Mildmay, and Sir Thomas Smith. The deputies of‘l'iech°f
Mary were invited to meet' with the Englifh commif-bco'tSj
iioners in tire houfe of the lord keeper ; and after he
had ftated the general purpotfes of the treaty, he inti¬
mated to them, that there were two points which re¬
quired a particular difeuilion. A proper fecurity, he
Jaid, ought to be given by the queen of Scots for her due
performance of the ftipulations of the agreement with
Elizabeth ; and it was expedient to concert tire mode
of the pardon and indemnity which fire was to extend
to the iubjedts of Scotland who had offended her. As
an aihiranee of the accommodation with his miftrefs, he
demanded, that the duke of Chatelherault, the earls of
Huntley and Argyie, the lords Hume and Herries, witfi
another per fen of high rank, Ihould be fuireudered to
her,.
Scotland.
767.
And with
the king’s
deputies.
768
Elizabeth
obitrudls
the treaty.
SCO t
lifr, and rernain in England for three yaars; that the
caftles of Dumbarton and Hume fhould be in her pof-
feffion during the fame period; and as to the article
concerning the delivery of the prince into her cuftody,
he obferved, that it would be required from the regent,
the queen of Scots not having the power of its perform¬
ance. The deputies df Mary, furprifetl with this lan¬
guage, intreated the Englifh delegates to reflect, that
their queen, if deprived of the moft faithful of her no¬
bles, and of her ftrongeft forts, co*dd have little defire or
ambition to return to her own kingdom ; for (he would
thus be unable to protect herfelf againft the turbulence
of her fubjedts, and be a fovereign without friends, and
without ftrength. They were inclined, they faid, to
put their commiffion and powers to the fulleft ftretch,
in order to gratify Elizabeth ; and they would agree,
that two earls and two barons (hould be furrendered
for two years, as hoftages of the fidelity of their fove¬
reign ; under the reftri&ion, that they might be ex¬
changed every fix months for perfons of an equal con¬
dition, if they (hould be defirous of returning to their
own country- Asto the giving up of any forts or caftles,
they would not agree to it, becaufe among the other
inconveniences of this meafure, fimilar claims would be
•competent to the -king of France, by the fpirit of the
treaty of Edinburgh, which ftipulated, that no French
or Englifh troops fhould be admitted into Scotland.
The lord keeper Bacon, refuming his difeourfe, told
them, that the whole realm of Scotland, its prince, no¬
bles, and caftles, were an inadequate pledge to the queen
of England ; and that, if his advice would be followed,
the queen of Scots (hould not obtain her liberty upon
any kind of fecurity which could be granted by the
Scottifti nation. In all public treaties, faid the dele¬
gates of Mary, no further aflurance can be required
from a fovereign than what confifts with his fafety;
and when exactions are prefled from a contradting par¬
ty in a league which are ruinous and impofiible, it is
uriderftood that a foundation is fought to break off the
negociation. The Englilh commiffioners, now interfe¬
ring in a body, declared upon their honour, that it
was the meaning of Elizabeth to agree to the reftora-
iion of the queen of Scots to her crown and realm up¬
on receiving fufficient aflurances for the articles of the
accommodation ; that the fecurity offered for her ac¬
ceptance, (hould be fubmitted to her deliberation ; and
that they would immediately proceed to confer with the
deputies for the king of Scots.
The Englifh commiflioners were not unacquainted
with the fentiments of the earl of Morton and his col¬
leagues ; and it was from this quarter that they expec¬
ted a refolute and definitive interruption to the treaty.
Nor did thefe delegates difappoint the expectations con¬
ceived of them. After affeCting to take a comprehen-
iive view of the articles under debate, they declared,
that their commiflion gave them authority to treat about
the amity of the two kingdoms, and the maintenance
ef the true religion; but that it conferred upon them
no power to receive their queen into Scotland, or to
furrender to Elizabeth the perfon of their king. They
therefore begged not to be urged to accede to a league
which, in fome future period, might expofe them to a
charge of high treafon.
This Angular declaration was confidered to be folid
and weighty by the Englilh commiflioners; and, in a
80 ] SCO
new conference, it was communicated by them to the Seotlamj,
deputies of Mary. The bilhop of Rofs and his aflb- ""'’v
ciates were difgufted with this formal impertinence.
They did not hefitate to pronounce the plea of an in-
fufficient commiflion from the king to his delegates to
he an unworthy and moft frivolous fubterfuge. The
authors, they faid, of the depolition of their fovereign
did not need any authority but their own to fet her at
liberty ; the prince was not yet five years of age, and
could give them no inftruftions: and the regent was
wholly dependent upon the will and pleafure of the
queen of England. It was reprefented in return by the
Englifh delegates, that the commiflion of king James
to his deputies, having been perufed by Elizabeth, was
accounted by her to be infufficient; and that it was
her opinion, that the earl of Morton fhould return to
Scotland to hold a parliament for obtaining new powers.
The bifhop of Rofs exclaimed, that the queen of Scots
had been amufed with deceitful promifes, that the pru¬
dence of Elizabeth had been corrupted by partial coun-
fels, and that the allegations and pretences held out for
interrupting the negociation were affe&ed and unreal.
The inftrudftions, he faid, from his fovereign to her com-
millioners, were to negociate and to conclude, and not
to trifle ; and they would not by any means confent to
protraft, by artificial delays, a treaty which the queen
of England, if her intentions were fincere and right,
could immediately terminate upon reafonable and ho¬
nourable terms. His fpeech and his demeanour he ac¬
knowledged to be free and open ; and he befought
them to excufe him, fince, having been made an inftru-
ment to abufe his miftrefs with falfe hopes, he could
not but refent the indignity, and exprefs what he knew
and what he felt. The Englilh deputies, addrefling
him and his colleagues, obferved, that as the friends
of Mary, and thofe of the king her fon, could not
come to an agreement, and as their queen was re-
fufed the aflurance (he expe&ed, they held their com¬
miflion to be at an end, and were no longer at liberty
to negociate.
The infincerity of Elizabeth, and the failure of they^ ag|ta.
league or agreement, filled Mary with refentment and ted condi-
complaints. Her animofities, and thofe of Elizabeth, don of the
were incrcafed and fortified. She was in hafte to com-two1U6efl**
municate to her allies the unworthy treatment (he had
received ; and (he fent her commands to her adherents in
Scotland to rife up in arms, to repofe no truft in truces
which were prejudicial and treacherous, and to employ
all their refources and ftrength in the humiliation of
the regent and his fadtion. Elizabeth, who by this time
apprehended no enterpnfe or danger from Charles IX.
or the duke of Alva, refolved, on the other hand, to
give a ftrong and effe&ual fupport to the king’s friends,
and to difunite by ftratagem, and opprefs by power, the
partizans of the Scottiflr princefs. The zeal of the bi¬
fhop of Rofs having raifed her anger, (he commanded
him to depart from London ; and Mary, in contempt
of her mandate, ordered him to remain there under the
privilege of her ambaflador. The high and unbroken
fpirit of the Scottifh queen, in the midft of her misfor¬
tunes, never once awakened the generous admiration of
Elizabeth. While it uniformly inflamed her rage, it
feems alfo to have excited her terror. With a pufilla-
nimous meannefs, (he fe it a difpatch to the earl of
Bhrewlbury, inftructing him to keep his th irge in the
clofeft
SCO
elofeft eQnrinemer4t, and to be incefTantly on his guard
6<nh^v~~“ to prevent her efcape. He obeyed, and regretted her
feverity. The expence, retinue, and domefttcs, of the
queen of Scots, were dimtnifhed and reduced, and every
probable means by which (lie might endeavour to obtain
her liberty were removed from her. Ihe rigours, how¬
ever, that invaded her perfon could not reach her mind;
and (he pitied the tyrant that could add contumely
to opprefiion, arid deny her even the comforts of a
770 prifon. ^ < .
Dreadful All this time Scotland was involved in the mifenes
confufion in0f cjvn War. The friends of Mary were everywhere pu-
Scothnd. wit^ gnes and forfeiture. Private families took
the opportunity of the public confufion to revenge their
quarrels againft each other. Individuals of every de¬
nomination ranged themfelves on the fide either of the
regent or of the queen, and took a (hare in the hoftili-
ties of their country. Fathers divided againft fons, and
fons againft their fathers. Adis of outrage and violence
were committed in every quarter, while, amidft the ge¬
neral confufion, religion was made the pretence by both
parties.
The regent In the mean time, though many encounters took
taken p-do-between the two fadlions, yet neither party feems
-^y- to have been condudled by leaders of any ability or
{kill in military affairs. This year, in one of thefe Ikir-
miOies, the regent himfelf was taken prifoner by a par¬
ty of the queen’s fadtion, and put to death. But this
event made little alteration in the affairs of the nation.
The earl of Marfe, another of the queen’s enemies, was
chofen to the regency : but though he propofed to adl
againft her party with rigour, he was baffled before E
dinburgh caftle, which was ftill held by her friends ;
and fome bloody fkt'rmifhes v/ere fought in the north,
where vidlory declared in favour of the queen. Thefe
advantages, however, were more than compenfated to
the other party by the following event.
’Norfolk’s While the negociations with Elizabeth for Mary’s
■coufpiracy, reftoration were depending, the fcheme of a confpi-
racy for her deliverance was communicated to her by
Robert Ridolphi a Florentine, who lived in Lon¬
don many years as a merchant, and who was fecretly
an agent for the court of Rome. But to his letters,
while the fate of the treaty was uncertain, fhe return¬
ed no reply. Its mifcarriage, through the duplicity
of Elizabeth, recalled them forcibly to her atten¬
tion, and ftimulated her to feek the accomplifhment
of her liberty by meafures bolder and more arduous
than any which had been hitherto employed by her.
She drew up in cipher an ample difcourfe of his com¬
munications and of her lit nation, and dHpatched it to
the bilhop of Rofs, together with letters ior the duke
of Norfolk. Her itiftruclions to this eccleliaftic were
to convey the difcourfe and letters expeditioufly to Nor¬
folk, and to concert an interview between that noble¬
man and Ridolphi. The confidential fervants by whom
the duke afted with the bifhop of Rofs were Banniller
and Barker; and having received from them the dif¬
courfe and the letters, they were deciphered by Hick-
ford his fecretary. Having conlidered them maturely,
he delivered them to Hickford, with orders to commit
them to the flames. His orders, however, were difo¬
beyed ; and Hickford depolited them, with other pa¬
pers of coniequence, under the mats of the duke’s bed¬
chamber. The contents of the difcourfe and the let-
Vou XVII. Part I.
77*
[ 81 ] s c 0
ters awakening the hope and ambition of Norfolk, he
was impatient to fee Ridolphi ; and the bilhop of Rofs
foon brought them together. Ridolphi, whole ability
was infpirited by motives of religion and intereft, exert¬
ed all his eloquence and addrefs to engage the duke to
put himfelf at the head of a rebellion againft his fove-
reign." He reprefented to him, that there could, not be
a feafon more proper than the prefent for atchieving the
overthrow of Elizabeth. Many perfons who had en¬
joyed authority and credit under her predeceffor were
much difgufted ; the Roman Catholics were m-merous
and incenfed ; the younger fons of the gentry were Ian-
guifhing in poverty and inadlion in every quarter of the
kingdom ; and there were multitudes difpofed to infur-
reftion from reftleffnefs, the love of change, and the ar¬
dour of enterprile. He infinuated to him, that his
rank, popularity, and fortune, enabled him to take the
command of fuch perfons with infinite advanrage. He
infilled upon his imprifonment and the outrages he had
fuftained from Elizabeth ; reprefented the contempt to
which he would expofe himtelf by a tame fubmiffion to
wrongs ; extolled the propriety with which lie might
give way to his indignation and revenge ; and painted
out the glory he might purchafe by the humiliation o
his enemies, and by the full accomplifnment of his mar¬
riage with the queen of Scots. To give a ftrength and
confirmation to thefe topics, he produced a long lift
of the names of noblemen and gentlemen with whom lie
had praftifed, and whom he affirmed to be ready to ha¬
zard their lives and riches for a revolution in the ftate,
if the duke would enter into it with cordiality. To fix
decilively the duke, he now opened to him the expedta-
tions with which he might flatter himfelf from abroad.
The pope, he affured him, had already provided ioc,ooo
crowns for the enterprife ; and if Popery Ihould be ad¬
vanced in England, he would cheerfully detray the
whole charges of the war. The king oi Spain would
fupply 4000 horfe and 6000 foot, which might be land¬
ed at Harwich. Charles IX- was devotedly attached
to the queen of Scots, notwithllanding the treaty which
had been entered upon with Elizabeth for her marriage
with his brother the duke of Anjou : and when he
fhould difcover that, on the part of the Englilh prin-
cefs, this matrimonial fcheme was no better than a de¬
vice or a mockery, be would renounce the appearance
of friendlhip be had affumed, and return to his natural
fentiments of difdain and hatred with redoubled vio¬
lence- In fine, he urged, that while he might depend
on the affiftance and arms of the greateft princes of
Chriftendom, he would intitle himfelf to the admiration
of all of them by his magnanimous efforts and generous
gallantry in the caufe of a queen fo beautiful and fo
unfortunate. 773
The duke of Norfolk, allured by appearances fo OifcovereJ
plaufible and flattering, did not fcruple to forget the ^7^
duties of a fubjedl, and the fubmiffive obligation
which he had bound himfelf to Elizabeth never more to
interfere in the affairs of the Scottilh princefs. Ri¬
dolphi, in this forward ftate of the bufinefs, advifed
him to addrefs letters to the Pope, the king of Spain,
and the duke of Alva, expreffive of his concurrence in
the defign, and infpiriting their aflivity and refolu-
tions. He even produced difpatches framed for this
purpofe ; and while he intreated the duke to fubfenbe
them, he offered to carry them himfelf to Flanders,
SCO - [ 8
Scotland. Rome, and Spain. The duke cf Norfolk, who was
" v~"' ambitious and timid, difpofed to treafon, and unfit for
it, hefitated whether he fhould fubfcribe the letters ;
and at length refufed to proceed to that extremity. He
yet allowed the bifhop of Rofs, and Barker his fervant,
to go to the Spanifii ambaffador to exptefs his approba¬
tion of the meafures of Ridolphi, to acknowledge that
the letters were according to his mind, and to empower
this ftatefman to certify their authenticity to his court.
Ridolphi, full of hopes, fet out to execute his commif-
fion. He paired firft to the duke of Alva, to whom
he communicated the tranla&ions in which he had been
engaged, and with whom he held many conferences.
There was at this time at Bruxelles Charles Bailly, a
fervant of the queen of Scots ; and Ridolphi, after dif-
cloling to him his proceedings with Alva, entrufted
him with letters to her to the duke of Norfolk, the
Spanifh ambalTador, and the bifhop of Rofs. When this
meflenger reached Calais, a letter was delivered to him
from the bifhop of Rofsjdefiringhimtoleave hisdifpatches
with the governor of that place. From inexperience and
vanity he neglefted this notice ; and being fearched at
Dover, his letters, books, and clothes were feized, and
he himfelf was fent to London, and imprifoned in the
.Marfhalfea. The bifhopof Rofs, full of apprehenfions,
applied to lord Cobham, the warden of the cinque ports,
who was friendly to the duke of Norfolk ; and obtain¬
ing by his means the packet of difpatches from Ri¬
dolphi, he fubftituted another in its place, which con¬
tained letters of no danger or uiefulnefs. He had alfo
the dexterity to convey intelligence of this trick to
Bailly, and to admonifh him to prefer ve a profound fi-
lence, and not to be afraid. This fimple and unprac-
tifed agent had, however, excited fufpicions by the
fymptoms of terror he had exhibited upon being taken,
and by exclaiming, that the difpatches he brought
would involve his own deflruftion and that of others.
At his firft examination he confefled nothing : but be¬
ing fent to the tower, and put upon the rack, he re¬
vealed his converfations with Ridolphi, and declared,
that the difpatches which he had brought had been de¬
livered to the bifhop of Rofs. An order was granted
for taking the bifhop into cuftody. Having been aware,
however, of his perilous fituation, his houfe was fearch¬
ed in vain for treafonable papers ; and he thought to
fcreen himfclf from anfwering any interrogatories under
the fandlity of his character as the ambaffador of an in-
dependent princefs.
The duke’s An unexpected incident excited, in the meanwhile,
friends and new fufpicions and alarms. Mary being defirous of
^YveTvi tranfmitting 2000 crowns to the lord Herries to ad-
dence a- vance her interefts in Scotland, the duke of Norfolk
$ainft him.undertook to convey it to him with fafety. He intrud¬
ed it to the charge of his confidents Hickford and
Barker, who putting it iijto a bag with difpatches from
their mafter to lord Herries, ordered a fervant called
Brown to carry it to Bannifter ; who, being at this time
on the border, could forward it to Scotland. Brown,
fufpicious or corrupted, inflead of proceeding on his
errand, carried the bag and its contents to Sir William
Cecil, now lord Burleigh. The privy-council, deeming
it treafon to fend money out of the realm for the
ufe of the friends of Mary, whom they affeCted to con-
fider as enemies, ordered Hickford and Barker to be
2 T sco
apprehended. The rack extorted from them whatfoever Sc >tkn<f.
they knew to the prejudice of their mafter. Hickford  v—^
gave intelligence of the fatal difcourfe and the letters
from Mary, which he had preferved in oppofition to
the orders given to him. All the proceedings between
the queen of Scots, the duke of Norfolk, the bifhop
of Rofs, and Ridolphi, were brought to light. A
guard was placed upon the houfe of the duke of Nor¬
folk, in order to prevent his efcape. Sir Ralph Sad¬
ler, Sir Thomas Smith, Sir Henry Nevtl, and Dr
Wilfon, were cotnmiffioned to examine him ; and being
impreffed with the belief that the difcourfe and the let¬
ters had been deftroyed, he pofitively denied that he
had any concern in the affairs of the queen of Scots,
or any knowledge of them whatfoever. He was com¬
mitted to the tower a clofe prifoner. Bannifter by this
time was taken ; and he confirmed the relations of Hick¬
ford and Barker. In the courfe of their difcoveries,
there appeared reafons of fufpicion againft many perfon*
of rank and diftin&ibn. The earls of Arundel and
Southampton, the lord Cobham, Mr Thomas Cobham
his brother, Sir Thomas Stanley, Sir Henry Percy,
and other gentlemen who were friendly to the queen of
Scots and the duke of Norfolk, were ordered to be
lodged in different prifons ; and the rack, and the ex¬
pectation of a pardon, drew from them the fulleft con-
fefiions. The duke was altogether unable to defend
himfelf. The concurring teftimonies of his friends and
fervants, with the difcourfe and the letters, which he
fondly imagined had been committed to the flames, were
communicated to him. He wras overwhelmed with
amazement and diftrefs ; and exclaimed, that he had
been betrayed and undone. He made ample acknow¬
ledgments of his guilt, and had no foundation of hope
but in the mercy of his fovereign.
By the confeffion of the duke himfelf, and from all
the inquiries which had been made by the minifters of
Elizabeth, it appeared obvious beyond a doubt, that
the bifliop of Rofs had been the principal contriver of
the confpiracy. Ridolphi had afted under his direc-Dangerous
tion, and he had infpirited the duke of Norfolk. He had an<l per-
even proceeded to the extremity of advifing that noble-ple“.n?
man to put himfelf at the head of a feleCt band of ad- oTbillvop
herents, and to feize boldly the perfon of Elizabeth. Lefly.
In his examinations he wras treated with great rigour
and infult. But he made an able defence, and peremp¬
torily refufed to make any anfwer to interrogatories.
The counfellors of Elizabeth were difturbed with his
obltinacy; and having certified him, that the rack
would foon render him more pliant, he was ordered in¬
to clofe keeping in a dark apartment of the tower.—
When he had remained a few days in this melan¬
choly fituation, four privy-counfellors, the lord ad¬
miral, the lord Burleigh, Sir Francis Knollys, and
Sir Thomas Smith, went to the tower, and caufed
him to be brought to them to the lieutenant’s lodging.
After having affurcd him that he was charged by all
the prifoners as the principal contriver of the confpi¬
racy, they infifted, in the name of their fovereign, that
he fliould explain fully the part he had afted. The
confeffions of the duke of Norfolk and his fervants, of
the lord Lumley, Sir Thomas Stanley, and other gen¬
tlemen, with the difcourfe and difpatches of the queen
of Scots, w'ere fet before him. They now proteffed
§ upon
Scotland.
7*6
Mary’s af¬
fairs uined
by the fdi
lure of N< r
folk’s con-
fpiracy.
777
And by the
inaffacre of
Paris.
SCO [
upon tlielr honour, that if he would make a free and
open declaration of his proceedings, it (hould neither be
employed againft himfelf, nor againll any other perfon;
but that if he ihould continue to be refolute in refilling
to give this fatisfaftion to their queen, who was anxious
to fearch the matter to the bottom, they were inftruft-
ed to let him know, that (he would abfolutely conllder
him as a private perfon, and order him to be tried and
executed as a traitor. In this extremity he accepted
the conditions held out to him, and difclofed minutely
all the^tranfadfions of the principal parties in the con-
fpiracy. But while he deferibed the offences of his mif-
trefs, the duke of Norfolk, and himielf, he could not
avoid to detradt from their blame by apologies. It was
natural, he faid, for the queen of Scots to exert the
moft ftrenuous endeavours in her power to recover her
freedom and crown ; and the methods fhe adopted to
obtain her purpofes ought to be confidered in connec¬
tion with the arts of Elizabeth, who pertinacioufly de¬
nied her accefs to her prefence, who kept her a clofe
prifoner in contempt of all the principles of humanity
and juftice, and who afforded an open and power¬
ful affiifance to her enemies. The duke of Norfolk he
was earneft to excufe on the foundation of the advances
which had been made in his marriage with the queer* of
Scots. Their plighted love, and their engagements,
did not allow him to forfake her. As for himfelf, he
was her ambafiador and her fervant ; and being highly
indebted to her generofity and kindnefs, he could not
abandon ber in captivity and diftrefs without incurring
the guilt of the moft finful treachery and ingratitude.
The daring propofal he had made to feize the perfon of
Elizabeth was the point, he obferved, which feemed to
prefs upon him the molt feverely; and he intreated
them to believe, that he had moved it only with the
view of trying the courage of the duke of Norfolk.—
The privy-counfellors of Elizabeth were now in pofTcf-
lion of all the evidence they could expedt in this im¬
portant bufinefs. Norfolk was admonifhed to prepare
for his trial; and bifhop Lefly perceived, that though
he might efcape with his life, he would never more be
permitted to reiide in England, and to aft there as the
ambaflador, the mimfler, and the friend of the queen
of Scots.
The defeat of the duke of Norfolk’s confpiracy was
a blow to Mary which fhe could never recover. Her
moft faithful friends were languifhing in prifons upon
her account ; fhe had no longer the counfels of the bi¬
fhop of Rofs ; and the Spanifh ambaffador, who had
entered into her concerns with an unfcrupulous cordia¬
lity, had been ordered to withdraw from England. The
trial and condemnation of Norfolk foon followed, and
plunged her into the moft calamitous diftrefs.
The mafiacre of the Pioteftants at Paris in 1572
proved alfo extremely detrimental to her. It was in¬
terpreted to be a confequence of the confederacy which
had been formed at Bayonne for the exteimination of
the reformed. The Proteftants were everywhere tranf-
ported with rage againft the Papifts. Elizabeth pre¬
pared herfelf againft an attack from the Roman Catho¬
lic powers ; and was haunted with the notion that they
meant to invade her kingdom, and to give it to the
queen of Scots. Her ambaffador at Paris, Sir Francis
YV alfingham, augmented her apprehenfions and terror.
He compared her weaknefs with the ftrength of her ene-
83 1 SCO
mies, and aflured her that if they fhould poflefs them- Scotland
felves of Scotland, fhe would foon ceafe to be a —vg-—'
queen. Tie reprefented Mary as the great caufe WJ{{^T
of the perils that threatened her perfonal fafety and ham c un.
the tranquillity of her kingdom ; and as violent difeafes rels E.iza-
required violent remedies, he fcrupled not to counfel heth t0 Put
her to unite Scotland to her dominions, and to put to
to death a rival whofe life was inconfiftent with her
fecurity. The more bigotted Proteftants of Scotland
differed not very widely in their fentiments from Sir
Francis Wallingham ; while thofe of them who were
more moderate were ftill more attached to their religion
than to Mary; and amidft the indignation and horror
into which the fubjefts of Scotland were thrown by the
fanguinary outrages of Charles IX. and Catharine de
Mcdicis, they furveyed tire fufferings of their fovereign
with a diminifhed fympathy.
This year the regent, finding himfelf befet with dif-^j,
ficulties which he could not overcome, and the affairsgent dies,
of the nation involved in confufion from wdiich he could is fuc-
not extricate them, died of melancholy, and was fuc-^e,ede<i
ceeded by the earl of Morton. 1 Iorton'
During the regency of the earl of Marre, a remafk-
able innovation took place in the church, which de-
ferves to be particularly explained, being no lefs than
the introduftion of Epifcopacy inftead of the Prefbyte-
rian form of worfhip. While the earl of Lenox was Epifcopacy
regent, the archbifhop of St Andrew’s was put to death, introduced
becaufe he was ftrongly fufpefted to have had a concerninto
in the death of the earl of Murray; after which the1"111*’
earl of Morton procured a grant of the temporalities of
that fee. Out of thefe he allotted a ftipend to Mr
John Douglas, a Proteftant clergyman, who took upon
him the title of archbifhop. This violence excited cen-
fure and murmurs. In the language of the times, it
was pronounced to be a profanation of the kirk, and
a high contempt of God ; and it underwent the feru-
tiny of the miniftry in applications and complaints to
the regent. The matter was doubtlefs of too much
importance to be overlooked ; and a commiflion of
privy-counfellors and clergymen was appointed in the
name of the king to inquire into it, and to reform and
improve the policy of the church. This commiffion,
upon the part of the privy council, confifled of the earl
of Morton, the lord Ruthven, Robert abbot of Dun¬
fermline, Mr James Macgill, Sir John Ballenden, and
Colin Campbell of Glenorchie ; and upon the part of
the church there were named John Erllcine of Dun, and
Mr John Winram, Mr Hay, Mr Lindfay, Mr Pont,
and Mr John Craig. The confultations and debates
were long ; and the influence and management of the
earl of Morton direfted their determinations. It was
refolved, that till the majority of the king, or till the
wifdom of the three eftates fhould be confulted, the
titles of archbifhop and bifhop fhould continue as in the
times which preceded the reformation ; and that a chap¬
ter of learned minifters fhould be annexed to every me¬
tropolitan or cathedral feat. It was determined that
the fees, as they became vacant, fhould be given to thofe
of the Proteftant miniftry who were moft eminent for
their qualifications ; that the archbifhops and bifhops
fhould exercile no higher jurifdiftion than what was per
mitted to fuperintendants ; and that they fhould be iub-
jeft to the controul of the general affemblies of the
church. It was agreed, that all abbots, priors, and
L 2 other
SCO [8
Scotland, other inferior prelates prefented to benenees, Ihould be
     examined by the bifliop or fuperintendant of the dio-
cefe or precinft where the preferment was fituated ; and
that their fitnefs to reprefent the church in parliament
fhould be duly inquired into. It was judged that the
king and the regent fhould recommend qualified perfons
to vacant bifhoprics, and that the elections of them
fhould be made by the chapters of the refpeftive cathe¬
drals. It was ordered that all benefices with cure un¬
der prelacies fhould only be difpofed of to officiating
tninifters ; that every minifter fhould receive ordination
from the bifhop of the diocefe, or the fuperintendant of
the province ; and that the btfhops ana fuperintendants,
upon the ordination of miniflers, fhould exa£f an oath
from them to recognize the authority of the king, and
to pay canonical obedience to their ordinary in all things
that were lawful.
By thefe artful regulations the earl of Morton did
not mean folely to confult his own rapacity or that of
the nobles. The exaltation of the Protellant church
to be one of the three eftates was a confequence of
them ; and the clergy being the ftrenuous enemies of
Mary, he might by their means fecure a decided influ¬
ence in parliament. The earl of Marre, as regent,
giving his fandlion to the proceedings of the commiffion,
they were carried into praftice. The delufive expecta¬
tion of wealth, which this revival of Epifcopacy held
out to the miniflry, was flattering to them ; and they
bore with tolera&le patience this fevere blow that was
itruck againft the religious policy of Geneva. Mr
John Douglas was defired to give a fpecirnen of his
gifts in preaching ; and his election took effeCt, not-
withftanding the oppofition that was made to it by John
Knox and other ecclefiaftics, who flood up for the rules
and forms which had been eilablifhed at the reformation.
He was inaugurated in his office by the bilhop of Caith-
nefs, Mr John Spotfwood fiiperintendant of Lothian,
and Mr David Lindfay, who violating the book of dif-
cipline, communicated to him his character and admif-
fion by the impolition of hands. This was a Angular
triumph to Epifcopacy ; and the exaltation of Douglas
included other peculiarities remarkable and offenfive.
He denied that he had made any flmoniacal agreement
with the earl of Morton ; yet it was known that the
revenues of the archbifhopric were aim oft wholly ingrof-
ed by that nobleman. He had promifed to refign, up¬
on his inftalment, the office ot reCtor which he held in
the uuiverfity of St Andrew’s: yet he refuftd to exe¬
cute this engagement. He was in a very advanced age ;
and his mental qualifications, which had never been emi¬
nent, were in a flate of decay.
A general aflembly, which was holden at St An¬
drew’s, confidering the high moment of the new regu¬
lations introduced into the church, appointed com-
miffioners to go to John Knox, who was at this time in-
difpofed, and to confult with him deliberately in his
houfe, whether they were agreeable to the word of God.
But.from the arts of the nobles, or from the ficknefs of
Knox, it happened that this conference was not ear¬
ned into execution. In a general aflembly, however,
which met at Perth, the new polity was reported and
examined. The names of archbifliop, dean, arch-dea-
cpn, chancellor, and chapter, were excepted againft as
Popiffi diitinftions, and as flanderous to the ears of
pious Chriftiaus. A wifh was exprefled that they mi^ht
1
SCO
be exchanged for titles lefs profane and fuperftitious ; Scotland,
and an unanimous proteftation was made, that the new
polity was merely a temporary expedient, and fihould
only continue and ptevail till a more perfect order
fhould be obtained from the king, the regent, and the
nobility. This tolerating relolution left the new po¬
lity in its full force ; and a colourable foundation was
now eftablilhed for the laity to partake in the profits
of bifhopnes. The iimoniacal paction of Morton and
Douglas was not long a matter of Angularity. Mr
James Boyd was appointed to the archbilhopric of Glaf-
gow, Mr James Paton to the biihopric of Dunkeld,
and Mr Andrew Graham to the fee of Dumblain ; and
thefe compromifing ecclefiaftics, upon being allowed
competencies to themfelves, gratified their noble friends
w'ith the greateft proportion of their revenues. The
virtue of the common people approved not this fpirit
of traffic ; and the biffiops of the new polity were treat¬
ed openly wfith reproach or with ridicule. ygj.
The year 1572 is alfo remarkable for the death of Death c?
John Knox, whofe miftaken zeal had contributed not aJ0^^0^
little to bring upon the queen thofe misfortunes with
which (he was now opprdTed. Neither by his death,
however, nor by the change of the regency, could (he
now be relieved. The earl of Morton was fo much
devoted to Elizabeth, that he received particular in-
ftrudtions from her how to guide the young king. His
elevation, indeed, gave the linilhing ftroke to the queen’s
aflairs. Pie employed himfelf with fuccefs in dividing Elizabeth
her party among themfelves, and by his means the re*olvcd
duke of Chatelherault and the earl of Huntley were in-Pj?ttin^
duced to forfake her. As for Elizabeth, fire was bent
on putting Mary to death ; but as no crime could be
alleged againft her in England, fhe thought it proper
that fhe fhould be carried back to fuffer death in her
own dominions. This propofal, however, was rejected "r
and the friends who remained true to Mary once more
began to indulge them! elves in hopes of fuccours from
France. New misfortunes, however, awaited them.—
The caftle of Edinburgh, which had hitherto been held r|ie^8^,
for the queen by Kirkaldy of Grange, was obliged to0f Edin/6
furrender to im Englifh army commanded by Sir Wil- ,Urgh ta-
liam Drury. Kirkaldy was folemnly affured by the ken by the
Enghih commander of his life and liberty; but Eliza-
beth violated this capitulation, and commanded him to^art^‘
be delivered up to the regent. An hundred of his re¬
lations offered to become vaffals to Morton, and to pay
him 3000 merks yearly, if he would fpare his life ; but
in vain : Kirkaldy and his brother Sir James were hang¬
ed at Edinburgh. Maitland of Eethington, who was
taken at the fame time, was poifoned in the prifoivhoufe
of Leith, '  784
The jealoufy of Elizabeth did not diminiffi ufith the Mu) treat-
decline of Mary’s caule. She now treated her wjthed with
more rigour than ever, and patronifed Morton in all theSreater n'
enormities which he committed againft her friends. t‘lua
Lefly biihop of Rofs had been long imprifoned in Eng¬
land, on account of his concern in the duke of Nor¬
folk’s confpiracy. Morton earneftly folicited the queen
to deliver him up, and would undoubtedly have put him
to death; but as he had adted in the character of am-
baffador from Mary, this was judged impolitic, and the
prelate was fuftered to depart for France. When he
arrived there, he endeavoured in vain to ftir up the em¬
peror, the pope, and the duke of Alva, to exert them-
felves
SCO
[
785
)eath of
’harks IX
nd the
,uke of
^oruine.
786
^ppreffion
,nd vio’
>ence of
vloi ton.
Scotland, felvea In behalf of the queen of Scotland ; and, in
 1574? the misfortunes of his royal miilrefs were farther
aggravated by the death of Charles IX. of France, and
her uncle the cardinal of Lorraine. The regent, in the
mean time, ruled with the raoft defpotic fway. He
twice coined bafe money in the name of his fovereign ;
and after putting it into circulation the fecond time, he
ilTued orders for its palling only for its intrinfic value.
The duke of Chatelherault happening to die this year,
the regent took every method of ruining ail thofe of
his name and family. He committed to prifon all the
Hamiltons, and every perfon of dill in ft ion who had
fought for the queen at the battle of Langfide, and
compelled them to buy their liberty at an exorbitant
price. He in (ligated Douglas of Lochleven to affaffi-
nate lord Arbroath, and it was with difficulty that the
latter efcaped the ambuffi that was laid for him. Reid,
tlie biffiop of Orkney, having left his eftate to'pious
Mml charitable uies, the regent prohibited the execution
of the will, and took upon himfelf the adminillration.
To be rich was a fufficient crime to excite his venge¬
ance. He entered the warehouses of merchants, and
confifcated their property ; and if he wanted a pretence
to juftify his conduct, the judges and lawyers were
ready at his call.
In this dilallrous period the clergy augmented the
general conlufion. Mr Andrew Mclvil had lately re¬
turned from Geneva ; and t* difciplun? of its affembly
being confidered by him as the moil perfeft model of
ecclefiallical policy, he was infinitely offended with the
introduction of Epifcopacy into Scotland. His learn¬
ing was confiderable, and his fkill in languages was
profound. He was fond of deputation, hot, violent,
and pertinacious. The Scottilh clergy were in a hu¬
mour to attend to him ; and his merit was fufficient to
excite their admiration. Infligated by his practices,
John Drury, one of the minitlers of Edinburgh, called
in quellion, in a general aflembly, the lawfulnefs of the
bifliops, and the authority of chapters in elefting them.
Melvil, after commending his zeal and his motion, de¬
claimed concerning the flourifhing Hate of the eftablifh-
ment of Geneva ; and having recited the opinions of
Calvin and Beza upon ecclefiaftjcal government, main-
787.
r>ppof!t’on
o fij ifco-
ucy.
tained, that there fhould be no office-bearers in the
church whofe titles were not feen in the book of God.
He affirmed, that the term bijhop was nowhere to be
found in it in the fenfe in which it was commonly un-
derllood, as Chrifl allowed not any fuperiority among
miniilers. He contended that Chrid was the only lord
of his church, and that the miniders of the word were
all equal in degree and power. He urged, that the
edate of the brfhops, belide being unlawful, had grown
unfeemly with corruptions ; and that it they were not
removed out of the church, it would fall into decay,
and endanger the intereds.of religion. His fentirnents
were received with flattering approbation ; and though
the archbidiop of Glafgow, with the bifhops of Dun.
keld, Galloway, Brechin, Dumblain, and the Ifles,
were prefent in this affembly, they ventured not to de¬
fend their vocation. It was refolyed, that the name of
85 ] SCO
bi/hop conferred no diflindlion or rank ; that the office Scotland,
was not more honourable than that of the other mi- ' r——
niders ; and that by the word of God their functions
confided in preaching, in adminidering the facraments,
and in exercifing ecclefiadical difcipline with the con-
fent of the elders. The Epifcopal edate, in the mean¬
while, was watched with anxious obfervation ; and
the faults and demerits of every kind, which were found
in individuals, were charged upon the order with rude-
nefs and afperity. In a new affembly this fuhjedt vfots
again canvaffcd. It was moved, whether biffiops, as
condituted in Scotland, had any authority for their
funftions from the Scriptures ? After long debates, it
was thought prudent to avoid an explicit determination
of this important queftion. But a confirmation was be¬
llowed upon the refolution of the former affembly ; and
it was edablilhed as a rule, that every biffiop ffiould
make choice of a particular church within his diocefe,
ajid fhould actually difcharge the duties of a miniiler.
The regent, didmbed with thefe proceedings of the
brethren, was difpofed to am ale and to deceive them,
lie lent a mcffenger to advife them not to infringe
and disfigure the cllablifficd forms ; and to admonii'h
them, that if their averfion from Epifcopacy was infur-
mountable, it would become them to think of fome
mode of ecclefiadical government to which they could
adhere with conltancy. The affembly taking the ad¬
vantage of this meffage, made a formal intimation to
him, that they would diligently frame a lading plat¬
form of polity, and fubmit it to the privy-council.
They appointed, accordingly, a committee of the bre¬
thren for this purpofe. The bnfinefs was too agreeable
to be neglefted ; and in a fhort time Mr David Lind-
fay, Mr James Lawfon, and Mr Robert Pont, were
deputed to wait upon the regent with a new fcheme of
eeclefiadical government. After reminding him, that
he had been a notable indrument in purging the realm
of Popery, and begging that he would confult with
them upon any of its articles which he thought improper
or incomplete, they informed him, that they did not
account it to be a perfeft work to which nothing could
be added, or from which nothing could be taken away ;
for that they would alter and improve it, as the Al¬
mighty God might farther reveal his will unto them. The
regent, taking from them their fchedule, replied, that
he would appoint certain perfons of the privy-council
to confer with them. A conference was even begun
upon the fubjedl of their new edablilhment ; but from
his arts, or from the troubles of the times, no advances
were made in it.
788
This year the earl of Bothwel died in Denmark; Death of
and in his lad moments, being dung with remorfe, he Bothwel,
confeffed that he had been guilty of the king’s mur¬
der, revealed the names of the perfons who were his
accomplices, and with the mod folemn prottdations
declared the honour and innocence of the queen. His
confeffion was tranfmitted to Elizabeth by the king of
Denmark ; but was fuppreffed by her with an anxi¬
ous folicitude. ^
The regent dill continued his enormities, till having Morton is
rendered compelled
tordij^nhiar
office of re-
(u) Jtbb, Vo!. II. p. 227. It has never been publifiied. Keith and other hidorians have preferved what they gone,
call the earl of Bothautl'’s declaration at his death, and account it to be genuine. Their partiality for Mary induced
them the more eafily to fall into this midake. The paper they give is demondratively a forgery ; and the want
of the real confeffioa of Bothwel is dill a deficiency in our ludory.
]
■frcotlan 1
790
He poifons
SCO- [86
rendered himfelf obnoxious to the heft part of the no- the crown both of
bility, he was, in 1577, compelled to refign his office
into the hands of James VI. ; but as his majefty was
then only twelve years of age, a general council of twelve
peers was appointed to affift him in the adminiftration.
Next year, however, the earl of Morton having found
means to gain the favour of the young king, procured
the diffiolution of this council; and thus being left
the foie advifer of the king, he hoped once more to
be raifed to his former greatnefs. This could not be
done, however, without keeping the king in a kind of
captivity, fo that nobody could have accefs to him but
himfelf. The king, fenfible of his lituation, fent a dif-
patch to the earls of Argyle and Athole, intreating
them to relieve him. An army for this purpofe was
foon raifed ; and Morton’s partifans were in danger of
"being defeated, had not the oppofice party dreaded the
vengeance of Elizabeth, who was refolved to fupport
the eatl of Morton. In confequence of this a negocia-
tion was entered into, by which it was agreed, that the
earl of Argyle, with fome others, fhould be admitted
into the king’s council; and that four noblemen fhould
be chofen by each party to confider of fome proper
method of preferving tranquillity in the nation.
- This pacification did not greatly diminiffi the power
Athole ° M°rton- He foon got rid of one of his principal
antagonifts, the earl of Athole, by poifoning him at an
entertainment; after which he again gave a loofe rein to
his refentments againfl the houfe of Hamilton, whom
he perfecuted in the moft cruel manner. By thefe
means, however, he drew upon himfelf a general hatred;
and he was fupplanted in the king’s favour by the lord
d’Aubigney, who came from France in the year 1579,
and was created earl of Lenox. The next year Mor¬
ton was fufpe&ed of an intention to deliver up the king
to Elizabeth, and a guard was appointed to prevent
any attempts of this kind. The queen of England
791 endeavoured to fupport her zealous partifan ; but with-
con- out efftft. He was tried, condemned, and executed, as
denv ed and being concerned in the murder of Darnley. At the
theCmurdtrP^ace exScution, it is faid that he confeffed his guilt ;
of Darnley. t>ut of this the evidence is not quite fatisfa&ory. It is
however certain that he acknowledged himfelf privy to
the plot formed againll the life of the king ; and when
one of the clergymen attending him before his execu¬
tion obferved, that by his own confeffion he merited
death in foreknowing and concealing the murder, he re¬
plied “ Ay but, Sir, had I been as innocent as St
Stephen, or as guilty as Judas, I muft have come to the
fcaffold. Pray, what ought I to have done in this
matter ? You knew not the king’s weaknefs, Sir. If I
had informed him of the plot again ft his life, he would
have revealed it even to his enemies and thofe concern¬
ed in the defign ; and I would, it may be, have loft
my own life, for endeavouring to prefervehis to no pur¬
pofe. ”
The elevation of king James, and the total overthrow
of Morton, produced no beneficial confequenees to the
unfortunate Mary. In the year 1581, the addrdfed
a letter to Caftelnau the French ambaffiador, in which
(he complained that her body was fo weak, and her
limbs fo feeble, that Ihe was unable to walk. Caftel¬
nau therefore intreated Elizabeth to mitigate a little
the rigours of Mary’s confinement ; which being refu-
Xed> the latter had thoughts of refigning her claims to
•792
iMonftrous
cruefy of
^Elizabeth
£0 Mary.
SCO
England and Scotland into the Scotland,
hands of her fon, and even of advifing him to ufe every
effort in his povrer to eftabliffi his claim to the Engliffi
crown as preferable to that of Elizabeth. But being
apprehenfive of danger from this violent method, ffie
again contented herfelf with fending to the court of
England ineffeftual memorials and remonftrances. Eli¬
zabeth, inftead of taking compaffion on her miferable
fituation, affiduoufly encouraged every kind of diforder
in the kingdom, on purpofe to have the queen more
and more in her power. Thus the Scottiffi malcon-The kin*
ents finding themfelves always fupported, a confpiracy taken pH.
was at laft entered into, the defign of which was toloner»
hold James in captivity, and to overthrow the authority
of Arran and Lenox, who were now the principal
perfons in the kingdom. The chief aftors in this con-
fpiracy were the earls of Gowrie, Marre, and Glen-
cairn, the lords Lindfay and Boyd, with the mafters of
Glammis and Oliphant. By reafon of the youth and
imbecillity of the king, they eafily accompliffied their
purpofe; and having got him in their power, they
promifed him his liberty, provided he would command
Lenox to depart the kingdom. This was accordingly
done; but the king found himfelf as much a prifoner as
before. The more effe&ually to detain him in cuftody,
the rebels conftrained him to iffue a proclamation,
wherein he declared himfelf to be at perfeft liberty.
Lenox was preparing to advance to the king's relief
with a confiderabie body of forces, when he was dif-
concerted by the king’s peremptory command to leave
Scotland; upon which he retired to Dumbarton, in
order to wait for a more favourable opportunity. The
earl of Arran, being more forward, was committed to
clofe cuftody for fome time, but afterwards confined
only in his houfe of Kinneil. The rebels took upon
them the title of “ lords for the reformation of the
ftate.”
The clergy, who had all this time been exceedingly whSfts
averfe to Epifcopacy, now gave open countenance to approved
the lords of the reformation. On the 13th of Ofto-of the
ber 1582, they made a folemn a<ft, by which the rWclergy*
of Rutbven, as the capture of the king was called, was
deemed a fervice raoft acceptable to all who feared God,
refpeefted the true religion, and were anxious for the
prefervation of the king and ftate ; and every minMter
was commanded to declaim from his pulpit upon the
expediency of this meafure, and to exhort the people
to concur with the lords in profecuting the full deli¬
verance of the church, and the perfeft reformation of
the commonwealth. Not fatisfied with this approba¬
tion of the clergy, the confpirators got their proceed¬
ings approved by the ftates of Scotland, as “ a good,
a thankful, and a neceffary fervice to the king-” At
the fame time it was enaefted, that no fuit civil or
criminal of any kind fhould ever be inftituted againft
the perfons concerned in it. Soon after this, Lenox
took his leave of Scotland, and failed for France, where
he died.
79<-
The unfortunate Mary was driven to defpair when ffie Mary
heard that her fon was taken prifoner by rebels who wr»fes to
had been inftigated by Elizabeth. In this diftrefs, ffie t:1'z‘ibeth5
addreffed a moft fpirited letter to Elizabeth, in which
fhe at once afferted her own innocence, and fet forth
the condudl of Elizabeth herfelf in fuch language as
muft have put the moft impudent of her adverfaries to
the
SCO
[ 87 ]
SCO
;otland-
1 —v——^
II ?96
iti 'i ads
trh her
llial per-
py-
797
" ench am.
fladors
■Tulted in
i acland-
798
•* ,e king
HaPes
mm cap.
ir‘y.
799
rl of
>wrie
[ideroned
d exuu-
the blufh. Elizabeth could not reply, and therefore
had recouvfe to her ufual arts of treacherous negocia-
tion. New terms were propofed to Mary, who would
gladly have fubmitted almoft to any thing, provided (he
could procure her freedom. It w^as propofed, as had
often been done before, to afibciate the queen of Scots
with her fon in the government; but as this was to
be referred to the king, who-was in the hands of Eli¬
zabeth’s friends, and to the parliament, who were under
the power of the fame faftion, it is eafy to fee that no
inch affociation ever could take place, or indeed was
ever intended.
A fter the death of Lenox, the confpirators appre¬
hended no further danger, little fuppoling that a prince
fo young and unexperienced could deliver himfelf from
captivity. This, however, in the year 1583, he effect¬
ed in the following manner. A convention of the
eltates had been fummoned to meet at St Andrew’s.
James, whom the earl of Arran, notwithftanding his
confinement at Kinneil* had found means to initruCt
and advife, pretended a defire of vifiting his grand-uncle
the earl of March, who refided at St Andrew’s, and
w?as for that purpofe permitted to repair thither a few
days before the convention. The better to deceive the
earls of Gowrie, Angus, and Marre, who attended him,
he took up his lodgings in an old inn, which was'quite
open and defencelefs. But having expreffed a defire to
fee the caftle of St Andrew’s, he was admitted into it;
and colonel Stuart, who commanded the caftle, after
admitting a few of his retinue, ordered the gates to be
fhut. The earls of Argyle, Marifchal, Montrofe, and
Rothes, who were in concert with the king, haftened
to make him an offer of their fwords. The oppofite
faction, being unprepared for hoftrlities, wrere filled with
confternation. Of all the confpirators, the earl of
Gowrie alone was admitted into the king’s prefence, by
the favour of colonel Stuart, and received his pardon.
The earls of March, Argyle, Gowrie, Marifchal, and
Rothes, were appointed to be a council for affifting the
king in the management of his affairs; and foon after
this James fet out for Edinburgh. The king no foon-
er found himfelf at liberty, than, by the advice of his
privy council, he ilfued a proclamation of mercy to the
confpirators ; but they, flattering themfelves with the
hopes of fupport from Elizabeth, obftinately refufed to
accept of his pardon. In confequence of this, they
w'ere denounced rebels. Elizabeth failed not to give
them underhand all the encouragement fhe could, and
the clergy uttered the mofl feditious difcourfes againfl
the kingand government; and while they railed againfl
Popery, they themfelves maintained openly the very
charafteriflic and dinflinguifhing mark of Popery, name¬
ly, that the clerical was entirely independent of the civil
power.
At lafl the rebels broke forth into open hoftilities;
but by the vigilance of Arran, the earl of Gowrie, who
had again begun his treafonable pradices, was commit¬
ted to cullody ; while the reft, unable to oppofe the
king, who appeared againft them with a formidable
army, were obliged to fly into England, where Eliza¬
beth, with her ufual treachery, proteded them.
1 he earl e,f Gowrie fuffered as a traitor ; but the
feverity exercifed againfl; him did not intimidate the
clergy. They ftill continued their rebellious pradices,
tuitil the king being informed that they wer# engaged
in a correfpondence with fome of the fugitive lords, Scotland,
citations were given to their leaders to appear before ” v~ 7
the privy-council. The clergymen, not daring to ap- proS°°(
pear, fled to England ; and on the 2Cth of May 1584,^,, ag»inft
the king fummoned a convention of the eftates, on pur-the clergy,,
pofe to humble the pride of the church in an effedual
manner. In this affembly the raid of Ruthven was
declared to be rebellion, according to a declaration
which had formerly been made by the king. And, as
it had grown into a cuflom with the promoters of {edi¬
tion and the enemies of order, to decline the judgment
of the king and the council, when called before them
to anfwer for rebellious or contumelious fpeeches, uttered
from the pulpit or in public places, an ordination was
made, afferting that they had complete powers to judge
concerning perfons of every degree and fundtion ; and
declaring, that every aft of oppolition to their jurifdic-
tion (hould be accounted to be treafon. It was enafted,
that the authority of the parliament, as conftituted by
the free votes of the three eftates, was full and fupreme j
and that every attempt to diminifti, alter, or infringe,
its power, dignity, and juritdiftion, ftiould be held and
punifhed as treafon. All jurifdiftions and judgments,
all affemblies and conventions, not approved of by the
king and the three eftates, were condemned as unlaw¬
ful, and prohibited. It was ordained, that the king
might appoint commilfioners, with powers to examine
into the delinquencies of clergymen, and, if proper, to
deprive them of their benefices. It was commanded,
that clergymen {hould not for the future be admitted to
the dignity of lords of the fefiion, or to the adminiftra-
tion of any judicature civil or criminal. An ordination
was made, which fubjefted to capital punilhment all
perfons who fhould inquire into the affairs of (late with
a malicious curiofity, or who {hould utter falfe and
flanderous fpeeches in fermons, declamations, or familiar
difeourfe, to the reproach and contempt of the king, his
parents, and progenitors. It was ordered that a guard,
confiding of 40 gentlemen, with a yearly allowance to
each of 2001. {hould continually attend upon the king.
This parliament, which was full of zeal for the crown. Attempts
did not overlook the hiftory of Buchanan, which about to fupprefs
this time was exciting a very general attention. It BgchanauV
commanded, that all perfons who were poffelfed of copies ’
of his chronicle, and of his treatife on the Scottilh go¬
vernment, {hould furrender them within 40 days, under
the penalty of 200 1. in order that they might be pur¬
ged of the offenfive and extraordinary matteis they con¬
tained. This fttoke of tyranny was furious and in¬
effectual. Foreign nations, as well as his own country¬
men, were filled with the higheft admiration of the
genius of Buchanan. It was not permitted that his
writings {hould fuffer mutilation ; they were multiplied
in every quarter ; and the feverity exercifed againft
them only ferved the more to excite curiofity, and to
diffufe his reputation.
While the parliamentary afts, which {truck againft
the importance of the church, were in agitation, the eocjeavoUr
miniftu s deputed Mr David Lindfay to folicit the king to fupport
that no ftatutes {hould pafs which affefted the eccle- themfelves
fiaftical eftablifhment, without the confultation of the
general aflembly. But the earl of Arran having intel-'" ^
ligence of this commiffion, defeated it, by committing
Mr Lindiay to prifon as a fpy for the difeontented
nobles. Upon the publication, however, of thefe a As
SCO [ 88 ]
Scotland, by the heralds, Mr Robert Pout miniHer of St Cuth-
  v  bert’s, and one of the fenators of the court of fefiion,
with Mr Walter Balcanqual, protefted formally in the
name of the church, that it diffented from them, and
that they were confequently invalid. Having made
this proteftation, they inflantly fled, and were pro-
?claimed traitors. By letters and pamphlets, which
were artfully fpread among the people, their paffions
were rouzed againft the king and his council. The
rcinifters of Edinburgh took the refolution to forfake
their flocks, and to retire to England. And in an a-
pology circulated by their management, they anxiouf-
ly endeavoured to awaken commiferation and pity.
They magnified the dangers which threatened them ;
and they held out, in vindication of their conduft, the
example of the prophets, the apollles, the martyrs, and
of Chrifl: himfelf, who all concurred, they faid, in op-
poling the ordinations of men, when contradi&ory to
the will of heaven, and in declining the rage of the
enemies of God. The king appointed his own chap¬
lains and the archbilhop of St Andrew’s to perform the
minifterial functions in his capital. The clergy over
Scotland were commanded to fubferibe a declaration,
v hich imported the fnpremacy of the king over the
church, and their fubmiffion to the authority of the bi-
ihops. The national ferments ftill increafed in violence.
Many minifters refufed to fubferibe this declaration,
and were deprived of their livings. It was contended,
that to make the king fupreme over the church was no
better than to fet up a new pope, and to commit trea-
fon againft Jefus Chrift. It was urged, that to over¬
throw aflemblies and prefbyteries, and to give dominion
to bifhops, was not only to overfet the eftablifhed poli¬
ty of the church, but to deftroy religion itfelf. For
the biihops were the flaves of the court, were fchifma-
tical in their opinions, and depraved in their lives. It
was affirmed, that herefy, atheifm, and popery, would
ftrike a deep root, and grow into ftrength. And the
people were taught to believe, that the bifhops would
corrupt the nation into a refemblance with themfelves ;
and that there everywhere prevailed diffimulation and
blafphemy, perfecution and obfeenity, the profanation
of the feriptures, and the breach of faith, covetoufnefs,
perjury, and facrilege. It was reported abroad, that
the minifters alone were entrufted with eccleiiaftical
fnndlions, and with the fword of the word ; and that
it was molt wicked and profane to imagine, that Jefus
Chrift had ever committed the keys of the kingdom
of heaven to civil magiftrates and their fervants or de¬
puties.
While the clergy were thus impotently venting their
wrath, Elizabeth, alarmed beyond meafure at this hid¬
den revolution, and terrified by a confeffion extorted
by the rack from one Francis Throgmorton, concern¬
ing a combination of the Catholic princes to invade
England, began to treat with Mary in a more fincere
manner than ufual; but having gained over to her fide
the earl of Arran, the only man of activity in Scot¬
land, fhe refolved to proceed to extremities with the
queen of Scots. The Roman Catholics, both at home
and abroad, were inflamed againft her with a boundlefs
and implacable rage. There prevailed many rumours
of plots and confpiracies againft her kingdom and her
life. Books were publifhed, which detailed her cruel*
ties and injuftice to Mary in the moft indignant lan-
$ c o
guage of reproach, and which recommended her affaf. Scotland,
filiation as a moft meritorious a&. The earl of Arran v--*
had explained to her the pra&ices of the queen of Scots
ivith her fon, and had difeovered the intrigues of the 803
Catholic princes to gain him to their views. While
her fenfibilities and fears were feverely excruciating”/^!^ -
to her, circumftances happened which confirmed themdiicovered.
In their ftrength, and provoked her to give the fulleft
fcope to the malignity of her paffions. Crichton, a
Scottifh Jefuit, paffing into his own country, was taken
by Netherland pirates ; and fome papers which he had
torn in pieces and thrown into the fea being recovered,
were tranfmitted to England. Sir William Wade put
them together with dexterity ; and they demonftrated
beyond a doubt, that the invafion of England was con¬
certed by the Pope, the king of Spain, and the duke of ‘804
Guife. About this time, too, a remarkable letter was Remark-
intercepted from Mary to Sir Francis Englefield. Sheal)*e lctrep
complained in it that fhe could have no reliance upon-^”^^^
the integrity of Elizabeth, and that fhe expeded no by Eliza-
happy iffue to any treaty which might be opened forbech.
her reftoration and liberty. She urged the advance¬
ment of the “ great plot fhe intimated, that the
prince her fon was favourable to the “ defignment,’*
and difpofed to be directed by her advice ; fhe intreat-
ed, that every delicacy with regard to her own ftate
and condition fhould be laid afide without fcruple ;
and fhe allured him, that fhe would moft willingly iuf-
fer perils and dangers, and even death itfelf, to give re¬
lief to the opprefled children of the church. Thefe
difeoveries, fo exafperating to the inquietudes and di-
ftrefles of Elizabeth, were followed by a deep and ge¬
neral conllernation. The terror of an invafion fpread
itfelf with rapidity over England ; and the Proteftants,
while they trembled for the life of their champion, were
ftill more alarmed with the dangers which threatened
their religion.
In this ftate of perplexity and diftraftion, the coun-
fellors of Elizabeth did not forget that they had been
her inftruments in perfecuting the queen of Scots, and
of the feverities with which fhe had treated the Roman
Catholics. They were fully fenfible, that her great-
nefs and fafety were intimately comie&ed with their own;
and they concurred in indulging her fears, jealouiies,
and refentment. It was refolved that Mary hf,r ucaui
perifh. An aflbeiatien was formed, to which perfonsi/^fygei
of every condition and degree were invited. The pro-on.
fefied bufinefs of this aflbciatiou or fociety was the pre-
fervation of the life of Elizabeth, which it was affirmed
was in danger, from a confpiracy to advance fome pre¬
tended title to the crown ; and its members vowed and
protefted, by the majefty of God, to employ their
whole power, their bodies, lives, and goods, in her fer-
vice; to withftand, as well by force of arms as by other
methods of revenge, all perfons, of whatfoever nation
or rank, who ffiould attempt in any form to invade and
injure her fafety or her life, and never to defift from
the forcible purfuit of them till they fhould be com- -
pletely exterminated. They alfo vowed and protefted, in
the prefence of the eternal God, to profecute to deftruc-
tion any pretended fuccefibr by whom, or for whom,
the deteftable deed of the affaflination of Elizabeth
fhould be attempted or committed. The earl of Lei-
cefter was in a particular manner the patron of this af-
fociation ; and the whole influence of Elizabeth and her
7 miniftera
Soy
' Her death
SCO
E>f accom¬
modation,
Scotland, miinilers was exerted to multiply the fubfcriptions to a
—bond or league which was to prepare the way, and to
be a foundation for accomplifhing the full deftru&ion
and ruin of the Scottifh queen.
A combination fo refolute and fo fierce, which point-
' ed to the death of Mary, which threatened her titles
► to jhe crown of England, and which might defeat the
fucceffion of her fon, could not fail to excite in her bo-
fom the bittereft anxieties and perturbation. Weary of
her fad and long captivity, broken down with calami-
8og ties, dreading afflictions llili more cruel, and willing to
She propo- take away from Elizabeth every poffible pretence of
fes a fcheme feverity, fhe now framed a fcheme of accommodation,
to which no decent or reafonable objection could be
made. By Naw, her fecretary, fhe prefented it to E-
lizabeth and her privy-council. She protefted in it,
that if her liberty fhould be granted to her, fhe would
enter into the clofeft amity with Elizabeth, and pay an
©bfervance to her above every other prince of Chriften-
dom; that fhe would forget all the injuries with which
fhe had been loaded, acknowledge Elizabeth to be the
rightful queen of England, abftain from any claim to
her crown during her life, renounce the title and arms
of England, which fhe had ufurped by the command
of her hufband the king1 of France, and reprobate the
bull from Rome which had depofed the Englifh queen.
She likewife protefted, that fhe would enter into the
aflbciation which had been formed for the.fecurity of
Elizabeth ; and that fhe would conclude a defenfive
league with her, provided that it fhould not be preju¬
dicial to the ancient alliance between Scotland and
France ; and that nothing fhould be done during the
life of the Englifh queen, or after her death, which
fhould invalidate her titles to the crown of England, or
thofe of her fon. . As a confirmation of thefe articles,
fhe profefted that fhe would confent to ftay in Eng¬
land for fome time as an hoftage ; and that if fhe was
permitted to retire from the dominions of Elizabeth,
fhe would furrender proper and acceptable perfons as
fureties. She alfo protefted, that fhe would make no
alterations in Scotland; and that, upon the repeal of
what had been enafted there to her difgrace, fhe would
bury in oblivion all the injuries fhe had received from
her fubjedts : that fire would recommend to the king
her fon thofe counfellors who were moft attached to
England, and that fhe would employ herfelf to recon¬
cile him to the fugitive nobles : that fhe would take no
iteps about his marriage without acquainting the queen
of England ; and that, to give the greater firmnefs to
the propofed accommodation, it was her defire that
he fhould be called as a party to it: and, in fine, fhe af¬
firmed, that flie would procure the king of France and
the princes of Lorraine to be guarantees for the per¬
formance of her engagements. Elizabeth, who was
fkilful in hypocrify, difeovered the moft decifive fymp-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
[ 89 ]
SCO
807
Hypocrify
sind trea-
Jtery of
E.izabeth.
toms of fatisfaclion and joy when thefe overtures were Scotland,
communicated to her. She made no advances, how- »
ever, to conclude an accommodation with Mary; and
her minifters and courtiers exclaimed againft lenient
and pacific meafures. It was loudly infifted, that the
liberty of Mary would be the death of Elizabeth ; that
her affociation with her fon would be the ruin both cc
England and Scotland ; and that her elevation to power
would extend the empire of Popery, and give a deadly
blow to the do&rines of the reformation.
In the mean time, an aft of attainder had pafted
againft the fugitive nobles, and their eftates and ho¬
nours were forfeited to the king; who, not fatisfied
with this, fent Patrick mafter of Gray to demand a
furrender of their perfons from the queen of England.
As this ambaflador had refided fome time in France,
and been intimate with the duke of Guife, he was re¬
commended to Mary : but being a man of no prin¬
ciples, he eafily fuffered himfelf to be corrupted by E-
lizabeth ; and while he pretended friendfliip to the un¬
fortunate queen, he difeovered all that he knew of the gog
intentions of her and her fon. The moft fcandalous Falfs re-
falfehoods were forged againft Mary; and the lefs fhe portsraifed
was apparently able to execute, the more (he was faid a«ainft: che
to deiign,. That an unhappy woman, confined and ^c^gn
guarded with the utmoft vigilance, who had not for
many years fufficient intereft to procure a decent treat¬
ment for herfelf, fliould be able to carry on fuch clofe
and powerful negociations with different princes as
were imputed to her, is an abfurdity which it mult for
ever be impoffible to reconcile. That fhe had an amour
with her keeper the earl of Shrewfbury, as was now
reported, might be ; though of this there is no proof.
This, however, could fearce be treafon againft Eliza¬
beth (x) : yet, on account of this, Mary was commit¬
ted to the charge of Sir Amias Pauiet and Sir Drue
Drury, zealous puritans, and who, it was hoped, would
treat her with fuch feverity as might drive her to de-
fpair, and induce her to commit fome rafh aftion. — So(?
The earl of Leicefter, faid to be Elizabeth’s paramour, Aflaflins
even ventured to fend aft'affins, on purpofe, by the mur- fent
der of Mary, at once to deliver his miftrefs from her
fears. But the new keepers of the caftle, though re- her*
ligious bigots, were men of ftrift probity, and rejefted
with fcorn fuch an infamous tranfaftien. In 1585,
Mary began to feel all the rigours of a fevere imprifon-
ment. She had been removed from Sheffield to the
caftle of Tutbury ; and under her new keepers (he ex¬
perienced a treatment which was in the higheft degree Sl
unjuft, difrefpeftful, and acrimonious. Two apart- she kcon-
ments or chambers only were allotted to her, and they fined, and
were fmall and inconvenient, meanly furniffied, and fo cruefiy
full of apertures and chinks, that they could not pro-treated*
teft her againft the inclemencies of the weather. The
liberty of going abroad for pleafure or exercife was de-
M nied
(x) Amidft the infamous calumnies which this princefs wasffolicitous to fix upon the queen of Scots, it muft
excite the higheft indignation to confider her own contempt of chaftity, and the unprincipled licentioufnefs of her
private life; See Haynes’s Colleft. of State Papers, p. 99, &c Even when palfied with age, fhe was yet
burning with unquenchable defires ; and vain of her haggard and cadaverous form, fought to allure to her many
lovers. See Murdin, p.. 558, 560, 657, 718, 7I9* anc^ difeoveries of a writer, whofe pen, elegant, poignant,
inqumtive, and polite, improves and embellifties every topic that it caxivaffes j Walpole, Catalogue of royal and
noble Authors, vol. i. p. 126. [Stuart, vol. ii. p. 282, note.]
SCO
[ 90 1
SCO
ocxtlaml nJed to lier. She was affailed by raeumatifms and other
1 » maladies ; and her phylician would not undertake to
effeft a cure, or even to procure her any eafe, umefs
the ihould be removea to a more commodious dwelling.
-Applications for this purpofe were frequently made,
and uniformly reje&ed. Here, however, her own af-
fii&ions did not extinguifh in her mind her fenfibility
for the misfortunes of others ; and Ihe often indulged
herfelf in the fatisfadtion of employing a fervant to go
die would dtfTolve his alfociation with her in the go- Scotland
vernment, on the pretence of his attachment to the re- t***-*
formed doctrines ; and that he would not only lofe the
glory of his prefent power, but endanger his profpects
of fucceffion. Mary expoftulated w'ith him by letter
upon the timidity and coldnefs of his behaviour; and
he returned her an anfwer full of difrefpedt, in which
lie intimated his refolution to confider her in no othtr
chara&er than as queen-mother. Her amazement, in-
through the village of Tutbury in fearch of obje&s of dignation, and grief, were infinite. _ She wrote to Ca-
Six
Elizabeth
iWws dif-
icrfion be¬
tween Ma-
iy and her
ton.
diftreis, to whom die might deal out her charity. But
her inhuman keepers, envying her this pleafure, com¬
manded her to abltain from it. Imputing their rigour
to a fufpicious fidelity, Ihe defired that her fervant
.might, on thefe occafions, be accompanied by one of
the foldiers of their guard, or by the conltable of the
village. But they would not alter their prohibition.
They refufed to her the exercife of the Chrifthurduty
of difpenfmg an alms; and they would not allow her
the foft confolation of moillening her eye with for-
1 ows not her own. To infult her the more, the caftle
of Tutbury was converted into a common jail. A
young man, whofe crime was the prefeffion of the Ro-
miih religion, was committed to a chamber which was
oppofite to her window, in order that he might be per-
fecuted in her fight with a peftilent cruelty. Notwith-
ftanding his cries and refiftance, he was dragged every
morning to hear prayers, and to join in the Proteftant
worfhip ; and after enduring feveral weeks this extraor¬
dinary violence to his confcience, he was unmercifully
firangled without any form of law or juftice. Mary
remonftrated with warmth to Elizab th againlt indig¬
nities fo {hocking and fo horrible ; but inftead of ob¬
taining confolation or relief, {he was involved more
deeply in wo, and expofed to {till harder inventions of
malice and of anger.
In the midit of her misfortunes, Mary had {till fola-
ced herfelf with hope ; and from the exertions of her
fon fne naturally expedted a fuperlative advantage. He
had hitherto behaved with a becoming cordiality ; and .Edward Wotton was deputed to Scotland ; and fo com
ftelnau the French ambaffador to inform him of her
inquietudes and anguilh. “ My fon (faid {he) is un¬
grateful ; and I defire that the king your matter {hall
confider him no longer as a fovereign. In 'your future
difpatches, abftain from giving him the title of king.
I am his queen and his fovereign ; and while I live,
and continue at variance with him, he can at the bell
be but an ufurper. From him I derive no lultre ; and
without me he could only have been lord Darnley or
the earl of Lenox ; for I raifed his father from being
my fubjeft to be my hufband. I alk from him nothing
that is his ; what I claim is my own ; and it he perfifls
in his courfe of impiety and ingratitude, I will beftow
upon him my maledi&ion, and deprive him not only
of all right to Scotland, but of all the dignity and
grandeur to which he may fucceed through me. My
enemies {hall not enjoy the advantages they expert from
him. For to the king of Spain I will convey, in the
ampleft form, my claims, titles, and greatnefs.”
Elizabeth having thus found means to fow difien-
fion between the queen of Scots and her fon, did not
fail to make the belt ufe fhe could of the quarrel for
her own advantage. The Pope, the duke of Guife, Alliance of
and the king of Spain, had concluded an alliance, call-1^6
ed the bo'y league, for the extirpation of the Proteftant
religion all over Europe. Elizabeth was thrown intoZdbecj1<
the greateft conftematio'n on this account ; and the
idea of a counter afibciation among the Proteftant
princes of Europe immediately fuggefted itfelf. Sir
8 n
in the negociation which the had opened with him for
her aftociation in the government, he had been ftudi-
ous to pleafe and flatter her. He had informed her
by a particular difpatch, that he found the greateft
comfort in her maternal tendernefs, and that he would
accomplifh her commands with humility and expedi¬
tion ; that he would not fail to ratify her union and
afibciation with him in the government ; that it would
be his moil earneft endeavour to reconcile their com¬
mon fubjects to that meafure ; and that {he might ex-
peft from him, during his life, every fatisfadtion and
duty which a good mother could promife to herfelf
from an affedtionate and obedient fon. But thefe fair
bloffoms of kindnefs and love were all blafted by the
treacherous arts of Elizabeth. By the mafter of Gray,
who had obtained an afeendant over James, {he turned
from Mary his affedtions. He delayed to ratify her
afibciation in the government; and he even appeared
to be unwilling to prefs Elizabeth on the fubjedt of
her liberty. The mafter of Gray had convinced him.
pletely gained upon the imbecility ot James, that he
concluded a firm alliance with Elizabeth, without rna- S13
king any ftipuiation in favour of his mother. Nay, fo Mean and
far was he the dupe of this ambaffador and his miltrefs,
that he allowed himfelf to be perfuaded to take into james>
his favour Mr Archibald Douglas, one of the murder¬
ers of Lord Darnley ; and, as if all this had not been
fufficient, he appointed this afl'afiin to be his ambaffador
for England.
Mary, thus abandoned by all the world, in the hands
of her molt inveterate and cruel enemy, fell a vidtim to gj^
her refentment and treachery in the year 1587. AAcceuntof
plot of affaffination had been formed in the fpring ofBal>mg-
the year 1586 againft the Englilh queen; partly with|.0Pa8cco^“
a view to refeue the Scottifh princefs ; but chiefly from-J^^Eli.
a motive to ferve the interefts of the Roman Catholiczabeth.
religion. This confpiracy, which originated with Ro¬
man Catholic priefts and perfons of little note, was
foon imparted to Mr Babington, a perfon of great for¬
tune, of many accompliflaments, and who had before
that if any favour was {hewn to Mary by the queen of that time difeovered himfelf to be a zealous friend of
t ^ n tV I O Y1 / T ^ T T r ill 4- L . — 1  *1* A T T a A-t TV /C ^ PL rA 4- f!-, -T — —- SA TAH -T 1
England, it would terminate in his humiliation. He
affured him, that if his mother were again to mount
the Scottifh throne, her zeal for Popery would induce
her to feck a hufband in the houfe of Aullria; that
queen Mary. That {he had correfponded with Ba¬
bington there is no doubt; but it was fome years
previous to the formation of the plot. A long fi-
lence had taken place between them; and Morgan,
2 one
SCO [ 9* ] SCO
Scotland, one of t-fee Englifh fugitives in France, and awarm
fniend of Mary’s, in the month of May 1586, wrote a
letter to her, repeatedly and in the moft prefling man¬
ner recommending a revival of that correfpondence.
In confequencd of which, in her anfwer to Morgan,
dated the 27th day of July, ihe informed him, that /he
had made all apologies in her power to Babington, for
not having written to him for fo long a fpace ; that he
had generoufly offered himfelf and all his fortune in her
caufe ; and that, agreeably to Morgan’s advice, flie
would do her belt to retain him in her interefts ; but
fhe throws out no hint of her knowledge of the intend¬
ed aflaflination. On the very fame day Are wrote hke-
wife to Paget, another of her moft confidential friends;
but not a word in it with rtfped to Babington’s fcheme
of cutting off the Englifh queen. To Morgan and to
Paget /he certainly would have communicated her mind,
more readily and more, particularly than to Babington,
and have confulted them about the plot, had fhe been
acceffory to it. Indeed it feems to have been part of
the policy of Mary’s friends to keep her a ftranger to
all clandeftine and hazardous undertakings in her fa¬
vour. To be convinced of this, we have only to re¬
coiled, that Morgan, in a letter of the fourth of July,
exprefsly, and in the ftrongeft terms, recommended to
Mur Jin, have no intelligence at all with Ballard*, who was
27- one of the original contrivers of the plot, and who was
the very perfon who communicated it to Babington.
The queen, in confequence of this, ihut the door again/l
all correfpondence, if it Zhould be offered, with that
UiJ. 534. perfon f. At the fame time, Morgan affigned no par¬
ticular reafons for that advice ; io cautious was he
about giving the queen any information upon the fub-
jed : What he fa id, was generally and ftudioufly ob-
icure : “ Ballard (laid he, only) is intent on foine mat¬
ters of confequence, the iflue of which is uncertain.”
He even went farther, and charged Baflard himfelf to
abftain in aaywife from opening his views to the queen
of Scots.
I be confpiracy which goes under the name of Ba-
Ungton was completely deteded by the court in the
month of June: Ihe names, proceedings, and rtfi.
dences, of thofe engaged in it were then known : The
blow might be foon /truck : The life of Elizabeth was
in imminent hazard. '/ he confpirators, however, were
not apprehended ; they were permitted to enjoy com¬
plete liberty ; treated as if there were not the leaft fuf-
_picion againft them ; and in this free and quiet ftate,
were they fuffered to continue till the beginning of Au-
guft, for a period it ibould feem of near two months.
What could be the reafons for fuch a condud ? From
what caufes did the council of England fufpend the
juft vengeance of the Jaws, and leave their queen’s life Sorianrk
/till in jeopardy ? W^as it on purpofe to procure more —-v ■“
coafpirators, and involve others in the crime ?
Mary queen of Scots continued /till detached from
Babington and his aftbeiates. Their deftrudion was a
fmall matter compared with her’s. Could fhe be de¬
coyed into the plot, things would put on a very new
face: Babington’s confpiracy, which in reality occa-
fioned little dread, as it was early found out, and well
guarded againft, would prove one of the molt grateful
incidents in queen Elizabeth’s reign. Elizabeth’s mi-
nifters, too, knew how much they had rendered them-
felves juftly obnoxious to the Scotti/h princefs : Should
/he come to mount the throne of England, their down-
fall was inevitable ; from which, it fhould feem, is to be
explained, why they were even more zealous than their
miftrefs to accompli/h her ruin. s
Of thefe, Sir Francis Walfmgham fecretary of ftate A-t and
appears to have taken upon himfelf the cliitf manage-freachery
ment in concerting a plan of operations agarnfl ;ke'’fEliza_
queen of Scots ; and as a model, he feems to have had j^r^nduB
in his eye that which was purfued upon a former occa-fters.
fron by the earl of Murray. His /pies having early
got into the confidence of the lower fort of the confpi¬
rators, he now employed the very agency of the latter
for his purpofes. Learning that a packet from France
was intended to be conveyed by them to queen Mary,
and by the hands of one Gilbert Gifford aprie/l whom,
he had fecretly gained over from their a/lbciation, he
wrote a letter to Sir Amias Paulet, who had now the
cuftody of the Scotti/h queen, requefting that one of
his domeftics might be permitted to take a bribe for
conveying that packet to the captive princefs. This
was on purpofe to communicate to her a letter forged
in the name of Babington, in which that confpirator
was made to impart to the Scotti/h queen his icheme
of affaflination, and to claim rewards to the perpetra¬
tors of the deed. Paulet, however, to his honour, re-
fufed to comply with the requeft of Walfingham ;
upon w'hich Gifford corrupted a brewer in the neigh- *
bourhood, who put his letters to Mary in a hole in the
caftle-wall. By. the fame conveyance it was thought
that Mary would aniwer the letters ; hut it appears that
/he never law them, and that of courfe no return was
made (y). It w’as then contrived that anfwers, in the
name of the queen of Scots to Gifford, ffrould be found
in the hole of the wall. Walfingham, to whom thefe
letters were -carried, proceeded formally to decipher
them by the help of one i homas Philips, a perfon
/killed in the/e matters ; and after exact copies were
taken of them, it is faid that they were all artfully
fealed and lent off to the perfons to whom they w'erc
M 2 cine bled.
r.h;s H:ftr °f ^«»«»w tw™ ^ &.K, „Fo..
t , , k 11 anLbtrons of Elizabeth s nefarious mrmfters, thinks it not improbable that an mfwer tn TV k,V ,
toYe nfer WaS Wntten the.Sc0ttiih queen’s fecretaries. Although they could not communicate thaJlette-
o herfelf, on account of her known abhorrence of affaflination, they perhaps wrote a difnauh in {Y rame
YranYof England PtTlly Y °f efcap'nJ ^r0m Jmprifonment, and of their miftrefs being feated on the
to W alii n aft am onY n P fc5°nvcTed throu&h the fame chink of the wall, was carried by Gifford
IhatmSfe; TtYl 5 fdtC,Phered’ and copied by him ; and then feet to Bahingtcn. Camden inLYs uf
made to requeft T p‘y. 0;U:ta a PuiycnPt !n the fame cipher to this difpatch ; in which queen Mary v/a^
were friends to the cau/e. lgU°n ^ “ 0rm her ParciCuIarI'/of the names of his accomplices, and of others who
SCO [ 92 ] s
StwHnJ. direacd. It appears, however, that only the letters di- the ftatute of Edward III.
$16
Wary is
charged
with the
confpira-
ey.
refted to Babington were fent to him ; and the anfwei s
which he made to the queen’s fuppofed letters were
carried dire£Uy to Walfingham. A foundation for
criminating Mary being thus laid, the confpirators were
quickly difcovered, as being already known, and fuller¬
ed the death of traitors. The unhappy princefs, eager-
ly watched by Paulet, and unacquainted with the late
occurrences, received a vifit from Sir Thomas Goiges.
This envoy, as inftrudted by Ildizabeth, furprifed ht r
when flie had mounted her horle to take the pleafure
of the chace. His falutation was abrupf and uncere¬
monious ; and after informing her of the difcovery and
circumftances of the confpiracy of Babington, he rude¬
ly charged her with a concern in it. Her affonifhment
was great, and fhe defired to return to her chambei .
but this favour was refufed to her ; and after being car¬
ried from one houfe to another, in an anxious and per¬
plexing uncertainty, fhe was committed to h otheringay
caftle in Northamptonfhire. Naw and Curl, her two
fecretaries, the former a Frenchman, the latter a native
of Scotland, were taken into cuflody. Paulet break¬
ing open the doors of her private clofet, pofTeffed him-
felf of her money, which amounted not to more than
7000 crowns. Pier cabinets were carefully fealed up ;
and being fent to London, were examined in the pre¬
fence of Elizabeth. They contained many difpatches
from perfons beyond the fea, copies of letters which
had been di&ated by her, and about 60 tables of ci¬
phers and characters. There were alfo difcovered in
them many difpatches to her from Englifh noblemen,
which were full of admiration and refpeCt. 1 hefe E-
lizabeth concealed ; but their authors fufpe&ing that
they were known, fought to purchafe her forgivenefs
by the molt abjeCt proteftations of an attachment to
her perfon, and by the exercife of the moll inveterate
enmity to the queen of Scots. Naw and Curl decla¬
red, that the copies of her letters were in their hand¬
writing. They had been dictated by her in the French
language to Naw, tranllated into Englilh by Curl, and
then put into cipher. They contained not, however,
any matters with which Ihe could be reproached or cri¬
minated. It was upon the foundation of the letters
which Gifford had communicated to Walfingham that
her guilt was to be inferred ; and with copies of thefe,
and with an attetted account of the confpiracy of Ba¬
bington and his affociates, Sir Edward Wotton was
now difpatched into France to accufe her to Henry III.
and to explain to him the dangers to which Elizabeth
was expofed from the machinations and practices of the
Englilh exiles.
The privy-counfellors of Elizabeth deliberated upon
tiorson thethe moft proper method of proceeding againlt Mary,
r.ieth'-d of To fomfc it appeared, that as fhe was only acceffory to
proceeding ^ piot} and not the defigner of it, the moll eligible
agaui.t her ^ verJty to be t^ercifed againft her was a clofer and more
rigorous confinement; and they endeavoured to fortify
this opinion, by obferving, that Ihe was fickly, and
could not live long. By others who were haunted by
the terrors of Popery, it was urged, that Ihe ought to
be put inftantly to death by the formalities of the law.
The earl of Leicefter recommended it as moft prudent
to difpatch her fecretly by poifon. But this counfel
was rejected as mean, difgraceful, and violent. The
lawyers were of opinion, that Ihe might be tried upon
D-libera-
c o
I by which it was ena&ed Scotland,
to be treafon to imagine the deftruCtion of the love* —v"*'-
reign, to make wrar againft his kingdom, or to adhere
to his enemies. Elizabeth, however, and her minifters
had provided a more plaufible foundation for her trial
^ '1     I « r-l t-v-x 4-V X r ? VX 4" 1X O A T /“V
This was a parliamentary ftatute appioving the aft of
affociatisn. As it had been palled while Mary was in
England, it was argued, that hie was bound by it in a
local allegiance to Elizabeth. The next point of de¬
bate was the designation under which it was moft ad-
vifable to arraign her. To employ a foreign name and
title as direCtly delcriptive of her, was not judged to be
confident with the law of England. It was therefore
refolved to defign her “ Mary, daughter and heir of
James V. king ©f Scotland, and commonly called queen
of Scots, and dowager of France.” 81S
This refolution being once taken, Elizabeth next ap-Commif-
pointed above 40 peers or privy-counfellors, and five^f^3^
judges, bellowing upon them in a body, or upon the^y her<
greater part of them, abfolute power and authority to
inquire into the matters compaffed and imagined againft
her by the Scottilh princefs, and to pafs fentence ac¬
cording to the fpirit and tenor of the aft which had
been palled. Of thefe commiflioners a great majority
proceeded to the caftle of Fotheringay j and the day
after their arrival, they deputed to Mary, Sir Walter
Mddmay, Sir Amias Paulet, and Edward Barker a
public notary, to deliver to her a letter from Elizabeth.
In this letter the Englilh queen gratified her unhappy
paffions, and after reproaching Mary with her crimes,
informed her that commiffioners were appointed to take
cognizance of them. The Scottilh princefs, though
aftonilhed with the projeCt of being brought to a pub¬
lic trial, was able to preferve her dignity, and addreffed
them with a compofed manner and air. “ It is a mat-gi^ 0bjf(<£5
ter (faid Ihe) altogether uncommon and ftrange, thattothei ju.
Elizabeth Ihould command me to fubmit to a trial, ashfdi&ion.
if I were her fubjeft. I am an independent fovereign;
and will not tarnilh by any meannefs my high birth, the
princes my predeceffors, and my fon. Misfortunes and
mifery have not yet fo involved me in dejection, as that
I am to faint and fink under this new calamity and infult.
I defire that you will remember what I formerly pro-
tefted to Bromley, who is now lord-chancellor, and to
the lord La War. To fpeak to me of commiffioners,
is a vain mockery of my rank. J^ings alone can be my
peers. The laws of England are unknown to me; and
I have no counfellors to whofe wifdom I can apply for
inftruftion. My papers and commentaries have been
taken from me ; and no perfon can have the perilous
courage to appear as my advocate. I have indeed re¬
commended myfelf and my condition to foreign princes;
but I am clear of the guilt of having confpired the de-
ftruftion of Elizabeth, or of having incited any perfon
whatfoever to deltroy her. It is only by my own words
and writings that an imputation of this kind can be
fupported ; and I am conlcious beyond the pofiibility
of a doubt, that thefe evidences cannot be employed
againft me.” The day after Ihe had in this manner re¬
fufed to allow the jurifdi£tion of the commiffioners,
Paulet and Barker returned to her, and informed her
that they had put her fpeech into writing, and defired
to know if Ihe would abide by it. She heard it read
diftindtly, acknowledged it to be rightly taken, and
avowed her readinefs to perftft in the fentiments fhe had
delivered.
SCO [ ?
l Scotland, delivered. But (lie added, there WM a circtimfance to
<i   which fhe had omitted to fpeak. “ Your queen (laid
(he) affe&s in her letter to obferve, that I am fubjed
to the laws ot Ijnglandi becauie I have lived under their
prote&ion. This fentiment and mode of thinking are
very furprifing to me. I came into England to crave
her affiilance and aid ; and, ever fince, I have been con¬
fined to a prifon. The miferies of captivity cannot be
called a prote&ion, and the treatment I have futfered is
a violation of all law.” _ .
This afflicted but undaunted princefs, after having
thus fcorned the competency and repelled the pretexts
of the commiffioners, was induced at laft, by arguments
under the infidious mafic of candour and friendfhip, to
depart from the proper and dignified ground which
fhe had taken, and confent to that mode of the trial
whigh had been propofed. It was reprefented to her
P> ' by Hatton the vice-chamberlain, that by rejedting a
^ trial> fhe injured her own reputation and interefts, and
deprived herfelf of the only opportunity of fetting her
innocence in a clear light to the preient and to fu¬
ture times. Impofed upon by this artifice, fhe con-
fented to make her appearance before the judges ; at
the fame time, however, fhe flill protefted again ft the
jurifdiaion of the court, and the validity of all their
foo proceedings.
The accu- After various formalities, the lord-chancellor opened
fation is tbe cafe ; and was followed by Serjeant Gawdry, who
preferred procee(je^ to explain the above flatute, and endeavour-
|*gaui er. ^ ^ demonftrate that fhe had offended againft it.. He
then entered into a detail of Babington s confpiracy ;
and concluded with affirming, “ That Mary knew it,
had approved it, had promifed her afliftancc, and had
pointed out the means to effeft it.” Proofs of this
charge were exhibited againft her, and diiplayed with
great art. The letters were read which Sir hrancis
£ j Walfingham had forged, in concert with Gifford, &c.
and her fecretaries Naw and Curl. 1 he three fpies had
afforded all the neceffary intelligence about the confpi¬
racy, upon which to frame a correfpondence between
Mary and Babington, and upon which difpatches might
be fabricated in her name to her foreign friends ; and the
Stuart's ciphers were furnifhed by her two fecretaries. But be-
fiijhry. fide thefe pretended letters, another fpecies of evidence
was held out againft her. Babington, proud of the dil-
patch lent to him in her name by Walfingham and Gif¬
ford, returned an anfwer to it; and a reply from her
by the fame agency was tranfmitted to him. Deluded,
and in toils, he communicated thefe marks of her atten¬
tion to Savage and Ballard, the moft confidential of his
f affociates. His confeffion and theirs became thus of im¬
portance. Nor were her letters and the confeffions of
thefe confpirators deemed fufficient vouchers of her
guilt. Her two fecretaries, therefore, who had lately
forfaken her, were engaged to fubfcribe a declaration,
that the difpatches in her name were written by them
at her command, and according to her inftruftions.
Thefe branches of evidence, put together with fkill, and
heightened with all the impofing colours of eloquence,
were preffed upon Mary. Though fhe had been long
accuftomed to the perfidious inhumanity of her enemies,
her amazement was infinite. She loft not, however, her
courage; and her defence was alike expreffivc of her
penetration and magnanimity.
3 1 SCO
*i The accufation preferred to my prejitdice is a moft Scotland. ^
deteftable calumny. I was not engaged with Babing-
ton in his confpiracy ; and I am altogether innocent °f Mary’s de*»
having plotted the death of Elizabeth. The copies of fence.
Babington’s letters which have been produced, may in- Smrh
deed be taken from originals which are genuine ; but
it is impoffible to prove that I ever received them. Nor
did he receive from me the difpatches addreffed to him
in my name. His confefiion, and thofe of his affociates,
which have been urged to eflablifh the authority of my
letters to him, are imperfect and vain. If thefe confpi¬
rators could have tellified any circumftanccs to my hurt,
they would not fo foon have been deprived of their lives.
Tortures, or the fear of the rack, extorted improper
confeffions from them ; and then they were executed’.
Their mouths were opened to utter falfe criminations j
and were immediately fhut for ever, that the truth might
be buried in their graves. It was no difficult matter
to obtain ciphers which I had employed ; and my ad-
verfaries are known to be fupenor to fcruples. I am
informed, that Sir Francis Walfingham has been earneft
to recommend himfelf to his fovereign by pra&ices both
againft my life and that of my fon j and the fabrication
of papers, by which to effe&uate my ruin, is a bufinefs
not unworthy of his ambition. An evidence, the mof<.
clear and inconteftable, is neceffary to overthrow my
integrity; but proofs, the moil feeble and fufpicious,
are held out againft me. Let one letter be exhibited,
written in my hand, or that bears my fuperfcription, and
I will inftantly acknowledge that the charge againft me
is fufficiently iupported. The declaration of my fecre¬
taries is the effedl of rewards or of terror. I hey are
ftrangers ; and to overcome their virtue was an eaty at-
chievement to a queen whofe power is abfolute, whole
riches are immenie, and whofe minifters are profound and
daring in intrigues and treachery. I have often had oc-
cafion to fufpedt the integrity of Naw ; and Curl, whofe
capacity is more limited, was always moft obfequious
to him. They may have written many letters in my
name without my knowledge or participation ; and it
is not fit that I Ihould bear the blame of their inconfi-
derate boldnefs. They may have put many things into
difpatches which are prejudicial to Elizabeth ; and they
may even have fubferibed their declaration to my pre¬
judice, under the prepoffeffion that the guilt, which
would utterly overwhelm them might be pardoned m
me. I have never dictated any letter to them which
can be made to correfpond with their teftimony. And
what, let me afk, would become of the grandeur, the
virtue, and the fafety of princes, if they depended upon
the writings and declarations of fecretaries ? Nor let it
be forgotten, that by ading in hoftility to the duty and
allegiance which they folemnly Iwore to obierve to me,
they have utterly incapacitated themfelves from ob¬
taining any credit. The violation of their oath of fi¬
delity is an open perjury; and of fuch men the protef-
tations are nothing. But, if they are yet in life, let
them be brought before me. i he matters they declare
are fo important as to require that they fhould be ex¬
amined in my prefence. It argues not the fairnefs of
the proceedings againft me, that this formality is ne-
gle&ed. I am alfo without the affiftance of an advocate;
and, that I might be defencelefs and weak in the great-
eft degree, I have been robbed of my papers and com¬
mentaries}
Scotland.
SCO
mentaries. As to the copies of the difpatches which
nee laid to have been written by my direction to Men¬
doza, the lord Paget, Charles Paget, the archbilhop of
Glafgow, and Sir Francis Inglefield, they are molt un¬
profitable-forgeries. For they tend only to fhow that
I was employed in encouraging my friends to invade
England. Now, if I fhould allow that thefe difpatches
were genuine, it could not be inferred from them that
T had confpired the death of Elizabeth. I will even
confers, that I have yielded to the itiong impulfes of
nature ; and that, hke a human creature, encompalfed
with dangers and iufulted with wrongs, I have exerted
my fell to recover my greatnefs and my liberty. The
efforts I hive made can excite no blulhes in me; for
the voice of mankind mult applaud them. Religion, in
her fterneft moments of feverity, cannot look to them
with reproach ; and to confider them as crimes, is to
defpife the fanftimonious reverence of humanity, and to
give way to the fufpicious wretchednefs of defpotifm.
I have fought by every art or conceflion and friendflup
to engage my filter to put a period to my fufferings.
Invited by her fmiles, I ventured into her kingdom, in
the pride and gaiety of my youth ; and, under her an¬
ger and the miferies of captivity, I have grown into
age. During a calamitous confinement of 20 years,
my youth, my health, my happmels, are for ever gone.
To her tendernefs and generolity I have been indebted
as little as to her ju'ltice ; and, opprefled and agonizing
ivith unmerited affli&ions and hardihips, I fcrupled not
to beleech the princes my allies to employ their armies
to idieve me. Nor will 1 deny, that 1 have endeavour¬
ed to promote the advantage and intereft of the perfe-
cuted Catholics of England. My intreaties in their be¬
half have been even offered with earneffnels to cjueen
Elizabeth hprfelf. Eut the attainment of my kingdom,
the recovery of my liberty, and the advancement of
that religion which I love, could not induce me to flam
rnyfclt with the crimes that are objected to me. I would
dildain to purchafe a crown by the aflaillnation of the
jneanett of the human race, i o accufe me ol fcheming
the death of the queen my filler, is to brand me with
the infamy which I abhor molt. It is my nature to em¬
ploy the devotions of Either, and not the fvvord of Ju¬
dith. Elizabeth herfelf will atteft, that I have often
admonilhed her not tu draw upon her head the refent-
ment of my friends by the enormity of her cruelties
to me. My innocence cannot fincerely be doubted ;
t 94 ]
SCO
Scotland,
822
and it is known to the Almighty God, that I could
not poffibly think to forego his mercy, and to ruin my
fiuul, in order to cqmpafs a tranfgrelhon fo horrible as
that of her murder. Tut amidil the inclement and un¬
principled pretences which rny adversaries are pleafed to
invent to overwhelm me with calamities and amruiih, I
can trace and difeover with cafe the real caufes ot their
holtihty and provocation. My crimes are, my birth
tne injuries i have been compelled to endure, and my
religion. I am proud of the firft; I can forgive the
fecond ; and the third is a feurce to me of fuch comfort
and nope, that lor its glory 1 will be contested that my
blood mad flow upon the fcaffold.” J
to the de'ence oi-Mary, no returns were made be-
uue flout and unlupported affirmations of the truth of
the evidence produced to her prejudice. In the comfe
ol the trial, however, there occurred feme incidents
wlucu deferve to he related. My lord Burleigh, who
was willing to difeompofe her, charged her with a fixed
refolution of conveying her claims and titles to England
to the king of Spain. But though, in a diicontented
humour with her fon, ffie had threatened to difinherit
him, and had even correfponded on the fubjedt with her
feleft friends, it appears that this project is to be eou-
fidered as only a tranfient effedt of relerument and paf-
fiou. She indeed acknowledged, that the Spaniard pro-
ftlTed to have pretentions to the kingdom of England,
and that a book in junification of them had been com¬
municated to her. She declared, however, that fhe had
incurred the dilpleafure of many by difapprovrng oi this
book ; and that no conveyance of her titles to the Spa¬
niard had been ever executed,
1 lie trial continued during the fpace of two days;
but the commiffioners avoided to deliver their opinions!
My lord Burleigh, in whole management Elizabeth
chiefly confided, and whom the Scottiffi queen difeom-
pofed in no common degree by her ability and vigour,
being eager to conclude the bulinefs, demanded to
know if ffie had any thing to add to what ffie had
urged in her defence. She informed him, that ffie Sheldircj
would be infinitely pleafed and gratified, if it ffiould behe heard
permitted to her to be heard in her jollification before before the
a full meeting of the parliament, or beffire the queen
and her privy-council. This intimation was unexpec-the queen*
ted ; and the requeft implied in it was rejected. The
court, in confequence of previous inltruftions from Eli¬
zabeth, adjourned to a farther day, and appointed that
the place of its convention ffioulctbe the Itar-chamber at
Weflminfter. It accordingly affembled there ; and Naw
and Curl, who had not been produced at Fotheringay-
caffle, were now called..betore the commiffioneis. Au
oath to declare the truth was put to them ; and they
definitely affirmed and protefted that the declaration
they had fubferibed was in every refpecfl juft and faith-
lul. Nothing farther remained but to pronounce fen- o
tence againft Mary.. The commiffioners unanimoufly jud^mert
concurred in delivering it as their verdieft or judgment, ^iven a-
that ffie “ w?as a party to the confpiracy of Babington ; ^3*11^ bef'
and that ffie had compafled and imagined matters wfith-
m the realm of England tending to the hurt, death, and
dellruttion, of the royal perfon of Elizabeth, in oppoli-
tion to the flatute framed for her protection.” Upon
the fame day in which this extraordinary fentence w'as
given, the commifikmers and the judges of England if-
fued a declaration, which imported, that it was not to
derogate in any degree from the titles and honour of
the king of Scots.
.1 he fentenct againft Mary was very foon afterwardsThc itn-
ratified by the Engliffi parliament. King James was/ence rati-
ftruck with horror at hearing of the execution of his^c* by the
mother ; but that Ipiritlefs piince could fhow his re_£nglifil
fentment no farther than by unavailing embaffies and re J3'iiament*
monftranccs. France interpofed in the fame ineffeaual
manner ; and on the 6th of December 1586, Elizabeth,
caufed the fentence of the commiffioners againfl her to
be proclaimed. After this the was made’ acquainted
with her late, and received the news with the greatelt
compofure, and even apparent fatisfaftion. Her keep-
eis now refufed to treat her with any reverence or re-
fpeCl. i hey entered her apartment with their heads
covered, and made no obeilance to her. They took
down her canopy of flate, and deprived her of all the
badges of royalty. By thefe intuiting mortifications
they
eot!an<i
S*5
|| becility
■|j antes,
|Ux.
me nilo
ce and
otry of
clergy.
e-|
26
aheth
fome
orfe;
sco r
tTvey fneant to inform her, that ftie had funk from the
dignity of a princefs to the abject Hate of a criminal.
She fmiled, and faid, “ In defpite of your fovereign
and her fubfervient judges, T will live and die a queen.
My royal oh a rafter is irtdelible ; and I will furrender it
with my fpirit to the Almighty God, from whom I
received it, and to whom my honour and my innocence
are fully known.” In this melancholy fituation Mary
addreffed a magnanimous letter to Ulizabcth, in which,
without making the lead folicitation for her life, fhe
only requefted that her body might be carried to France;
that fhe might be publicly executed ; that her fervants
might be permitted to depart out of England unmo-
lefted, and enjoy the legacies which ihe bequeathed them.
But to this letter no anfwer was given.
In the fnean time James, who had neither addrefs
nor courage to attempt any thing in behalf of his mo¬
ther, announced her fituation to his bigotted fubjefts,
and ordered prayers to be faid for her in all the church¬
es. The form or the petition he preferibed was framed
with delicacy and caution, that the clergy might have
no objeftion to it. He enjoined them to pray, “ that
it might pleafe God to enlighten Mary With the light
of his truth, and to proteft her from the danger which
was hanging over her.” His own chaplains, and Mr
David Lindfay minifter of Leith, obferved his command.
But all the other clergy refufed to proftiaite their pul¬
pits by preferring any petitions to the Almighty for a
Papift. James, fhocked with their fpirit of intolerance
and fedition, appointed a new day for prayers to be faid
for Mary, and iffued a drifter injunftion to the clergy
to obey him ; and that he might be free himfelf from
any infult, he commanded the archbifliopof St Andrew’s
to preach before him. The eccleiiaftics, difgOfted with
lu's injunftion, perfuaded Mr John Cowper, a proba¬
tioner in divinity, to occupy the pulpit deiigned for
the archbifhop. When the king entered the church, he
teftified his furprife, but told Cowper, that if he would
obey his injunftion, he might proceed to officiate.
Cowper replied, “ that he would do as the fpirit of
God would direft him.” The king commanded him
to retire, and the captain of his guard advanced to com¬
pel him to obedience. The enraged probationer ex¬
claimed, that this violence “ would witnefs againft the
king in the great day of the Lord ;” and denounced a
curfe againil the fpeftators for not exerting themfelves
in his defence. The archbiffiop now afeending the pul¬
pit, performed with propriety the funftion to which he
had been called, and took the opportunity to recom¬
mend moderation and charity to the audience. In the
a ternoon Cowper was cited before the privy-council;
and was accompanied there by Mr Walter Balcanqual
and Mr William Watfon, two miniflers remarkable for
their zeal. As a punifiiment for his audacious petu¬
lance,. he was committed to the cattle of Blacknefs ;
and his attendants having diltinguifhed themfelves by
an impudent vindication of him, were prohibited from
preaching during the pleafure of the king.
^Elizabeth, in the meanwhile, ftlt the torment and
difquiet of unhappy and miferable paffions; At times
ffie courted the fadnefs of folitude, and refufed to be
confoled or to fpeak. In other feafons her fighs were
frequent, and fhe broke out mto loud and wild excla¬
mations expreffive of the ftate of her mind. Her fub-
ji-fts waited the determination of her will under a dif-
95 1 SCO
trafting agitation and uncertainty. Her minifters, who Scotland.'
knew that it is the nature of fear to exclude pity, were . *
induftrious in inventing terrifying intelligence, and \n5t'tart’
circulating it through the kingdom. There were ru¬
mours that the Spanifh fleet had arrived at Milford-ha-
ven; that a formidable army of Scottifh combatants
was advancing to the capital; that the duk'e of Guife
had difembarked many troops of veteran foldiers in Suf-
fex ; that Mary had dcaped out of prifOn, and was col-
lefting the Englilh Catholics; that the northern coun¬
ties had thrown afide their allegiance ; and that there
was a new plot to kill Elizabeth, and to reduce Lon¬
don to afhes. An aftiial confpiracy was even maliciouf-
ly charged upon L’Aubefpine the French iefident;
and he was forced to withdraw from England in dif-
grae'e. From the panic terrors which the minitters of
Elizabeth were io ftudious to excite, they icrupled not
loudly and invariably to infer, that the peace and tran¬
quillity of the kingdom could alone be re-eftabhffied by
the fpeedy execution of the Scottifh queen. 827
While the nation was thus artfully prepared For the BuI: fijins
dettruftion of Mary, Elizabeth ordered fecretary Da*tile
rmt for
Mary’s
vidfon to bring to her the warrant for her death. Ha-
ving perufed it with deliberation, fhe obferved that it death."
was extended in proper terms, and gave it the authori¬
ty of her fubfeription. She was in a hiimour fomewhat
gay, and demanded of him if he was hot forry for what
fhe had done. He replied, that it was affiidfing to him
to think of the ftate of public affairs; but°that he
greatly preferred her life to that of the Scottiffi prin¬
cefs. She enjoined him to be fecret, and ddired, that
before he Ihould deliver the warrant to the chancellor,
he fhould carry it to Walfingham. “I fear much
(faid fhe, in a merry tone), that the grief of it will
kill him.”
This levity was momentary ; and fears and anxieties
fucceeded it. Though fhe earneftly defired the death
of Mary, flic was yet terrified to encounter its infamy.
She was folicitous to accomplifh this bafe tranfaftion
by feme method which would conceal her confent to it. 82g
After intimating to Mr Davidfon an anxious wifh that Wifhes to
its blame fhould be removed from her, fhe counfelledhave her
him to join with Walfingham in addreffing a letter to:r v^ely.
Sir Annas Paulet and Sir Drue Drury, recommending *
it to them to manifeft their love to her by fhedding pri¬
vately the blood of her adverfary. The unlawfulnefs of
this deed affefted Davidfon, and* he objefted to it. She
repeated reiolutely her injunctions, and he departed to
execute them. A letter under his name and that of
Walfingham was difpatched to Mary’s keepers, com¬
municating to them her purpofe. Corrupted by her
paffions, and loft to the fenfibilities of virtue, Elizabeth
had now reached the laft extremity of human vvicked-
nefs. Though a fovereign princefs, and entrufted with
the cares of a great nation, fhe blufhed not to give it in
charge to her minifters to enjoin a murder; "and this
murder was connefted with every circumfiance that
could make it mod frightful and horrid. The viftim
for whofe blood fhe thirfted was a woman, a queen, a
1 elation, who was fplendid with beauty, eminent 111 abi¬
lities, magnanimous under misfortunes, and fmiling with o.
innocence. Sir Amias Paulet and Sir D,rue Drury, tho’Whchher
the Oaves of religious prejudices, felt an elevation of lepers re¬
mind which reflefted the greateft difgrace upon thefuie>
fovereign. They confidered themfelves as grofsly in-
fultedE
SCO
r 96 ]
SCO
Scotland.
Stuart.
fulted bv the purpofe propofed to them ; and In the re- They then affeaed to juftify their rniftrefs by entering Seothtd.
. ' . r ,t» ,1 1 _rr. .1 infn ronr^rnincr the rnniniraev or nabmp'tQn. V' ■J
turn they made to Walfmgham, they affured him, that
the queen might command their lives and their proper¬
ty, but that they would never confent to. part with
their honour, and to ftain themfelves and their pofterity
with the guilt of an aflaflination. When Davidfon car¬
ried their difpatch to her, flic broke out into, anger.
Their fcrupulous delicacy, fhe faid, was a dainty in¬
fringement of their oath of aflbciation ; and they were
into details concerning the confpiracy of Babington.
She put her hand upon the Scriptures, which lay upon
a table near her, and fwore in the moll folenm manner,
that fhe never devifed, confented to, or purfued the
death of Elizabeth in any fliape whatfoever. The earl
of Kent, unwifely zealous for the Proteftant religion,
excepted againft her oath, as being made upon a Popifh
Bible. She replied to him mildly, “ It is'for this Ve¬
nice, precife, and perjured traitors, who’ could give great ry reafon, my lord, to be relied upon with the greater
•r • , , . 1 • .i.’ „ ov,^ Kim ffvmritv • fhr T efleem the ronilh venion ox the ocrm-
S30
The war¬
rant .pafft s
the great
/Teal.
promifes in words, and atchieve nothing. She told him
that the bufinefs could be performed without them; and
recommended one Wingfield to his notice, who would
not hefitate to ftrike the blow. The aftoniflied fecre-
tary exclaimed with warmth againfl: a mode of proceed¬
ing fo dangerous and unwarrantable. He protefted,
that if fhe fiiould take upon herfelf the blame of this
deed, it would pollute her with the blacked difhonour ;
and that, if flie fliould difavow it, file would overthrow
for ever the reputation, the eftates, and the children, of
the perfons who Ihould afiift in it. She heard him
with pain, and withdrew from him with precipitation.
The warrant, after having been communicated to
Walfingham, was carried to the chancellor, who put
the great feal to it. This formality was hardly con¬
cluded, when a meflage from Elizabeth prohibited
JDavidfon from waiting upon the chancellor till he
fhould receive farther initruftions. Within an hour af¬
ter, he received a fecond meflage to the fame purpofe.
He haftened to court; and Elizabeth afked eagerly,
if he had feen the chancellor. He anfvvered in the affir¬
mative ; and flie exclaimed with bitternefs againll his
hafte. He faid, that he had ailed exa&ly as flie had
direfted him. She continued to exprefs warmly her
difpleafure'; but gave no command to flop the opera¬
tion of the warrant. In a ftate of uneafinefs and appre-
fecurity ; for I etteem the Popifh verfion of the Scrip¬
tures to be the moll authentic.” Indulging his puri¬
tanical fervour, he declaimed againft popery, counfelled
her to renounce its errors, and recommended to her at¬
tention Dr Fletcher dean of Peterborough. She heard
him with fbme impatience ; and difcovered no anxiety
to be converted by this ecclefiaftic, whom he reprefent-
ed as a moft learned divine. Rifing into paffion, he ex¬
claimed, that “ her life would be the death of their re¬
ligion, and that her death would be its life.” After
informing him that fhe was unalterably fixed in her re¬
ligious fentiments, fhe defired that her confeflbr might
have the liberty to repair to her. The two earls con¬
curred in obferving, that their confciences did not al¬
low them to grant this requeft. She intimated to them
the favours for which flie had applied by her letter to
Elizabeth, and exprefled a wifli to know if her After had
attended to them. They anfwered, that thefe were
points upon which they had received no inftru&ions.
She made inquiries concerning her fecretaries Naw and
Curl; and alked, whether it had ever been.heard of, in
the wickedeft times of the moft unprincipled nation,
that the fervants of a fovereign princefs had been fub-
orned for the purpefe of deftroying her. They looked
to one another, and were filent. Bourgoin her phyfx-
cian, who with her other domeftics was prefent at this
tiUli UI LI 1C WcUlrtllL# Xil a itacc VI uaiv-aixuvio “■ft'1 w      - x
henfion, he communicated her behaviour to the chancel- interview, feeing the two earls ready to depart, be
* 1 ai..,  ! JVmrvVit- fVipm ixrlfh 5m pmrihatir parneftnefs to refleft ud
lor and the privy-council. Thefe courtiers, however,
who were well acquainted with the arts of their miftrefs,
and who knew how to flatter her, paid no attention to
him. They perceived, or were fecretly informed, that
flie defired to have a pretence upon which to complain
fought them with ah emphatic earneftnefs to refledi up-
,>.1 the fhort and inadequate portion of time that they
had allotted to his miftrefs to prepare' herfelf for death.
He infilled, that a refpeft for her high rank, and the
multiplicity and importance of her concerns, required at
11JC ucuicu. lu nave a ujjwn w— j  — ' *■
<jf the fecretary, and to deny that he had obeyed her leaft a period of fome days, d hey pretended, however
— ti— k:~, fK-,* k.. fnkf/-™- not to underftand the propriety of his petition, and re-
fufed it
inftru&ions. They obferved to him, that by fubferi-
bing the warrant, flie had performed whatever the law
required of her; and that it was not proper to delay
the execution any longer. While they were anxious to
pleafe Elizabeth, they were confcious of their own
cruelty to Mary, and did not imagine they could be in
perfeft fecurity while flie lived. They difpatched the
831
Upon the departure of the two earls, her domeftics She pre¬
gave a full Vent to their affli&ions; and while fhe ex-Pare*fo1
perienced a melancholy pleafure in their tears, lamen- cat
tations, and kindnefs, fhe endeavoured to confole.them.
Their grief, flie faid, was altogether unavailing, and
83*.
fvlary is
acquainted
with her
fate.
warrant to the earls of Shrevvfbury and Kent, with in- could neither better her condition nor their own. Her
ft _ n • . . . 1 ^   •-V.if- \xr5io mnir nnnr»nf—
Itruftions to them to fulfil its purpofe.
When the two earls and their retinue reached Fo-
theringay-caftle, they found that Mary was fick, and
repofing upon her bed. They infifted, notwithfland-
ing, to be introduced to her. Being informed by her
fervants that the meflage they brought was important
and preffing, flie prepared to receive them. They were
conduced into her prefence by Sir Amias Paultt and
Sir Drue Drury; and with little formality they told
her, that Elizabeth had confented to her death, and that
flie was to fuffer the next morning at eight o’clock.
Then Beale, one of the clerks of the privy-council, who
accompanied them, read over the warrant, which fhe
Beard with pious compofure and unfliaken fortitude.
caufe had every thing about it that was moft honour¬
able ; and the miferies from which fhe was to be re¬
lieved were the moft hopelefs and the moft affli&ing.
Inftead of dejedtion ind fadnefs, flie therefore enjoined
them to be contented and happy. That fhe might
have the more leifure to fettle her affairs, flie flipped
early, and, according to her ufual cuftom, fhe cat little.
While at table, fhe remarked to Bourgoin her phyfician,
that the force of truth was infurmountablc ; for that
the earl of Kent, notwith(landing the pretence of her
having confpired againft Elizabeth, had plainly inform¬
ed her, that her death would be the fecurity of their
religion. When flioper was ^bver, flie ordered all her
fervanls to appear befoie her, and treated them with
the
833 r
iccount oi
ie erecti¬
on.
S c ° [
Zetland, the kindjiefs which we have mentioned in her life* Ha-
— v —- vin(T fettled thefe attentions, flie entered her bedchamber
with her women ; and, according to her uniform prac¬
tice, employed herfelf in religious duties, and in read-
■Stuart, ing in the Lives of the Saints. At her accuftomed time
ftie went to deep; and after enjoying fome hours of
found reft, ftie awaked. She then indulged in pious
meditation, and partook of the facrament by the means
of a confecrated hoft, which a melancholy prefenti-
ment of her calamities had induced her to obtain from
Pius V. , .
At the break of day Ihe arrayed herfelf in rich, but
becoming apparel ; and calling together her fervants,
hie ordered her will to be read, and apologifed for the
fmallnefs of her legacies from her inability to be more
generous. Following the arrangement fhe had previ-
oufly made, ftie then dealt out to them her goods, ward¬
robe, and jewels. To Bourgoin her phyfician (he com¬
mitted the care of her will, with a charge that he would
deliver it to her principal executor the duke of Guife.
She alfo entrufted him with tokens of her affection for
the king of France, the queen-mother, and her relations
of the houfe of Lorraine. Bidding now an adieu to
all worldly concerns, fhe retired to her oratory, where
'fhe was feen fometimes kneeling at the altar, and fome-
times (landing motionlefs with her hands joined, and
her eyes directed to the heavens. In thefe tender and
agitated moments, (he was dwelling upon the memory
of her fufferings and her virtues, repofing her weakneffes
in the bofom of her God, and lifting and folacing her
fpirit in the contemplation of his perfections and his
mercy. While (lie was thus engaged, Thomas An¬
drews, the high (heriff of the county, announced to
her, that the hour for her execution was arrived. She
came forth dreffe l in a gown of black filk ; her petti¬
coat was bordered with crimfon-velvet ; a veil of lawn
bowed out with wire, and edged with bone-lace, was faf-
tened to her caul, and hung down to the ground: an
Agnus Dei was fufpended from her neck by a poman¬
der chain ; her beads were fixed to her girdle ; and (he
bore in her hand a crucifix of ivory. Amidlt the
fcreams and lamentations of her women (he defcended
the (lairs ; and in the porch (he was received by the
earls of Kent and Shrewftmry with their attendants.—
Here, too, (he met Sir Andrew- Melvil the mafter of
her houfehold, whom her keepers had debarred from
her prefence during many days. Throwing himfelf at
her feet, and weeping aloud, he deplored his fad def-
tiny, and the forrowful tidings he was to carry into
Scotland.
After (he had fpoken to Melvil, (he befought the
tw-o earls that her (ervants might be treated with civili¬
ty, that they might enjoy the prefents (he had bellow¬
ed upon them, and that they might receive a fafe con-
du£t to depart out of the dominions of Elizabeth.
Thefe (light favours were readily granted to her. She
then begged that they might be permitted to attend her
to the fcaffoldj'in order that they might he witneffes of
her behaviour at her death. To this requeft the earl of
Kent difcovered a ftrong reludlance. He (aid that they
would behave with an intemperate paffion ; and that
they would praftife fuperltitious formalities, and dip
their handkerchiefs in her blood. She replied, that fire
was fure that none of their actions would be blameable ;
Vol. XVII. Part i.
97 ] SC O
and that it was hut decent that fome of her women Scotland-
(heuld be about her. The earl dill hefitating, (he was
affedted with the infolent and llupid indignity of his
malice, and exclaimed, “ I am coufin to your miftrefs,
and defccnded from Henry VII. I am a, dowager of Stuart.
France, and the anointed queen of Scotland.” The
earl of Shrewfbury interpofing, it was agreed that (he
(hould feledt two of her w-ornen who might affift her
in her laft moments, and a few of her men-fervants,
who might behold her demeanour, and report it.
She entered the hall where (lie wras to fuffer, and ad¬
vanced with an air of grace and majefty to the fcaf-
fold, which was built at its fartheft extremity. The
(bedlators were numerous. Her magnanimous carriage,
her beauty, of which the luftre was yet dazzling, and
her matchlefs misfortunes, affedled them. They gave
way to contending emotions of awe, admiration, and
pity. She afeended the fcaffold with a firm (lep and a
lerene afpeft, and turned her eye to the block, the axe,
and the executioners. The fpeflators were diffolved in
tears. A chair was placed for her, in which (he feated
herfelf. Silence was commanded ; and Beale read aloud
the warrant for her death. She heard it attentively,
yet with a manner from which it might be gathered
that her thoughts were employed upon a fubjedl more
important. Dr Fletcher dean of Peterborough taking
his llation oppolite to her without the rails of the fcaf¬
fold, began a difeourfe upon her life, pall, prefent, and
to come. He affedled to enumerate her trefpaffes agaiufi:
Elizabeth, and to deferibe the love and tendernefs which
that princefs had Ihown to her. He counfelled her to
repent of her crimes and while he inveighed againll
her attachment to Popery, he threatened her with ever-
lafting fire if (he fiiould delay to renounce its errors.
His behaviour was indecent and eoarfe in the greateil
degree ; and while he meant to infult her, he infulted
(lift more the religion which he profeffed, and the fo-
vereign whom he flattered. Twice (he interrupted him
with great gentlenefs. But he pertinacioufly continued
his exhortations. Raifing her voice, (he commanded
him with a refolute tone to with-hold his indignities and
menaces, and not to trouble her any more about her
faith. “ I was born (faid (he) in the Roman Catholic
religion ; I have experienced its comforts during my
life, in the trying feafons of ficknefs, calamity, and for-
row ; and I am refolved to die in it.” The two earls,
afiiamed of the favage obftinacy of his deportment, ad-
monilhcd him to defift from his fpeeches, and to con¬
tent himfelf with praying for her converfion. He en¬
tered upon a long prayer; and Mary falling upon her
knees, and difregarding him altogether, employed her¬
felf in devotions from the office of the Virgin.
After having performed all her devotions, her wo¬
men affifted her to difrobe ; and the executioners offer¬
ing their aid, (he repreffed their forwardnefs by obfer-
ving, that (he was not accuftomed to be attended by
fuch fervants, nor to be undreffed before fo large an af-
fembly. Her upper garments being laid afide, (he
drew upon her arms a pair of filk gloves. Her women
and men fervants burft out into loud lamentations. She
put her finger to her mouth to admoniih them to be
(ilent, and then bade them a final adieu with a fmile
that feemed to confole, but that plunged them into
deeper wo. She kneeled refolutely before the block,
N and
S C O c t>5 1 SCO
Scotland and faid, “ In thee, O Lord ! do T truft, let Tne never
he confoimded.” She covered her eyes with a linen
handkerchief in which the eucharift had been inclofed ;
and ftretching forth her body with great tranquillity,
and fitting her neck for the fatal llroke, fhe called out,
“ Into thy hands, O God ! I commit my fpirit.” The
executioner, from defign, from unfkilfulnefs, or from
inquietude, ftruck three blows before he feparated her
head from her body. He held it up mangled with
wounds, and dreaming with blood ; and her hair be¬
ing difcompofed, was difcovered to be already grey with
afflictions and anxieties. The dean of Peterborough
alone cried out, “ So let the enemies of Elizabeth pe-
rifh.” The earl of Kent alone, in a low voice, anfwer-
ed, “ Amen.” All the other fpeftators were melted
into the tendered: fympathy and forrow
Her women hadened to protect her dead body from
the curiofity of the fpeCtators ; and folaced themfelves
with the thoughts of mourning over it undidurbed
when they fhould retire, and of laying it out in its fune¬
ral garb. But the two earls prohibited them from dif-
charging thefe melancholy yet pleading offices to their
departed midrefo, and drove them from the hall with
indignity. Bourgoin her phydcian applied tp them
that he might be permitted to take out her heart for
the purppfe of preferving it, and of carrying it with
him to France. But they refufed his intreaty with
difdain and anger. Her remains were touched by the
rude hands of the executioners, who carried them into
an adjoining apartment; and who, tearing a cloth from
an old billiard-table, covered that form, once fo beauti¬
ful. The block, the cufhion, the fcaffold, and the gar¬
ments, which were dained with her blood, were con-
fumed with fire. Her body, after being embalmed and
committed to a leaden coffin, was buried with royal
fplendour and pomp in the cathedral of Peterborough.
Elizabeth, who had treated her like a criminal while fhe
lived, feemed difpofed to acknowledge her for a queen
when fhe was dead.
On the death of his mother, the full government
of the kingdom devolved on James her fon. Elizabeth,
apprehenfive of his refentment for her treatment of his
and indiffe- mother, wrote him a letter, in which fiae declaimed all
knowledge of the fa&. James had received intelligence
of the murder before the arrival of this letter, which was
lent by one Cary. The mefl'enger was flopped at Ber¬
wick by an order from the king, telling him, that, if
Mary had been executed, he fhould proceed at his pe¬
ril. James Ihut himfelf up in Dalkeith caftle, in order
to indulge himfelf in grief; but the natural levity and
imbecility of his mind prevented him from adting in
any degree as became him. Inftead of refolutely adhe¬
ring to his firft determination of not allowing Cary to
fet foot in Scotland, he in a few days gave his confent
that he fhould be admitted to an audience of certain
834
Infamous
diflimula-
tion in
Elizabeth,
rence in
James.
members of his privy-council, who took a journey to
the borders on purpofe to wait upon him. In this con¬
ference, Cary demanded that the league ef amity between
the two kingdoms fhould be inviolably obferved. He
faid that his miflrefs was grieved at the death ©f Mary,
which had happened without her confent; and, in Eli¬
zabeth’s name, offered any fatisfa&ien that James could
demand. The Scots commiffioners treated Cary’s
fpeech and propofal with becoming difdain. They ob¬
ferved, that 'they amounted to no more than to know Scotland
whether James was difpofed to fell his mother’s blood ; —y—j
adding, that the Scottifh nobility and people were deter¬
mined to revenge it, and to intereft in their quarrel the
other princes of Europe. Upon this Cary delivere 1
to them the letter from Elizabeth, together with a de-
claration of his own concerning the murder of the queen;
and it does not appear that he proceeded farther.
This reception of her ambalfador threw Elizabeth in-
to the utmofl confternation. She was apprehenfive that
James would join his force to that of Spain, and entire¬
ly overwhelm her; and had the refentment or the fpirit
of the king been equal to that of the nation, it is pro¬
bable that the haughty Engliih princefs would have been
made feverthy to repent her perfidy and cruelty. It
doth not, however, appear, that James had any lerions
intention of calling Elizabeth to an account for the
murder of his mother ; for which, perhaps, his natural
imbecility maybe urged as an excufe, though it is more
probable that his own neceffity for money had fwallowed
up every other confideration. By the league formerly
conclhded w ith England, it had been agreed that Eliza¬
beth fflould pay an annual penfion to the king of Scot¬
land. James had neither economy to make his own re¬
venue anfwer his purpofes, nor addrefs to get it increa-
fed. Fie was therefore always in want ; and as Eliza¬
beth had plenty to fpare, her friendflrip became a va¬
luable acquifition. To this confideration, joined to his
view of afeending the Englifh throne, mull chiefly be
aferibed the little refentment fhown by him to the atro¬
cious conduA of Elizabeth.
Elizabeth was not wanting in the arts of diffimula-Secmarf
tion and treachery now more than formerly. She pro-Lindfay
fecuted and fined fecretary Davidfon and lord Bur-aild 1(?rd
leigh for the a&ive part they had taken in Mary’s
death. Their punifhment was indeed much lefs thanpLm
they deferved, but they certainly did not merit fuch treat¬
ment at her hands. Walfingham, though equally guil¬
ty, yet efcaped by pretending indifpofition, or perhaps
efcaped becaufe the queen had now occafion for his fer-
vices. By her command he drew up a long letter ad-
dreffed to lord Thirlfton, king James’s prime minifter ;
in which he fhowed the neceffity of putting Mary to
death, and the folly of attempting to revenge it. He
boafted of the fuperior force of England to that of Scot¬
land ; (hewed James that he would for ever ruin his
pretenfions to the Englilh crown, by involving the twfo
nations in a war; that he ought not to truft to foreign
alliances; that the Roman Catholic party wrere fo di¬
vided among themfelves, that he could receive little or.
no affiftance from them, even fuppofing him fo ill advifed
as to change his own religion for Popery, and that they
would not truft his fincerity. Laftly, he attempted to
(how, that James had already difeharged all the duty
towards his mother and his own reputation that could
be expefted from an affeftionate fon and a wife king ;
that his interceding for her with a concern fo becoming
nature, had endeared him to the kingdom of England;
but that it would be madnefs to pulh his refentment
farther.
This letter had all the effeft that could be defired.,
James gave an audience to the Engliih ambaffador ; and
being affured that his blood was not tainted by the exe¬
cution of his mother for treafon againft Elizabeth, but
that
SCO
[ 99
s c o
836
’"ifhi'ban'
ke reign of t
Hives.
'Seettend.itTiat lie was Util -capable 'of Fncceeffmg to the crown of
«-v— England, 'he confented to malce up matters, and to ad-
•drefs the murderer of his mother by the title off loving
and affe&ionate fifter.
The reign of James, till his acceffion to the crown of
England by Elizabeth’s death in 1603* affords little
matter of moment. His fcandalous concefitons to Eli¬
zabeth, and his conftant applications to her for money,
filled up the meafure of Scottih meannefs. Ever fince
the expulfion of Mary, the country had in faft been re¬
duced to the condition of an Englifh province. The
fovereign had been tried by the queen of England, and
executed for treafon ; a crime, in the very nature -of the
thing impofiible, had not Scotland been in fubje&ion to
England ; and to complete all, the contemptible fuccef-
for of Mary thought himfelf well off that he was not a
traitor too, to his fovereign the queen of England we
muft fnppofe, for the cafe will admit of no other fuppo-
fition.
During the reign of James, the religious difturbances
during f which began at the reformation, and that violent ftnig-
gle of the clergy for power which never ceafed till the
revolution in 1688, went on with great violence. Con-
tinual clamours were raifed againfl Popery, at the
fame time that the very fundamental principles of
Popery were held, ray urged in the moft infolent man¬
ner, as the effe&s of immediate infpiration. Thefe
were the total independence of the clergy on every
earthly power, at the fame time that all earthly powers
were to be fubjeft to them. Their fantaftic decrees
were fuppofed to he binding in heaven-; and they took
care that they fhould be binding on earth, for whoever
had offended fo far as to fall under a fentence of excom¬
munication was declared an outlaw.
It is eafy to fee that this circumflance muft have con¬
tributed to difturb the public tranquillity in a great de¬
gree. But befides ibis, the weaknefs of James’s govern¬
ment was fuch, that, under the name of peace, the
whole kingdom was involved in the miferies of civil war ;
the feudal animofities revived, and flaughter and murder
prevailed all over the country. James, fitted only for
pedantry, difputed, argued, modelled, and re-modelled,
Ution and conft^ut'on to no purpofe. The clergy continued
L ueity. their infolence, and the laity their violences upon one
another ; at the fame time that the king, by his unhap¬
8.17
py credulity in the 'operation of demons and witches, ScoflanC
declared a moft inhuman and bloody war againft the -“-r—
poor old women, many of whom were burnt for the
imaginary -crime of convtrfing with the devil.
In autumn 1600 happened a remarkable eonfpiracy
againft the liberty, if not the life, of the king. The at¬
tainder and execution of the earl of Gowrie for the
part he afted in the raid of Ruthven and for fubfequent
practices of treafon have been already mentioned. His
fon, however, had been reftored to his paternal dignity
and eftates, and had in confequence profefled gratitude
and attachment to the king. But the Prefbyterian
clergy continued to exprefs their approbation of the raid
of Ruthven, and to declare on every occafion that in their
opinion the earl of Gowrie had fuffered by an unjuft
fentence. One of the moft eminent and popular of that
order of men was preceptor to the younger Gowrie and
his brothers, Who, from their frequent eonverfation*
with him, muft have been deeply impreffed with the
belief that their father was murdered. The pafiion of
revenge took poffelTion of their breafts ; and having in¬
vited the king from Falkland to the earl of Gowrie'*
houfe at Perth, under the pretence of fhowing him a
fecret treafure of foreign gold, which he might lawfully
appropriate to his own ufe, an attempt was made to
keep him a clofe prifoner, with threats of putting him
to inftant death if he fhould make any attempt to regain
his liberty.
The reality-of this confplracy has been queftioned by
many writers, for no other reafon, as it would appear,
but becaufe they could not aflxgn a rational motive for
Gowrie’s engaging in fo hazardous an enterprife ; and
fome have even infinuated that the confpiracy was en¬
tered into by tire king againft Gowrie in order to get
pofleffion of his large eftates. It has been fhown how¬
ever by Arnot, in his Criminal Trials, with a force of
evidence which leaves no room for doubt, that the con¬
fpiracy was the earl’s, who feems to have intended that
the king fhould be cut off by the hand of an aflafiin ;
and the fame acute and diferiminating writer has made
it appear highly probable, that he entertained hopes, in
the then diftrafted ftate of the nation not ill founded,
of being ^ble to mount the throne of his murdered fo-
vereign( z). From this imminent danger James was re-
feued by his attendents the duke of Lenox, the earl of
N 2 Marre,
(z) The family of Ruthven had long been looked upon as the head of that party which was attached to
England and the reformation; and the accomplifhments of the latter Gowrie qualified him to be the leader of
an enterprifing faflion. The importance he derived from ariftocratic influence over his extenfxve domains, and
from the attachment of a powerful party in church and ftate, was embelliihed with the luftre of a regal defeent.
Thus ambition, as well as revenge, might ftimulate him to his daring enterprife. Indeed, if his attempt was to
be directed againft the life of the king, it could no longer be fafe for him to remain in the condition of a fub-
je£t : and the indecent and malicious imputation of baftardy, with which the fanatics reproached king James,
might afford a plaufible pretext for fecluding the royal offspring. The family of Hamilton, next heir to the
crown, had long loft its popularity, and the earl of Arran, its head, had loft his judgment; and, though there
nndoubtedfuly were feveral families interpofed between Gowrie and the -crown in the ft-ridt line of fuccellion,
cone of them probably poffeffed power and popularity to fupport their right. But if Gowrie and his brother
were really endowed with thofe perfonal accompli(hments which have been fo highly extolled, and which made
their countrymen conceive the moft fanguine hopes of their early virtues ; it is abfurd to fuppofe lord Gowrie t©
have flattered himfelf, that in a country where the church 'was in danger, where the trumpet of fedition was found¬
ed by the minifters, who fortified the chief block-houfe of the Lord's jferufalem, his piety, popularity, and bravery,,
Ihould fupply the defedt in title, and make him be called, while there were nearer heirs to the crown j as has
■'fince happened in the fame country, on a fimilar occafiom
Scotland.
838
The VVe-
ftern Wan¬
ders civi¬
lized.
839
James fuc-
ceeds to the
crown of
England.
840
General
defcription
of Scot¬
land.
SCO [
Matre, Sir Thomas Erfla'ne afterwards earl of Kellie,
and Sir John Ramley who was likewife ennobled-; and
though Gowrie and his brother fell in the druggie, they
were attainted by an a& of parliament, which decerned
their name, memory, and dignity, to be extinguifhed ;
their arms to be cancelled ; their whole eltates to be
forfeited and annexed to the crown; the name of
Ruthven to be abolifhed ; and their pofterity and fur-
viving brethren to be incapable of fucceeding to, or of
holding, any offices, honours, orpolleffions.
The moll memorable tranfaftion of James’s reign,
and that mod to his honour, is the civilizing of the
wedern idanders. For this purpofe, he indituted a
company of gentlemen adventurers, to whom he gave
large privileges for reforming them. The method he
propofed was to tranfport numbers of them to his low
countries in Scotland, and to give their iflands, which
were very improveable, in fee to his lowland lubjetts
who diould choofe to refide in the iflands. The ex¬
periment was to be made upon the Lewes, a long range
of the Ebudae ; from whence the adventurers expelled
Murdoch Macleod, the tyrant of the inhabitants. Mac-
leod, however, kept the fea; and intercepting a fhip
which carried one of the chief adventurers, he lent him
prifoner to Orkney, after putting the crew to the fw-ord.
Macleod was foon after betrayed by his own brother,
and hanged at St Andrew’s. The hidory of this new
undertaking is rather dark; and the fettlers themfelves
feem to have been defe&ive in the arts of civilization.
The arrangements they made were conlidered by the
inhabitants as very oppreffive ; and one Norman, of the
Macleod family, attacked and fubdued them fo effedlual-
ly, that they not only confented to yield the property
of the iflands to him, but engaged to obtain the king’s
pardon for what he had done.
In 1603 James was called to the throne of England
by the death of Elizabeth, and the fame year took a
final leave of Scotland (a). From this period the hi¬
dory of Scotland, being blended with that of England,
is included in the article Britain ; to which therefore
we refer the reader, and lhall proceed to give a general
account of the country.
The fird and great divifion of Scotland is into the
Highlands and Lowlands. The former engrofs more
than one half of Scotland ; extending from Dumbar-
tonlhire to the mod northern part of the ifland, a fpace
of 200 miles in length, and in breadth from 50 to too.
This trail, however, includes feveral extenfive diftriils
of low, fruitful ground, inhabited by people who are in
all refpeils different from the mountaineers. Nothing
can be more favage and tremendous to the eye of a
dranger, than the appearance of the Highlands, com-
pofed of blue rocks and dulky mountains heaped upon
one another even above the clouds, their interdicts
rendered impaffable by bogs, their fides embrowned
with heath, and their fummits covered with fnow,
which lies all the year unthawed, pouring from their
jagged fides a thoufand torrents and roaring catarails
100 ] SCO
that fall into gloomy vales or glens below, fome of them Scotland,,
fo narrow, deep, and difmal, as to be altogether impe- "" 1
netrable by the rays of the fun ; yet even thefe moun¬
tains are in fome places floped into agreeable green hills
fit for padure, and flcirted or interfperfed with pleafant
draths or valleys capable of cultivation. It may be un-
necedary to obferve, that the Lowlanders of Scotland
fpeak an ancient dialedl of the Englifh language, inter¬
larded with many terms and idioms which they borrow¬
ed immediately from France, in a long courfe of cor-
refpondence with that kingdom : they like-wife copy
their fouthern neighbours in their houfes, equipage,
habit, indudry, and application to commerce. As to
the inhabitants of the mountains, fee the article High,
landers. They are, all, however, comprehended un¬
der the name of Scots, governed by the fame laws, and
tried by the fame judges ; and, whatever may be their
diffenfions at home, they always, when abroad, ac¬
knowledge and affid one another as friends and country¬
men. Some authors have divided Scotland into that
part which lies to the fouthward of the Frith, and that
which lies to the northward; but the true divifion is,
like that of England, into diires, counties, dewart-
ries or bailiwicks, of which there are above 40 within
the kingdom of Scotland.
The lace of this countiy exhibits a very mountain-
ous appearance, efpecially to the wed and northward ; mountain*
but, at the fame time, it difplays many large and long&e.
tra&s of plain ground fit for all the purpofes of agri¬
culture. It is divided from ead to wed by a chain of
huge mountains, known by the name of Grant's bain
or the Grampian hills. There is another chain called
the Pentland bills, which run through Lothian, and
join the mountains of Tweeddale ; a third, called Lam-
mer-muir, riling near the eadern coad, runs wedward
through the Merfe : but belides thefe, there is a vail
number of detached hills and mountains, remarkable
for their dupendous height and lleepnefs. There is
no country in the world better fupplied than Scotland
with rivers, lakes, rivulets, and fountains. Over and
above the principal rivers of Tweed, Forth, Clyde,
Tay, and Spey, there is an infinity of fmaller dreams
that contribute to the beauty, convenience, and ad¬
vantage of the kingdom. Tweed takes its life from
the borders of Annandale ; ferves as a boundary be¬
tween Scotland and England ; and, after a long Ter¬
pentine courfe, difcharges itfelf into the fea at Ber¬
wick. Forth rifes in Monteith near Callendar, paffes
by Stirling, and after a courfe of 25 leagues, runs into
the arm of the fea called the Frith of Forth, which
divides the coad of Lothian from Fife. Clyde takes
its rife from Errick hill, in the dure of Lanerk ; tra-
verfes the ffiire of Clydefdale, to which it gives name ;
wadies the city of Glafgow, widens in its paffage to
the cadle of Dumbarton, and forms the frith of Clyde
adjoining to the Iriffi fea. Tay, the larged river in
Scotland, derives its fource from Loch-Tay in Bread-
albane ; and, after a fouth-ead courie, difcharges itfelf
into
(a) In 1589 James was married to Anne princefs of Denmark, for whom he made a voyage on purpofe t©
that country. This princefs feems to have intermeddled very little with date-affairs, fince we dnd her fcarce ever
mentioned either by Scots or Engliffi hidorians. In her private condud ffie is laid to have been unprincipled,
vindidive, and unfaithful to her hulband.
SCO
Scotland. Into the fea below Dundee. _ Spay,
from a lake of the fame name in Badenoch ; and, run¬
ning a north-eafterly courfe,
[ ioi 1 S C O
or Spey, iffues and make himfelf better acquainted with the fclence of Scotland
foil.
falls into the German
ocean, at Speymouth. Some of the frefh-water lakes
are beautiful pieces of water, incredibly deep, and fur-
priiingly extended. There are feveral large forefts of
hr in Scotland, and a great number of woods ; which,
however, produce very little timber of any confequence :
but the country, in general, is rather bare of trees ; and
in many places neither tree, ihrub, nor any kind of plan¬
tation, is to be feen. The cafe has been otherwife of
old; for huge trunks of trees are often dug from un¬
der ground in almoit every part of the kingdom.
Climate and In the north of Scotland, the day at midfummer is
lengthened out to 18 hours and 5 minutes ; fo that
the° ihorteft night does not exceed 5 hours and 55
minutes : the night and day, in winter, are in the fame
proportion. The air of this kingdom is generally modi
and temperate, except upon the tops of high moun¬
tains covered with eternal fnow, where it is cold, keen,
and piercing. In other parts it is tempered by warm
vapours from the fea, which environs it on three lides,
and runs far up into the land by friths, inlets, and in¬
dentations. This neighbourhood of the fea, and the
frequency of hills and mountains, produce a conftant
undulation in the air, and many hard gales, that pu¬
rify the climate, which is for the mod part agreeable
and healthy. Scotland affords a great variety of foil
in different parts of the country, which, being hilly,
is in general well adapted to pafturage : not but that
the Lowlands are as fertile, and, when properly in-
clofed and manured, yield as good crops of wheat as
any grounds in the ifland of Great Britain. 1 he wa¬
ter in Scotland is remarkably pure, light, and agreeable
to the ftomach : but, over and above that which is ufed
for the ordinary purpofes of life, here are many medi¬
cinal fprings of great note.
Scotland abounds with quarries of free-ftone eafily
worked, which enable the people to build elegant houfes,
both in town and country, at a fmall expence, efpe-
cially as they have plenty of lime-ftone, and labour
very cheap. The call, weft, and northern parts of the
country produce excellent'coal; and where this is want¬
ing, the natives burn turf and peat for fuel. Cryflals,
variegated pebbles, and precious ftones, are found in
many parts of Scotland ; talc, flint, and fea fhells, fuller’s
earth, potter’s clay, and metals in great plenty. The
country produces iron and copper ore, a prodigious
quantity of lead, mixed with a large proportion of filver;
and in fome places little bits of folid gold are gathered,
in brooks immediately after torrents.
The Lowlands of Scotland, as has been obferved
when duly cultivated, yield rich harvefts of wheat; and
indeed it muff be owned that many parts of this king¬
dom rival the beft fpots of England in agriculture:
but thefe improvements have not yet advanced into the
weftern and northern extremities of the ifland, where
we fee nothing but fcanty harvefts of oats, rye, and
barley. The Highlands are fo defe&ive even in thefe,
that it is neceffary to import fupplies of oatmeal from
Ireland and Liverpool. This fcarcity, however, we
muff not impute to the barrennefs of the foil, fo much
as to the floth and poverty of the tenants, oppreffed by
agriculture. This is peneftly well underftood in the
Lothians, where we fee fubflantial inclofures, planta¬
tions, meadows for hay and paffure, wide extended fields
of wheat, the fruits of flcill and induftry, and meet
with farmers who rent lands to the amount of 4001. or
500 1. a year. Of plants this country produces an im-
menfe variety, growing wild, excltifive of thofe that are
raifed by the hands of the hufbandman and gardener.
Their farm-grounds are well flocked with wheat, rye,
barley, oats, hemp, and flax : their gardens produce
great plenty of kitchen-roots, falads, and greens ; among
which lall we reckon the colewort, known by the name
of Scotch kail: their orchards bear a variety of apples,
pears, cherries, plums, ftrawberries, goofeberries, rafp-
berries, and currants: here alfo apricots, ne&arines,
peaches, and fometimes grapes, are brought to matu¬
rity. In a word, there is nothing, whether fhrub, fruit,
or flower, that grows in any part of South Britain,
which may not, with a little pains, be brought to the
fame perfe£lion in the middle of Scotland. Among
the trees and fhrubs which are the national growth of
this country, we may reckon the oak, the fir, the birch,
the poplar, the alder, willow, elder, hazle, mountain-afh,
crab-tree, and juniper; which lafl abounds to fuch a
degree in fome parts of the Highlands, that in the fpace
of a few miles many tons of the berries might be year¬
ly gathered : befides thtfe, we find the hawthorn, the
floe, the dog-role, furze, broom, fern, and whole trafts
of land and mountains covered with ilrong heath. This
affords flicker for the myrtillis, the fruit of which, call¬
ed bilberries, is here found in great abundance, as well
as the brambleberry, cranberry, and wild ftrawberry.
The afli, the elm, the fycamore, lime and walnut-tree,
are chiefly planted about the houfes of gentlemen ; but
even the inclofures of quickfet appear naked for want of
fuch hedge-rows as adorn the country of England.
Indeed, great part of this kingdom lies naked and ex-
pofed like a common ; and other parts have no other
inclofure than a paltry wall huddled up of loofe flones,
which yields a bleak and mean profpeft, and ferves no
other purpofe than that of keeping out the cattle. All
the fea-coafl is covered with alga marina, dulfe, and
other marine plants.
The Highlands are well flocked with red deer, and
the fmaller fpecies called the roe-buck,' as well as with
hares, rabbits, foxes, wild cats, and badgers ; and they
abound with all forts of game. The rivers and lakes
pour forth a profufion of falmon, trout, jack, and eels ;
the fea-coaft >fwarms with all the productions of the
ocean. The hills and mountains are covered with fheep
and black cattle for exportation, as well as domeflic ufe.
Thefe are of fmall fize, as are alfo the borfes bred ia
the Highlands ; but the Lowlanders ufe the large breed3
which came originally from England.
New Scotland. See Nova Scotia.
SCOTOMIA, in medicine, a vertigo accompanied
with dimnefs of fight, frequently the forerunner of aa
apoplexy.
SCOTT (John), an eminent Englifh divine, was
born in 1638, and became minifler of St Thomas’s ia
Southwark. In 1684 he was collated to a prebend in
the cathedral of St Paul’s. Dr Hickes tells us, that.
Scott.
rapacious landlords, who refufe to grant fuch leafes as
would encourage the hufbandman to improve his farm
after the revolution, “ he firfl refufed the bifhopric of
Chefter, becaufe he would not take the oath of ho-
mage:
< cetus,
^cougaj
SCO r ff©2 1 SCO
and afterwards another bifhopnc, the deanery «d Vis authority among the ftudents m ifuch a war as
Wvorche^er’. and a pr'-bend of the church of Wind- to keep them in awe, and at the fame time to crain tLh —
for, becaufe they were a 1 places of deprived men/’ love and efteem. Sunday evenings were fpent with his
He pubhfhed fieveral excellent works, particularly The fcholars in difcourfmg againft vice and impiety of all
Chriiliaii Life, &c; and died in 1695. He was emr- kinds, and encouraging religion in prindphTand nrac
nent for^his humanity, _ affability, fincenty, and readi- tree. He allotted a confiderable part of his yearly in
jiefs to do good ; and liis talent for preaching was ex¬
traordinary.
SCOT. US (Duns). See Duns.
Scotus (John). See Erigena.
SCOUGAL (Henry), fecond fon of Patrick Scougal
hifliop of Aberdeen, was born, June 1650, at Salton
in Eaft Lothian, where his father, the immediate pre-
deceffor of Bifliop Burnet, was rector. His father,
defigning him for the facred miniftry, watched over his
infant mind with peculiar care ; nor was his care be-
jftwwed in vain. He had foon the fatisfa&ion of per¬
ceiving the moft amiable difpofitions unfold themfelves,
und his underftanding rife at once into the vigour of
tnanhood. Relinquifhing the amufements of youth,
young Scougal applied to his fludies with ardour ; and,
agreeable to his father’s wifh, at an early period he di-
refted his_ thoughts to facred literature. He pernfed
the hiftorical parts of the bible with peculiar pleafure,
and then began to examine its contents with the eye
of a philofopher. He was flruck with the pecularities
cti the Jewifh difpenfation, and felt an anxiety to under-
fland the reafon why its rites and ceremonies were
abolifhed. _ The nature and evidences of the Chriftian
leligion alio occupied his mind. He perufed fermons
with pleafure, committed to writing thofe padages which
moil affected him, and could comprehend and remember
their whole fcope. Nor was he inattentive to polite
literature. He read the Roman claffics, and made con¬
fiderable proficiency in the Greek, in the Hebrew, and
other oriental languages. He was alfo well verfed in
hiftory and mathematics. _ His diverfions were of a
manly kind. After becoming acquainted with the Ro-
man hiftory, in concert with fome of his companions
he formed a little fenate where orations of their own
compofition were delivered.
At the age of fifteen he entered the umverfity, where
he behaved with great modefty, fobriety, and dili¬
gence. He diftiked the philofophy then taught, and
applied hmidf to the ftudy of natural philofophy;
that philofophy which has now happily got fuch foot¬
ing m the world, and tends to enlarge the faculties. In
confequence of this, we may here obferve, that when
he was yet about eighteen years of age, he wrote the
reflections and fhort effays fince publilbed ; which tho’
written in his youth, and fome of them left unfinifhed,
breathe forth fo much devotion, and fuch an exalted foul,
as muft convince us his converfation was in heaven.
In all the pub ic meetings of the ftudents he was
unammoufly chofen preiident, and had a fingular de¬
ference paid to his judgment. No fooner had he finifh-
ed his courfes, but he was promoted to a profefforfhip
jn the umveriity of Aberdeen, where he confeientiouf-
ly performed his duty m training up the youth under
his care m fuch principles of learning and virtue as
might render them ornaments to church and ftate.
When any divifions and animofities happened in the
fociety, he was very mftrumental in reconciling and
hanging them to a good underftanding. He maintain-
c]°™€ ‘Qr the poor ; and many indigent families, of
difteient perfuafions, were relieved in their ftraits by his
bounty though fo fecretly that they knew not whence
•their fupply came.
Having been a profeffor of philofophy for four years,
he was at the age of twenty-three ordained a minifter,
and fettled at Auchterlefs, a fmall village about twenty
miles from Aberdeen. Here his zeaf and ability for
his great Mailer’s fervice were eminently difplayed.
He catechifed with great plainnefs and affe&ion, and
ufed the moft endearing methods to recommend religion
to his hearers. He endeavoured to bring them to a
clofe -attendance on public worftiip, and joined with
them himfelf at the beginning of it. He revived the
ufe of lectures, looking on it as very edifying to com¬
ment upon and expound large portions of feripture.
And though he endured feveral outward inconvenieu-
cie-s^yet he bore them with patience and meeknefs. But
as God had defigned him for an eminent ftation, where
he could be of more univerfal ufe in his church, he was
removed from his private charge to that of training up
youth for the holy miniftry and the care of fouls. In
the twenty-fifth year of his age he was admitted pro¬
feffor of divinity in the king’s college, Aberdeen; and
though he was unanimoufly chofen, yet he declined a
ftation of fuch importance, from a modeft fenfe of his
unfit nets for it: And as he had been an ornament to
his other ftations of life, fo in a particular manner he
applied himfelf to the exercife of this office. After he
had guarded. his ftudente againft the common artifices
of the Romifh miffionaries in making profelytes, he
propofed two fubje&s for public excrcifes ; the'one, of
thepaftoral care ; theocher, of cafuiftical divinity : but
there were no debates he was more cautious to meddle
with than the decrees of God ; fenfible that fecret
things belong to God; and to us things revealed,
u j-? *?wa(d difpofitions of this excellent man are
heft feen in his writings ; and the whole of his outward
behaviour and converfation was the conftant pra&ice
of what he preached ; as we are affured by the con¬
curring teftimony of feveral refpe&abk perfons who
knew him. How unfuitable then would panegyric
be, where the fubjedl was full of humility ? and there¬
fore let it fuffice to fay, that after he began to appear
publicly, you fee him as a profeffor, earneft at once
to improve his fcholars in human and facred learning ;
as a paftor, he ceafed not to preach the word, to ex¬
hort, to reprove, and to rebuke with all authority :
and as a profeffor of divinity, he beftowed the utmoft:
pains to convince the candidates for the miniftry of
the weight and importance of that high office; that
it was not to be followed for lucre, but purely to
promote the worftiip of God and the falvation of men.
Again, if we confider his private life, how meek, how
charitable, and how felf-denied ! how difinterefted in all
things, how refigned to the divine will ! and above all,
how refined hie fentiments with regard to the love
of God ! How amiable muft he then appear! How
worthy
r
Screw,
S C R | 103 1 S
gcongal wortfry of imitation, and of the univerfal regfet at his ogram, as defcribed before
death ! In this light we fee clearly that the memory
of the juft is bleffed.
At length his health begun to be impaired by in-
ceftant ftudy, and about the twenty-feventh year of his
age he fell into a confumption, which wafted him by flow
degrees. But during the whole time of his iicknefs he
behaved with the utmoft refignation, nor did he ever
fhow the lead impatience.
When his friends came to vifit him, he would fay,
“ he had reafon to blefs God it was no -worfe with
him than it was. And (fays he) when you have the
charity to remember me in your prayers, do not think
me a better man than I am ; but look on me, as indeed
I am, a miferable finner.” 'Upon the twentieth day of
June 1678 he died, in the greateft calmnefs, in the
twenty-eighth year of his age, and was buried in the
King’s College-Church in Old Aberdeen. The prin¬
cipal Work of Scougal is a fmall treatife intitled, The
Life of God in the Soul of Man. This book is not only
valuable for the fublime fpirit of piety which it breathes,
but for the purity and elegance of its flyle ; qualities
for which few Englifh writers were diftinguifhed before
the Revolution.
SCOUTS, in a military fenfe, are generally horfe-
men fent out before, and on the wings of an army, at
the diftance of a mile or two, to difcover the enemy,
and give the general an account of what they fee.
SCRATCH-pans, in the Englifh falt-works, a name
given to certain leaden pans, which are ufually made
about a foot and an half long, a foot broad, and three
inches deep, with a bow or circular handle of iron, by
which they may be drawn out with a hook when the
liquor in the pan is boiling. Their ufe is to receive a
felenitfc matter, known by the name of [oft [cratch.,
which falls during the evaporation of the fait-water.
See the article Sea-Salt.
SCRATCHES, in farriery. See there, $ xxxvii. ^
SCREED, with plafterers, is the floated work be¬
hind a cornice, and is only neceffary when a cornice is
to be executed without bracketing.
SCREW, one of the fix mechanical powers. A
fcrew is a cylinder cut into feveral concave furfaces, or
rather a channel or groove made in a cylinder, by car¬
rying on two fpiral planes the whole length of the fcrew,
in fuch a manner that they may be always equally in¬
clined to the axis of the cylinder in their whole pro-
grefs, and alfo inclined to the bale of it' in the fame
angle. See Mechanics, n’ 30
N° I. eT0 crmjiruS a common, or one-threaded Screw.
— Make a parallelogram of paper equal in length to
the cylinder which is to be fcrewed, and equal in
breadth to the eircumferenee of that cylinder. Divide
the fide of the parallelogram, which is equal to the cir¬
cumference of the cylinder, into two equal parts. Di¬
vide the other fide of the parallelogram, which is equal
in length to the cylinder, into as many parts as the
thicknefs or breadth of the intended thread will run
ever. Then join the fecond point on the circumference
fide to the fecond point on the length-fide of the pa¬
rallelogram, and fo join all the fucceeding points as you
fee in the figure.
N1 2. ‘To make a four-threaded Screw, or that which
u commonly ufed for the letter-prefs .-—Make a parallel-
Scrtw,
Scribe.
C R
divide that fide which is
equal to the circumference of the cylinder into eight
equal parts, or twice the number of threads. Divide
the other fide into as many parts as the diftance be¬
tween two threads will run over, then join the points
as in n° 1. (fig. I). Plate
Corollary. To make a left-handed [crew.—Make ccccxly-UI*.
the parallels to the right inftead of the left, as exprefled
by the figures, n° 3.
This is the true and only pra&icable way of making
all kinds of fcrews that are cut on a cylinder.
Archimedes's ScRf ir. See Hydrostatics, n04O.
Endlef or Perpetual Screw, one fo fitted in a com¬
pound machine as to turn a dented wheel ; fo called,
becaufe it may be turned for ever without coming to
an end.
If in the endlefs or perpetual fcrew, AB (n°4.),
whofe threads take the teeth of the wheel CD, you
take the diftance of two threads, according to the length
of the axis AB ; or the diftance of two teeth in the
wheel CD, in the diredtion of the circumference ; and
if a weight W aft at the circumference of the wheel :
then, if the power D be to the weight W, as that di¬
ftance of the teeth or threads, to the length defcribed
by the power P in one revolution, the power and weight
will be in equilibrio ; becaufe in one revolution of Pi
the wheel DC, with the weight W, has moved only
the diftance of one tooth.
SCRIBE, in Hebrew 'W [opher, is very common in
fcripture, and has feveral fignifications. It fignifies,
A clerk, writer, or fecretary. This was a very
confiderable employment in the court of the kings of
Judah, in which the fcripture often mentions the fe-
cretaries as the firft officers of the crown. Seraiah was
fcribe or fecretary to king David (2 Sam. viii. 17)*
Shevah and Shemaiah exercifed the fame office under
the fame prince (2 Sam. xx. 25). In Solomon’s time
we find Elihoreph and Ahiah fecretaries to that prince
( 1 Kings iv. 4). Shebna under Hezekiah ( 2 Kings
xix. 2). And Shaphan under Jofiah (2 Kings xxii. 8).
As there were but few in thofe times that could write
well, the employment ef a fcribe or writer was very
confiderable.
2. A fcribe is put for a commiflary or mufter-mafter
of an army, who makes the review of the troops, keeps
the lift or roll, and calls them over. Under the reign
of Uzziah king of Judah, there is found Jell the fcribe
who had under his hand the king’s armies (2 Chr.
xxvi. 11). And at the time of the captivity, it is faid
the captain of the guard, among other confiderable per-
fons, took the principal fcribe of the holR or fecretary
at war, which muftered the people of the land ( 2 Kings
xxv. 19).
3. Scribe is put for an able and Ikilful man, a doftor
of the law, a man of learning that underftands affairs.
Jonathan, David’s uncle by the father’s fide, was a'
counfellor, a wife man, and a fcribe (1 Chr. xxvii. 32).
Baruch, the difciple and fecretary to Jeremiah, is call¬
ed * fcnhe (Jer. xxxvi. 26)1 And Ezra is celebrated
as a Ikilful fcribe in the law of his God (Ezra vii. 6).
The fcribes of the people, who are frequently men¬
tioned in the Gofpel, were public writers and profef-
fed doftors of the law, which they read and explained
to the people. Some place the original of fcribes um
4 der
SCR [ 104 T SCR
Sente (Jet- Mofes: but their name does not appear till under
Scrimzco- ju<%es- ^ t^iat t^e wars ^ara^ a,?ain^
■ , y-. Sifera, “ out of Machir came down governors, and out
of Zebulun they that handle the pen of the writer/’
(Jl% es v. 14). Others think that David firft inftitu-
ted them, when he ellablifned the feveral claffes of the
priefts and Levites. The feribes were of the tribe of
Levi ; and at the time that David is faid to have made
the regulations in that tribe, we read that 6000 men
of them were conftituted officers and judges (1 Chr.
otxiii. 4.) ; among whom it is reafonable to think the
feribes were included. For in 2 Chr. xxiv. 6. we read
of Shemaiah the feribe, one of the Levites ; and in
2 Chr. xxxiv. 13. we find it written, “ Of the Levites
that were feribes and officers.”
The feribes and doftors of the law, in the feripture
phrafe, mean the fame thing ; and he that in Mat. xxii.
3 is called a Jotlor of the law, or a lawyer, in Mark
xii. 28. is named a feribe, or one of the feribes. And as
the whole religion of the Jews at that time chiefly
-confifted in pharifaical traditions, and in the ufe that
was made of them to explain the feripture ; the great-
eft number of the doctors of the law, or of the feribes,
were pharifees ; and we almcft always find them joined
together in feripture. Each of them valued themfelves
upon their knowledge of the law, upon their ftudying
and teaching it (Mat. xxii. 52.) : they had the key of
knowledge, and fat in Mofes’s chair (Mat. xxiii. 2).
Epiphanius, and the author of the Recognitions impu¬
ted to St Clement, reckon the feribes among the fedts
of the Jews ; but it is certain they made no fedt by
themfelves; they were only diftinguifhed by their ftudy
of the law.
SCRIBONIUS (Largus), an ancient phyfician in
the reign of Auguftus or Tiberius, was the author of
feveral works ; the beft edition of which is that of John
Rhodius.
SCRIMZEOR or Scrimgeour (Henry), an emi¬
nent reftorer of learning, was born at Dundee in the
year 1506. He traced his defeent from the ancient fa¬
mily of the Scrimzeours of Didupe, who obtained the
•ffice of hereditary ftandard-bearers to the kings of
Scotland in 1057.
At the grammar-fchool of Dundee our author ac- Scriwzeor,
quired the Greek and Latin languages to an uncommon
degree of perfeftion, and that in a ffiortcr fpace of time
than many fcholars before him. At the univerfity of
St Andrew’s his fuccefsful application to philofophy
gained him great applaufe. The next feene of his ftu-
dies was the univerfity of Paris, and their more parti¬
cular objedl the civil law. T wo of the moft famous ci¬
vilians of that age, Eguinard Baron and Francis Dua-
ren (a), were then giving their ledlures to crowded cir¬
cles at Bourges, The fame of thefe profeffors oc-
cafioned his removal from Paris ; and for a confider-
able time he profecuted his ftudies under their direc- .
tion. ••
At Bourges he had an opportunity of becoming ac¬
quainted with the celebrated James Amiot, Greek pro-
feflbr in that city, well known in the learned world by
his tranflation of Plutarch’s Lives, and diftingu’ffied af¬
terwards by his advancement to great honours in the
church, and finally to the rank of cardinal.
Through the recommendation of this eminent per-
fon, Mr Scrimzeor engaged in the education of two
young gentlemen of the name of Bucherel, whom he in-
ftrufted in the belles lettres, and other branches of li¬
terature, calculated to accompliffi them for their ftation
in life.
This conneftion introduced him to Bernard Borne-
tel biihop of Rennes, a perfon famed in the political
world for having ferred the ftate in many honourable
embaffies. Accepting an invitation from this prelate
to accompany him to Italy, Mr Scrimzeor greatly en¬
larged the fphere of his literary acquaintance, by his
converfation and connexion with moft of the diftin-
guilhed fcholars of that country. The death of Fran¬
cis Spira (b) happened during his vifit at Padua ; and
as the charaffter and conduit of this remarkable perfon
at that time engaged the attention of the world, Mr
Scrimzeor is faid to have colleited memoirs of him in a
publication entitled, “ The Life of Francis Spira, by-
Henry of Scotland.” This performance, however, does
not appear in the catalogue of his works.
After he had ftored his mind with the literature of
foreign countries, and fatisfied his curiolity as a travel¬
ler.
(a) “ Francis Duaren was the firft of the French civilians who purged the chair in the civil law fchools from
the barbarifms of the Glofiaries, in order to introduce the pure feurces of the ancient jurifprudence. As he did
not defire to fliare that glory with any one, he looked with an envious eye on the reputation of his colleague
Eguinard Baron, who alfo mixed good literature with the knowledge of the law. This jealoufy put him upon
compofing a work, wherein he endeavoured to leffen the efteem that people had for his colleague. The maxim,
* Pajcitur in vvis liver ; pofl fata quiefeitwas verified remarkably in him ; for after the death of Baron, he
fhowed himfelf moft zealous to eternize his memory-, and was at the expence of a monument to the honour of the
deceafed.” From the Tranflation of Bayle’s Dift. of 1710, p. 1143-4.
(b) brands Spira was a lawyer of great reputation at Cittadella in the Venetian ftate, at the beginning of
the 16th century-. He had imbibed the principles of the Reformation, and was accufed before John de la Cafa,
archbifirop of Benevento, the pope’s nuncio at Venice. Fie made fome conceffions, and afleed pardon of the
papal minifter for his errors. But the nuncio infilled upon a public recantation. Spira was exceedingly averfe
*o this meafure ; but at the preffing inllances of his wife and his friends, who reprefented to him that he muft
iole his practice and ruin his affairs by perfifting againft it, he at laft complied. Shortly after he fell into a deep
melancholy, loft his health, and was removed to Padua for the advice of phyficians and divines ; but his diforders
augmented. 1 he recantation, which he faid he had made from cowardice and intereft, filled his mind with con¬
tinual horror and remorfe ; infomuch that he fometimes imagined that he felt the torments of the damned. No
means being found to reftore either his health or his peace of mind, ni 1548 he fella vidlim to his miferable fitu-
atron. See Collyer’s Did Spira.
S-C R U 105 1 SCR
isrtimzeor ler, it V^as his intention to ha^e reviAted Scotland He
— v— tniirht without vanity have entertained hopes, that the
various knowledge which he had treafured would have
won him a partial reception among his countrymen.
An ambition of being rife fully diftinguilhed among
them as a man of letters is juftly fuppofed the princi¬
pal motive of his defire to return: but the moft fan-
guine projefts of life are often ftrangely diverted by ac¬
cident, or rather perhaps are invifibly turned by Provi¬
dence, from their purpofed courfe. • Mr Scrimzeor, on
his journey homewards, was to pafs through Geneva.
His fame had long forerun his footfteps. The fyndics
and other magiftrates, upon his arrival, requdted him
to fet up the profeflion of philoiophy in that city ; pro-
tnifing a compenfation fuitable to the exertion of his
talents. He accepted the propofal, and eftablifhed the
philofophical chair.
After he had taught for fome time at Geneva, a fire
broke out in his neighbourhood, by which his houfe
was confumed, and he himfelf reduced to great diftrefs.
His late pupils, the Bucherels, had not forgotten their
obligations to him, and fent a confiderable fum of mo¬
ney to bis relief.
At this time flourUhed at Augfburg that famous
mercantile family (c), the Fuggers. Ulric Fugger
was then its reprefentative ; a man pofleffed of prodigi¬
ous wealth, paflionately fond of literature, a great col-
leftor of books and manufcripts, and a munificent pa¬
tron of learned men. Being informed by means of his
literary correfpondence of the misfortune which had
befallen Mr Scrimzeor in the burning of his houfe, he
immediately fent him a prefiing invitation to accept an
afylum beneath his roof till his affairs could be re-efta-
bliftied. Mr Scrimzeor, gladly availing himfelf of fuch
a hofpitable kindnefs, loft no time in going to Ger¬
many.
Whilft refiding at Augfburg with Mr Fugger, he
was much employed in augmenting his patron’s library
by vaft colle<ftions, purchafed from every corner of Eu¬
rope. Manufcripts of the Greek and Latin authors
were then of ineftimable value, and feem to have been
more particularly the object of Mr Scrimzeor’s re-
fearches.
He did not lead a life of yawning indolence amidft
thefe treafures, and, like a mere unfeeling collector,
leave them unenjoyed. As librarian, he was not con¬
tented to aft the part of a black eunuch to his literary
feragho. He feems to have forgotten that he was not
its Grand Sultan, and accordingly ranged at will among
ftirrounding beauties. He compofed many works of
great learning and ingenuity, whilft he continued in a
fituation fo peculiarly agreeable to the views and habits
of a fcholar.
When his manuferipts were ready for the prefs, he
was defirous of returning to Geneva to print them. His
patron, Fugger, recommended him for this purpofe to
the very learned Henry Stephens, one of his penfioners,
and at that time one of the moil celebrated printers in
Europe.
Vol. XVII. Part I.
Immediately on his arrival at Geneva, He was Scrimzeor.
earneftly folicited by the magiftrates to refume the " ' '
chair of philofophy. Notwithftanding his compliance,
and in confequence of it the dedication of much f his
time to the ftudy of phyfics, he, two years afterwards,
inftituted a courfe of leftures in the civil law, and had
the honour of being its firft founder and profeffor at
Geneva.
As foon as he was fettled again in this city,
he hoped, amid ft his other occupations, to profecute
the great objeft of his literary fame, the printing of
his various works. But a fufpicion which Henry Ste¬
phens entertained, that it was his intention to fet up a
rival prefs at Geneva, occafioned great diffenfions be¬
tween them. The refult of the quarrel was, that the
republic of letters, during Mr Scrimzeor’s life, was de¬
prived of his valuable produftions. They fell rnoft of
them at his death into the hands of Ifaac Cafaubon, who
has been accufed of publilhing confiderable portions of
them as his own.
Some account of Mr Scrimzeor’s feveral perfor¬
mances will give an idea of his extenfive erudition.
He wrote critical and explanatory notes upon Athe-
naeus’s (d) Deipn.fophifis, or Fable-converfations of Phi-
lofophers and Learned Men of Antiquity ; having firft
collated feveral manufcripts of his author. This work
Cafaubon publifhed at Leyden in 1600; but without
diftinguifhing his own notes from thofe of Scrimzeor.
A Commentary and Emendations of the Geography
of Strabo were among our author’s literary remains.
Thefe were publifhed in Cafaubon’s Parifian edition of
Strabo, 1620. Henry Stephens, from an idea of ju-
ftice due to Scrimzeor’s literary fame, notwithftanding
the violent animofity which had fubfifted betwixt them,
reproaches Cafaubon for adopting our Scottifh critic’s
lucubrations on Strabo without acknowledgment.—
Dempfter affures us, that Scrimzeor, in his manufeript
letters, mentions his defign of publilhing this perform¬
ance ; whence, it is probable, that his work appeared
to himfelf of confiderable confequence, and had taken
up much of his attention. Although Cafaubon, in his
ample notes exhibited at the foot of Strabo’s text,
makes no confefiion of having derived any thing from
Scrimzeor, it mull not be concealed, that in an epiftle
to Sir Peter Young, our critic’s nephew, through whom
the Commentary and Emendations of Strabo came into
his hands, Cafaubon acknowledges how very ufeful to
him they might be made ; for fpeaking there of his in¬
tended edition of Strabo, he fays, “ It cannot be ex-
preffed how much affiftance I may obtain from your
notes of Scrimzeor.”
Edward Herriion, a Scottifh author, in his Commen¬
tary on Plutarch’s Book concerning the Inconfiftencies
of the Stoics, informs us, that Scrimzeor collated dif¬
ferent manuferipts of all the works of Plutarch. This
undertaking appears fufficient to have occupied half the
life of an ordinary critic. Every one knows how vo¬
luminous an author was the philofopher, the hiftori-
an, and orator of Cheeronea. Whether our learned
G critic
(c) They were ennobled by the emperor in 1510, under the title of Barons of Kbkberg and Weiffenborn.
(D) Athenseus was a grammarian of Naucrates in Egypt, and lived in the fecond century. His Deipnofo-
phiftse is a very curious and learned work, in 15 books. It is full of rnterefting anecdotes and deferiptions of
ancient manners, and has preferved many relics of Grecian poetry not to be found elfewhere.
SCR r I°6 ] SCR
Serlmzeor. critic rnfant to pub’lh an edition of Plutarch s
c—v  ^vor^g ;s not known ; but fuch an ntention fliould feem
highly probable from this laborious erterprife of colla¬
ting them. #
The i o books of Diogenes Laertius on the Lives*
Opinions, and Apophthegms of the Philofophers, were
collated from various manufcripts by bcrimzeor. His
corredfed text of this author, with notes full of erudi¬
tion, came alfo into Cafaubon's pofieflion, and is fup-
pofed to have contributed much to the value of hri edi¬
tion of the Grecian Biographer, printed at Paris in
J593.
The works of Phornutus and Palaephatus were alfo
among the collations of IVir Scnmzeor. TL o the latter
of thefe authors he made fuch confiderable additions,
that the work became partly his own. Thefe were
two ancient authors who explain the fables of the nea-
then deities. The former wrote De Nalura Deorum,
feu de Fubularum Pnetkarum Allegoriis Specu/atk, “ On
the Nature of the Gods, or the Allegorical Fi&ions of
the Poets.” The latter entitled his book a^-is-ct, Sive
de falfxs Narrationibus, “ Things incredible, or concern¬
ing falfe Relations.” Thefe works were printed at Ba-
f.l, 1570; whether in Greek or Latin is uncertain.
They have been publiflied frnce in both languages.
The manufcripts of them were for fome time pre-
ferved in the library of Sir Peter Young, after that of
his uncle Scrimzeor, which was brought into Scotland
in 1573, had been added to it. What became of this
valuable bequeft at the death of the former, is uncer-
tain.
Our learned philologer left alfo behind him in mann-
fcript the orations of Demofthenes, iEfchines, and Ci¬
cero, and the Ecclefiaftical Hitlory of Eufebius, all care¬
fully collated.
Among his literary remains was a colle&ion of his
Latin epiftles. The men of letters in the 15th and
16th centuries feem to have kept their republic, as it is
called, more united and compadb than it is at prefent,
by an epiftolary intercourfe in the Latin language, then
the univerfal medium of literature and fcience. This
general fpirit of communication could not but con¬
tribute greatly to the advancement of learning, as
well as to the pleafure, and, we may add, to the impor¬
tance, of thofe who were engaged in its purfuit. The
intercourfe and union of enlightened men, able and dif-
pofed to promote the happinefs of their fellow-creatures,
cannot be too clofe. From fuch intelle&ual combina¬
tion alone it is, that uniformity of religious, moral, and
political principles, to its greateft attainable degree,
can ever be expected ; or, in other words, the greateft
poffible benefit derived from the cultivation of letters.
Of the many performances which had exercifed his
pen, it does not appear that any were immediately
publifhed by himfelf but his' Tranflation of Juftini-
an’s Novels into Greek. This was printed at Pa¬
ris in 1558, and again with Holoander’s Latin verfion
at Antwerp in 1575. This work has been highly ex¬
tolled, both for the purity of its language and the ac¬
curacy of its execution, and is likely, according to fome
refpeftable opinions, to hold its eftimation as long as
any ufe or memory of the civil law fhall exift.
A Latin tranflation of the Bajilica, or Bafilics, as
they are called by our civilians, is the lail we have to
5
mention of this author’s performances.- This is a col- Scrlmztof,
leftion of Roman Laws, which the eallern emperors ',cr*pture,
Bafil and Leo, who reigned in the fifth century-, com-
manded to be tranflated into Greek, and which pre-
ferved their authority till the diflfolution of the ealtern
empire. The Bafilics comprehend the infiitutes, di-
gelts, code, and novels, and iome of the edifts of Julti-
nian and other emperors. Of 60 original books, 41
only remain. Mr Scrimzeor collated them with vari¬
ous manufcripts, probably before he commenced his
tranflation.
From the foregoing recital of the learned labours of
this profound feholar and critic, it will be concluded,
that almoft the whole of his life, although long, was
fpent in hk library, and that the biographer, having
now terminated the catalogue of his writings, is proba¬
bly not diftant from the conclufion of his life. Diffe¬
rent years have been affigned for the time of his death;
but it appears moft likely, from a comparifon of the
different accounts of this event, that it happened very
near the expiration of 1571, or at the beginning of the
fucceeding year, about the 66th year of his age. He
died in the city of Geneva.
The characteriftic features of Scrimzeor are few, but
they are prominent and ftriking, and remote pofterity
may regard him with no inferior degree of refpedt. His
induftry and perfeverance in the purfuit of knowledge
and erudition were equalled only by the exquifite judge¬
ment which he drfplayed in his critical annotations and
commentaries on the errors and obfeurities of ancient
books and manufcripts.
His acquifitions in the Greek, Latin, and oriental
languages, were reckoned much beyond thofe oi moll
of the profeffed linguifts of his time. The great Cu-
jacius ufed to fay, “ That he never quitted Mr Scrim-
zeor’s converfation without having learned fomething
new.” But that which lent peculiar grace to fuch fu-
periority, was the amiable modefty which upon all oe-
cafions was obferved to accompany it. From the com¬
mendation given him by the illuftrious civilian juft men¬
tioned, it will be concluded, that he did not brood, with
a jealous referve, over unlocked treafures of erudition ;
but that, confcious of poffeffing ftores too ample to be
foon exhaufted, at the fame time that he avoided an
oftentatious profufion of them, he obliged and delight¬
ed his friends by a liberal communication. From the
period at which he lived, confidered with the nature
and extent of his ftudies, and his abilities in profecuting
them, he may defervedly be ranked among thofe emi¬
nent characters who have moft fuccefsfully contributed
their exertions to the revival of letters in Europe. t
SCRIPTURE is a word derived from the Latin Scripture
feripturay and in its original fenfe is of the fame import d*6
with 'writing, fignifying “ any thing written.” It
however, commonly ufed to denote the writings of the menCl.
Old and New Teftaments ; which are called fornetimes
the Scriptures, fometimes the /acred or holy Scriptures,
and fometimes canonical Scripture. Thefe books are
called the Scriptures by way of eminence, as they are
the moft important of all writings; they are faid to be
holy or /acred on account of the facred doftrines which
they teach; and they are termed canonical, becaufe when
their number and authenticity w-ere afeertained, their
names were infer ted in eccleiiaftical canons, to diftin-
Scripture,
t
The au¬
thenticity
of the Old
Feftatnenc
pri ved
3
From the
;hara(5Ver
e£ the Jews
SCR [ i
guiili them* from other books ; which, being of no au¬
thority, were kept as it were out of fight, and there¬
fore iiyled atocrypha/ (a).
The authenticity of the Old Teftament may be pro¬
ved from the character of the Jews, from internal evi¬
dence, and from teftimoYiy.
i. The chara&er of the Jews affords a thong pre-
fumptive evidence that they have not forged or corrupt¬
ed the Old Teftament. Were aperfon brought before
a court of juftice on a fufpicion of forgery, and yet no
prefumption or pofitive evidence of his guilt could be
produced, it would be allowed by all that he ought to
be acquitted. But farther, if the forgery alleged were
inconfiftent with the charafter the accufed ; if it
tended to expofe to difgrace and reproach his gene¬
ral principles and conduft ; or if we were aftured that
he confidered forgery as an impious and abominable
crime—it would require very ftrong teftimony to cfta-
biiftr his guilt. The cafe now mentioned correfponds
exactly with the chara&er and fituation of the Jews.
If a Jew had forged any book of the Old Teftament,
he muft have been impelled to fo bold and dangerous
an enterprife by fome very powerful motive. It could
not be national pride, for there is fcarcely one of thefe
books which does not feverely cenfure the national man¬
ners. It could not be the love of fame ; lor that paf-
fron would have taught him to flatter and extol the na¬
tional chara&er; and the punifhment, if detedfted, would
have been infamy and death. The love of wealth could
not produce fuch a forgery ; for no v\ ealth was to be
gained.
The Jews were felefted from the other nations of
the world, and preferved a diftinft people from the
time of their emigration from Egypt to the Babylonifh
captivity, a period of 892 years. The principal pur-
pofes for which they were felefted was to preferve in a
world running headlong into idolatry the knowledge and
worfhip of the one true God, and to be the guardians
©f thofe facred books that contained the prophecies
■which were to prove to future ag-es the divine miffion of
the Redeemer of mankind. To fit them lor thefe im¬
portant trufts, the fpirit of their laws and the rites of
their religion had the ftrongeft tendency. Miracles
■were openly performed, to convince them that the God
©f Ifrael was the God of all the earth, and that he alone
was to be worlhipped. Public calamities always befei
them when they became apoftates to their God ; yet
they continued violently attached to idolatry till their
captivity in Babylon made them for ever renounce it.
The Jews then had two oppofite characters at diffe¬
rent periods of their hiftory: At firft they were addict¬
ed to idolatry ; afterwards they acquired a ftrong anti¬
pathy againft it.
Had any books of tbe Old Teftament been forged
before the Babylonifti captivity, when the Jews were
devoted to idolatry, is it to be conceived that the im-
poftor would have inveighed fo ftrongly againft this
vice, and fo often imputed to it the calamities of the
ftate ; fince by fuch conduCt he knew that he would
render himfelf obnoxious to the people and to thofe ido¬
latrous monarchs who periecuted the prophets ?
07 ] SCR
But it may next be fuppofed, that“ the facred books Scripture,
were forged after the Babylonilk, captivity, when the r'-
principles of the Jews would lead them to inveigh
againft. the vvorftiip ol idols. But thefe principles would
finely never lead them to expofe the charaCler of their
anceftors, and to detail their follies and their crimes.
Never had any people more national pride, or a higher
veneration for their anceftors, than the Jews. Miracle?
and prophecies ceafed foon after their return to Jeru-
falem ; and from that period their refpeCt for the lacred
books approached to fuperftition. They preferved them
with pious care, they read them often in their lyna-
gogues, and they confidered every attempt, to alter the
text as an aCt of facrilege. Is it poftible that fuch men
could be guilty of forgery, or could falie writings be
eafily impofed on them ? 4
2.There is an internal evidence in the books of the Old From in*
Teftament' that proves them to have been written by ^‘j
different perfons, and at diftant periods ; and enables us ’
with precifion to afeertain a time at or belore which
they muft have been compofed. It is an undeniable
faCI that Hebrew ceafed to be the living language of
the jews during the Babvlonifh captivity, and that the
Jewilh productions after that period were in general
written either in Chaldee or. in Greek, The Jews of^J*1^®*
Paleftine, fome ages before the coming of our Saviour,ij^tyoftte
were unable, without the affiilance ol a Chaldee para-^w^00/, 0f
phrafe, to underftar.d the Hebrew original. It necef- \'lofcs.
farily follows, therefore, that every book which is writ¬
ten in pure Hebrew was compofed either before or
about the time of the Babylonilh captivity. This be¬
ing admitted, we may advance a Hep farther, and con¬
tend that the period which elapfed between the compo-
fition of the moft ancient and the moft modern book of
the Old i eftament was very confiderable ; or, in other
words, that the moft ancient books of the Old Tefta¬
ment were written many ages belore the Babylonifti
captivity.
No language continues ftationary ; and the Hebrew,
like other tongues, paffed through the feveral ftages of
infancy, youth, manhood, and old age. If therefore,
on comparifon, the feveral parts ol the Hebrew Bible
are found to differ not only in regard to ftyle, but alfo
in regard to char after and cultivation, we have ftrong
internal marks that they were compofed at different
and diftant periods. No clafiical fcholar would believe,
independent of the Grecian hiftory, that the poems
aferibed to Homer were written in die age of Demof-
thenes, the Orations of Demofthenes in the time of Ori-
gen, or the Commentaries of Origen in the time of
Hafcaris and Chryfoloras. For the very fame reafon,
it is certain that the five books which are aferibed to
Mofes were not written in the time of David, the
Pfalms of David in the age of Ilaiah, nor the prophe¬
cies of Ilaiah in the time of Malachi; and fince the
Hebrew became a dead language about the time of the
Babylonifti captivity, the book of Malachi could not
have been written much later. Before that period there¬
fore were written the prophecies of Ilaiah, ftill earlier
the Pfalms of David, and much earlier than thefe the
books which are aferibed to Mofes.
O 2
( a) From xtoxfvrlx, to put out of fight*
3. Let
Scripture.
5
From tefti.
mony.
» Fcdefi.
adieus
xlviii. ai.
f- xlix. 6.
{ xlix. S.
§ xlix. 10.
SCR [ >o8 ] SCR
3. Let us now confider the evidence of teflimony for
the authenticity of the Old Teftarnent. As the Jews
were a more ancient people than the Greeks or Ro¬
mans, and for many ages totally unconnected with them,
it is not to be expected that we fhould derive much
evidence from the hiftovians of thole nations ; it is to
the Jews alone we nhuft look for information. But it
has unfortunately happened that tew of their works ex¬
cept the Scriptures themfelves have been preferved to
pollerity. Jofephus is the moll ancient of the Jewilh
hillorians to whom we can appeal. He informs us,
that the Old Teilament was divided into three parts,
the Law, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa or poeti¬
cal books. No man, fays he, hath ever dared to add
or take away from them. He tells us alfo, that other
books were written after the time of Artaxerxes ; but
as they were not compofed by prophets, they were not
reckoned worthy of the fame credit.
Since the promulgation of the Chrillian religion, it
is impofiible that any material alterations or corruptions
could have taken place in the books of the Old ! ella-
ment ; for they have been in the hands both of Jews
and Chriftians from that period. Had the Jews at¬
tempted to make any alterations, the Chriftians would
have detefted and expofed them ; nor would the Jews
have been lefs fevere againft the Chriftians if they had
corrupted the facred text. But the copies in the hands
of Jews and Chriftians agree; and therefore we juftly
conclude, that the Old Teftament is ftill pure and un¬
corrupted.
The divifion mentioned by our Saviour into the Law,
the Prophets, and the Pfalms, correfponds with that of
Jofephus. We have therefore fufficient evidence, it is
hoped, to convince even a deift, that the Old Teftament
exifted at that time. And if the deift will only allow,
that Jefus Chrift was a perfonage of a virtuous and ir¬
reproachable chara&er, he will acknowledge that we
draw a fair conclufion when we aftert that the Scrip¬
tures were not corrupted in his time: for when he ac-
cufed the Phariiees of making the law of no effeft by
their traditions, and when he injoined his hearers to
fearch the Scriptures, he could not have failed to men¬
tion the corruptions or forgeries of Scripture, if any in
that age had exifted. But we are affured, by very re-
fpedlable authority, that the canon of the Old Tefta¬
ment was fixed fome centuries before the birth of Jefus
Chrift. Jefus the fon of Sirach, the author of Eccle-
fiafticus, makes evident references to the prophecies of
Ifaiah *, Jeremiah f, and Ezekiel if, and mentions thefe
prophets by name. He fpeaks alfo of the twelve minor
prophets $. It appears alfo from the prologue, that
the law and the prophets, and other ancient books, ex¬
ifted at the fame period. The book of Ecclefiafticus,
according to the calculations of the beft chronologers,
was written in Syriac about A. M. 3772, that is, 232
years before the Chriftian era, and was tranflated into
Greek in the next century by the grandfon of the au¬
thor. The prologue was added by the tranflator : but
this circumftance does not diminifh the evidence for the
antiquity of Scripture ; for he informs us, that the law
and the prophets, and the other books of their fathers,
were ftudied by his grandfather : a fufficient proof that
they exifted in his time. As no authentic books of a
more ancient date, except the facred writings them¬
felves, have reached our time, we can afeend no higher Senjuii,,,
in fearch of teftimony. —
There is, however, one remarkable hillorical fad!;
which proves the exiftence of the law of Mofes at the
dflfolution of the kingdom of Ifrael, when the ten tribes
were carried captive to Afiyria by Shalmanefer, and dif-
perfed among the provinces of that extenfive empire ;
that is, about 741 years before Chrift. It was about
that time the Samaritans were tranfported from Affyria
to repeople the country, which the ten captive tribes
of liracl had formerly inhabited. The pofterity of the
Samaritans ftill inhabit the land of their lathers, and
have preferved copies of the Pentateuch, two or three
of which were brought to this country in the laft
century. The Samaritan Pentateuch is written in
old Hebrew charadlers (fee Philology, n° 28),
and therefore mull have exifted before the time of
Ezra. But fo violent were the animofities which fub-
fifted between the Jews and Samaritans, that in no pe¬
riod of their hiftory would the one nation have received
any books from the other. They muft therefore have
received them at their firft fettlement in Samaria from
the captive prieft whom the Affyrian monarch Tent to
teach them how they fhould fear the Lord (2 Kings
xvii.) $
The canon of the Old Teftanaent, as both Jewifh The canon
and Chriftian writers agree, was completed by Ezra^f
and fome of his immediate fucceffors (fee Bible).
our copies the facred books are divided into 39. The
Jews reckoned only 22, correfponding to the number
of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. They united the
books of Judges and Ruth ; they joined the two books
of Samuel; the books of Kings and Chronicles were
reckoned one ; Ezra and Nehemiah one ; the Prophe'-
cies and Lamentations of Jeremiah were taken -under
the fame head; and the 12 minor prophets were con-
fidered as one book—fo that the whole number of books
in the Jewifh canon amounted to 22. y
The Pentateuch confifls of the five books Genefis, The r'en.
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Se-£ateuch
veral obfervations have been already made refpedling the ^
authenticity of thefe under the article Pentateuch ;
but feveral additional remarks have occurred, which may
not improperly be given in this place. For many of
thefe we acknowledge ourfelves indebted to a fermon
publifhed by the reverend Mr Marfh, whofe refearch
and learning and critical accuracy will be acknow¬
ledged by every reader of difeernment.
One of the flrongeft arguments that have occurred
to us in fupport of the authenticity of the Pentateuch,
and the infpiration of the writer, has already been given
under the article Religion, n° 14, &c. which fee:
But we fhall in this place prefent two arguments of a
different kind, which would be fufficient to prove at
leaft the former of thefe conclufions. We argue from
the language and contents of the Mofaic writings, and
from the teflimony of the other books of Scripture. ?
From the contents and language of the Pentateuch PmvctUy
there arifes a very flrong prefumption that Mofes was J^nce,
its author. The very mode of writing in the four laft
books difeovers an author contemporary with the events
which he relates; every defeription, both religious and
political, is a proof that the writer was prefent at each
refpe&ive feene ; and the legifiative and hiftorical parts
6 ate
1
4
a
Scripture.
Utrjb.
Aftd by te>
Simony.
^ Ezra iii
viii, 14.
Nehem.
siii. 1.
scr r 1
are fo interwoven with each other, that neither of them
could have been written by a man who lived in a later
age. The acc unt which is given in the book of Ex¬
odus of the condudt of Pharaoh towards the1 children of
Tfrael,- is fuch as might be expected from a writer who
was not only acquainted with the country-at large, but
had frequent accefs to the court of its fovereign s and
the minute geographical defcription of the paffage thro'
Arabia is fuch, as could have been given only by a man
like Mofes, who had fpent 40 years in the land of Mi-
dian. The language itfelf is a proof of its high anti¬
quity, which appears partly from the great fimplicity
of the ftyle, and partly from the ufe- of archaifms or
antiquated expreflions, which in the days even of Da¬
vid and Solomon were obfokte (b). But the ftrongell
argument that can be produced to fhow that the Pen¬
tateuch was written by a man bom and educated in
Egypt, is the ufe of Egyptian words; words which
never were, or ever could have been, ufed by a native of
Paleitine : and it-is a remarkable circumllance, that the
very fame thing which Mofes had expreffed by a word
that is pure Egyptian, Ifaiah, as might be expected
from his birth apd education, has expreffed by a word
that is purely Hebrew (c).
That Mofes was the author of the Pentateuch is pro¬
ved alfo from the evidence of teftimony. We do not
here quote the authority of Diodorus Siculus, of Lon¬
ginus, or Strabo, becaufe their information mufl have
been derived from the Jews. We ihall feek no autho¬
rity but that of the fucceeding facred books themfelves,
which bear internal evidence that they were written in
different ages, and therefore could not be forged unlefs
we were to adopt the abfurd opinion that there was a
fucceflion of impoflors among the Jews who united to¬
gether in the fame fraud. The Jews were certainly
belt qualified to judge of the authenticity of their own
books. They could judge of the truth of the fadfs re¬
corded, and they could have no interefl in adopting a
forgery. Indeed, to fuppofe a whole nation combined
in committing a forgery, and that this combination
fhould continue for many hundred years, would be the
moft chimerical fuppofition that ever entered into the
mind of man. Yet we muft make, this fuppofition, if
we rejedf the hiftorical fadts of the Old Teftament. No
one will deny that the Pentateuch exifled in the time
of Chrift and his apoitles ; for they not only mention
it, but quote it. “ This we admit,” reply the advo¬
cates for the hypothefis which we are now combating ;
“ but you cannot therefore conclude that Mofes was the
author; for there is reafon to believe it was compofed
by Ezra.” But unfortunately for men of this opinion,
both Ezra and- Nehemiah aferibe the book of the law
to Mofes f. 2. The Pentateuch was in the pofl'efiion of
the Samaritans before the time of Ezra. 3. It exilted
in the reign of Amaziah king of Judah, A. C. 839
09 ] SCR
years f. 4. It was In public ufe in the feign of Jehc* Scripture;
faphat, A. C. 912 { for that virtuous prince appointed
Levites and priefts who taught in Judah, and had the4<!0a'
book of the law of the Lord with them, and went z Kings
about throughout all the cities of Judah and taught dv. 6.
the people 5. It is referred to by David in his dying I x Chron,
admonitions to Solomon The fame royal bard makes 9*
many allufions to it in the book of Pfalms, and fome- $ 1 *^ino9
times quotes it *. There remains therefore only one \
refource to thofe who contend that Mofes was not thepralmcHJ,
author, viz. that it was written- in the period which 7, 8. with
dapfed between the age of Jofhua and that of David, iixod.
But the whole hiftory of the Jews from their fettle-xxx‘v 6\
ment in Canaan to the building of the temple prefup-on*
pofes that the book of the law was written by Mofes. where the
6. We have fatisfa&ory evidence that it exilted in the words are
time of Jofhua. One paffage may be quoted where this'he vcry
faft is flated. The Divine Being makes ufe of thefelame‘
words to Jofhua: “ Only be thou itrong, and very
courageous, that thou mayefl obferve to do all accord¬
ing to the law which Mofes my fervant commanded
thee : turn not from it to the right hand or to the left,
that thou mayefl profper whitherfoever thou goeft. This
bcjok of the /a<w {hall not depart out of thy mouth ; but
thou (halt meditate therein day and night, that thou ’
mayeft obferve to do according to all that is written
therein f.” t
To tire foregoing demonftration objections may be ^
ftated. “ We will admit the force of your arguments, 10
and grant that Mofes actually wrote a work called theG^ner.al
book of the law ; but how can wc be certain that i* ^wered!
was the very work which is now current under his
name ? And unlefs you can (how this to be at lead
probable, your whole evidence is of no value.” To il-
lullrate the force or weaknefs of this objection, let us
apply it to fame ancient Greek author, and fee whether
a clafiical fcholar would allow it to be of weight. “ It
is true that the Greek writers fpeak of Homer as an
ancient and celebrated poet; it is- true alfo that they
have quoted from the works which they aferibe to him
various paflages that we find at prefent in the Iliad and
Odyfley : yet ftill there is a poffibility that the poems
which were written by Homer, and thofe which we call
the Iliad and Odjjfeyy were totally diilinCt productions.”
Now an advocate for Greek literature would reply to
this objection, not with a ferious anfwer, .but-with a.
fmile of contempt ; and he would think it beneath his
dignity to filence an opponent who appeared to be deaf
to the cleareft conviction. But ftill more may be faid
in defence of Mofes than in def ence of Homer 'r for the
writings of the latter were not depofned in any temple
or facred archive, in order to fecure them from the de-
vaftations of time ; whereas the copy of the book of
the law, as written by Mofes, was intruded to the priefts
and the-elders, preferved in the ark of the covenant,
and
Jofhua
7, 8. viiL
xxiii. 6.
(b) For inftancc, H’ir> /7/e, and "W faery which are ufed in both genders by no other writer than Mofes. See
Gen. xxiv. 14. x6. 28. 55. 57. xxxviii. 21. 25.
(c) For inftance, u™ (perhaps written originally ‘"K, and the ' lengthened into 1 by miftake), written by the
Seventy or axu> Gen. xli. 2. and nan, written by the Seventy or S-Kij. See La Croze Lexicon LEgyp-.
tiacuniy art. axi and ©hbi
1 he fame thing which Mofes exprelfes by irrx, Gen. xli. 2. Ifaiah xix. 7. exprefles by nrijt, for the Seventy
have tranflated both of thefe words by
S C R
Sc-'pture. an(j reacj the people every feventK year (n
care therefore was taken not only for the prefervation of
the original record, but that no fpurioua produdtion
fhould be fubftituted in its (lead. And that no fpurions
production ever has been fubdituted in the fteaa of the
original conrpofition of Mofes, appears from the evidence
both of the Greek and the San.aritan Pentateuch. For
as thefe agree with the Hebrew, except in fome trif¬
ling variations (e), to which every work is expcfed by
length of time, it is abfolutely certain that the five
books which we now afcribe to Mofes are one and the
fame work with that which was tranfiated into Greek
in the time of the Ptolemies, and, what is of ftill great¬
er importance, with that which exifted in the time of
Solomon. And as the Jews could have had no mo¬
tive whatfoever, during that period which elapfed be¬
tween the age of Jofhua and that of Solomon, for fub-
ftituting a fpurious produdlion inftead of the original
as written by Mofes, and, even had they been inclined
to attempt the impolture, would have been prevented
by the care which had been taken by their lawgiver,
we muft conclude that ourprefent Pentateuch is the ve¬
ry identical work that was delivered by Mofes.
The politive evidence being now produced, we fir all
endeavour to anfwer fome particular obje&ions that have
been urged. But as mod of thefe occur in the book of
Genefrs, we fhall referve them for feparate examination,
and (hall here only confrder the objections peculiar to
the four lad books. They may be comprifed under
one head, viz. expreflions and paffages in thefe books
•which could not have been written by Mofes. I. The
account of the death of Mofes, in the lad chapter of
Deuteronomy, we allow mud have been added by fome
fucceeding writer ; but this can never prove that the
book of Deuteronomy is fpurious. What is more com¬
mon among ourfelves than to fee an account of the life
and death of an author fubjoined to his works, without
informing us by whom the narrative was written ? 2. It
has been objeCfed, that Mofes always fpeaks of himfelf
in the third perfon. This is the objetlion of foolifh
ignorance, and therefore fcarcely deferves an anfwer.
W'e fufpect that fuch perfons have never read the daf¬
fies, particularly Caefar’s Commentaries, where the au¬
thor uniformly fpeaks of himfelf in the third perfon, as
every writer of corredl tade will do who refleCts on the
ubfurdity of employing the pronoun of the firit perfon
tr
Particular
•objecftions
.obviated.
f no 1 SCR
Sufficient in a work intended to be read long after his death. (See Scripture,
Grammar, n° 33.) 3. As to the objection, that in
fome places the text is defective, as in Exodus xv. 8. it
is not direCted againd the author, but againd fome tran-
feriber ; for what is wanting in the Hebrew is inferted
in the Samaritan. 4. The only other objection that de¬
fences notice is made from two paflages. It is faid in
one place that the bed of Og is at Hamah to thit day \
and in another (Deut. iii. 14.), “ Jail- the fon of Ma-
nafieh took all the country of Argob unto the coads
of Gefhuri and Maacathi, and called them after his
own name, Bafhan-havoth jair, unto this day” The laft
claufe in both thefe padages could not have been writ¬
ten by Mofes, but it was probably placed in the margin
by fome tranferiber by way of explanation, and was af-
-terwards by midakc inferted in the text. Whoever
doubts the truth of this adertion may have recourfe to
the manuferipts of the Greek Tedament, and he will
find that the fpurious additions in the texts of fome
manuferipts are aCtually written in the margin of
others (f).
That the Pentateuch, therefore, at lead the four lad
books of it, was written by Mofes, we have very fatis-
faftory evidence ; which, indeed, at the didance of 3000
years is wonderful, and which cannot be affirmed of any
profane hidory written at a much later period.
The book of Genefis was evidently not written by a Air hen tk
perfon who was contemporary with the fads which he^1^0^™*
records; for it contains the hidory of 2369 years, aGei
period comprehending aimed twice as many years as all
the red of the hidorical books of the Old Tedament
put together. Mofes has been acknowledged as the au¬
thor of this book by all the ancient Jews and Chrif-
tians ; but it has been a matter of dii'pute from what
fource he derived his materials ; fome affirming that all
the fads were revealed by infpiration, and others main¬
taining that he procured them from tradition.
Some who have looked upon themfelves as profound
philofophers, have rejeded many parts of the book of
Genefis as fabulous and abfurd: but it cannot be the
wifdom of philofophy, but the vanity of ignorance,
that could lead to fuch an opinion. In fad, the book
of Genefis affords a key to many difficulties in philofo¬
phy which cannot otherwife be explained. It has been
fuppofed that the dfverfities among mankind prove that
they- are not defeended from one pair ; but it has been
fully
(d) “ And Mofes wrote this law, and delivered it unto the priefts the fons of Levi, which bare the ark of the
covenant of the Lord, and unto all the elders of Ifrael. And Moles commanded them, faying, At the end of
every feven years, in the folemnity of the year of releafe, in the feaft of tabernacles, when all Ifrael is come to
appear before the Lord thy God, in the place which he fhall chorife, thou firalt read this law before all Ifrael
ia their hearing. And it .came to pafs, when Mofes had made an end of writing the words of this law in a book
until they were finifhed, that Mofes commanded the Levites, whrch bare the ark of the covenant of the Lord,
faying, Take this book of the law, and put it in the fide of the ark of the covenant of the Lord your God.’'
ifieut. xxxi. 9— 1 1. 24—26. There is a paffage to the fame purpofe in Jofephus : Auxura* Jia rav avajai^t.a*
r« iff a ‘foff phi Anfiquitnt. Lib. V. C. I . § I J. 6(1. Hudfon.
(e) See the collation of the Hebrew and Samaritan Pentateuch, in the 6th vol. of the London Polyght. p. 19.
' of the Animadverftones Samaritice.
(f) To mention only two examples. 1 The common 'reading, 1 Cor. xvi. 2. is <ra*?&atr"»; but the Codex
-Pitavian 3. has TWV' ■,'”v in the margin ; and in one of the manuferipts which Beza ufed, this marginal ad¬
dition has been obtruded in the text. See his note on this paffage. 2. Another infiance is, 1 John ii. 27. where
the genuine reading is xP‘cricX ; but Wttftein quotes two manuferipts, in which ig written in the margin ;
and this marginal reading has found its way not only into the Codex Covelli 2. but into the Coptic and Ethiopie
vediocs.
*3
Tofaic
ironotogy
indicated.
SCR [ii
•eriptnre. fu|Jy {Tiewn that all thefe diverfities may be accounted
for by natural caufes. It has been reckoned a great
difficulty to explain how foflil fhells were introduced
into the bowels oF the earth ; but the deluge explains
this fadt better than all the romantic theories of philo-
fophers. It is impoffible to account for the origin of
fuch a variety of languages in a more latisfa&ory man¬
ner than is done in- the account of the confulion of
tongues which took place at Babel. It would be no
eafy matter to fhew why the fea of Sodom is fo differ^
ent from every other fea on the globe which has yet t
been explored, if we had not pofTeffed the fcriptural ac¬
count of the miraculous deitruttion of Sodom and Go¬
morrah. It is faturated with bitumen and fait, and con¬
tains no fifhes. Tbefe are very Angular fadts, which
have been fully eftablifhed by late travellers. The book
of Genefis, too, has been treated with contempt, be-
caufe it makes the world lefs ancient than is neceffary
to fuppert the theories of modern philofophers, and be-
caufe it is difficult to reconcile the chronologies of feve-
ral nations with the opinion that the world is not above
6ooo or 7000 years old. The Chaldeans, in the time
of Cicero, reckoned up 470,000 years. The Egyp¬
tians pretend that they have records extending 50,000
years back ; and the Hindoos go beyond all bounds of
probability, carrying back their chronology, according
to Halhed, more than 7,000,000 of years.
An attempt has been made by M. Bailly, lately
mayor of Paris, to reconcile thefe magnified calcula¬
tions with the chronology of the Septuagint, which
is juftly preferred to the Hebrew. (See Septuagint.)
Pie informs us, that the Hindoos, as well as the Chal¬
deans and Egyptians, had years of arbitrary determina¬
tion. They had months of 15 days, and years of 60
days, or two months. A month is a night and day of the
patriarchs; a year is a night and day of the gods ; four
thoufand years of the gods are as many hundred years
of men. By attention to fuch modes of computation, the
age of the world will be found very nearly the fame in
the writings of Mofes, and in the calculations and tra¬
ditions of the Bramins. With thefe alio we have a
remarkable coincidence with the Perfian chronology.
Bailly has eftablifhed thefe remarkable epochas from the
Creation to the Deluge.
The Septuagint gives
The Chaldeans
The Egyptians
The Perfians
The Hindoos
The Chinefe
'I he fame author has alfo ffiewn the Angular coinci
dence of the age of the world as given by four diftinet
and diftantly fituated people.
The ancient Egyptians, - 5544 years.
The Hindoos, - - 5502
The Perfians - - - 5501
The Jews, according to Jofephus, - 5555
ITaving made thefe few remarks, to fhew that the faffs
recorded in Genefis are not inconfiftent with truth, we
fhall now, by a few obfervations, confirm the evidence,
from tefjimony, that Mofes was the author, and anfwer
the objections that feem ftrongeft.
I here arifes a great probability, from the book of
Genefis itfelf, that the author lived near the time of Jo-
fcph j for as we advance towards the cpd of that book.
2256 years.
2222
2340
2000
2000
23OO
i J SCR
the fafts gradually become more minute. The materials Scripture^
of the antediluvian hiftory are very fcanty. The ac-
count of Abraham is more complete ; but the hiflory
of Jacob and his family is dill more fully detailed. This
is indeed the cafe with every hiftory. In the early part,
the relation is very fhort and general; but when the hi-
ftorian approaches his own time, his materials accumu-
late. It is certain, too, that the bock of Genefis mud
have been written before the reft of the Pentateuch ;
for the allufions in the laft four books to the hiftory of
Abraham, of Ifaac, and Jacob, are very frequent. The
fimplicity of the ftyle fhows it to be one of the moft
ancient of the facred books ; and perhaps its firnilarity
to the ftyle of Mofes would determine a critic to aferibe
it to him. It will be allowed, that no man was better
qualified than Mofes to compote the hiftory of his an-
ceitors. He was learned in all the wifdom of the Egyp¬
tians, the moft enlightened nation of his time, and he
had the beft: opportunities of obtaining accurate infor¬
mation. The ihort account of the antediluvian world
could eafily be remembered by Abraham, who might
obtain it from Shem, who was his contemporary. To
Shtm it might be conveyed by Methufelah, who was
340 years old when Adam died. From Abraham to
Motes, the interval was lefs than 400 years. The fplen-
did promifes made to that patriarch would certainly be
carefully communicated to each generation, with the
concomitant faffs: and thus the hiftory might be con¬
veyed to Mofes by the moft: diftinguifhed perfons. The
accounts refpedling Jacob and his ion Jofeph might be
given to Mofes by his grandfather Kohath, who muft
have been born long before the defeent to Egypt; and
Kohath might have heard all the faffs refpefling Abra¬
ham and Ifaac from Jacob himfelf. Thus we can eaftly
point out how Mofes might derive the materials of the
book of Genefis, and efpecially of the laft 38 chapters,
from the moft authentic fource. 14 -
It will now be neceftary to confider very fhortly the
objections that have been fuppofed to prove that Gene-th.-ntidey
fis could not have been written by Mofcs. 1. -It is ob- of the book
jefted, that the author of the firft chapters of Genefis Genetia
muft have lived in Mefopotamia, as he difeovers a°bViateT
knowledge of the rivers that watered Paradife, of the
cities Babylon, Erech, Refen, and Calneh ; of the gold
of Pifon ; of the bdellium and onyx ftone. But if he
could not derive this knowledge from the wifdom of the
Egyptians, which is far from being improbable, he
might furely obtain it by tradition from ikbraham, who
was born and brought up beyond the Euphrates. 2. la
Genefis xiv. 14. it is faid, Abraham purfued the four
confederate kings to Dan, yet. that name was not given
till after the conqueft of Paleitine *. We anfwer, this
might be infertedby a tranferiber. But fuch a fuppofi*as.
tlon is not necefiary ; for though we are told in the book
of Judges that a city originally called Lailh received
then the name of Dan, this does not prove that Laifti
was the fame city with the Dan which is mentioned in
Genefis. The lame anfwer may be given to the objec¬
tion which is brought from Genefis xxxv. 2 r. where the
tower of Edar is mentioned, which the objeCfors fay
was the name of a tower over;one of the gates of Jeru-
falem. But the tower of Edar fignifies the tower of the
flocks, which in the paftoral country of Canaan might
be a very common name. 3. The moft formidable
objection is derived from thefe two paffages, Gen. xii. 6.
*‘Antl
Scripture.
*5 .
The bo' k
of Exodus.
16
Leviticus
SCR [ in
And tSc Canaanite was then in the land.” Gen xxxvi.
^ i. “ Thefe are the kings that reigned over the land of
lidotn, before there reigned any ting over the children of
Jfr ael.’* Now, it is certain that neither of thefe paf-
fages could be written by Mofes. We-allow they were
added by a later writer; but this circutnftance cannot
invalidate the evidence which has been already produ¬
ced. It does not prove that Moles was not the author
of the book of Genefis, but only that the book of Ge-
nefis has received two alterations fince his death.
According to Rivet, our Saviour and his Apoftles
have cited 27 paffages verbatim from the book of Ge¬
nefis, and have made 38 allufions to the fenfe.
The book of Exodus contains the hiftory of the'If-
raelites for about 145: years. It gives an account of the
fiavery of the lfraelites in Egypt; of the miracles by
which they were delivered; of their paffage through
the Red Sea, and journey'through the wildernefs ; of
the folemn promulgation of the -Decalogue on Mount
Sinai, and of the building and furniture of the Taber¬
nacle. This book is cited by David, by Daniel, and
other facred writers. Twenty-five pafiages are quoted
by our Saviour and his apoftles in exprefs words, and
they make 19 allufions to the fenfe.
The book of Leviticus contains the hiftory of the
Ifraelites for one month. It confifts chiefly of laws.
Indeed, properly fpeaking, it is the code of the Jewiftt
ceremonial and political laws. It de-feribes the confe*
oration of Aaron and his fons, the -daring impiety and
exemplary punifhment of Nadab and Abihu. It reveals
alfo fome prediftions refpe&ing the punifhment of the
Ifraelites in cafe of apoftacy ; and contains an affurance
that every fixth year fhould produce abundance to fup-
port them during the feventh or fabbatical year. This
book is quoted as the produdlion of Mofes in feveral
* a Chron. books of feripture *.
xxx. it. The book of Numbers comprehends the hiftory of the
Jerem vn. Tfraci;t<;G for a period of about 38 years, reckoning
from the firft day ■of the fecond month after their de¬
parture from Egypt. It contains an account of two
numberings of the people ; the firft in the beginning of
the fecond year of their emigration, the fecond in the
plains of Moab towards the conclufion of their journey
in the wildernefs f. It deferibes the ceremonies em¬
ployed at the confecration of the tabernacle, gives an
exa& journal of the marches and encampments of the
Ifraelites, relates the appointment of the 70 elders, the
miraculous cure performed by the brazen ferpent, and
the caifconduft of Mofes when he was commanded to
bring water from the rock. There is alfo added an ac-
' count of the death of Aaron, of the conqueft of Sihon
and Og, and the ftory of Balaam, with his celebrated
prophecy concerning the Mefliah §.
The book of Numbers is quoted as the work of Mofes
in feveral parts of Scripture *.
The book of Deuteronomy comprehends a period of
nearly two months. It confifts of an interefting addrefs
to the Ifraelites, in which Mofes recals to their remem¬
brance the many inftances of divine favour which they
. haa experienced, and reproaches them tor their ingrati¬
tude. He lays before them, in a compendious form,
the laws which he had formerly delivered, and makes
fome explanatory additions. i his was the more necef-
fary, becaufe the Ifraelites, to whom they had been ori¬
ginally promulgated, and who had feen the miracles in
Egypt, at the Red Sea, and Mount Sinai, had died in
■xx, 13.
ix; 16.
Ezek. xx.
11.
Matth.
viii. 4.
Rom. x. 5.
xiii. 9.
3 Cor. vi.
16.
Gal. iii. 12
x Eet. i ro
17
Numbers.
f Numb i
xxvi.
§ Nu" b
xxiv. 17,
19.
* J fhua
iv. 1 4.
a Chron
xxix 14.
xxxi. 3.
Ezek xx
13. xiiv 2
Matrh.
*'T,5-
toh. vi.
3* '*■ 0°
Deutc.o-
Uorny.
] SCR
the wildernefs. The divine origin of thefe laws, and the Scripniw,
miracles by which they were fanftioned, muft already
have been well known to them ; yet a folemn recapitu¬
lation of thefe by the man who had miraculoufly fed the
prefent generation from their infancy, who by the lift¬
ing up of his hands had procured them vidtory in the
day of battle, and who was going to leave the world to
give an account of his condudt to the God of Ifrael,
could not but make a deep and lafting impreffion on the
minds of all who heard him. He inculcates thefe laws
by the moft powerful motives. He prefents before
them the moft animating rewards, and denounces the
fevereft punifhments to the rebellious. The prophecies
of Mofes towards the end of this book, concerning the
fate of the Jews, their difperfions and calamities, the
conqueft of Jerufalem by the Romans, the miferies of
the befieged, and the prefent ftate of the jewifh nation,
cannot he read without aftonifhment. They are perfpi-
cuous and minute, and have been literally accomplifhed.
This book is cited as the produ&ion of Mofes by
Chi ift and his apoftles *. * Mattlu
4. The hiftorical books are 12 in number, Jofhua, Judges, *v- .
Ruth, Samuel I. and II. Kings I and II Chronicles,
Ezra, Nehemiah, Efther. Thefe, if confidered diftin&lyoal hi.* 13,
from the Pentateuch, and the writings more properly
ftyled prophetical, contain a compendium of the Jewifli rheWfto-
hiftory from the death of Mofes, A. M. 2552, to the ric boob,
reformation eftabliftied by Nehemiah after the return
from the captivity, A. M. 3595, comprehending a pe¬
riod of 1043 years.
To enable us to difeover the authors of thefe books,
■we have no guide to conduct us but conje&ure, inter¬
nal evidence, or the authority of the modern Jews.
From the frequent references in Scripture, and from the
teftimony of Jofephus, it appears that the Jews were
in pofleffion of many hiftorical records which might
have thrown much light upon this fubjedft if they had
ftill been preferved. But during the calamities which
befel that infatuated nation in their wars with the Ro-
mans, and the dilperfion which followed, thefe writings 20
have periftied. But though we can produce no tefti- I^frvjn|?
mony more ancient than the age of our Saviour to au-”^'^
thenticate the hiftorical books, yet there are fome fa&s
refpe&ing the mode of their prefervation which entitle
them to credit. The very circumftance itfelf, that the
Jews have preferved them in the facted volume to this
day, while their other ancient books have been loft, is
a proof that they confklered them as the genuine re¬
cords of their nation. Jofephus f, whofe authority is *• Contrt
of great importance, informs us, that it was the pecu-/lf/),M*
liar province of the prophets and priefts to commit tollb’ **
writing the annals of the nation, and to preferve them
to pofterity. That thefe might be faithfully preferved,
the facerdotal fundrion was made hereditary, and the
greateft care was obferved to prevent intermarriages
either with foreigners or with the other tribes. No man
could officiate as a prieft who could not prove his de¬
scent in a right line by unqueftionable evidence J. Re-f Ezra&
gifters were kept in Jerufalem, which at the end of eve-*’1*62'*
ry war were regularly revifed by the furviving priefts ;
and new ones were then compofed. As a proof that
this has been faithfully performed, Jofephus adds, that
the names of all the Jewifti priefts, in an uninterrupted
fucccffion from father to fon, had been regiftered for
2 0 c years ; that is, from the time of Aaron to the age
of Jofephus.
The
gcripHire.
Hebrew
record?.
SCR [ ,
The national records were not allowed to be written
by R«y man who might think himfelf tit for ihe of.
tree ; and if a pried falijfied them, he was excluded from
the altar and depofed from his office. Thus we are
affured, the Jewifli records were committed to the charge
of the priefls ; and as they may be contidered as the
fame family from Aaron to the Babylonifh captivity and
downwards, the fame credit is due to them that would be
due to family records, which by antiquarians are eiteem-
4I ed the mod authentic fources of information.
Aurhenuci- Ot the 22 books which Jofephus reckoned himfelf
tv < f the bound to believe, the hidorical books from the death of
Mofes to the reign of Artaxerxes, he informs us, were
written by contemporary prophets. It appears, then,
that the prophets were the compofers, and the prieds
the hereditary keepers, of the national records. Thus,
the bed proviiion poffible was made that they fhould be
written accurately, and be preferved uncorrupted. The
principal office of thefe prophets was to indraft the
people in their duty to God, and occafionaliy to com¬
municate the prediftions of future events. For this
purpofe they were educated in the fchools of the pro¬
phets, or in academies where facred learning was
taught. The prophets were therefore the learned men
of their time, and confequently were bed qualified for
the office of hidorians. It may be objefted* that the
prophets, in concert with the prieds, might have forged
any writings they pleafed. But before we fufpeft
that they have done fo in the hidorical books of the
Old Tedament, we mud find out fome motive which
could induce them to commit fo daring a crime. But
this is impoffible. No encomiums are made either upon
the prophets or the prieds ; no adulation to the reign¬
ing monarch appears, nor is the favour of the populace
courted. The faults of all ranks are delineated with¬
out referve. Indeed there is no hidory extant that has
more the appearance of impartiality. We are prefent-
ed with a fimple detail of fafts, and are left to difeover
the motives and intentions of the feveral charafters ;
and when a charafter is drawn, it is done in a few
words, without exaggerating the vices or amplifying
the virtues.
It is of no real confequence, therefore, whether we
can afeertain the authors of the different books or not.
From Jofephus we know that they exided in his time;
and from his account of the manner in which they were
preferved we are affured they were not in danger of
being corrupted. They exided alib when the Septua-
gint tranflation was made. Frequent references are
made to them in the writings of the later prophets ;
fometimes the fame fafts are related in detail. In fhort,
there is fuch a coincidence between the hidorical books
and the writings of thofe prophets who were contempo¬
rary, that it is impoffible to fuppofe the latter true
without receiving the former.
Indeed, to fuppofe that the Jews could have recei¬
ved and preferved with fuch care for fo many hundred
years falfe records, which it mud have been in the pow-
«r of every perfon to difprove, and which at the fame
time do fo little credit to the charafter of their nation,
Vol. XVII. Part I.
<3 ] SCR
is to fuppofe one of the greated abfurdities in the Scripfure.
world : it is to luppofe that a whole nation could aft  v~~'
contrary to all thofe principles which have always pre*
dominated in the human mind, and which mud always
predominate till human nature undergo a total revolu¬
tion.
The book which immediately follows the Penta-Joflnu,
teuch has been generally aferibed to Jofhua the fuc-
ceflbr of Mofes. It contains, however, fome things
which mud have been inferted after the death of Jo-
Ihua. It is neceffary to remark, that there is fome ac¬
cidental derangement in the order of the chapters of
this book, which was probably occaiioned by the an¬
cient mode of fixing together a number of rolls. If
chronologically placed, they ffiould be read thus, id
chapter to the loth verfe, then the 2d chapter ; then
from the icth verfe to the end of the id chapter; af¬
terwards diould follow the vi. vii. viii, ix- x. and xi.
chapters ; then the xxii. ; and ladly the xii. and xiii.
chapters to the 24th verfe of the latter.
I he fafts mentioned in this book are referred to by
many of the facred writers In the book of Kings $ 1 Chrorh
xvi. 34. the words of Joffiua are laid to be the words of" 7 ~xii*
God. See Joshua. cx v UU
By whom the book of Judges was written is uncer-Ifa. xxviii,
tain ; but as it contains the hidory of the Jewilh repub-21.- > A&s
lie for 317 years, the materials mud have been furailh- u1’,4-5’.’
ed by different perfous. Ihe book, however, feems to^-
be the compofition of one individual (o), who lived af-James ii’**
ter the regal government was edabliihcd 4, but before the *5 . >8,;
acceffion of David : for it is laid in the 2 id verfe ofEcclus X'VI*
the id chapter, that the Jebuiites were dill in Jerufa-i?'-5 !-MaC*
Jem ; who, we know, were difpofieffed of that city ear- ’’"Vi
ly in the reign of David ^[. We have reafon, therefore,Judg«*
to afenbe this book to Samuel. 1 Jud.xix.rj
The hidory of this book may be divided into two parts;
the fird contains an account of the Judges from Qtbnielv 6 s'11’
to Samfon, ending at the 16th chap. The fecond part
relates feveral remarkable tranfaftions which occurred
foon after the death of Joffiua; but are thrown to the end
of the book, that they might not interrupt the courfe of
the hidory. See Judges.
1 lie book of Ruth is a kind of fupplement to theR
book of Judges, and an introduftion to the hidory of
David, as it is related in the books of Samuel. Since
the genealogy which it contains defeends to David, it
mud have been written after the birth of that prince,
but not at any coniiderable time after it; for the hi¬
dory of Boaz and Ruth, the great-grandfather and
great-grandmother of David, could not be remembered
above two or three generations. As the elder brothers
of David and their fons are omitted, and none of his
own children are mentioned in the genealogy, it is evi¬
dent that the book was compofed in honour of the He¬
brew monarch, after h? was anointed king by Samuel,
and before any of his children were barn ; and confe-
quently in the reign of Saul. The Jews aferibe it to
Samuel ; and indeed there is no perfon of that age to
whom it may be attributed with more propriety We
are informed (1 Sam. x. 25.) that Samuel was a writer,
^ and
ten^o/the^book.1 ^ ^ ^ ^ be obferved’ that the author> chap. ii. 10, &c. lays before us the con-
7
11
*5
The two
book* of
Samuel
SCR f
Scripm-t. ana are affured that noperfon in the reign of Saul was
v  f0 well acquainted with the fplendid profpeas of David
as the prophet Samuel. ,
The Greeks denominate the books of Samuel, whicu
follow next in order, 7he Books of Kingdoms; and the
Latins, 7he Books of Kings /. and II. Anciently there
were but two books of Kings ; the firft was the two
books of Samuel, and the fecond was what we now call
the two books of Kings. According to the prelent
divifion, thefe two books are four, viz. the firft and ie-
cond books of Samuel, and the firft and fecond books
Concerning the author of the two books of Samuel
there are different opinions. Some think that Samuel
wrote only twenty or twenty-low chapters of the hi it
book, and that the hiftory was continued by Nathan
and Gath This opinion they ground on the following
$ i Chron paffage in Chronicles §, “ Now the ads of David the
xxlx.atj, ' kin*; firft and laft, behold they are written in the book
of Samuel the feer, and in the book of Nathan the pro¬
phet, and Gad the feer.” _ Others think they were
compiled by Ezra from ancient records ; but it is evi¬
dent that the books of Samuel were written before the
books of Kings and Chronicles ; for on comparifon it
will be found, that in the laft mentioned books many
circumftances are taken from the former. The firft;
book carries down the hiftory of the Ifraelites from the
birth of Samuel to the fatal battle of Gilboa, compre¬
hending a period of about 8o years. The fecond re¬
lates the hiftory of David from his fucceffion to the
throne of Ifrael till within a year or two of his death,
containing 40 vears. I here are two b*. autiful paffages
in thefe books which every man of fenument and tafte
muft feel and admire, the lamentation or elegy on Saul
and Jonathan, and the parable of Nathan. I he im¬
partiality of the hiftorian is fully attefted by the can¬
dour and freedom with which the attions of Saul and
David are related. There are fome remarks interfper-
fed which were probably added by Ezra.
When the two books of Kings were written, or by
whom they were compiled, is uncertain. Some have
fuppofed that 7)avid, Solomon, and Ilevsekiah, w. ote the
hiftory of their own times. Others have been of opi¬
nion that the prophets, viz. Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Gad, and
Nathan, each of them wrote the hiftory of the reign in
which he lived. But it is generally believed that Exra
wrote thefe two books, and publifhed them in the form
in which we have them at prefent. There can be no
doubt but the prophets drew up ihe lives of the kings
who reigned in their times ; for the names and writings
of thofe prophets are frequently mentioned, and cited.
Still, however, it is evident that the two books of Kings
are but an abridgment of a larger work, the fubftance
of which is contained in the books before us. In fup-
port of the opinion that Ezra is the author of thefe
books, it is faid, That in the time of the penman, the
un tribes were captives in Affyria, whither they had
been carried as a punifhnient for their fins : That in the
jfecond of thefe books the author makes fome refle&ions
on the calamities of Ifrael and Judah, which demon-
Ibate that he lived after that event. But to this it is
objeded, That the author of thefe books expreffes
himfelf throughout as a contemporary, and as one
would have done who had been an eye and ear witnefs
of what he related. To this objedion it i§ auftvered,
16
Of King*.
4 ] SCR
That Ezra compiled thefe books from the prophetic scripture,
writings which he had in his poffefiion ; that he copied ’ l_'1
them exadly, narrating the fads in order as they hap-
pened, and interfperfed in his hiftory fome refledions
and remarks arifing from the fubjeds which he hand-
led.
The firft book comprifes a period of 1 26 years, from
the death of David to that of Jeholhaphat. The fecond
book records the tranfadions of many kings of Judah
and Ifrael for the fpace of about 300 years, from the
death of Jehofhaphat to the deftrudion of Jerufakm and
the temple, A. M. A. C. 588. J
The Hebrews ftyle the two books of Chronicles De- of
ben Imim §, i. e. IVords of days, journals or dianes, innjcies
allufion to thofe ancient journals which appear to have § o‘D' 333,
been kept among the Jews, d he Greeks call them
Paralipomena ff, which iigniftes things omitted; as ife Ta?aX(i,
thefe two books were a kind of fupplement to inform
us what had been omitted or too much abridged in the
books of Kings. The two books .of Chronicles contain
indeed feveral particulars which are not to be met
with in the other books of feripture : but it is not
theiefore to be fuppofed that they are the records of
the kings of Judah and Ifrael, fo often referred to in the
books of Kings. Thofe ancient regifters were appa¬
rently much more copious than the books before us ; and
the compiler of the books of Chronicles often refers to
them, and makes long extrads from them.
Some fuppofe that the author of thefe two books
was the fame with that of the two books of Kings.
The Jews fay that they were written by E*,ra, after the
return from the captivity, affifted by Zechariah and
Haggai, who were then alive. But events are men¬
tioned in them of fo late a date as to fhow that he could
not have written them in their prefent form ; and there is
another objedion to his being their author, which is lit¬
tle lefs forcible: between the books of Kings and Chroni¬
cles there is a great number of variations both in dates
and fads, which could not have happened if Ezra had
been the author of them, or indeed if they had been the
work of any one perfon.
The books of Chronicles are not to be confidered
merely as an abridgment of former hiftories with fome
ufeful additions, but as books written with a particular
view; which feems to have been to furnifti a genealogical
regifter of the twelve tribes, deduced from the earlicft
times, in order to point out thofe diftindions which
were neceffary to diferiminate the mixed multitude that
returned from Babylon ; te afeertain the lineage of
Judah ; and to re-eftablifti on their ancient footing the
pretenfions and fundions of each individual tribe. ^
The book of Ezra, and alfo that of Nehemiah, areThe boo^
attributed by the ancients to the former of thefe 0f Ezra,
prophets ; and they called them the 1 ft and 2d books
of Efdras; which title is ftill kept up by the Latin
church. It is indeed highly probable that the fotmer
of thefe books, which comprifes the hiftory of the Jew's
from the time that Cyrus made the decree for their re¬
turn until the twentieth year of Artaxerxes Longima-
nus (which was about 100 years, or as others* think
79 years), was allcompofedby Ezra, except the firft fix
chapters, which contain an account of the firft return of
the Jews upon the decree of Cyrus ; whereas Ezra did
not return till the time of Artaxerxes. It is of this
fecond return therefore that he writes the account; and
g adding
SCR [ i
Scripture adding it to the other, which he found ready compofed
to his hand, he made it a complete hiliory of the Jewilh
reftoration.
This book is written in Chaldee from chap. iv. 8. to
chap. vii. 27. As this part of the work chiefly con¬
tains letters, converfations, and decrees ex prefled in that
language, the fidelity of the hiftorian has probably in¬
duced him to take down the very words which were
ufed. The people, too, had been accuftomed to the
Chaldee during the captivity, and probably underftood
it better than Hebrew ; for it appears from Nehemiah’s
account, chap. viii. 2, 8. that all could not underhand
the law.
Of Nehe- The book of Nehemiah, as has been already obfer-
raiah. Ved, bears, in the Latin bibles, the title of the fecond
book of Efdras ; the ancient canons likewife give it the
fame name, becaufe, perhaps, it was confidered as a
fequel to the book of Ezra. In the Hebrew bibles it
has the name of Nehemiah prefixed to it; which name is
retained in the Englilh bible. But though that chief is
by the writer of the fecond book of Maccabees affirm¬
ed to have been the author of it, there cannot, we think,
be a doubt but that either it was written at a later
period, or had additions made to it after Nehemiah’s
death.
With the book of Nehemiah the hiftory of the Old
^ Teftament concludes. This is fuppofed to have taken
place about A. M. 3574. A. C. 434. But Prideaux
with more probablity has fixed it at A. M. 359c., Sec
^ Nehemiah.
}£ j?Rher. It uncertain who was the author of the book of
Either. Clement of Alexandria, and many commen¬
tators, have aferibed it to Mordecai; and the book itfelf
feems to favour this opinion ; for we are told in chap,
ix. 20. that “ Mordecai wrote thefe things.” Others
have fuppofed that Ezra was the author; but the more
15 ] SCR
probable opinion of the Talmudilts is, that the great Scripture*
fynagogue (fee Synagogue), to perpetuate the me-
mory of the deliverance of the Jews from the confpira-
cy of Haman, and to account for the origin of the feafl;
of Purim, ordered this book to be compofed, very likely
of materials left by Mordecai, and afterwards approved
and admitted it into thefacred canon. The time when
the events which it relates happened, is fuppofed by
forne to have been in the reign of Artaxerxes Longi-
manus, and by others in that of Darius the Ion of
Hyftafp es, called by the facred penman Ahafuerus.
Concerning the author of the book ©f Job there are Of Job.
many different opinions. Some have fuppofed that Job
himfelf wrote it in Syriac or Arabic, and that it was
afterwards tranllated by Mofes. Others have thought
that Etihu wrote it; and by others it is aferibed to
Mofes, to Solomon, to Ifaiah, and to Ezra. To give
even an abridgment of the arguments brought in fup-
port of thefe various opinions would fill a volume, and
at laft leave the reader in his prefent uncertainty. He
who has leifure and inclination to weigh them may
ftudy the fecond fedb'on of the fixth book of Warbur-
ton’s Divine Legation of Mofes, together with the fe*
veral works there referred to ; but the queltion at iffiie
is of very little importance to us. The book of Job,
by whomfoever it was written, and whether it be a real
hiftory, or a dramatical poem founded on hiftory, has
been always efteemed a portion of canonical feripture,
and is one of the moll fublime compofitions in the facred
volume.
The book of Job appears to Hand fingle and unpa¬
ralleled in the facred volume. It feems to have little
connection with the other writings of the Hebrews,
and no relation whatever to the affairs of the Ifraelites.
Thefcene is laid in Idumaea (h) ; the hiftory of an in¬
habitant of that country is the bafts of the narrative;
I5 2 the
( h ) “ The information which the learned have endeavoured to colleCt from the writings and geography of the
Oreeks concerning the country and relidence of Job and his friends, appears to me (lays Dr Lowth) fo very in-
conckifive, that I am inclined to take a quite different method for the folution of this queftion, by applying fole-
ly to the Sacred Writings: the hints with which they have furnilhed me towards the illuilration of this fubjedt,
1 ftiall explain as briefly as poffible.
“ 1 he land of Uz, or Cnutz, is evidently Idumaa, as appears from Lam. iv. 21. Uz was the grandfon of Seir
the Horite, Gen. xxxvi. 20, 21, 28. 1. Chron. i. 38, 42. Seir inhabited that mountainous tradt which was
called by his name antecedent to the time of Abraham ; but his pofterity being .expelled, it was occupied by the
Idumseans : Gen. xiv. 6. Deut. ii. 12. Two other men ar^mentioned of the name Uz ; one the grandion of
Shem, the other the fon ol Nachor, the brother of Abraham ; but whether any diftridt was called after their
name is not clear. Idumaea is a part of Arabia Petraea, fituated on the fouthern extremity of the tribe of
Judah ; Numb, xxxiv. 3. Jolh. xv. 1, 21. The land of Uz therefore appears to have been between Egypt and
Philiftia, Jer. xxv. 20. where the order of the places feems to have been accurately obferved in reviewing the
different nations from Egypt to Babylon; and the fame people leem again to be deferibed in exaCtly the fame
fituations, Jer. xlvi—1.
“ Children of the Eajl, or Enflern people, feems to have been the general appellation for that mingled race of peo¬
ple (as they are called, Jer. xxv. 20.) who inhabited between Egypt and the Euphrates, bordering upon Judea from
the fouth to the eaft ; the Idumaeans, the Amalekites, the Midianites, the Moabites, the Ammonites. See Judges
vi, 3. and Ifa. xi. 14. Of thefe the Idumaeans and Amalekites certainly poffeffed the fouthern parts. t»ee Numb,
xxxiv. 3, xiii. 29. 1 Sam. xxvii. 8, 10. This appears to be the true ftate of the cafe ; The whole regiun be¬
tween Egypt and Euphrates was called the Eaft, at firft in refpeCt to Egypt (where the learned Jol. Mede
thinks the liraelites acquired this mode ol fpeaking. Mede’s Works, p. 580.), and afterwards ablolutely and with¬
out any relation to fituation or circumliances. Abraham is laid to have fent the fons of his concubines, Hagar and
Keturah, “ eaftward, to the country w hich is commonly called the Eaft.” Gen. xxv. 6. where the name of the
region teems to have been derived from the fame fituation. Solomon is reported “ to have excelled in wifdom
cjI the Eaftern people, and all Egypt,” 1 Kings iv. 3c.; that is, all the neighbouring people on that quarter; for
there
SCR.
[ n
Scnffufr.
f Ter xlix
7. Ob. 8.
5 Bruch
iii. an- 23.
3*
The cha-
raflet of
job.
the chara&ers who fpeak are Idumteans, or at leail •'^-ra"
bians of the adjacent country, all originally of the race of
Abraham. The language is pure Hebrew, although
the author appears to be an Idumasan ; for it is not
improbable that all the poftevity of Abraham, Ifraehtes,
IdurruEans, and Arabians, whether of the family of Ke-
turah or Ifhmael, fpoke for a confiderable length of tune
one common language. That the Idumveans, however,
and the Temanites in particular, were eminent for the
reputation of wifdom, appears by the teftimony of the
, prophets Jeremiah and Obadiah *|j ; Baruch alio parti¬
cularly mentions them among “ the authors (01 ex¬
pounders) of fables, and fearchers out of undeiltand-
The principal perfonage in this poem is Job ; and in
his chara&er is meant to be exhibited (as far as is con-
fjftent with human infirmity) an example of perfeft
virtue. This is intimated in the argument or intro-
duftion, but is ftill more eminently difplayed by his
6 1 SCR
own aftions and fentiments. He is holy, devout, and Scripur*.
mofl pioufly and reverently impreffed with the facred vr*""*
awe of his divine Creator ; he is alfo upiight, and con-
fcious of his own integrity ; he is patient of evil, and
yet very remote from that infenfibility or rather limpi¬
dity to which the Stoic fchool pretended. Oppreffed
therefore with unparalleled misfortunes, he laments his
mifery, and even wifhes a releafe by death ; in other
words, he obeys, and gives place to the diftates of na¬
ture. . Irritated, however, by the unjuft infmuations and
the fevere reproaches of his pretended friends, he is more
vehemently exafperated, and the too great confidence
in his own righteoufnefs leads him to expoftulate with
God in terms fcarcely confillent with piety and Arid
decorum.
It muft be obferved, that the firft fpeech of Job,
though it burfts forth with all the vehemence of pafiion,
confilts wholly of complaint, “ the words and fenti¬
ments of a delpairing perfon, empty as the wind * *Jub vl.
which
there were people beyond the boundaries of Egypt, and bordering on the fouth of Judea, who were famous for
wifdom, namely, the Idumteans (fee Jer. xlix. 7. Ob. 8.), to whom we may well believe this paffage might have
fome relation. Thus Jehovah addreffes the Babylonians ; “ Arife, afeend unto Kedar, and lay waite the ch.l-
dren of the Eaft,” (Jer. xlix. 28). notwithftanding thefe were really fituatedto the weft of Babylon. Although
Job, therefore, be accounted one of the orientals, it by no means follows that his refidence muft be in Arabia
Deferta • ^
» Elibha’z the Temamte was the fon of Efau, and Teman the fon of Eliphaz, (Gen. xxxvi. 10, i t.). The
Eliphaz of Job was without a doubt of this race. Teman is certainly a city of Idumaea, (Jer. xlix, 7, 20.
Ezek. xxv. 13. Amos i. 11, 12. Ob. 8, 9.). , , . „ . . ,
“Bilda.i the Shuhite: Shuab was one of the fons of Abraham by Keturah, whdfe pofterity were numbered among
the people of the Eaft, and his fituation was probably contiguous to that of his brother Midian, and of his ne*
phews Shebah and Dedan, (fee Gen. xxv. 2, and 3.) Dedan is a city of Idumaea (Jer. xlix. 8.), and feems to
have been fituated on the eatlern fide, as Teman was on the weft, (Ezek. xxv. 13.). From Sheba originated
the Sabaeans in the paffage from Arabia Felix to the Red Sea: Sheba is united to Midian (Ifa. lx. 6.); it is in
the fame region however with Midian, and not far from Mount Horeb, (Exod. ii. 15. in. !•) .
“ Zopbor the N-'.amath'ite : among the cities which by lot tell to the tribe of Judah, in the neighbourhood of
Idumaea, Naama is enumerated, (Jofh. xv. 21, 41.) Nor does this name elfewhere occur j this probably was the
country of Zophar. . . , , . .
“ Klihu the Bu%He: Buz occurs but once as the name of a place or country (Jer. xxv. 23.), where it 1^men¬
tioned along with Dedan and Thema : Dedan, as was juft now demonilrated, is a city of Idumsa Thema
belonged to the children of Ifhmael, who are faid to have inhabited from Havilah, even to Shur, which is fit
the diftrift of Egypt, (Gen. xxv. 15. 18.) Saul, however, is faid to have fmitten the Amalekites from Havi-
lah even to Shur, which is in the diftrift of Egypt, (1 Sam. xv. 7.) Havilah cannot, therefore, he very far
from the boundaries of the Amalekites ; but the Amalekites never exceeded the boundaries of Arabia Petraea.
f See Reland Pabeftin. lib. i. c. xiv.) Thema, therefore, lay fomewhere between Havilah and the defert of Shur,
to the fouth ward of Judea. Thema is alfo mentioned in conne&ion with Sheba, (Job vi. 19.)
“ Upon a fair review of thefe fafts, I think we may venture to conclude, ftill with that modefty which fuch a
queftion demands, that Job was an inhabitant of Arabia Petrasa, as well as his friends, or at leaft of that neigh¬
bourhood. To this folution one objection may be railed: it may be afked, How the Chaldeans, who lived ou
the borders of the Euphrates, could make depredations on the camels of Job, who lived in Idumaea at fo great a
dlftance ? This too is thought a fufficient caufe for affigning Job a fituation in Arabia Deferta, and not far from
the Euphrates. But what fhould prevent the Chaldeans, as well as the Sabasans, a people addicted to rapine, and
roving about at immenfe diftances for the fake of plunder, from wandering through thefe defencelefs regions, which
were divided into tribes and families rather than into nations, and pervading, from Euphrates even to Egypt ?
Further, I would afk on the other hand, whether it be probable that all the friends of Job who lived in Idumaea
and its neighbourhood, fhould inftantly be informed of all that could happen to Job in the defert of Arabia
and on the confines of Chaldea, and immediately repair thither ? Or whether it be reafonable to think, that, fome
of them being inhabitants of Arabia Deferta, it fhould be concerted among them to meet at the refidence of Job ;
fince it is evident, that Eliphaz lived at Theman, in the extreme parts of Idumaea ? With refpea to the _ /itfitas
of Ptolemy (for fo it is written, and not Aujltas) it has no agreement, not fo much as in a fingle letter with the
Hebrew Unutz The: LXX indeed call that country by the name Aujitida, but they deicribe it as fituated in
Idumaea ; and they account Job himfelf an Idumaean, and a defeendant of Efau.” See the Appendix of the
LXX to the book of Job, and Hyde Not. in Peritzol. chap. xi. Lowth on Hebrew Poetry.
-SCR I x
Scripture, winch is indeed the apology that he immediately makes
- for his conduit; intimating, that he is far from prefu¬
ming to plead with God, far from daring to call in qud-
tion the divine decrees, or even to mention his own in-
" nocence in the prefence of his all-juft Creator j nor is
there any good reaCon for the cenfure which has been
paired by fome commentators upon this pafTage. The
poet feems, with great judgment and ingenuity, to have
performed in this what the nature of.his. work required.
He has depiited the aiBidtion and augurih of Job, as
flowing from his wounded heart in a manner fo agree¬
able to hum:.a nature (and certainly fo far venial), that
it may be truly faid, “ in' all this Job finned not with
his lips.” It is, never thelefs, embellifhed by fuch af-
feating imagery, and infpired with fuch a warmth and
force of fentiment, that we find it afforded, ample fcope
for calumny ; nor did the unkind witneffes of his fuffer-
ings permit fo fair an opportunity to efcape. The
oecafron is eagerly embraced by Eliphaz to rebuke the
impatience of Job ; and, not satisfied with this, he pro¬
ceed: to accufe him in direft terms of wanting forti¬
tude, and obliquely to inlrnuate fomething of a deeper
dye. Though deeply hurt with the coarle reproaches
of Eliphaz, flill, however, when Job afterwards com¬
plains of the feverity of God, lie cautioufly refrains
from violent expoftulations with his Creator, and, con¬
tented with the Ample expreffion of affliction, he humbly
f Seecha;, confeffes himfelf a firmer ^[. Elence it is evident, that
ra. so. thofe vehement and perverfe atteflations of his inno¬
cence, thofe murmurs againfl the divine Providence,
which his tottering virtue afterwards permits, are to be
confidered merely as the conlequences of momentary
paffion, and not as the ordinary effects of his fettled
character or manners. They prove him at the very
worft not an irreligious man, but a rnau pofieffed of in¬
tegrity, and too confident of it ; a man oppreffed with
almoft every imaginable evil, both corporal and mental,
and hurried beyond the limits of virtue by the ftrong
influence ,of pain and affliftion. When, on the con¬
trary, his importunate vifltors abandon by filence the
cauie which they had fo wantonly and fo malicioufly
maintained, and ceale unjuftly to load him with un¬
merited criminations ; though he defends his argument
with fcarcely-lefs obftinacy, yet the vehemence of his
grief appears gradually to fublide; he returns to himfelf,
and explains his fentiments with more candour and fe-
datenefs : and however we may blame him for- affuraing
rather too much of arrogance in his appeals to the Al¬
mighty, certainly his deience againtl the accufations of
33 Eliphaz is no'more than the occafion will ftr.Ldtiy jufti-
lis coijfi- fy. Obferve, in the firft place, how admirably the con-
£?feY*nd ^enceanc* perfeverance of Job is difplayed in replying
to the flander of his falfe friends:
As God liveth, who hath removed my judgment;
Nay, as the Almighty liveth, who hath embittered my
foul;
Verily as long as I have life in me.
And the breath of God is in my neftrils;
My lips fhall not fpeak perverfity,
Neither fh?.U my tongue w-hifper prevarication.
rG°d f°rbid that I fhould declare you righteous !
I ill I expire I will not remove my integrity from me.
X have fortified myftlf in my righteoufnefs,
And I will not give up my ftation :
My heart fliall not upbraid me as long as I live.
17 J S C. R
May mine enemy be as the impious man,
And he that rifeth up againft me as the wicked [|.
But how magnificent, how noble, how inviting and
beautiful is that image of virtue in which he delineates
his pad life ! What dignity and authority does he feem
to poffcfs !
Scripture.
[| Chap,
xxvii. 2—7»
If I came out to the gate, nigh the place of public re*
fort,
If I took up my feat iu the ftreet;
Tire,young men faw me, and they hid themfelves ;
Nay, the very old men rofe up and flood,
d he princes refrained talking,
Nay, they laid their hands-on their mouths.
"i he nobles held their peace,
And their tongue cleaved to the roof of their mouth fChap.
What liberality ! what a promptitude in beneficence ! ^
Becaufe the ear heard, therefore it biefled me ;
The eye alio faw, therefore it bare teflimony for me.
That I delivered the poor who cried,
Tire orphan alio, and him who had no helper.
The blefiing of him w ho was ready to perhh came Upon
me,
And I caufed the heart of the widow to fing for joy jj. j| Chap.
What fan&ity, what integrity in a judicial capacity ! ^*X’
I put on righteoufnefs, and it clothed me like a robe ;
My juflice alio was a diadem.
1 was a father to the poor,
And the con-troverfy which I knew not, I fearched it
out.
Then brake I the grinders of the oppreflbr,
And I plucked the prey out of his teeth f Chap.
But what can be more engaging than the purity of his
devotion, and his reverence for the Supreme Being,
founded upon the belt and mo’fl philofophical princi¬
ples ? Btfides that through the whole there runs a flrain
of the moft amiable tendernefs and humanity :
lor what is the portion which God diftributeth from
above,
And the inheritance of the Almighty from on high ?
Is it not defiruAion to the wicked,
And banifhmcut from their country to tire doers of ini¬
quity ?
Doth he not fee my ways ?
And numbereth he not all my fleps ?
If I fhould deipite the caole of my lea vaot,
Or my maid, when they had a controverly with me,
What then fiiptfid I do when Gad arifeth,
Anti, when he vifiteth, what anfwer could I make him?
Did not he who formed me in the belly form him.
And did not one Mbaoa us m the -womb i! i
II ChaP*
The three friends are exa&ly fuch chara&ers as thex*xi 3—4*
nature of the poem required. They are fevSre, irrita- ^—15'
bie, malignant cenfors, readily and with apparent fatis- chafaders
fa&ion deviating fiom the purpofe of conlolation into of his three
reproof and contumely. Even from the very firft theyfi'en^3*
manifeft this evil propennty, and indicate what is to be
expected from them. The firft of them, indeed, iir the
opening of his harangue, allumes an air of eandutir :
Would ft thou take it unkindly that one ihould efiav to
fpeak to thee Chap,
IndignationIV' i’
/-Scripture.
|| Chap,
-viii. *.
•Chap.
*»• i> 3‘
35
.Of Elihu.
36
Sentiments
of he
poem of
Job.
|| Chap,
xiv. i, 2,
3»
SCR . ^ 11
Indignation is, however, inflantly predominant:
But a few words who can forbear ?
The fecond flames forth at once :
How long wilt thou trifle in this manner ?
How long fhall the words of thy mouth be as a mighty
wind || ?
But remark the third :
Shall not the matter of words be anfwered ?
Or fhall a man be acquitted for his fine fpeeches ?
Shall thy prevarications make men filent ?
Shalt thou even feoff, and there be no one to make thee
afhamed * i
The lenity and moderation of Elihu ferves as a beau¬
tiful contrail to the intemperance and afperity of the
other three. He is pious, mild, and equitable ; equal¬
ly free from adulation and feverity ; and endued with
Angular wifdom, which he attributes entirely to the infpi-
ration of God : and his snodefty, moderation, and wif-
dom, are the more entitled to commendation when we
confider his unripe youth. As the chara&ers of his
detradlors were in all refpe£ls calculated to inflame the
mind of Job, that of this arbitrator is admirably adapted
to footh and compofe it: to this point the whole drift
of the argument tends, and on this the very purport of
it feems to depend.
Another circumftance deferving particular attention
in a poem of this kind, is the fentiment ; which mutt be
■agreeable to the fubjedl, and embellifhed with proper
expreffion. It is by Ariftotle enumerated among the
effentials of a dramatic poem ; not indeed as peculiar to
that fpecies of poetry alone, but as common, and of the
greateft importance, to all. Manners or chara&er are
effential only to that poetry in which living perfons are
introduced ; and all fuch poems mutt afford an exa<5t
reprefentation of human manners: but fentiment is
effential to every poem, indeed to every compofltion
whatever. It refpetts both perfons and things. As far
as it regards perfons, it is particularly concerned in the
delineation of the manners and paffions : and thofe in-
ilances to which we have juft been adverting are fenti-
ments expreflive of manners. Thofe which relate to the
delineation of the paffions, and to the defeription of
other objefts, yet remain unnoticed.
The poem of Job abounds chiefly in the more vehe¬
ment paffions, grief and anger, indignation and violent
contention. It is adapted in every refpedt to the in¬
citement of terror and, as the fpecimens already quo¬
ted will fufficiently prove, is univerfally animated with
the true fpirit of fublimity. It is however not wanting
in the gentler affections. The following complaints, for
inftance, are replete with an affedting fpirit of melan¬
choly :
Man, the offspring of a woman,
Is of few days, and full of inquietude ;
He fpringeth up, and is cut off like a flower ;
He fleeteth like a (hadow, and doth not abide :
Up on fuch a creature doft thou open thine eyes ?
And wilt thou bring even me into judgment with thee?
Turn thy look from him, that he may have fome re-
fpite,
Till he (hall, like a hireling, have completed his day |j.
8 1 SCR
The whole paflage abounds with the mod beautiful Scripiurgi
imagery, and is a moft perfedt fpecimen of the Elegiac.  v'—'
His grief afterwards becomes more fervent; but is at
the fame time foft and querimonious.
How long will ye vex my foul,
And tire me with vain harangues?
Thefe ten times have ye loaded me with reproaches,
Are ye not aftiamed that ye are fo obftinate againft me ?
Pity me, O pity me, ye are my friends,
For the hand of God hath fmitten me.
Why will you be my perfecutors as well as God,
And therefore will ye not be fatisfied with my fleftr ^
XIX, 2,
The ardour and alacrity of the war-horfe, and hisil>4**
eagernefs for battle, is painted with a mafterly hand: lts
Foreagernefs and fury he devoureth the very ground : mity*
He believeth it not when he heareth the trumpet.
When the trumpet foundeth, he faith, ahah !
Yea he feenteth the battle from afar,
The thunder of the chieftains and their fhouts^. ^ Cfap.
The following fublime defeription of the creation i3xxxixi4f>
admirable:
Where waft thou when I laid the foundations of the
earth ?
If thou knoweft, declare.
Say, who fixed the proportions of it, for furely thou
knoweft ?
Or who ftretched out the line upon it ?
Upon what were its foundations fixed ?
Or who laid the corner-ftone thereof ?
When the morning-ftars fung together,
And all the fons of God fhouted for joy ;
When the fea was fhut up with doors ;
When it burft forth as an infant that cometh out of
the womb ;
When I placed the cloud for its robe.
And thick darknefs for its fwadling-band;
When I fixed my boundary againft it,
When I placed a bar and gates;
When I faid, Thus far fhalt thou come, and not ad¬
vance,
And here fhall a flop be put to the pride of thy waves!. 11°^
Let it fuffice to fay, that the dignity of the flyle is
anfwerable to that of the fubjedl; its force and energy,
to the greatnefs of thofe paffions which it deferibes :
and as this produdlion excels all the other remains of
the Hebrew poetry in economy and arrangement, fo it
yields to none in fublimity of flyle and in every grace
and excellence of compofition. Among the principal of
thefe may be accounted the accurate and perfectly poe¬
tical conformation of the fentences, which is indeed ge¬
nerally moft obfervable in the moll ancient of the poeti¬
cal compofitions of the Hebrews. Here, however, as is
natural and proper in a poem of fo great length and
fublimity, the writer’s fkill is difplayed in the proper
adjuflment of the period, and in the accurate diflribu-
tion of the members, rather than in the antithefis of
words, or in any laboured adaptation of the paralle-
liims. 38
The word Pfalms is a Greek term, and fignifies Son^j.The book
The Hebrews call it Seper Tehellm§, that is, “the Book£f
of Praifes and in the Gofpel it is flyled the Book or n
Pialms. Great veneration has always been paid to this
colkctioii*
SCR [ 119 ] SCR
cripture colie&ton of divine fongs. The Chrillian church has
•—/  from the beginning made them a principal part of her
holy fervices ; and in the primitive times it was almoft
a general rule that every biihop, prieft, and religious
perfon, fhould have the pfalter by heart.
Many learned fathers, and not a few of the moderns,
have maintained that David was the author of them all.
Several are of a different opinion, and infill that David
wrote only 72 of them ; and that thofe without titles
are to be afcribed to the authors of the preceding pfalms,
whofe names are affixed to them. Thofe who fuppofe
that David alone was the author, contend, that in the
New Teftament, and in the language of the church uni-
verfal, they are exprefsly called the Pfalms of David.
That David was the principal author of thefe hymns is
univerfally acknowledged, and therefore the whole eol-
leftion may properly enough go under his name ; but
that he. wrote them all, is a palpable miftake. Nothing
certain can be gathered from the titles of tire pfalms ;
for although unqueftionably very ancient, yet authors
are not agreed as to their authority, and they differ as
much about their fignificatien. The Hebrew do&ors
generally agree that the 9 2d pfalm was compofed by
1 Adam ; an opinion which for many reafons we are not
Written by inclined to adopt. There feems, however, to be no
•thonr doubt but that fome of them were written by Mofes;
I f * that Solomon was the author of the 49th ; and that
others were occafioned by events long poflerior to the
flourifhing era of the kingdom of Judah. The 137th
particularly is one of thofe which mentions the captivi¬
ty of Babylon.
The following arrangement of the Plalms, after a
careful and judicious examination, has been adopted by
Calmet.
J. Eight Pfalms of which the date is uncertain, viz.
1, 4, 19, 8 1, 91, 1 re, 139,145. The firft of thefe
was compofed by David or Ezra, and was fung in the
temple at the feafl of trumpets held in the beginning
of the year and at the feafl of tabernacles. The 81 il
it attributed to Afaph, and noth to David. The au¬
thors of the reft are unknown.
2. 1 he Pfalms compoftd by David during the per-
fecution of Saul. rl hefe are feventeen, 11, 31, 34,
56, 16, 54, 52, 109, 17, 22, 35, 57, 58, 142, 140,
M1* 7;
3. The Pfalms compofed by David at the beginning
of his reign, and after the death of Saul. Thele are
fixteen, 2,9, 24, 63, 101, 29, 20, 21, 28, 39, 40, 41,
51’ 32, 33-
4. The Pfalms written by David during the rebellion
ef Abfalom are eight in number; 3, 4, 55, 62, 70, 71,
H3> J44-
5. The Pfalms written between the death of Abfa¬
lom and the captivity, which are ten, 18, 30, 72, 45,
78, 82, 83, 76, 74, 79: of thefe David wrote only
three; 18, 30, and 72.
6. The Pfalms compofed during the captivity, which
amount to forty. Thefe were chiefly cornpofed by the
defcendants of Afaph and K.orah : they are, 10, 12,13,
53> l5> 2J> 26, 27, 28, 36, 37, 42> 43, 44, 49,
50, 60, 64, 69, 73, 75, 77, 80, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, Scripture
92> 93> 94^95> 99> I2°, *21, 123, 130, 131, 132. —-v—»*
Daftly, Thofe hymns of joy and thankfgiving, writ¬
ten upon the releafe from the Babylonifh captivity, and
at the building and dedication of the temple. Thefe
are, 122, 61, 63, 124, 23, 87, 85, 46, 47, 48, from
96 to 117 inclufive, 126, 133 to 137 inclufive, 149,
150, 146, 147, 148, 59, 65, 66, 67, 118, 125,
127, 128, 129, 138.—According to this diflribution,
only 45 are pofitivdy affigned to David.
Jofephus, and mofl of the ancient writers, affiert, that
the Pfalms were compofed in numbers : little, however,
refpedting the nature and principles of the Hebrew
verfification is known.
There exifted a certain kind o£ poetry among the Obfetva-
Hebrews, principally intended, it fhould feem, for thet'om on the
affiftance of the memory ; in which, when there was Hebrew
little connection between the fentiments, a fort of or-r’°etr}r'
der or method was preferved, by the initial letters of
each line or flanza following the order of the alphabet.
Of tins there are feveral examples extant among the
facred poems (r) ; and in thefe examples the verfes are
fo exaftly marked and defined, that it is impoffible to
miftake them for profe ; and particularly if we atten¬
tively confider the verfes, and compare them with one
another, fince they are in general fo regularly accommo¬
dated, that word anfwers to word, and almoft fylhble
to fyllable. This being the cafe, though an appeal
can fcarcely be made to the ear on this occafion, the
eye itfelf will diftinguifh the poetic divifion and arrange¬
ment, and alfo that fome labour and accuracy has been
employed in adapting the words to the meafure.
Ehe Hebrew poetry has likewife another property
altogether peculiar to metrical compofition. It admits
foreign words and certain particles, which feldom occur in
profe compofition, and thus forms a diftind poetical dia¬
led. One or two of the peculiarities alfo of the Hebrew
verfification it may be proper to remark, which as they
are very obfervable in thofe poems in which the verfes
are defined by the initial letters, may at lead be reafon-
ably conjedured of the reft. The firft of thefe is, that
the verfes are very unequal in length; the fhorteft con-
fifting of fix or feven fyllables; the longeft extending
to about twice that number : the fame poem is, how¬
ever, generally continued throughout in verfes not very
unequal to each other. It mull alfo be obferved, that
the clofe of the verfe generally falls where the members
of the fentences are divided.
But although nothing certain can be defined con-
ce.mng the metre of the particular verfes, there is yet
another artifice of poetry to be remarked of them when
in a colledive ftate, when feveral of them are taken to¬
gether. In the Hebrew poetry, as is before remarked,
there may be obferved a certain conformation of the
fentences; the nature of which is, that a complete fenfe
is almoft equally infufed into every component part, and
that every member conftitutes an entire verfe. So that
as the poems divide themfelves in a manner fpontane-
offily into periods, for the moft part equal ; .fo the pe- •
riods themfelves are divided into verfes, moll common-
¥
(1) Pfalms xxv. xxxiv. xxxvii. cxi. cxii. cxix. cxlv. Prov. xxxi. from the 10th verfe to the
ax ine Damentations of Jeremiah except the laft chapter.
end,
The whole-
I
4J
Pc culia' i-
ties of it.
sen [ >
Scripture. I; co'.lplets, tliouch frequently of [Treater length. 1 hw
  is chiefly obfervable in thofe paffaoes which frequently
occur in the Hebrew poetry, in which they treat one
fubjed in many different ways, and dwell upon the lame
fentiment ; when they expreis the fame^ thing in difle-
rent words, or different things in a limilar form of
words; when equals refer to equals, and oppoutes to
oppofites : and fince this artifice of compolition feldom
fails to produce even in profe an agreeable and men u-
red cadence—wre can fcarcely doubt that it muff have
imparted to their poetry, were we mailers of the verfi-
f cat ion, an exqnifite deg-ree of beauty and grace.
The elegant and ingenious Dr Lowth has with great
acutenefs examined the peculiarities of Hebrew poetiy,
and has arranged them under general diviflons. T he
correfpondence of one verfe or line with another he calls
pnraM/m. When a propoiition is delivered, and a fe-
cond is fubjoined to it, equivalent or contrafted with it
in fenfe, or fimikr to it in the form of grammatical
conftrudlion, thefe he calls parallel lines; and the woids
or phrafes anfwering one to another in the correfpond-
ing lines, parallel terms. Parallel lines he reduces to
three forts", parallels fynonymous, parallels antithetic,
and parallels fynthetic. Of each of thefc we fhall pre-
fent a few examples.
Firft, of parallel lines fynonymous, which conefpond
one to another by expreffing the fame fenfe in different
but equivalent terms.
O-Jehovah, in-thy-ftrength the-king fhall-rejoice •,
And-in thy-falvation how greatly fhall-he-exult !
The-defire of-his-heart thou-haff-granted unto-him ;
And-the-requeft of-his-lips thou-haft-not denied..
Pf. xxi. I. 2.
20 ] SCR
of three, or more fynonymous terms. Sometimes they !
are formed by a repetition of part of the firff fentence;
As,
What {hall I do unto thee, O Ephraim !
What fhall I do unto thee, O Judah !
For your goodnefs is as the morning cloud,
And as the early dew it paffeth away.
Hofea vi. 4.
The following is a beautiful inflance of a parallel
triplet, when three lines correfpond and form a kind 01
ftanza, of which two only are fynonymous.
That day, let it become darknefs;
Let not God from above inquire after it ;
Nor let the flowing light radiate upon it.
That night, let utter darknefs feize it ;
Let it not be united with the days or the year ;
Let it not come into the number of the months.
Let the ftars of its twilight be darkened :
Let it look for light, and may there be none ;
And let it not behold the eyelids of the morning.
Job iii. 4, 6, 9.
The fecond fort of parallels are the antithetic, when
two lines correfpond with one another by an oppofition
of terms and fentiments ; when the fecond is contraffed
with the firff, fometimes in exprefiions, fometimes in
fenfe only. Accordingly the degrees of antithefis are
various : from an exa6l contrapofition of word to word
through the whole fentence, down to a general difparity,
with fomething of a contrariety, in the two propofi*
tions. Thus in the following examples :
A wife fon rejoiceth his father ;
But a foolilh fon is the gijtf of his mother.
Prov. x. I.
Becaufe I-called, and-ye*refufed ;
I-ftretched-out my-hand, and-no-one regarded :
But-ye-have-defeated all my-counfel;
And-would-not incline to-my-reproof:
T alfo will-laugh at-your-calamity ;
I-will-mock, when-vvhat-you-feared cometh ;
When-what-you-feared cometh like-a-devaftation ;
And-your-calamity advanceth like-a-tempeff;
When diftrefs and-anguifh come upon-you :
Then fhall they-call-upon-me, but-I-will-not anfwer ;
They-fhall-feek-me-early, but-they-fhall-not find-me :
Becaufe they-hated knowledge ;
And-did-not choofe the-fear of-Jehovah ;
Did-not incline to-my-counfel;
Contemptuoufly-reje&ed all my-reproof;
Therefore-fhall-they-eat of-the-fruit of-their-ways ;
And-fhall-be-fcffiated with-their-own-devices.
For the-defedlion of-the-fimple £hall-flay-them ;
And-the-fecurity of-fools fhall-deftroy them.
Prov. i. 24—32.
Seek-ye Jehovah, while-ire- may-be-found ;
Call-ye-upon-him, while-he-is near :
Let-the-wicked forfake his-way ;
And-the-umighteous man his-thoughts:
And-let-him-return to Jehovah, and-he-will-compafTion-
ate-him ;
And unto our-God, for he-aboundeth in-forgivenefs (k).
Ifaiah iv. 6. 7.
Thefe fyndnymous parallels fometimes confifl of two,
Where every word hath its oppofite ; for the terms
father and mother are, as the logicians lay, relatively op*
polite.
The memory of the juft is a blefiing ;
But the name of the wicked fhall rot. Prov. x. 7.
Here there are only two antithetic terms: for memory'
and name are fynenymous.
There is that fcattereth, and ftill increafeth ;
And that is unreafonably {paring, yet groweth poor.
Prov. xi. 24.
Here there is a kind of double antithelis ; one between
the two lines themfelves ; and likewife a fubordinate op¬
pofition between the two parts of each.
Thefe in chariots, and thofe in horfes ;
But we in the name of Jehovah our God will be ftrong.
They are bowed down, and fallen ;
But we are rifen, and maintain ourfelves firm.
Pf. xx. 7, 8.
For his wrath is but for a moment, his favour for life;
Sorrow may lodge for the evening, but in the morning
gladnefs. Pf. xxx. 5.
Yet a little while, and the wicked fhall be no more ;
Thou fhalt look at his place, and he fhall not be found :
But the meek fhall inherit the land;
And delight themfelves in abundant profperity.
Pf. xxxvii. 10, II.
In
(k) All the words bound together by hyphens anfwer to Angle words in Hebrew.
SCR- [ i
In the laft example the oppofition lies hetwecti the two
' par ts of a ftanza of four lines, the latter diftich being
oppofed to the former. So likewife the following :
For the mountains (hall be removed ;
And the hills (hall be overthrown;
But my kindnefs from thee (hall not be removed ;
And the covenant of my peace (hall not be overthrown,
Ifaiah liv. 10.
Ifaiah by means of the antithetic parallelifm, without
departing from his ufual dignity, adds greatly to the
fweetnefs of his compofition in the following inftances:
In a little anger have I forfaken thee ;
But with great mercies will I receive thee again :
In a (hort wrath I hid my face for a moment from thee;
But with everlahing kindnefs will I have mercy on thee.
Ifaiah liv. 7, 8.
Behold my fervants (hall eat, but ye (hall be (amifhed ;
Behold my fervants (hall drink, but ye (hall be thirfty ;
Behold my fervants fnall rejoice, but ye (hall be con¬
founded ;
Behold my fervants (hall fing aloud, for gladnefs of
heart,
But ye (hall cry aloud for grief of heart ;
And in the anguxfh of a broken fpirit (hall ye howl.
Ifaiah Ixv. 13, 14.
Frequently one line or member contain! two fenti-
ments;
The nations raged; the kingdoms were moved;
He uttered a voice ; the earth was diflblved:
Be (till, and know that I am God :
I will be exalted in the nations, I will be exalted in the
earth. Pf. xlvi. 6. 10.
When thou pafTeft through waters I am with thee ;
And through rivers, tlrey (hall not overwhelm thee ;
When thou walked in the fire thou (halt not be fcorched;
And the flame (hall not cleave to thee.
Ifaiah xliri. 2.
The third fort of parallels is the fynthetic or con-
ilru&ive ; where the parallelifm conflits only in the £-
milar form of conftnndion ; in which word does not
anfwer to word, and fentence to fentence, as equivalent
or oppofite ; but there is a correfpondence and equality
between different propolitions, in refpe£Fof the (hape
and turn of the whole fentence, and of the condruftive
parts ; fuch as noun anfwering to noun, verb to verb,
member to member, negative to negative, interrogative
to interrogative.
Lo! he withholdeth the waters, and they are dried up :
And he fendeth them forth, and they overturn the earth.
With him is drength, and perfeft exidence;
The deceived, and the deceiver, are his.
Job xii. 13—16.
Is fuch then the fad which I choofe ?
That a man (hould afflift his foul for a day ?
Is it, that he (hould bow down his head like a bulrufh,
And fpread fackcloth and a(hes for his couch ?
Shall this be called a fad,
And a day acceptable to Jehovah ?
Is not this the (ad that I choofe ?
To diffolve the bands of wickednefs ;
To loofen the oppreflxve burthens ;
To deliver thofe that are crufhed by violence ;
Vau XVII. Parti.
21 1 SCR
And that ye (houtd break afunder every yoke ? Scripture,
Is it not to didribute thy bx-ead to the hungry ; v—.y——i
And to bring the wandering poor into thy houfe ?
When thou feed the naked, that thou clothe him ;
And that thou hide not thyfelf from thine own flefh ?
Then (hall thy light break forth like the morning ;
And thy wounds (hall fpeedily be healed over ;
And thy righteoufnefs (hall go before thee;
And the glory of Jehovah (hall bring up thy rear.M
Ifaiah Iviii. 5 —8,
We (hall produce another example of this fpecies of
parallelifm from Pf. xix. 8—11. from Dr Lowth:
The law of Jehovah is perfeft, redoring the foul;
The tedimony of Jehovah is fure, making wife the
fxmple :
The precepts of Jehovah are right, rejoicing the heart;
The commandment of Jehovah is clear, enlightening
the eyes :
The fear of Jehovah is pure, enduring for ever ;
The judgments of Jehovah are truth, they are jud alto¬
gether.
More defirable than gold, or than much fine gold ;
And fweeter than honey, or the dropping of honey¬
combs.
Synonymous parallels have the appearance of art and
concinnity, and a dudied elegance ; they prevail chiefly
in (horter poems ; in many of the Pfalms ; in Balaam’s
prophecies ; frequently in thofe of Ifaiah, which are
mod of them dillindt poems of no great length. The
antithetic parallelifm gives an acutenefs and force to
adages and moral fentences ; and therefore abounds in
Solomon’s Proverbs, and eUewheie is not often to be
met with. The poem of Job, being on a large plan,
and in a high tragic dyle, though very exact in the di~
vifion of the lines and in the paralleliirn, and affording
many fine examples of the fynonymou-s kind, yet con-
fids chiefly of the condruritive. A happy mixture of
the feveral forts gives an agreeable variety : and they
ferve mutually to recommend and fet off one another.
The reader will perceive that we have derived every
thing we have faid relating to Hebrew poetry from the
elegant Lectures of Dr Lowth, which are beautifully
tranflated by Mr Gregory, a didinguidied author as
well as tranflator. 4*
The book of Proverbs has always been accounted ca-The brok
nonical. The Hebrew title of it is Mi/hli*, which fig-°( fro*
nifies “ fimilitudes.” It has always been aferibed to So -
lomon, whofe name it bears, though fome have doubted
whether he really was the author of every one of the
maxims which it contains. Thofe in chap. xxx. are in¬
deed called the ivordi of Jgur the fon of jfaheh, and
the title of the 31 d or lad chapter is the words of
King Lemuel. It feems certain that the collection call¬
ed the Proverbs of Solomon was digeded in the 01-der in
which we now have it by different hands; but it is
not, therefore, to be concluded that they are not the
work of Solomon. Several perfons might have made
collections of them ; Heaekiah, among others, as men¬
tioned chapter xxv. h gur and Ezra might have dene
the fame. From thefe feveral collections the work was
compiled which we have now in our hands.
The book of Proverbs may be confidered under five
divifions. 1. The fird, which is a kind of preface, ex-
tends
SCR t
Scripture, tends to the loth chapter. This contains general cau-
"“v tions and exhortations for a teacher to his pupil* ex-
prefTed in elegant language, duly connefted in its parts,
ill nitrated with beautiful defcription, and well contrived
to engage and intereft the attention.
2. The fecond part extends from the beginning of
chap. x. to chap. xxii. 17. and confilts of what may
flriftly and properly be called proverbs, viz. unconnedt-
ed fentences, expreiTed with much neatnefs and iimpli-
city. They are truly, to ufe the language of their fage
author, “ apples of gold in pictures of filver.”
3. In the third part, which is included between chap¬
ter xxii. 16. and chapter xxv. the tutor drops the fen-
tentious ftyle, addrefles his pupil as prcfent, and delivers
his advices in a connedfed manner.
4. The proverbs which are included between chapter
xxv. and chapter xxx. are fuppofed to have been feletl-
ed by the men of Hezehnih from fome larger collection
of Solomon, that is, by the prophets whom he em¬
ployed to reftore the fervice and writings of the church.
Some of the proverbs which Solomon had introduced
into the former part of the book are here repeated.
5. The prudent admonitions which Agur delivered to
his pupils IthicI and Ucal are contained in the 30th
chapter, and in the 31ft are recorded the precepts which
the mother of Lemuel delivered to her fon.
Several references are evidently made to the book of
*R'>tn.xii. Proverbs by the writers of the New Teftament*.
The Proverbs- of Solomon afford fpecimens of the
didattic poetry of the Hebrews. They abound with
antithetic parallels ; for this form is peculiarly adapted
to that kind of writing, to adages, aphorilms, and de¬
tached fentences. Indeed, the elegance, acutenefs, and
force of a great number of Solomon’s wife fayings arife
in a great meafure from the antithetic form, the oppo-
fition of diction and fenliment. Take the following
examples:
The blows of a friend are faithful;
But the kiffes of an enemy are treacherous.
The cloyed will trample upon an honeycomb ;
But to the hungry every bitter thing is fweet.
There is who maketh himfelf rich, and wanteth all
things ;
Who maketh himfelf poor, yet hath much wealth.
The rich man is wife in his own eyes,
But the poor man that hath difcernment to trace him
out will defpife him*.
The Hebrew title of the book which we call Eccle-
fiaftes is Kehth, that is, the Gatherer or Co lie dor ;
and it is fo called, either beeaufe the work itfelf is a
collcdion of maxims, or becaufe it was delivered to an
aiTembly gathered together to hear them.. The Greek
term Ecclefajles is of the fame import, fignifying one
who gathers together a congregation, or who difcourfes
or preaches to an aflembly convened. That Solomon
was the author of this book is beyond all doubt; the
beautiful defcription of tire phenomena in the natural
world, and their caufes ; of the circulation of the
blood, as fome think *, and the economy of the hu¬
man frame, fhews it to be the work of a philofopher.
At what period’ of his life it was written may be eafily
found out. The alfeCfing account of the infirmities of
old age which it contains, is a ftrong indication that the
author knew by experience what they were; and; his
16,10.
1 Pet. iv
8. v. 5.
James iv
6.
* Proverbs
xxvii. 6, 7.
xiii. 7.
xxviii. 11.
4.1
Dcdefiaftes
^ See Hor-
Ser¬
mon before
the Humane
Society.
2 ] SCR
complete convi&ion of the vanity of all earthly enjoy- Scripture,
ments proves it to have been the work of a penitent,
Some pafTages in it feem, indeed, to expreCs an Epicu¬
rean notion of Providence. But it is to be obferved,
that the author, in an academic way, difputes on both
fides of the queftion ; and at lafl concludes properly,
that to “ fear God and keep his commandments is the
whole duty of man ; for God (fays he) will bring every
work to judgment, and every fecret thing, whether it
be good, or whether it be evil.”
The general tenor and flyle of Ecclefiafles is very dif¬
ferent from the book of Proverbs, though there are
many detached fentiments and proverbs interfperfed.
For the whole work is uniform, and confined to one
fubjeft, namely, the vanity of the world exemplified by pott‘.'lU
the experience of Solomon, who is introduced in the cha-
rafter of a perfon invefligating a very difficult quefliort,
examining the arguments on either fide, and at length
difengaging himfelf from an anxious and doubtful de¬
putation. It would be very difficult to diftinguifh the
parts and arrangement of this production ; the order of
the fubject, and the connexion of the arguments, are
involved in fo much obfeurity, that fcarcely any two
commentators have agreed concerning the plan of the
work, and the accurate divifion of it into parts or fec-
tions. The truth is, the laws of methodical compofi-
tion and arrangement were, neither known by the He¬
brews nor regarded in their didactic writings. They
uniformly retained the old fententious manner, nor did
they fubmit to method, even where the occafion appear¬
ed to demand it. Tfie ftyle of this work is, however, ,
fingular; the language is generally low ; it is frequently
loole, unconne&ed, approaching to the incorreftnefs of
converfation ; and poffefles very little of the poetical
charadler, even in the compofition and ftrufture of the
periods: which peculiarity may poflibly he accounted'
for from the nature of the fubjedl. Contrary to the opi¬
nion of the Rabbies, Ecclefiaftes has been claffed among
the poetical books ; though, if their authority and opi¬
nions were of any weight or importance, they might
perhaps on this occafion deferve fome attention.
The Song of Solomon, in the opinion of Dr Lowth, Song < f
is an epithalanvum or nuptial dialogue, in which the Salomon,
principal charafters are Solomon, his bride, and a cho¬
rus of virgins. Some are of opinion that it is to be
taken altogether in a literal fenfe; but the generality
of Jews and Chriftians have efteemed it wholly allego¬
rical, exprefiing the union of Jefus Chrift and the
church. Dr Lowth has fupported the common opi¬
nion, by {bowing that the facred writers often apply
metaphors to God and his people derived from the
conjugal ftate. Our Saviour is ftyled a bridegroom by
John the Baptift (John iii.), and is reprefented in the
fame character in the parable of the ten virgins. Mi-
chaelis, on the other hand, rejefts the argument drawn
from analogy as inconclufive, and the opinion of Jews
and Chriftians as of no, greater authority than the opi¬
nion of the moderns.
The fecond of thofe great divifions under which the
Jews clafled the books of the Old Teftament was
that of the Prophets, which formerly comprehended 16
books. -
The Prophets were 16 in number : Ifaiah, Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, Daniel, Hofea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah,
Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Ze-
chariafc,
hets,
46
"heir an-
SCR [1
'Rripttnr, chariah, Malachi. The four hr ft are called the greater
—11 v ” prophets ; the other twelve are denominated the minor
prophets.
Vritirgxof writ”1Ss °f ^ie Prophets are to Chriftians the
he pro- moft interefting part of the Old Teftament; for they af¬
ford one of the moft powerful arguments for the divine
origin of the Chriftian religion. If we could only
prove, therefore, that thefe prophecies were uttered a
lingle century before the events took place to which
they relate, their claim to infpiration would be unqutl-
tionable. But we can pro%’e that the interval between
their enunciation and accomplifhment extended much
farther, even to jco and icoq years, and in fome cafes
much more.
The books of the prophets are mentioned by Jo-
henticity fephus, and therefore furely exifted in his time ; they are
alio quoted by our Saviour, under the general denomina¬
tion of the Prophets. We are informed by Tacitus and
Suetonius, that about 60 years before the birth of our
Saviour there was an univerfal expe&ation in the eaft
of a great perfonage who was to arife ; and the fource
of this expedfation is traced by the fame writers to the
facred books of the Jews. They exifted alfo in the
time of Amtiochus Epiphanes, A. C. 166; for when
that tyrant prohibited the reading of the law, the books
of the Prophets were fubftituted is its place, and were
continued as a part of the daily fervice after the inter-
didf againft the law of Mofes was taken oft. We for¬
merly remarked, that references are made by the author
of Ecclefuijiicvs, A. C. 200, to the writings of Ifaiah,
Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, and that he mentions the 12
Prophets. We can afcend ftill higher, and aflert from
the language of the Prophets, that all their writings
muft have been compofed before the Babylonifh capti¬
vity, or within a century after it ; for all of them, ex¬
cept Daniel and Ezra, are compofed in Hebrew, and
even in them long paflages are found in that language :
but it is a well known fadf, that all the books written
by Jews about two centuries after that era are compo¬
fed in the Syriac, or Chaldaic, or Greek language.
“ Let any man (fays Michaelis) compare what was writ¬
ten in Hebrew after the Babylonifh exile, and, I appre¬
hend, he will perceive no lefs evident marks of decay
than in the Latin language.” Even in the time of Ez¬
ra, the common people, from their long relidence in
Babylonia, had forgotten the Hebrew, and it was ne-
ceflary for the learned to interpret the law of Mofes to
them. We can therefore afcertain with very confider-
able precifion the date of the prophetic writings;
which indeed is the only important point to be deter¬
mined : For whether we can difcover the authors or
not, if we can only eftablifh their ancient date, we fhall
be fully entitled to draw this conclufion, that the pre-
diffions of the Prophets are infpired.
Much has been written to explain the nature of in¬
fpiration, and to fhow by what methods God imparted
to the prophets that divine knowledge which they
were commanded to publifh to their countrymen. At¬
tempts have been made to difclofe the nature of dreams
and viftons, and to defcribe the ecftacy or rapture to
which the prophets were fuppofed to be raifed while
they uttered their predidlions. Not to mention the
degrading and indecent comparifon which this laft cir-
cumilance fuggefts, we fhall only inform thofe who ex-
pedf here an explanation of the prophetic dreams and
. 47
ind infpi-
ation.
23 ] S c. R
vifions, that tveJhatl not attempt to be nuife above ii'hat is S .Tipmrw
•written. The manner in which the allwife and unfeen v '
God may think proper to operate upon the minds of
his creatures, we might expett a prion to be myfterious
and inexplicable. Indeed fuch an inquiry, though it
were fuccefsful, would only gratify curiofity, without
being in the leaft degree conducive to ufeful know¬
ledge.
The bufinefs of philofophy is not to inquire how al¬
mighty power produced the frame of nature, and be¬
llowed upon it that beauty and grandenr which is eve¬
rywhere confpicuous, but to difcover thofe marks of in¬
telligence anddefign, and the various purpofes to which
the works of nature are fubfervient. Philofophy has
of late been diredfed to theology and the ftudy of the
Scriptures with the happieft eftedfs; but it is not per¬
mitted to enter within the vail which the Lord of Na¬
ture has thrown over his council*. Its province,
which is fufficiently extenfive, is to examine the lan¬
guage of the prophecies, and to difcover their appli¬
cation. 48
1 he charadter of the prophetic ftyle varies accord-Chara<3er
ing to the genius, the education, and mode of li-”^eJr
ving of the refpedlive authors ; but there are fome Pe* bolical
culiarities which run through the whole prophetic
books. A plain unadorned ftyle would not have fuit-
ed thofe men who were to wrap the myfteries of futu¬
rity in a veil, which was not to be penetrated till the
events themfelves ftiould be accomplifhed. For it was
never the intention of prophecy to unfold futurity to
our view, as many of the ralh interpreters of prophecy
fondly imagine ; for this would be inconfiftent with the
free agency of man. It was therefore agreeable to the
wifdom of God that prophecies fhould be couched in a
language which would render them unintelligible till
the period of their completion ; yet fuch a language
as is diftindf, regular, and would be eafrly explained
when the events themfelves ftiould have taken place.
This is precifely the charadter of the prophetic lan¬
guage. It is partly derived from the hieroglyphical
lymbols of Egypt, to which the Ilraelites during their
fervitude were familiarized, and partly from that ana-
logy which fublilts between natural objects and thofe
which are moral and political,
The prophets borrowed their imagery from the moft B..rrov,e<i
fplendid and fublime natural objedts, from the holt of from ana -
heaven, from feas and mountains, from ftorms and l°gy»
earthquakes, and from the moft linking revolutions in
nature. The celejiial bodies they ufed as fymbols toex-
prefs thrones and dignities, and thofe who enjoyed
them. Earth was the fymbol lor men of low eltate.
Hades repiefents the miserable. Afcendmg to heaven,
and defeending to earth, are phrafes which exprefs riling
to power, or falling from it. Great earthquakes, the
Jhaking of heaven and earth, denote the commotions and
overthrow of kingdoms. The fun reprefents the whole
race of kings Ihining writh regal power and glory. The
moon is the fymbol of the common people. The flats
are fubordinate princes and great men. Light denotes
glory, truth, or knowledge. Darknefs exprefles obfeu-
rity of condition, error, and ignorance. 1 he darkening
of the fun, the turning of the moon into blond, and the fall¬
ing of the Jlars, fignify the deftmdtion or defolation of
a kingdom. New moons, the returning of a nation from
a ditperled Hate. Conflagration of the earthy is the fym -
Q_2 bo!
s c
Scripture, bol Tor deftru&ion by war.
SCR
repugnant to the nature of pro- Scripture,
Si
3s aifo
joelical.
R [ >24 }
The afcent of fmoke from rangement utterly
any thing burning for ever, denotes the continuance of phecy.
a people under flavery. Riding in the cleuds, fignifies The other arguments, however, ought to be partx-
reigningover many fubjefts. Tempejluvus winds, ox motion cularly adverted, to upon this fubjeft : the poetic dia-
of the clouds, denote wars. Thunder denotes the noife left, for inftance,. the diftion fo totally different from
50
And fr< m
hierogly¬
phics.
of multitudes. Fountains of waters exprefs cities.
Mountains and ijlands, cities with' the territories belong¬
ing to them. Houfes and fhips ftand for families, af-
femblies, and towns. A forejl is put for a kingdom.
A wildernefs for a nation much diminifhed in its num¬
bers.
Animal?, as a liony bear, leopard, goat, are put for
kingdoms or political communities correfponding to
their refpeftive charafters. When a man or beaft is
put for a kingdom, the head reprefents thofe who go¬
vern ; the tail thofe who are governed ; the horns de¬
note the number of military powers or ftates that rife
from the head. Seeing fignifies underflanding ; eyes men
of underflanding ; the mouth denotes a lawgiver ; the
the language of common life, and other fimilar circum-
ftances, which an attentive reader will eafily difcover,
but which cannot be explained by a few examples ; for
circumftances which, taken feparately, appear but of
fmall account, are in a united view frequently of the
greateft importance. To thefe we may add the artifi¬
cial conformation of the fentences ; which are a necef-
fary concomitant of metrical compoiition, the only one
indeed which is now apparent, as it has always appear¬
ed to us.
The order in which the books of the minor prophets
are placed is not the fame in the Septuagint as in the
Hebrew *. According to the latter, they ftand as in * Cbronotu
our tranflation ; but in the Greek, the feries is altered S?
ot unaentanctmg ; tne moutb denotes a lawgiver ; the our tranllation ; but in the Greek, the lenes is altered^ J
arm of a man is put for power, or for the people by as to the fix firft, to the following arrangement: Ho- ^
whofe ftrength his power is exercifed ; feet reprefent the
loweft of the people.
Such is the precifion and regularity of the prophetic
language, which we learn to interpret by comparing
prophecies which are accomplifhed with the fafts to
which they correfpond. So far is the ftudy of it car¬
ried already, that a diftionary has been compofed to
explain it ; and it is probable, that in a fhort time it
may be fo fully underftood, that we fhall find little dif¬
ficulty in explaining any prophecy. But let us not
from this expeft, that the prophecies will enable us to
penetrate the dark clouds of futurity : No ! The diffi¬
culty of applying prophecies- to their correfpondfng
events, before completion, will ftill remain unfurmount-
able. 1 hofe men, therefore,, however pious and well-
meaning they may be, who attempt to explain and ap¬
ply prophecies which are not yet accompliftied, and
who delude the credulous multitude by their own ro¬
mantic conjeftures, cannot be acquitted of rafttnefs and
prefumption.
The prediftions of the prophets, according to the
opinion of Dr Lowth, are written in a poetic ftyle.
They poflefs indeed all the charafteriftics of Hebrew
poetry, with the fingle exception, that none of them
\Xy alphabetical or acroftic, which is an artificial ar-
fea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah. This change,
however, is of no confequence, fince neither in the ori¬
ginal, nor in the Septuagint, are they placed with ex-
aft regard to the time in which their facred authors re-
fpeftively ftouriftied.
The order in which they ffiould ftand, if chronologi¬
cally arranged, is by Blair and others fuppofed to be
as follows: Jonah, Amos, Hofea, Micah, Nahum, Joel,
Zephaniah, Habbakuk, Obadiah, Haggai, Zechariah,
Malachi. And this order will be found to be generally
confiftent with the periods to which the Prophets will
be refpeftively affigned in the following pages, except!
in the inftance of Joel, who probably flourilhed ns*
ther earlier than he is placed by thefe chronologera.
The precife period of this prophet, however, cannot,
be afcertained and fame difputes might be maintained
concerning the priority of others alfo, when they were
nearly contemporaries, as Amos and Hofea ; and when
the firft prophecies of a later prophet were delivered at
the fame time with, or previous to, thofe of a prophet
who was called earlier to the facred office. The fob-
lowing fcheme, however, in which alfo the greater pro*,
phets will be introduced, may enable the reader more
accurately to comprehend the aftual and relative periods
in which they feverally prophefted.
The Prophets in their fuppofed Order of Time, arranged according to Blair’s Tables *
with but little Variation.
Jonah,
Amos,
Hofea,
Before Chriit.
Between 856
and 784.
Between 810
and 785.
Between 8 10
and 72
Kings of Judah.
Uzaiah, ch. k 1.
Uzziah, Jbtham, Ahaz, the
third year of Hezekiah.
Kings of Ifrael.
Jehu, and Jehoahaz, accord¬
ing- to Lloyd but Joaffi
and Jeroboam the Second
according to Blair.
Jeroboam the Second,
chap., i. 1.
Jeroboam the Second,
chap, i, 1.
• Bijiep
Neiticomc 1
Verfion of
Minor
Proptets,
Preface,
P-43-
SCR
C *25 ]
SCR
Ifaiah.
Ifaiah,
Joel,
Micah,
Nahum,
Before Chrlll.
Between 810
and 698.
Between 810
and 660, or
later.
Between 758
and 699.
Between 720
and 698.
Zephaniah,
Jeremiah,
Habakkuk,
Daniel,
Obadiah,
Between 640
and 609.
Between 628
and 586.
Between 612
and 598.
Between 606
and 534.
Between 588
and 583.
Ezekiel,
Between 595
and 536.
Kings of Judah.
Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah, chap. i. I. and
perhaps Manaiteh.
Uzziah, or poffibly Manaf-
feh.
Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze¬
kiah, chap. i. i.
Probably towards the clofe
of Hezekiah’s reign.
In the reign of Jofiah, chap.
i. I.
In the thirteenth year of
Jofiah.
Probably in the reign of
Jehoiakim.
During all the Captivity.
Between the taking of Jeru-
falem by Nebuchadnezzar
and the deitru&ion of the
Edomites by him.
During part of the Capti¬
vity.
Haggai,
Zechariah,
About 520
to 518.
After the return from Ba¬
bylon.
From 520 to
518, or longer.
Malachi,
Between 436
and 397.
Kings of Ifrael.
Pekah and Hofea.
Scripture.
Tfaiah is fuppofed to have entered upon the prophe¬
tic office in the lail year of the reign of Uzziah, about
758 years before Chrift : and it is certain that he lived
to the 15th or 16th years of Hezekiah. ’Ibis makes
the leaft poffible term of the duration of his propheti¬
cal office about 48 years. The Jews have a tradition
that Ifaiah was put to death in the reign of ManafTeh,
being fawn afunder with a wooden faw by the command
of that tyrant : but when we recolleft how much the
traditions of the Jews were condemned by our baviour,
we will not be difpofed to give them much credit.
The time of the delivery of fome of his prophecies is
either exprefsly marked, or fufficiently clear from the
hiilory to which they relate.. 1 he date of a few others
may with fome probability be deduced from internal
marks ; from expreffions, descriptions, and circumftances
interwoven.
vjnaracrer Ifaiah, the firft of the prophets both in order and
of his ftyie. dignity, abounds in fuch tranfeendant excellencies, that
Character
he may be properly faid to afford the moft perfe£ mo¬
del of the prophetic poetry. He is at once elegant
and fublime, forcible and ornamented ; he unites energy
with copioufnefs, and dignity with variety. In his fen- Loivih't*
timents there is uncommon elevation and majefty ; in IfaLb,-
his imagery the utmoil propt iety, elegance, dignity, and
diverfity ; in his language uncommon beauty and ener¬
gy ; and, notwithftanding the obfeurity of his fubje&s,
a furprifing degree of clearnefs and fimplicity. To
thefe we may add, there.is fuch fweetnefs in the poeti¬
cal compofition of his fentences, whether it proceed
from art or genius,- that if the Hebrew poetry at pre-
fent is poffeffed of any remains of its native grace and
harmony, we fhall chiefly find them in the writings of
Ifaiah: fo that the faying of Ezekiel may molt j uilly
be applied to this prophet:
Thou art the confirmed exemplar of meafures,.
Full of wifdom, and perfect in beauty *..
• EztkJ
xxviii. li>
Ifaiah
S C R T 126 ] SCR
Scripture, Tfalah greatly excels too in all the graces of method,
^ * order; connection, and arrangement: though in affert-
ing this we mull not forget the nature of the prophetic
impulle, which bears away the mind with irrefiitible
violence, and frequently in rapid tranficions from near
to remote objects, from human to divine ; we muft alfo
be careful in remarking the limits of particular predic¬
tions, fince, as they are now extant, they are often im¬
properly connected, without any marks of difcrimina-
tion ; which injudicious arrangement, on fome occalions,
creates almoll infuperable difficulties. It is, in faCt, a
body or collection of different prophecies, nearly allied
to each other as to the fubjeCt, which, for that reafon,
having a fort of connection, are not to be Separated but
with the utmoft difficulty. The general fubjeCt is the
reftoration of the church. Its deliverance from capti¬
vity ; the deftruCtion of idolatry ; the vindication of
the divine power and truth ; the confolation of the If-
raelites, the divine invitation which is extended to them,
their incredulity, impiety, and rejection ; the calling in
of the Gentiles ; the reftoiation of the chofen people ;
the glory and felicity of the church in its perfeCb Hate ;
and the ultimate deftruCtion of the wicked —are all fet
forth with a fufficient rtfpeCI to order and method. If
vve read thefe pafiages with attention, and duly regard
the nature and genius of the myftical allegory, at the
fame time remembering that all thefe points have
been frequently touched upon in other prophecies pro-
mulged at different times, we (hall neither find any ir¬
regularity on the arrangement of the whole, nor any
want of order and connection as to matter or fentimcnt
in the different parts. Dr Lovvth eftecms the whole
book of Ifaiah to be poetical, a few paflages excepted,
which, if brought together, would not at moil exceed
54 the bulk of five or fix chapters.
Unparallel- The 14th chapter of Tfiiiah is one of the moft fu-
mitybof"theblime odeS in. the. ScriPture> aild contains one of the
14th chap-no^e^ Per^on^cati°ns to he found in the records of
fcer. poetry.
The prophet, after predicting the liberation of the
Jews from their fevere captivity in Babylon, and their
reiteration to their own country, introduces them as re-
.citing a kind of triumphal fong upon the fall of the
Babylonilh monarch, replete with imagery, and with
the moll elegant and animated perfonifications. A
fudden exclamation, expreffive of their joy and admira¬
tion on the unexpected revolution in their affairs, and
the deftruCtion of their tyrants, forms the exordium of
the poem. The earth itfelf triumphs with the inhabi¬
tants thereof; the fir-trees amd the cedars of Lebanon
(under which images the parabolic ftyle frequently de¬
lineates the kings and princes of the Gentiles) exult
with joy, and perfecute with contemptuous reproaches
the humbled power of a ferocious enemy :
The whole earth is at reft, is quiet; they burft forth
into a joyful ihout:
Even the fir-trees rejoice over thee, the cedars of Le¬
banon :
Since thou art fallen, no feller hath come up againft us.
I his is fallowed by a bold and animated perfonifica-
tron of Hades, or the internal regions :
Hades from beneath is moved becaufe of thee, to meet
thee at thy coming ;
He roufeth for thee the mighty dead, all the great Script,,*
chiefs of the earth ; w—
He maketh to rife up from their thrones all the kiVs
of the nations. ^
Hades excites his inhabitants, the ghofts of princes,
and the departed (pints of kings : they rife immediate¬
ly from their teats, and proceed to meet the monarch of
Babylon ; they rnlult and deride him, and comfort them-
felves with the view of his calamity •
Art thou, even thou too, become weak as we? art thou
made like unto us ?
Is then thy pride brought down to the grave ; the
found of thy Iprightly inllruments ?
Is the vermin become thy couch, and the earthworm
thy covering ?
Again, the Jewiih people are the fpcakers, in an excla¬
mation after the manner of a funeral lamentation, which
indeed the whole form of this compofition cxaftly imi¬
tates. The remarkable fall of this powerful monarch ie
thus beautifully illuftrated:
How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, fon of the
morning!
Art cut down from earth, thou that didft fubdue the
nations!
Yet thou didft fay in thy heart, I will afeend the hea¬
vens ;
Above the ftars of God I will exalt my throne ;
Ana I will fit upon the mount of the divine prefence,
on the fides of the north :
1 will afeend above the heights of the clouds ; I will
be like the moft High.
But thou fhalt be brought down to the grave, to the
fides of the pit.
He himfelf is at length brought upon the ftage, boaft-
ing in the moft pompous terms of his own power ; which
furnifhes the poet with an excellent opportunity of dif-
playing the unparalleled mifery of his dovvnfal. Some
perfons are introduced, who find the dead carcafe of
the king of Babylon call out and expofed ; they at¬
tentively contemplate it, and at lail fca'rcdy know it to
be his :
Is this the man that made the earth to tremble, that
fhook the kingdoms ?
That made the world like a defert, that deftroyed the
cities ?
That never difmiffed his captives to their own home ?
All die kings of the nations, all of them,
Lie down in glory, each in his own iepulchre :
But thou art call out of the grave, as the tree abomi¬
nated ;
Clothed with the ilain, with the pierced by the fword,
With them that go down to the ftones of the pit; as a
trodden carcafe.
Thou (halt not be joined unto them in burial ;
Becaufe thou hail deftroyed thy country, thou haft (lain
thyr people :
The feed of evil doers (hall never be renowmed.
They reproach him with being denied the common rites
of fepulture, on account of the cruelty and atrocity of
Ins condudl; they execrate His name, his offspring, and
their pofterity^ A folcmn *ddrefs, as of the Deity him-
2 * klf.
I ss
eremiah.
56
h^onolo-
cal ar-
ngetnent
his wri¬
ngs.
SCR [ i
felf, clofes the fcene, and he denounces againft the king
of Babylon, his pofterity, and even againft. the city
which was the feat of their cruelty, perpetual deftruc-
tion, and confirms the immutability of his own counfels
by the folemnity of an oath.
How forcible is this imagery, how diverfified, how^
fubhme ! how elevated the diftion, the figures, the fen-
timents ! —The Jewifh nation, the cedars of Lebanon,
the ghofts of departed kings, the Babylonifh monarch,
the travellers who find his corpfe, and laft or all Jeho¬
vah himfelf, are the characters which fupport this beau¬
tiful lyric drama. One continued aCtion is kept up, or
rather a feries of interefting actions are eonnefted toge¬
ther in an incomparable whole. This, indeed, is the
principal and difiinguifhed excellence of the fubiimer
ode, and is displayed in its utmoft perfection in this
poem of Ifaiah, which may be coufidered as one of the
moft ancient, and certainly the moft finifhed, fpecimen
ol that fpecies of compofition which has been tranf-
mitted to us. The perfonifications here are frequent,
yet not confufed ; bold, yet not improbable : a free, ele¬
vated, and truly divine fpirit, pervades the whole ; nor
rs there any thing wanting in this ode to defeat its
claim to the character of perfeCt beauty and fublimity.
“If (lays Dr Lowth) I may be indulged in the free de¬
claration of my own fentiments on this occafion, I do
not know a fingle inftance in the whole compafs of
Greek and Roman poetry, which, in every excellence
of compofition,. can be faid to equal, or even approach
it.”
Jeremiah was called to the prophetic office in the
13th year of the rerrn of Joiiah the fon of Amon,
A. M. 3376, A. C. 628, and continued to prophecy
upwards of 40 years, during the reigns of the degene¬
rate princes of Judah, to whom he boldly threatened
tbofe marks of the divine vengeance which their rebelli¬
ous condUCl drew on themfelves and their country. Af¬
ter the deftrudion of Jerufalem by the Chaldeans, he
was fuffered by Nebuchadnezzar to remain in the defo-
latc land of Judea to lament the calamities of his infatu¬
ated countrymen. He was afterwards, as he himfelf
informs us, carried with his difciple Baruch into Egypt,
by Johananthe fan of Kareah.
It appears from feveral paffages that Jeremiah com¬
mitted his prophecies to writing. In the 36th chap¬
ter we are informed, that the prophet was commanded
to write upon a roll all the prophecies which he had ut¬
tered ; and when the roll was deftroyed by Jehoiakim
the king, Jeremiah di&ated the fame prophecies to Ba¬
ruch, who wrote them together with many additional
circumftances. The works of Jeremiah extend to the
laft verfe of the 51ft' chapter ; in which we have thefe
words, “ Thus far are the words of Jeremiah.” The
52d chapter was therefore added by fome other writer.
It is, however, a very important fupplement, as it illuf-
trates the accomplifhment of Jeremiah’s prophecies re-
fpefting the fate of Zedekiah.
The prophecies of Jeremiah are not arranged in the
chronological order in which they were delivered.
27 ! SCR
What has occafioned this tranfpofition cannot now be 'Scripture*
determined. It is generally maintained, that if we con- *—-v'"-*-
fult their dates, they ought to be thus placed :
■ In the reign of Jofiah the firft 12 chapters.
In the reign of Jehoiakim, chapters xiii. xx. xxi. v.
II, 14. ; xxii. xxiii, xxv. xxvi. xxxv. xxxvi. xlv.-xlix. 1
—83*
In the reign of Zedekiah, chap. xxi. I — 1®. xxiv,
xxvii. xxxiv. xxxvii. xxxix. xlix. 34 — 39. 1. and li.
Under the government of Gedaliah, chapters xl. xliv.
The prophecies which related to the Gentiles were con¬
tained in the 46th and five following chapters, being
placed at the end, as in forae meafure unconnected with
the reft. But in fome copies of the Septuagint thefe
fix chapters follow immediately after the 13th verfe of
the 25tfi chapter.
Jeremiah, thqugh deficient neither in elegance nor
fublimity, muft give place in both to Ifaiah. Jerome
feems to objeCt againft him a fort of rufticity of lan¬
guage, no veftige of which Dr Lowth was able to dif-
cover. His feutiments, it is true, are not always the
moil elevated, nor are his periods always neat and com¬
pact ; but thefe are faults common to thofe writers
whole principal aim is to excite the gentler affeCtkms,
and to call forth the tear of fympathy or furrow. This
obfervation is very ftrongly exemplified in the Lamen¬
tations, where thefe are the prevailing paffions; it is,
however, frequently inftanced in the prophecies of this
author, and moft of all in the beginning of the book ( l),
which is chiefly poetical- The middle of it is almoft
entirely hiftorical. The latter part, again, confiding of
the fix laft chapters, is altogether poetical (m) ; it con¬
tains feveral different predictions, which are diilinCfly
marked ; and in thefe the prophet approaches very near
the fublimity of Ifaiah. On the whole, however, not
above half the book of Jeremiah is poetioaL <7
The book of Lamentations, as we are informed in The book
the title, was compofed by Jeremiah. We ffiall prefentof .Lamtn''
to our reader an account of this elegiac poem from thelauons'
elegant pen of Dr Lowth.
The Lamentations of Jeremiah (for the titfe is pro¬
perly and fignificantly plural) confift of a number of
plaintive effufions, compofed upon the plan of the fu¬
neral dirges, all upon the fame fubjeCI, and uttered with--
out connection as they rofe in the mind, in along courfe
of feparate ftanzas. Thefe have afterwards been put
together, and formed into a collection or correfpondent
whole. If any reader, however, fhould expeCt to find
in them an artificial and methodical arrangement of the
general fuhjeCt, a regular difpofition of the parts, a per¬
fect connection and orderly fucceffion in the matter,
and with all this an uninterrupted feries of elegance
and correCtnefs, he will really expeCl what was foreign
to the prophet’s defign. In the character of a mourn¬
er, he celebrates in plaintive drains the obfequies of his
ruined country : whatever prefented itfelf to his mind-
in the midft of defolation and mifery, whatever ftruck
him as particularly wretched and calamitous, whatever
the inftant fentiment of forrow dictated, he pours forth
(l) See the whole of chap. irf. chap. xiv. 17, &c. xx. 14—18.
(m) Chap. xlvi.—li. to ver. 59. Chap. Hi. properly belongs to the Lamentations, to which it ferves as atr
exordium,.
53
How di¬
vided.
SCR [ J
Ecrlp'W'p, In r kind of fpont^neous efFufion, He frequently pau-
fes, and, as it were, ruminates upon the fame object;
frequently varies and illuftrates the fame thought with
different imagery, and a different choice of language;
fa that the whole bears rather the appearance oi an ac¬
cumulation of correfponding fentiments, than an accu¬
rate and connected feries of different ideas, arranged in
the form of a regular treatife. There is, however, no is
wild incoherency in the poem ; the tranflations are ealy
and elegant. _ . •
The work is divided into five parts; in the nrit, fe-
cond, and fourth chapters, the prophet addreffes the
people in his own perfon, or introduces Jerufalem as
fpeaking. In the third chapter a chorus of the Jews
is reprefented. In the fifth the whole captive Jews
pour forth their united complaints to Almighty God.
Each of thefe five parts is diftributed into 22 llanzas,
according to the number of the letters of the alphabet.
In the three firit chapters thefe ftanzas coniift of three
lines. In the four firft chapters the initial letter of
each period follows the order of the alphabet; and
in the third chapter each verfe of the fame ftanza
begins with the fame letter. In the fourth chapter all
the llanzas are evidently diltichs, as alfo in the fifth,
which is not acroltic. The intention of the acroltic
was to afiift the memory to retain fentences not much
<conne£ted. It deferves to be remarked, that the verfes
of the firft four chapters are longer by almoft one half
than Hebrew verfes generally are : The length ot them
feems to be on an average about 12 fyllables. The
prophet appears to have chofen this meafure as being
iolemn and melancholy.
“ That the fubjeft of the Lamentations is the deftruc-
tien of the holy city and temple, the overthrow of the
ftate, the extermination of the people; and that thefe
events are deferibed as aClually accompliflaed, and not
in the ftyle of prediftion merely, mult be evident to
every reader ; though fome authors of confiderable re-
, putation * have imagined this poem to have been com-
pofed on the death of king Jofiah. The prophet, in¬
deed, has fo copioufly, fo tenderly, and poetically, be¬
wailed the misfortunes of his country, that he leems
completely to have fulfilled the office and duty of a
mourner. In my opinion, there is not extant any poem
which difplays fuch a happy and fplendid feleClion of
imagery in fo concentrated a ftate. What can be more
elegant and poetical, than the defeription of that once
flourilhing city, lately chief among the nations, fitting
in the charafter of a female folitary, aftlifted, in a ftate
of widowhood, deferted by her friends, betrayed by her
deareft connexions, imploring relief, and leeking confo-
lation in vain ? What a beautiful perfonification is that
©f “ the ways of Sion mourning becaufe none are come
to her folemn feafts ?” How tender and pathetic are
the following complaints ?
Chap: i. Is this nothing to all you who pafs along the way ? be-
1:2,16. hold and fee,
If there he any for row, like unto my forrow, which is
inflicted on me ;
Which Jehovah inflicted on me in the day of the vio¬
lence of his wrath.
Tor thefe things I weep, my eyes ftream with water;
Eecaufe the comforter is far away, that fhould tranqui-
lize my foul :
JMy children arc defolate, becaufe the enemy was ftrong.
69
Ezekit}'
lovjtb.
59
The fub-
and
beauty of
it.
* JoAph
Jerome,
UJerius,
&c.
28 3 SCR
But to detail its beauties would be to tranferihe the Serbturt,
entire poem.,,
Ezekiel was carried to Babylon as a captive, and re¬
ceived the firft revelations from heaven, in the fifth year
of Jehoiakim’s captivity, A. C. 595. The book of
Ezekiel is fometimes diftributed under different heads.
In the three firft chapters the commiffion of the prophet
deferibed. From the fourth to the thirty-fecond
chapter inclufive, the calamities that befel the enemies of
the Jews are predicted, viz. the' Ammonites, the Moat*
ites, and Philiftines. The ruin of Tyre and of Sidon,
and the fall of Egypt, are particularly foretold ; prophe¬
cies which have been fulfilled in the moft literal and af-
tonifhing manner, as we have been often affured by
the relation of hiftorians and travellers. From the 32d
chapter to the 40th he inveighs againft the hypocrify
and murmuring fpirit of his countrymen, admonifhing
them to refignation by promifes of deliverance. In
the 38th and 39th chapters he undoubtedly prediXs the
final return of the Jews from their difperfion in the lat¬
ter days, but in a language fo obfeure that it cannot be
underftood till the event take place. The nine laft
chapters of this book furnifh the defeription of a very
remarkable vifion of a new temple and city, of a new
religion and polity. (,i
“ Ezekiel is much inferior to Jeremiah in elegance ; in Charade*
fublimity he is not even excelled by Ifaiah : but hisas a wn*
fablimity is of a totally different kind. He is deep, ter‘
vehement, tragical; the only fenfation he affeXs to ex¬
cite is the terrible : his fentiments are elevated, fervid,
full of fire, indignant ; his imagery is crouded, magni¬
ficent, terrific, fometimes almoft to difguft: his lan¬
guage is pompous, folemn, auftere, rough, and at times
unpoliftred : he employs frequent repetitions, not for
the fake of grace or elegance, but from the vehemence
of pafiion and indignation. Whatever fubjeX he treats
of, that he feduloufly purfues, from that he rarely de¬
parts, but cleaves as it were to it ; whence the connec¬
tion is in general evident and well preferved. In many
refpeXs he is perhaps excelled by the other prophets ;
but in that fpecies of compofition to which he feems
by nature adapted, the forcible, the impetuous, the
great and folemn, not one ol the lacred writers is fupe-
rior to him. His diXion is fuffxciently perfpicuous ; all
his obfeurity confifts in the nature of the fubjeX. Vi-
fions (as for inftance, among others, thofe of Hofea,
Amos, and Jeremiah) are neceffarily dark and confufed.
The greater part of Ezekiel, towards the middle of the
book efpecially, is poetical, whether we regard the mat¬
ter or the diXion. His periods, however, are frequent¬
ly fo rude and incompaX, that I am often at a lofs how
to pronounce concerning his performance in this re-
fpeX.
“ Ifaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, as far as relates to
ftyle, may be laid to hold the fame rank among the He¬
brews, as Homer, Simonides, and iEfchylus among the
Greeks.,,
So full an account of Daniel and his writings has Daniel*
been already given under the article Daniel, that little
remains to be laid on that iubjeX. Daniel flouriihed
during the fucceflive reigns of ieveral Babylonilh and
Median kings to the conqueft of Babylon by Cyrus.
The events recorded in the 6th chapter were contempo¬
rary with Darius the Mede ; but in the 7th and 8th
chapters Daniel returns to an earlier period, to relate
« the
SCR [12
(Scripture- the vifions which he beheld in the three fir ft years of
BeKhaz/.ar's reign; and thofe which follow in the four
laft chapters w'ere revealed to him in the reign of Da¬
rius. The fix laft chapters are compofed of prophecies
delivered at different times; all of which are in fome de¬
gree connefted as parts of one great fcheme. They
extend through many ages, and furnifh the moft ftriking
defeription of the fall of fucceffive kingdoms, which
were to be introduftory to the eftabliftiment of the Mef-
fiah’s reign. They chara&erize in deferiptive terms the
four great monarchies of the world to be fucceeded by
“ that kingdom which fhould not be deftroyed.”
■'hara&er ^ie whole book of Daniel being no more than a
if his pro- plain relation of fafts, partly paft and partly future,
>hecies. muft be excluded the clafs ©f poetical prophecy. Much
indeed of the ptarabolic imagery is introduced in that
book ; but the author introduces it as a prophet only ;
as vifionary and allegorical fymbols of objects and events,
totally imtinftured with the true poetical colouring.
The Jews, indeed, would refufe to Daniel even the cha¬
racter of a prophet : but the arguments under which
they Ihelter this opinion are very futile 5 tor thofe
points which they maintain concerning the conditions
on which the gift of prophecy is imparted, the diffe¬
rent gradations, and the diferimination between the true
prophecy and mere infpiration, are all trifling and ab-
furd, without any foundation in the nature of things,
and totally deftitute of fcriptural authority. They add,
that Daniel was neither originally educated in the pro¬
phetic difcipline and precepts, nor afterwards lived con¬
formably to the manner of the prophets. It is not,
however, eafy to comprehend how this can diminifh his
claim to a divine miffion and infpiration ; it may pof-
fibly enable us, indeed, to aftign a reafon for the difli-
milarity between the ftrle of Daniel and that of the
1 other prophets, and for its poffeffing fo littfe of the die*
iion and character of poetry, which the reft feem to
have imbibed in common from the fchools and difcipline
£4 in which they were educated.
Their an- The prophecies of Daniel appear fo plain and intel-
henticity. Hgible after their accomplifhment, that Porphyry, who
wrote in the 3d century, affirms, that they were written
after the events to which they refer took place. A
little refleftion will {how the abfurdity of this fuppofi-
tion. Some of the prophecies of Daniel clearly refer to
•Antiochus Epiphanes, with whofe ©ppreffions the Jews
were too well acquainted. Had the book of Daniel
not made its appearance till after the death of Epipha¬
nes, every Jew who read it muft have difeovered the
forgery. And what motive could induce them to re¬
ceive it among their facred books ? It is impoffible to
conceive one. Their character was quite the reverfe:
their refpeft for the Scriptures had degenerated into fu-
perftition. But we are not left to determine this im¬
portant point from the charadler of the Jews ; we have
accefs to more decifive evidence; we are fure that the
book of Daniel contains prophecies, for fome of them
have been accomplifhed fince the time of Porphyry ;
particularly thofe refpefting Antichrift : now, if it con¬
tains any prophecies, who will take upon him to affirm
that the divine Spirit, which dittated thefe many cen¬
turies before they were fulfilled, could not alfo have
delivered prophecies concerning Antiochus Epiphanes?
The language in wffiich the book of Daniel is com-
jpefed proves that it was written about the time of the
You XVIL. Part I.
) 1 SCR
Babylonifli captivity. Part of it is pure Hebrew ; a Scriphirs.
language in which none of the Jewiih books were com- ——V"’’*
pofed after the age of Epiphanes. Thefe are argu¬
ments to a deift. To a Chriftian the internal marks of
the book itfelf will Ihow the time in which it wras writ¬
ten, and the teftimony of Ezekiel will prove Daniel to
beat leaft his contemporary*. #Ezelc.xiy«
The twelve minor prophets were fo called, not from I4 xxvn*-3«
any fuppofed inferiority in their writings, but on ac-
count of the fmall fize of their works. Perhaps it was minor j,r0i.
for this reafon that the Jews joined them together, audphet*.
confidered them as one volume. Thefe 12 prophets
prefent in fcattered hints a lively {ketch of many parti-
culars relative to the hiftory of Judah and of Ifrael, as Gray’/ Key
well as of other kingdoms : they prophefy with hifto-'fj^ 0ld
rical exadlncfs the fate of Babylon, of Nineveh, of Tyre, v*ament'
of Sidon, and of Damafcus. The three laft prophets
efpecially illuftrate many circumllances at a period when
the hiftorical pages of Scripture are clofed, and when
profane writers are entirely wanting. At firft the
Jewifh prophets appeared only as fingle lights, and fol¬
lowed each other in individual fucceffion ; but they
became more numerous about the time of the captivity.
The light of infpiration was colle&ed into one blaze*
previous to its fufpenfion ; and it ferved to keep alive
the expectations of the Jews during the awful interval
which prevailed between the expiration of prophecy
and its grand completion on the advent of Chrift. 55
Hofea has been fuppofed the moft ancient of the 12 Prophecies
minor prophets. He flourifhed in the reign of Jero-0^
boam II. king of Ifrael, and during the fucceffiye reigns
of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Ju¬
dah. He was therefore nearly contemporary with I-
faiah, Amos, and Jonah. The prophecies of Hofea be¬
ing fcattered through the book without date or con¬
nection, cannot with any certainty be chronologically
arranged. ^
Hofea is the firft in order of the minor prophets, and Chara&er
is perhaps, Jonah excepted, the moft ancient of them of their
all. His ftyle exhibits the appearance of very remote
antiquity; it is pointed, energetic, and concife. It
bears a diitinguifhed mark of poetical compofirion, in
that priftine brevity and condenfation which is obfer-
vable in the fentences, and which later writers have in
fome meafure neglefted. This peculiarity has not
efeaped the obfervation of Jerome : “ He is altogether
(fays he, fpeaking of this prophet) laconic and fenten-
tious.” But this very circumftance, which anciently was
fuppofed no doubt to impart uncommon force and ele¬
gance, in the prefent ruinous ftate of the Hebrew lite¬
rature is produftive of fo much obfeurity, that although
the general fubjeft of this writer be fufficiently obvious,
he- is the moft difficult and perplexed of all the pro¬
phets. There is, however, another reafon for the ob¬
feurity of his ftyle : Hofea prophefied during the reigns
of the four kings of Judah, Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah. The duration of his miniftry, therefore, in
whatever manner we calculate, muft include a very con-
fiderable fpace of.time. We have now only a fmall vo¬
lume of his remaining, which feems to contain his
principal prophecies ; and thefe are extant in a conti¬
nued feries, with no marks of diftindtion as to the times
in which they were publifhed, or the fubje&s of which
they treat. There is therefore no caufe to wronder if,
in perufing the prophecies of Hofea, we fometimes find
R our-
SCR
ScripMur. ourfelves in a fimilar predicament with thofe who con*
Ul~"y ~~ fulted the fcattered leaves of the Sibyl.
As a fpecimen of Hofea’s ftyle, we feleft the follow¬
ing beautiful pathetic paflage :
How lhall I refign thee, O Ephraim !
How (hall I deliver thee up, O Ifrael!
* EIow (liall I refign thee as Admah !
How (hall I make thee as Zeboim !
My heart Is changed within me;
I am warmed alfo with repentance towards thee.
I will not do according to the fervour of my wrath ;
I will not return to deftroy Ephraim :
For I am God, and not man 5
Holy in the midft of thee, though I inhabit not thy cities.
6g Concerning the date of the prophecy of Joel there
Prophecies are various conje&ures. The book itlelf affords nothing
of Joel. by which we can dlfcover When the author lived, or
upon what occafion it was written. Joel (peaks of a
great famine, and of mifchiefs that happened in confe-
quence of an inundation of locufts; but nothing can be
gathered from fuch general obfervations to enable us to
fix the period of his prophecy. St Jerome thinks (and
it is the general opinion) that Joel was contemporary
with Hofea. This is poffibly true ; but the founda¬
tion on which the opinion ref is is very precarious, viz.
That when there is no proof of the time in which a
prophet lived, vve are to be guided in our conjedtures
refpedting it by tliat of the preceding prophet whofe
. epoch is better known. As this rule is not infallible, il
therefore ought not to hinder us from adopting any
other opinion that comes recommended by good rea-
fons. Father Calmet places him under the reign of
Joliah, at the fame time with Jeremiah, and thinks it
probable that the famine to which Joel alludes, is the
fame with that which Jeremiah predidted ch. viii. 13.
he ftyle of Joel is effentially different from that of
Chavader Hofea 5 but the general character of his didtion, though
of their of a different kind, is not. lefs poetical. He is elegant,
1'jk' perfpicuous, copious, and fluent; he is alfo fuhlime, ani¬
mated, and energetic. In the lirit and fecond chapters
Lowth ke difplays the full force of the prophetic poetry, and
en Hebrew (hows how naturally it inclines to the ufe of metaphors,
JPoetry, Sedl. allegories, and comparifons. Nor is the connedtion of
iI‘ the matter lefs clear and evident than the complexioa
of the ftyle: this is exemplified in the difplay of the
impending evils which gave rile to the prophecy ; the
exhortation to repentance; the promiles of bappinefs
and fuccefs both terreftrial and eternal to thofe who be¬
come truly penitent; the reiteration of the Ifraelites;
and the vengeance to be taken of their adversaries. Bet
while we allow this juft commendation to his perfpi-
cuity both in language and arrangement, we muft not
deny that there is fometimes great obfeurky obfervabk
in his fubjedt, and particularly in the latter part of the
prophecy.
The following prophecy of a plague of locufts is de-
feribed with great fublimity of expreffion ;
For a nation bath gone up on my land,
Who are ftrong, and without number-:
They have deftroyed my vine, and have mack my fig-
tree a broken branch.
They have made it quite bare, and caff it away; the
9 joel 1 branches thereof are made white.
7, *o, &c. The field is laid wafbe; the ground mourneth*.
SCR
Amos was contemporary with Hofea. They both script«rti
began to prophecy during the reigns of Uzziah over —v—J
Judah, and of Jeroboam IL over Ifrael. Amo* fawp .
his firft vilion two years before the earthquake, which of Amos **
Zechariah informs us happened iu the days of Uzziah.
■See Amos.
Amos was a herdfman of Tekoa, a fmall town in the
territory of Judah, and a gatherer of fycamore fruit.
In the Simplicity of former times, and in the happy cli¬
mates of the Eaft, thefe were not confidered as dilho-
nourable occupations. He was no prophet {as he in¬
formed Amaziahf), neither was he a prophet’s f©n, 1. ^ ..
that is, he had no regular education in the fchools of 14.
the prophets.
The prophecies of Amos confift of feveral diftinft
difcourfes, which chiefly refpetft the kingdom of lirael;
yet fometimes the prophet inveighs againft Judah, and
threatens the adjacent nations, the Syrians, Philiftiaes,
Tyrians, Edomites, Ammonites, and Moabites. ^
Jerome calls Amos “rude in fpcech, but not in Their
knowledge J;” applying to him what St Paul modeftly f Proxm.
profeifes of himfelf $. “ Many (fays Dr Lowth) have r-cmm!nt- it
followed the authority of Jerome in fpeaking of tlus^”{jur ^
prophet, as if he were indeed quite rude, ineloquent, 0.
and deftitute of all the embellilhments of compofition.
The matter is, however, far otherwife. Let any perfoa
who has candour and perfpicacity enough to judge, not
from the man but from his writings, open the volume
of his predictions, and he will, 1 think, agree with me,
that our fhepherd ‘ is not a whit behind the very chief
of the prophets jj.5 He will agree, that as in fublimity || a Cor.xi,
and magnificence he is alinoft equal to tire greateff, foi*
in fplendour of diction and elegance of expreffion he is
fcarcely inferior to any. The fame celeftial Spirit in¬
deed actuated Ifaiah and Daniel in the court and Amos
in the (beep-folds; conftantly felecting fuch interpreters-
of the divine will as were beft adapted to the occafion*
and fometimes * from the mouth of babes and fucklings
perfecting praife occafionally employing the natural
eloquence of fome, and occalionaliy making others elo¬
quent.”
Mr Locke has obferved, that the comparifons of this
prophet ate chiefly drawn from lions and other animals
with which he was molt accuftomed ; but the fined
images and allnfions are drawn from feenes of nature.-
'There are many beautiful paffages in the writings of A-
tnos, of which we (hail prefent one fpecimea :
Wo to them that are at eafe in Zion,
And truft in the mountains of Samaria;
Who arc named chief of the nations.
To whom the houfe of Ifrael came
Pals ye unto Calneh and fee.
And from thence go to Hamath the Great ;
Then go dovva to Gath of the Philiftines j
Are they better than thefe kingdoms ?
Or their borders greater than their borders ?
Ye that put far away the evil day,
Andcaufe the feat of violence to come near;
That lie upon beds of ivory.
And ftretch yourfelves upon couches ;
That eat the lambs out of the flock,
And the calves out of the midft of the Hall j
That chant to the found of the viol,
And like David dev if: influnntnu of mufic ,
That
[ 13° ]
SCR
•.ripture. That drink wine in bowls,
And anoint yourfelves with chief ointments ;
But are not grieved for the ajfiShn of Jofeph [j,
" I ^h. vi. x
rP'
I 7i .
£ Obad:a!i
73 ,
< Jonah.
* Kings
§• 25-
Jutth. xii.
ft 4i. xvi
ft
like xi. 29
IJ 74
(p Micah.
■•p. xxv;.
lf-24.
i
of. Ant.
•c- 7:.
cah iii.
a Tatt. ii.
1 [ohn vii
4
I 75
ityif.
The writings of Obadiah, which confift of one chap¬
ter, ai-e compofed with much beauty, and unfold a very
Miterefting fcene of prophecy. Of this prophet little
can be faid, as the fpecimen of his genius is fo fhort,
and the greater part of it included in one of the pro¬
phecies of Jeremiah. Compare Ob. 1 —9. with Jer.
xlix. 14, if, 16. See Obadiah.
’f hough Jonah be placed the iixth in the order of
the minor prophets both in the Hebrew and Septua-
gint, he is generally confidered as the moft ancient of
all the prophets, not excepting Hofea. He lived in
the kingdom of Tfrael, and prophefied to the ten tribes
under the reign of Joalh and Jeroboam. The book of
Jonah is chiefly hiftorical, and contains nothing of poe¬
try but the prayer of the prophet. The facred writers,
and our Tord himfeif, fpeaks of Jonah as a prophet
of confiderable eminence*. See Jonah.
Micah began to prophecy foon after Ifaiah, Hofea,
Joel, and Amos; and he prophefied between A. M.
3246, when Jotham began to reign, and A. M. 3305,
when Hezekiah died. One of his prediclions is faid -j-
to have faved the life of Jeremiah, who under the reign
of Jehoiakim would have been put to death for prophe-
fying the deftruftion of the temple, had it not appeared
that Micah had foretold the fame thing under Heze¬
kiah above roo years before J;. Micah is mentioned
as a prophet in the book of Jeremiah and in the New
1 eftament |!. He is imitated by fucceedingprophets(N),
as he himfeif had borrowed expreffions from his prede-
cefTors(o). Our Saviour himfeif fpoke in the language
of this prophet (p).
The ftyle of Micah is for the moft pail clofe, for¬
cible, pointed, and concife ; fonietimes approaching the
obfeurity of Hofea ; in many parts animated and fub-
hme ; and in general truly poetical. In his prophecies
there is an elegant poem, which Or Lowth thinks is a
citation from the anfwer of Balaam to the king of the
Moabites:
mbs
^-is ahum
Wherewith fhall I come before Jehovah ?
Wherewith ihall I bow myfelf unto the High God ?
Shall I come before him with burnt-offering-s.
With calves of a year old ?
Will Jehovah be pleafed with thoufands of rams ?
With ten thoufands of rivers of oil >
Shall 1 give my firft-born for my tranfgrelTion >
The fruit of my body for the fin of my foul ? ’
He hath ftiowed thee, O man, what is good :
And what doth Jehovah require of thee,
But to do juftiee, and to love mercy,
And to be humble in walking with thy God ?
J0^eP^us aflerts, that Nanutn lived in the time of Jo-
tnam king of Judah; in which cafe he may be fuppofed
to have prophefied againft Nineveh when Tiglath-Pilefer
31 1 SCR
king of AfTyria carried captive the natives of Galilee Mid Scripture,
other parts about A. M. 3264. It is, however, pro- ^ "
bable, that his prophecies were delivered in the reign
of Hezekiah ; for he appears to fpeak of the taking of
No-Ammon a city of Egypt, and of the infolent mef-
fengers of Sennacherib, as of things paft ; and he like-
wife deferibes the people of Judah as ftill in their
own country, and defirous of celebrating their fefti-
vals.
While Jerufalem was threatened by Sennacherib, Na¬
hum promifed deliverance to Hezekiah, and predidled
that Judah would foon celebrate her folemn feafts fecure
from invafion, as her enemy would no more difturb her
peace. In the fecond and third chapters Nahum fore-
tels the downfal of the Aftyrian empire and the final
deftruftion of Nineveh, which was probably acccmplifli-
ed by the Medes and Babylonians, whofe combined
forces overpowered the Aflyrians by furprife “ while
they were folden together as thorns, and while they
were drunken as drunkards,” when the gates of the ri¬
ver were opened, the palace demoliihed, and an “ over¬
running flood” affifted the conquerors in their devafta-
tion; who took an endlefs ftore of fpoil of gold and
filver, making an utter end of the place of Nineveh, of
that vaft and populous city, whofe wTalls were 100 feet
high, and fo broad that three chariots could pafs abreaft.
Yet fo completely was this celebrated city deftroyed,
that even in the 2d century the fpot on which it ftood
could not be afeertained, every veftige of it being
gone.
It is impofiible to read of the cxa& accomplifhment
of the prophetic denunciations againft the enemies of
the Jews, without refleding on the aftonifuing proofs
which that nation enjoyed of the divine origin of their
religion. From the Babylonifh captivity to the time of
Chrift they had numberlefs inftances of the fulfilment of
their prophecies.
I he character of Nahum as a writer is thus deferibed
by Dr Lowth : *£ None ot the minor prophets feem to
equal Nahum in boldnefs, ardour, and fublimity. His
prophecy, too, forms a regular and perfed poem ; the
exordium is not merely magnificent, it is truly majeftic;
the preparation for the deftrudion of Nineveh, and the
description of its downfal and defolation, are expreffed
in the moft vivid colours, and are bold and luminous in
the higheft degree.”
As the prophet Habakkiik makes no mention of thenf v
Aflyrians, and fpeaks of the Chaldean invaiions as nearkuk
at hand, he probably lived after the deftrudioii of the
Aflyrian empire in the fall of Nineveh A. M. 3392,
and not long before the devaftation of Judea by Nebu¬
chadnezzar. Habakkuk was then nearly contempora¬
ry with Jeremiah, and predided the fame events. A.
general account of Habakkuk’s prophecies have already
been given under the word Habakkuk, which may be
confulted. We would, however, farther obferve, that
the prayer in the third chapter is a moft beautiful and
peifed ode, poflTefflng all the fire of poetry and the pro¬
found reverence of religion. ' 1
K * £ God
( n.) Compare 2vephan iii. ig. with Micah iv. 7. and Ezek. xxii. 27. with Micah iii I r
SCR
[
Scijptur?. Go4 came From Teman,
 ' And the Holy One from mount Pavan :
His glory covered the heavens,
And the earth was full of his praife.
His brightnefs was as the light;
Beams of glory iflued from his Me ;
And there was the hiding of his power.
Before him went the peftilence ;
And burning coals went forth at his feet.
He flood and meafured the earth ;
J^e beheld and drove afunder the nations;
The everlatting mountains were fcattered
The perpetual hills did bow.
The prophet illuftrates this fubjeft throughout with
equal fublimity ; felefting from fuch an affemblage of
miraculous incidents the molt noble and important, dil-
playimr them in the molt fplendid colours, and embei-
hfiling” them with the fublimeft imagery, figures, and
didtion ; the dignity of which is fo heightened and re¬
commended by' the fuperior elegance of the concluhon,
that were it not for a few (hades which the hand ot
time has apparently call over it in two or three paffa-
ges, no compolitioa of the hind would appear more
elegant or more perfect than this poem.
Habakkuk is imitated by fucceeding prophets, and
his words are borrowed by the evangelical writers |[.
Zephaniah, who was contemporary with Jeremiah,
; prophefied in the reign of Jofiah king of Judah ; and
comnar-from the idolatry which he defcnbes as prevailing at
with Hal. that time, it is probable that his prophecies were deh-
i. j. vered before the laft reformation made by that pious
prince A. M. 33^
of"Zepha- The account which Zephaniah and Jerermalygive of
« Heb. x.
37» 38;
Rom. i. 17
Gal. iii- i-
AcSbs xii
Biah
the idolatries of their age is fo fimilar, that St liiodore
afferts, that Zephaniah abridged the defenptions of Je¬
remiah. But it is more probable that the prophecies
of Zephaniah: were written forne years before thofe of
his contemporary ; for Jeremiah feems to reprefent the
abufes as partly removed which Zephaniah delcribes as
flagrant and excefllve (f^_).
In the firft chapter Zephaniah denounces the wrath
of God again it the idolaters who worlhippM. Baal and
the holt of heaven, and againit the violent and deceitful.
In the fecond chapter the prophet threatens deltruc-
tion to the Philiftines, the Moabites, the Ammonites,
and Ethiopians; and defcribea the fate of Nineveh in
emphatic terms : “ Flocks fhall lie down in the midlt
of her ; all the bealts of the nations, both the. cormo¬
rant and bittern, (hall lodge in her; their voice (hall
lir.f in the windows defolation fhall be in the threfh-
olds.” In the third chapter the prophet inveighs againit
the pollutions and opprefiions of the Jewsand con¬
cludes with the promife, rFbat a remnant would be
faved, and that multiplied bleflings would be bellowed
upon the penitent.” The Ityle of Zephaniah is poeti¬
cal, but is not diltinguilhed by any peculiar elegance or
beauty, though generally animated and impreflive.
--T . Haggai, the tenth of the minor prophets, was the
vi1 tiaggai. who flouri{hed among thc Jews after the Babylo-
nilh captivity. He began to prophefy in the fecond
132 1 SCR
year of Darius Hyftafpes, about 520 years befort Scripture,
Chrift. . T J
The intention of the prophefy of Haggai was to en¬
courage the difpirited Jews to proceed' with the build¬
ing of the temple. The only prediction mentioned re¬
fers to the Mefliah, whom the prophet alfures h;s coun¬
trymen would fill the new temple with glory. So well
was this prediftion underltood by the Jews, that they
looked with earned expe&ation for the Mefliah’s ap¬
pearing in this temple till.it was deftroyed by the Ro¬
mans. But as the victorious Mefliah, whom they ex-
pefted, did not then appear, they have fince applied the
prophecy to a third temple, which they hope to fee
reared in feme future period.
The ftyle of Haggai, in the opinion of Dr JLowth,
is profaic. Dr Newcome thinks that a great pait of
it is poetical. _ _ {80
Zechariah was undoubtedly a contemporary of Hag- of Zech*.
gai, and began to prophecy two months after him, in riah.
the eighth month of the fecond year of Darius Hyf¬
tafpes, A. M. 3484, being commiflioned as well, as
Haggai to exhort the Jews to proceed in. the building
of the temple after the interruption which the work
had fuffered. We are informed by Ezra (vi. 14.),
that the Jews profpered through the prophefying of
Zechariah and Haggai.
Zechariah begins with general exhortations to his
countrymen, exciting them to repent from the evi4
ways of their fathers, whom the prophets had admoniftt-
ed in vain. He delcribes angels ot the Lord interce¬
ding for mercy on Jerufalem and the defolate cities ox
Judah, which had experienced the indignation of the
Moil High for 70 years while the neighbouring nations
were at peace, tie declares, that the houfe of the
Lord (hould be built in Jeiufalem, and that Zion ftiould
be comforted. The prophet then reprefents the in-
creafe and profperity of the Jews under feveral typical
figures. He deferibes the ettablifhment of the Jewiflt
government and the coming of the Mefliah. He ad-
monifhes thofe who obferved folemn fails without due
contrition, to execute juitice, mercy, and compaffion*
every man to his brother; not to opprefs the widow
nor the fatherlefs, the itranger nor the poor. He pro-
mifes, that God would again (how favour to Jerufalem;
that their mournful fads (hould be turned into cheerful
feafts ; and that the church ol the Lord (hould be en¬
larged by the accefiion of many nation*.
The 1 2tli verfe of the 11 th chapter of this book,
which exhibits a prophetic defeription of fome circum-
ftances afterwards fulfilled in our Saviour, appears to
be cited by St Matthew (xxvii. 9, 10.) as fpoken by
Jeremiah; and as the nth, !2th, and 13th chapters
have been thought to contain fome particulars more
fuitable to the age of Jeremiah than to that of Zecha¬
riah, fome learned writers are of opinion that they were
written by the former prophet, and have been from fi»
Hiilarity of iubject joined by miltake to thofe of Ze¬
chariah. But others are of opinion, that St Matthew
might allude to fome traditional prophecy of Jeremiah,
or, what is more probable, that the name of Jeremiah
was fubftituted by miftake in place of Zechariah.
The
‘
(O Compare Zephaniah i. 4, 5, 9. with Jeremiah ii. 5, 20) 32.
SCR I *33
?;pmTe. The 12th, 13th, and 14th chapters contain prophe-
-v— cies which refer entirely to the Clmftian difpenfatmn ;
the circumftances attending which he defcnbcs with a
dearnefs which indicated their near approach.
The ftyle of Zechariah is fo limilar to that 01 jere-
jniah, that the Jews were accuftomed to remark that
the ipirit of Jeremiah had palled into him. He is ge¬
nerally profaic till towards the conclufion of 1 is work,
when he becomes more elevated and poetical. ihe
whole is beautifully connetfed by eufy tranfitions, and
prefent and future fcenes are blended with the gieatelt
the laft prophet that flourilhed under
“ h the lewifli difpenfation j but neither the time in which
he lived, nor any particulars of his Inftory, can now e
afoertained. It is even uncertain whether the word
Malachi be a proper name, or denote, as the beptua-
oint have rendered it, his angel (r), that is, “the ange
of the Lord.” Origen fuppofed, that Malachi was an
angel incarnate, and not a man. The ancient Hebrews,
the Chaldee paraphraft, and St Jerome, are of opinion
.he was the fame perfon with Ezra : but if this w-as t ie
cafe, they ought to have affigned fome reafon for gi¬
ving twro different names to the fame perfon.
As it appears from the concurring teftimony of all
the ancieni Jewifh and Chriftian writers, that the light
of prophecy expired in Malachi, we may iuppofe that
the termination ofhisminiftry coincided with the ac-
complifhment of the firft feven wrecks of Daniel s pro-
phecy, which was the period appointed for baling the
vilion and prophecy. This, according to Pndeaux s
account, took place in A. M. 3595 ; but, according to
the calculations of Bifhop Lloyd, to A. M. 3607, twelve
years later. Whatever reckoning we prefer, it mult
be allowed that Malachi completed the canon ot the
]
SCR
(hould fuddenly come to his temple preceded by the
meffenger of the covenant, who was to prepare his w'ay j
that- the Lm-d when he appeared {hould purify the fons
of Levi from their unrighteoufnefs, and refine them as
metal from the drofs ; and that then the offering of
Judah, the fpiritual facrifice of the heart, {hould be plea-
fan t to the Lord. The prophet, like one who was de.
livering a laft meffage, denounces deftruftion agamft the
impenitent in emphatic and alarming words. He en¬
courages thofe who feared the name of the Lord with
the animating promife, that the “ Sun of nghteoufnefs
{hould arife with falvation in his rays,” and render them,
triumphant over the wicked. And now that prophecy
was to ceafe, and miracles were no more to be perform¬
ed till the coming of the Mefiiah ; mw that the Jews
were to be left to the guidance of them own realon,
and the written inftruaions of their prophets-Malachi
exhorts them to remember the law of Moles, which t ie
Lord had revealed from Horeb for the fake of all Ii-
rael. At length he feals up the prophecies of the Old
Teftament, by predifting the commencement of the
new difpenfation, which fhould be ufhered in by John
the Baptift with the power and fpint of Elijah ; wlm
{hould turn the hearts of fathers and children to repen¬
tance ; but if his admonitions {hould be rejected, that
the Lord would finite the land with a cuiie.
Old Teftament about 400 years before the birth of
It appears certain that Malachi prophefted under
Nehemiah, and after Haggai and Zechariah, at a time
when great .diforders reigned among the pnelts and
people of Judah, which are reproved by Malachi. He
'inveighs againft the priefts (i. 6, &c. n. I, 2, See.) ;
he reproaches the people with having taken ftrange wives
(ii. 11.); he reproves them for their inhumanity to¬
wards their brethren (ii. 10. iii. 5.) ; their too fre¬
quently divorcing their wives ; their negleft of paying
their tithes and firft-fruits (Mai. iii. 13.) He feems
to allude to the covenant that Nehemiah renewed with
the Lnrd (iii. 10. and ii. 4, 5, Stc.), affilled by the
priefts and the chief of the nation. He fpeaks of the
facrifice of the new law, and of the abolition of thole
of the old, in thefe words (i. 10, u, 12, 13.) : “ I
have no pleafure in you, faith the Lord of liofts, neither
will I accept an offering at your hand. For from the
rifing of the fun, even unto the going down of the
fame, my name fhall be great among the Gentiles, and
in every "place incenfe {hall be offered unto my name,
and a pure offering : for my name {hall be great among
the Heathen, faith the Lord of hofts.” _ He declares
that the Lord was weary with the impiety cl lirael;
and allures them, that the Lord whom they fought
St
The collection of writings compofed after the a^en-NEw Tbs
fion of Chrift, and acknowledged by his followers to be
divine, is known in general by the name of
This title, though neither given by divine command,
nor applied to thefe writings by the apoftles, was adopt¬
ed in a very early age, though the precife time of its
introduftion is uncertain, it being juftified by ieveral.
paffages in Scripture t> and warranted by the authon-f Matfh.
* Jp« • . •  L^ t-Virt Tor'i'prl Kook:
83
Title-
[y oTst M in particular, who calls the facmed books-i. ,8.
before the time of Chrift t* Even long Heb> viii '
before that period, either the whole of the Old Leita-^, ix> I3_^ ,,
ment, or the five books of Mofes, were entitled ... ,
or book of the covenant $. ^ ’ m'
As tlie word admits ot a two-fold mterpretation,.^ i Mac -u
We may tranflate this title either the New Covenant or the57.
Nttu Ttjlament. The former tranflation mull be adopt¬
ed if refpedt be had to the texts of Scripture, from
which the name is borrowed, iince thole paffages evi¬
dently convey the idea of a covenant; and, belides, a
being incapable of death can neither have made an old
nor make a new teftament. It is like wife probable*,
that the earliert Greek difeipks, who made ufe of this,
expreffion, had no other notion in view than that of
covenant. We, on the contrary, are accuftomed to
give this facred colleftion the name of Tejlament; and
fince it would be not only improper, but even abfurd,
to fpeak of the Teftament of God, we commonly nn-
derftand the Teftament pf Chrift ; an explanation which
removes but half the difficulty, fince the new only, and
not the old, had Chtift for its teftator. . 84
In {fating the evidence for the truth of Chnftiamty, importance
there is nothing more worthy of confideration than the
authenticity of the books H the New Teftament. Thi&the ilUljlen.
is the foundation on which all other arguments reft
and books.
(a) '3^9 Ma/acbi fignifies properly my angel*
SCR [ i
Scripture, sncl if it is folid, the Chriflian religion is fully eftablifli-
v cd. 1 he proofs for the authenticity of the New Te¬
ed. The proofs for the authenticity ^ x^.-
flament have this peculiar advantage, that they are plain
and lirnple, and involve no metaphyfical fubtilties.—
Every man who can diftinguilh truth from falfehood muft
fee their force ; and if there are any fo blinded by pre¬
judice, or corrupted by licentioufnefs, as to attempt by
fop hi ilry to elude them, their fophiftry will be eafily
detetted by every man of common underltanding, who
has read the hillorical evidence with candour and at¬
tention. Inftead, therefore, of declaiming againft the
infdel, we folicit his attention to this fubjeft, convin-
•ced, that where truth refides, it will fhine with fo con-
ftant and clear a light, that the combined ingenuity of
all the delfts ft nee the beginning of the world will ne¬
ver he able to extinguifh or to obfeure it. If the books
°‘. tlie New ^ eftament are really genuine, oppofition
■\vill incite the Chnftian to bring forward the evidence;
and thus by the united efforts of the deift: and the Chri¬
flian, the arguments will be Hated with all the clear-
nefs and accuracy of which they are fufceptible in fo
I’emarkable a degree.
It is furprifmg that the adverfarles of Chriftiani-
t) have not always made their firfl attacks in this quar¬
ter ; for if they admit that the writings of the New Te-
itament are as ancient as we affirm, and compofed by
the perfons to whom they are aferibed, they mull al¬
low, if they reafon fairly, that the Chrillian religion is
true. 0
_ The apoftks allude frequently in their epiflles to the
£':t miracles, which they had communicated to the
Chr .an courts by the impofition of hands, in con¬
firmation of the do&rine delivered in their fpeeches and
writings, and fometimes to miracles which they them-
MMaelh', fdvea.11 ad performed. Now if thefe epiftles are ready
X»ir*duS}ion getiUine, it is hardly poffible to eleny thofe miracles to
totheW^ be true. The cafe is here entirely different from that
of an hiftorian, who relates extraordinary' events in the
course of his narrative, fihee either credulity or an ac¬
tual intention to deceive may induce him to deferibe as
true a fenes of falfehood? refpecting a foreign land or
dil.ant period. Even to the Evangelifts might an ad-
vei fary of the Chrillian religion make this objection:
but to write to perfons with whom we Hand in the
reared connedlion, « I have not only performed mira¬
cles in your prefence, but have like wife communicated
to you the fame extraordinary endowments,’’ to write
ia this manner, if nothing of the kind had ever hap¬
pened, would require Inch an incredible degree of ef-
Irontery, that he who pofTefTed it would not only ex-
pme hrmfelf to the utmoll ridicule, but by giving his ad-
verfanes the fa-rell opportunity to deleft his impof-
.'iH, would rum the caule which he attempted to fup-
port. *
St Paul’s Firft Epiflle to the ThefTalonians is addref-
ku to a community to which he had preached the gof-
pcl only three Sabbath days, when he was forced to
S/' 'by t“e Ptr{ccu*on tbe populace. In this
tp.ltk ue appeals to the miracles which he had per-
foimed, and to the gifts of the Holy Spirit which he
fdfi.mT11111^'/-1 N0W’ IS !t P°ffible’ without for¬
feiting all pretenhons to common fenfe, that, in writing
4ak°TUn'ty 1 CH br Hatl latdy efeblifhed, he could
peak of miracles performed, and gifts of die Holy
34- ] SCR
Ghofl communicated, if no member of the fociety had ScnW
feen the one, or received the other ? * —
l o fuppofe that an impoflor could write to the con-
verts or adverfaries of the new religion fuch epiftles as
thefe, with^ a degree of triumph over his opponents,
and yet maintain his authority, implies ignorance and
ftupidity hardly to be believed. Credulous as the Chri.
iliaus have been in later ages, and even fo early as the
third century, no lefs fevere were they in their inqui-
nes, and guarded againft deception, at the introduftion
of Chnftianity. This charafter is given them even by
Lucian, a writer of the fecond century, who vented
his fatire not only againft certain Chriftians *, who*
had fupplied Peregnnus with the means of fubfift-
ence, but p.lfo againft heathen oracles and pretended ^'2'’'l'1*
wonders. He relates of his impoftor (Pfeudomantis),
nnt'Timrr fntvnwi-v*.1   r * P*
^Tcjiament,
that he attempted nothing fupernatmal in the prefence
of the Chriihans and Epicureans. 1’his Pfeudomantis341. ’
exemims before the whole affembly, “ Away with the
Chriftians, away with the Epicureans, and let thofe on¬
ly remain who believe, in the. Deity!” (snrn^rtf r»
G'?) uPon wbiob the populace took up ftones to drive
away the fufpicious ; while the other philofophers, Py.
t lagoreans, Platonifts, and Stoics, as credulous friends
aud proteftors of the caufe, were permitted to re¬
main 0. -
It is readily acknowledgecf, that the arguments!^™?
drawn from the authenticity of the New Teftament’”'M1‘">§JJ*
only eftablifti the truth of the miracles performed by38-Tcm-iil
the apofiles, and are not applicable to the miracles ofl^3^33’
our Saviour ; yet, if we admit the three firft gofpels to
be genuine, the truth of the Chriftian religion will be
proved from the prophecies of Jefus. For if thefe go-
fpels were compofed by Matthew, Mark, and Luke,
at the time in which all the primitive Chriitians affirm,
that is, previous to the deftruftion of Jerufalem, they
mult be infpired ; for they contain a circumftantial pro¬
phecy of the deftruftion of Jerufalem, and determine
. Pf.1-10*! at which it was accomplifhed. Now it was
impoffible that human fagacity could forefee that event'
for when it was predifted nothing was more impra!
bable. 1 he Jews were refolved to avoid an open re¬
bellion, well knowing the greatnefsof their danger, and
ftibmitted to the oppreffions of their governors in the
hope of obtaining redrefs from the court of Rome 
.1 hre Clreumftance which gave birth to thefe misfortunes
is fo trifling in itfclf, that, independent of its confe-
quences, it would not deferve to be recorded. In the
narrow entrance to a lynagogue in Cicfarea, fome per-
iou bed made an offering of birds merely with a view
to irritate the Jews. The infult excited their indig¬
nation, and occahoned the ftiedding of blood With
out this trifling accident, which no human wifdom
could forefee even the day before it happened, it is pof-
fible that the prophecy of Jefus would never have been
fulfilled. But Florus, who was then procurator of Tu-
dea, converted this private quarrel into public hoftili-
ties, and compelled the Jewiffi nation to rebel contrary
to its wifti and refolution, in order to avoid what the
Jews had thieatened, an impeachment before the Ro¬
man emperor for his exceffive cruelties. But even af¬
ter this rebellion had broken out, the deftruftion of
the temple was a very improbable event. It was not
the praftice of die Romans to deftroy the magnificent
edifices
fkr
tk
tovt
85
T? r au-
th'tinty
pr ed.
s c r ; t i
edifices of the nations which they fubdued ; and of all
the Roman generals, none was more unlikely to de-
molifh fo ancient and auguft a building as Titus Vef-
pafian.
So important then is the quellion, Whether the books
of the New Te.i ament be genuine ? that the arguments
which prove their authenticity, prove alfo the truth of
the ChrHian religion. Let us now confider the evi¬
dence which proves the authenticity of the New Te-
ilament.
We receive the books of the New Teflament as the
genuine works of Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and
Paul, for the fame reafon that we receive the writings
of Xenophon, of Polybius, of Plutarch, of Caefar, and
of Livy. Wc have the uninterrupted teftimony of all
ages, and we have no reafon to fufpeft impofition.
This argument is much (Longer when applied to the
books of the New Teftament than when applied to any
other writings ; for they were addreffed to large focie-
ties, were often read in their prefence, and acknow¬
ledged by them to be the writings of the apoftles.—
Whereas, the moil eminent profane writings which (fill
remain were addreffed only to individuals, or to no per-
fons at all : and we have no authority to affirm that
they were read in public ; on the contrary, we know
that a liberal education was uncommon ; books were
fcarce, and the knowledge of them was confined to a
few individuals in every nation.
The New Teftament was read over three quarters of
the world, while profane writers were limited to one
nation or to one country. An uninterrupted fuccef-
iion of writers from the apoftolic ages to the prefent time
quote the facred writings, or make ailufrons to them :
and thde quotations and allufions are made not only by
f riends but by enemies. This cannot be afferted of even
the beft claffic authors. And it is highly probable, that
the tranflations of the New Teftament were made fo
early as the fecond century ; and in a century or two
after, they became very numerous. Alter this period,
it was impoffible to forge new writings, or to corrupt
the facred text, unlefs we can fuppofe that men of dif¬
ferent nations, of different fentiments and different lan¬
guages, and often exceedingly hoftile to one another,
ihnuld all agree in one forgery. This argument is fo
jirong, that if we deny the authenticity of the New
Teftament, we may with a tboufand times more pro¬
priety rejedi all the oilier writings in the world: we
may even throw alrde human teftimony itfelf. But as
this liibjedt is of great impor tance, we ffiall confukr it
at more length ; and to enable our readers to judge with
the greater accuracy, we ffiall ftate, from the valuable
work of Michaelis, as tranflated by the judicious and
learned Mr Marffi, the reafons which may induoe a cri-
* tic to fufpe& a work to be fpurious.
7‘ve y i. When doubts have been made from ka fir ft appear-
'faforrsariCC ^ world, whether it proceeded from the au-
would thor to whom it is aferibed. 2. When the immediate
friends of the pretended author, who were able to de¬
cide upon tire fubjed, have denied it to be bis produc¬
tion. 3. When a long feries of years has elapfed af¬
ter his death, in which the book was unknown, and in
which it muft unavoidably have been mentioned and
quoted, had it really exifted. 4. When the ftyle is dif¬
ferent from that ot his other writings, or, in cafe no
®ther remain, different from that which might reafon-
6
Nej
Th
tha
pro
bcii to be
*pu. )U3
35 ] SCR
ably be expe&ed. 5. When events are recorded Scrfptorev
•which happen later than the time of the pretended
author. 6. WThen opinions are advanced which con-
tradid thofe he is known to maintain in his other
writings. Though tins latter argument alone leads to
no pofitive conclufion, fince every man is liable to
change his opinion, or through forgetfuintL to vary
in the circumftances of the fame relation, of which
Jofephus, in his Antiquities and War of the Jews, af¬
fords a ftriking example. gg
1. But it cannot be fhown that any one doubted ofOonotaP*
its authenticity in the period in which it firft appeared.J)ly
2. No ancient accounts are on record whence we may
conclude it to be fpurious. 3. No conftderable period
elapfed after the death of the apoftles, in width the
New Teftament was unknown; but, on the contrary, it
is mentioned by their very contemporaries, and the ac¬
counts of it in the fccond century are ftill more nume¬
rous. 4. No argument can be brought in its disfavour
from the nature of the ftyle, it being exadtly fuch as
might be expe&ed from the apoftles, not Attic but
Jewiih Greek. 5 No fads are recorded which hap¬
pened after their death. 6. No dodrines are main-
taiued which contradid the known tenets of the au¬
thors, fince, befide the New Teftament, no writings of
the apoftles exift. But, to rite honour of the New Te--
ftament be it fpoken, it contains numerous contradic¬
tions to the tenets and dodrines of the fathers in the fe¬
cond and third century, whole morality was different from,
that of the goljpel, which recommends fortitude and
fubmiffion to unavoidable evils, but not that enthufiaftic
ardour for martyrdom for which thofe centuries are di-
ftinguifhed ; it alludes to ceremonies which in the fol¬
lowing ages were either in difufe or totally unknown :
all which circumftances infallibly demonftrate that the
New Tellament is not a produdion of either of thofe
centuries. ■*
We lhall now confider the pofitive evidence for the p £t^ciy
authenticity of the New Teftament. Thefe may be ar- ° 1VC **
ranged under the three following heads ;
1 The impoffibility of a forgery, arifmg from the
nature of the thing itfelf. 2. The ancient Chriftlan,
Jewiih, and Heathen teftimony m its favour. 3. Its
own internal evidence.
I. The impoffibility of a forgery arifing from the na-,
ture of the thing itfelf is evident. It is impoffible toryofafor-
eftablilh forged writings as authentic in any place where KcrY arifing
there are perfons ftumgly inclined and well qualified tofrom the
deted the fraud. Now the Jews were the moft violent "v v
enemies of Chriliianity. They put tlae founder of it to " C ^ ^
death; they periecuted his diftiples with implacable
fury ; and they were anxious to itiiie the new religion
in its birth. If the writings of the New Telia meat
had been forged, would not the Jews have deteded the
impofture ? Is there a lingle inllance on record where
a few individuals have impofed a hiftory upon the world
againft the teftimony of a whole nation ? Would the
inhabitants of Palelline have received the gofpels, if
they had not had fufficient evidence that j'efus Chrift
really appeared among them, and performed the mira¬
cles aferibed to him ? Or would the churches of Rome
or of Corinth have acknowledged the epiftles addrefied
to them as the genuine works of Paul, if Paul had
never preached among them ? We might as well think
to prove,, that the hiftory of the Reformation is the in¬
vention
SCR
Scripture
9*
From tefti-
taoiiy.
SCR C 13S ]
vention of Kiflorians; and that no revolution happened
in Great Britain during the Jail century.
2. The fecend kind of evidence which we produce
to prove the authenticity of the New Tellament, is the
teftimony of ancieht wntersf Chdftians, Jews, and Hea-
'The
times in
^Tht Karnes of' which
the IVliters. they
lived.
'The v/>riatien or agree-'
merit of their cata- 'The boohs :n nvhich
lugues with ours noiuthefe catalogues are.
received.
Scripture,
^ens*
In reviewing the evidence of teftimony, tt win not
be expe&ed that we fhould begin at the prefent age,
and trace backwards the authors who have written on
this fubjeff to the firft ages of Chriftianity. This in¬
deed, though a laborious talk, could be performed in
the moft complete manner ; the whole feries of authors,
numerous in every age, who have quoted from the books
of the New Teftament, written commentaries upon
them, tranftated them into different languages, or who
have drawn up a lift of them, could be exhibited fo as to
form fuch a perfect body of evidence, that we imagine
even a jury of deifts would find it impafiible, upon a de¬
liberate and candid examination, to rejedt or difbelieve it.
We do not, however, fuppofe that rcepticifm has yet
arrived at fo great a height as to render fuch a tedi¬
ous and circumftantial evidence neceffary. Palling over
the intermediate ipace, therefore, we fhall afeend at
once to the fourth century, when the evidence for the
authenticity of the New Teftament was fully eftabliih-
ed, and' trace it back from that period to the age of
the apoftles. We hope that this method of Hating the
evidence will appear more natural, and will afford more
fatisfadtion, than that which has been ufually adopted.
It is furely more natural, when we inveftigate the
truth of any faft which depends on a feries of teftimo¬
ny, to begin with thofe witneffes who lived neareft the
prefent age, and whofe characters are heft eftablilhed.
In this way we fhall learn from themfelves the founda¬
tion of their belief, and the characters of thofe from
whom they derived it; and thus we afeend till we ar¬
rive at its origin. This mode of inveftigation will
give more fatisfadtion to the deifl than the ufual way ;
and we believe no Chriftian, who is confident of the
goodnefs of his caufe, will be unwilling to grant any
proper conceffions. The delft will thus have an oppor¬
tunity of examining, feparately, what he will confider
as the weakeft parts of the evidence, thofe which are
exhibited by the earlieft Chriftian writers, confiding of
exprefiions, and not quotations, taken from the New
Teftament. The Chriftian, on the other hand, ought
to wifh, that thefe apparently weak parts of the evi¬
dence were diftindtly examined, for they will afford an
irrefragable proof that the New Teftament was not for¬
ged : and fhould the deift rejedt the evidence of thofe
early writers, it will be incumbent on him to account
for the origin of the Chriftian religion, which he will
find more difficult than to admit the common hypo-
thefis.
In the fourth century we could produce the tefti-
monies of numerous witneffes to prove that the books
of the New Teftament exifted at that time ; but it will
be fufticient to mention their names, the time in which
they wrote, and the fubftance of their evidence. This
we fhall prefent in a concife form in the following
table, which is taken from Jones’s New and Full Me¬
thod of ellablifhing the canon of the New Teftament.
I.
Athanafios
bifhopof A-
lexandria.
II.
Cyril bifhop
ofjerufalem.
III.
The bifhops
aftembled in
the council
of Laodicea.'
IV.
Epiphanius
bifhop of Sa-
lamis in Cy
prus.
V.
Gregory Na-
zianzen bi-
fhopofCon-
ftantinople.
VI.
Philaftrius
bifhop of
Brixia in
Venice.
A. C.
34°-
364-
37°*
375-
380.
VII.
Jerome. 3^2*
VIII.
Ruffin pref-
byter of A-
quilegium.
39°-
The fame perfedb
ly with ours
now received.
The fame with
ours, only the
Revelation is
omitted.
The Revelation
is omitted.
The fame with
ours now re¬
ceived.
Fragment. Epifi.
Tejlal. tom. 2.
o’ in Synopf,
tom. I.
Catech. IV. §
ult. p. (01.
Canon. LIX.
\. Id. The Ca¬
nons of rhiscoun-
cit were not long
after-wards recei¬
ved into the body
ol the canons of
the ui iverfal
church.
Hceref. 76. cont.
Anom. p. 399.
Omits the Reve¬
lation.
Fhe fame with ours
now received; ex¬
cept that he men¬
tions only it, of >St
Paul's epiftles (0-
mitting very pro¬
bably the Eyiftle
to the Hebrews),
and leaves out the
Revelations.
The fame with curs;
exceptthat hefpeaks
dubioufly of the E
piftle to the He
brews; tho’ in other
parts of his writings
he receives it as ta-
nonfcal.
It perfedlly agrees
with ours.
Carm. de verts
iff genuin.
Scripiur.
Lib. de HeergJ.
Numb. 87.
Ep. ad Paulin.
83. Trad. 6.
p. 2. Alfocom-
monly prefixed
to the Latin
vulgar.
Expo/, in Symb.
Apqftol. § 3-6.
int.Ep.Hieron.
' Par. I. Trac.
3. p. 110. iff
inter Op. Cypr.
IX.
Auftin bi¬
fhopof Hip¬
po in A-
frica.
X.
TheXLIV
bifhops af-
fembled in
the third
council of
Carthage.
394-
It perfe&ly agrees
with ours.
StAu- It perfedfly agrees
ftin was with ours,
prefent
at it.
P- 575-
De Dodrin.
Chriji. 1. 2. C-
8. Tom. Op. 3.
p. 25.
Fid. Canon.
XL VII. &
eap.ult.
4
Wc
Tefrimo-
nies <>f the
ancient
Chriftians.
Palsy's E-
•viienccs of
Cbrijlianity
Of Eufe-
biu?.
SCR f i
Scripture. We now go back to Eufebius, who wrote about the
year 315, and whofe catalogue of the books of the New
Teftament we (hall mention at more length. “ Let us
obferve (fays he) the writings of the apoftle John,
which are uncontradided; and, firft of all, mufi. be men¬
tioned, as acknowledged of all, the gofpel, according
to Kim, well known to all the churches under heaven.”
The author then proceeds to relate the occafions of
writing the gofpels, and the reafons for placing St
John’s the lalt, manifeftly fpeaking of all the four as
equal in their authority, and in the certainty of their
■ original. The fecond paffage is taken from a chap¬
ter, the title of which is, “ Of the Scriptures univer-
fally acknowledged, and of thofe that are not fuch.”
Eufebius begins his enumeration in the following man¬
ner : “ In the firit place, are to be ranked the facred
four Gofpels, then the book of the Afts of the Apoftles;
after that are to be reckoned the Epiftles of Paul:
in the next place, that called the firft Epiftle of John
and the Epiftle of Peter are to be efteemed authentic :
after this is to be placed, if it be thought fit, the Re¬
velation of John; about which we fiiall obferve the dif¬
ferent opinions at proper feafons. Of the controvert¬
ed, but yet well known or approved by the moft, are
that called the Epiftle of James and that of Jude, the
fecond of Peter, and the fecond and third of John, whe¬
ther they were written by the evangelift or by another
of the fame name.” He then proceeds to reckon up
five others, not in our canon, which he calls in one
place fpurious) in another controverted; evidently mean¬
ing the fame thing by thefe two words (s).
A. D. 290, Vi&orin bifhop of Pettaw in Germany,
in a commentary upon this text of the Revelation,
“ The firft was like a lion, the fecond was like a calf,
the third like a man, and the fourth like a flying eagle,”
makes out, that by the four creatures are intended
the four gofpels ; and to ^fhow the propriety of the
fymbols, he recites the fubjeft with which each evange¬
lift opens his hiftory. The explication is fanciful, but
the teftimony pofitiv’e. He alfo exprefsly cites the
Adis of the Apoftles.
A. D. 230, Cyprian bifhop of Carthage gives the
following teftimony : “ The church (fays this father)
is watered like Patadife by four rivers, that is, by four
gofpels.” The Adis of the Apoftles are alfo frequently
quoted by Cyprian under that name, and under the
name of the Divine ScripturesIn his various wri¬
tings are fuch frequent and copious citations of Scrip¬
ture, as to place this part of the teftimony beyond con-
troverfy. Nor is there, in the works of this eminent
African bifhop, one quotation of a fpurious or apocry¬
phal Chriftian writing.
A. D. 210, Origen is a moft important evidence.
Nothing can be more peremptory upon the fubjedl now
under confideration, and, from a writer of his learning
and information, nothing more fatisfadfory, than the de¬
claration of Origen, preierved in an extradl of his works
by Eulebius : “ That the four gofpels alone are received
without difpute by the whole church of God under
heaven:” to which declaration is immediately fubjoined
Vol. XVII. Part. I.
94
Of Vicfto-
rtn.
95
Of Cypri-
, 96
Of Origen.
37 J SCR
a brief hiftory of the refpedlive authors, to whom they Scripture,
were then, as they are now, afcribed. The fentiments -
expreffed concerning the gofpels in all the works of
Origen which remain, entirely correfpond with the
teftimony here cited. His atteftation to the Adis of
the Apoftles is no lefs pofitive : “ And Luke alfo once
more founds the trumpet relating the Adis of the A-
poftles.” That the Scriptures were then univerfally
read, is plainly affirmed by this writer in a pafiage in
which he is repelling the objedlions of Celfus, “ That
it is not in private books, or fuch as are read by
few only, and thofe ftudious perfons, -but in books
read by every body, that it is written, the invifible
things of God from the creation of the world are clear¬
ly feen, being underftood by things that are made.” It
is to no purpofe to Angle out quotations of Scripture
from fuch a wrriter as this. We might as well make a
feledlion of the quotations of Scripture in Dr Clarke’s
fermons. They are fo thickly fown in the works of
Origen, that Dr Mill fays, “ If we had all his works
remaining, we ffiould have before us almoft the whole
text of the Bible.”
A. D. 194, Tertullian exhibits the number of the Of Tertuk
gofpels then received, the names of the evangelifts, and^40*
their proper defignations, in one ffiort fentence.—
“ Among the apoftles, John and Matthew teach us the
faith ; among apoftolical men, Luke and Mark refrefh
it.” The next pafiage to be taken from Tertullian af¬
fords as complete an atteftation to the authenticity of the
gofpcls as can be well imagined. After enumerating the
churches which had been founded by Paul at Corinth,
in Galatia, at Philippi, Theflalonica, and Ephefus, the
church of Rome eftablifiied by Peter and Paul, and other
churches derived from John, he proceeds thus : “ I fay
then, that with them, but not with them only which are
apoftolical, but with all who have fellowfhip with them
in the fame faith, is that gofpel of Luke received from
its firft publication, which we fo zealoufly maintain
and prefently afterwards adds, “ The fame authority of
the apoftolical churches will fupport the other gofpels,
which we have from them, and according to them, I
mean John’s and Matthew’s, although that likewife
which Mark publifhed may be faid to be Peter’s, whofe
interpreter Mark was.” In another place Tertullian
affirms, that the three other gofptls, as well as St Luke’s,
were in the hands of the churches from the beginning.
This noble teftimony proves inconteftably the antiquity
of the goipels, and that they were univerfally received;
that they were in the hands of all, and had been fo from
the firft. And this evidence appears not more than 150
years after the publication of the books. Dr Lardner ob-
ferves, “ that there are more and larger quotations of
the fmall volume of the New Teftament in this one
Chriftian author, than there are of all the works of Ci¬
cero, in writers of all chara&ers, for feveral ages.” 8
■A.. D. 178, Irenaeus was bifhop of Lyons, and is Of Ircnasus*
mentioned by Tertullian, Eufebius, Jerome, and Pho-
tius. In his youth he had been a difciple of Poly-
carp, who was a difciple of John. He aflerts of him-
felf and his contemporaries, that they were able to rec-
S kon
(s) I hat Eufebius could not intend, by the word rendered fpurious, what v/e at prefent mean by it, is
evident from a claule in this very -chapter, where, fpeaking of the Gofpels of Peter and Thomas, and Matthias
and iome others, he fays, « They are not fo much as to be reckoned among the fpurious, but are to be reieaed
as altogether abfurd and impious.” Lard. Cred, vol. viii. p. 98.
SCR [ I
Scripture. Jt0n np in all the principal churches the fucceflion of bi-
fhops to their firft inftitution. His teftimony to the four
gofpels and A<fts of the Apoftles is exprefs and po(i-
tive. “ We have not received,” fays Irenaeus, “ the
knowledge of the way of our falvation by any others
than thofe by whom the trofpel has been brought to
us. Which gofpel they firft preached, and afterwards,
by the will of God, committed to writing, that it might
be for time to come the foundation and pillar of our
faith. For after that our Lord rofe from the dead,
and they (the apoftles) were endowed from above with
the power of the Holy Ghoft coming down upon them,
they received a perfeft knowledge of all things. They
then went forth to all the ends of the earth, declaring to
men the blefiing of heavenly peace, having all of them,
and every one alike, the gofpel of God. Matthew
then, among the Jews, wrote a gofpel in their own lan¬
guage, while Peter and Paul were preaching the gofpel
at Rome, and founding a church there. And after
their exit, Mark alfo, the difciple and interpreter of
Peter, delivered to us in writing the things that had
been preached by Peter. And Luke, the companion of
Paul, put down in a book the gofpel preached by him
(Paul). Afterwards John, the difciple of the Lord,
who alfo leaned upon his bread, likewife publifhed a
gofpel while he dwelt at Ephefus in Afta.” Irenaeus
then relates how Matthew begins his gofpel, how
Mark begins and ends his, and gives the fuppofed rea-
fons for doing fo. He enumerates at length all the paf-
fages of Chrift’s hiftory in Luke, which are not found
in any of the other evangelifts. He ftates the particu¬
lar defign with which St John compofed his gofpel, and
accounts for the dottrinal declarations which precede
the narrative. If any modern divine Ihould write a book
upon the genuinenefs of the gofpels, he could not aflert
it more exprefsly, or ftate their original more diftinftly,
than Irenaeus hath done within little more than too
years after they were publifhed.
Refpefting the book of the A&s of the Apoftles, and
its author, the teftimony of Irenaeus is no lefs explicit.
Referring to the account of St Paul’s converfion and
vocation, in the ninth chapter of that book, “ Nor
ean they (fays he, meaning the parties with whom he ar¬
gues (how) that he is not to be credited, who has related
fo us the truth with the greateft exaftnefs.” In ano¬
ther place, he has actually colle&ed the feveral texts, in
which the writer of the hiftory is reprefented as accom¬
panying St Paul, which led him to exhibit a fummary
©f almoft the whole of the laft twelve chapters of the
book.
According to Lardner, Irenseus quotes twelve of
ipaul’s epiftles, naming their author ; alfo the firft
epiftle of Peter, the two firft epiftles of John, and the
Revelation. The epiftles of Paul which he omits are
thofe addreffed to Philemon and the Hebrews. Eufe-
bius fays, that he quotes the epiftle to the Hebrews,
though he does not afcribe it to Paul. The work, how¬
ever, is loft.
A. D.172, Tatian, who is fpoken of by Clemens
Alexandiinus, Origen, Eufebius, and Jerome, compo¬
fed a harmony of the four gofpels, which he called
Diatejfaron of the four. This title, as well as the
work, is remarkable, becauie it (hows that then as well
as now there were four, and only four, gofpels in ge¬
neral ufe among Chriftians.
A. D. 170, the churches of Lyons and Vienne in
W.
Of lauan.
38 3 SCR
France fent an account of the fufferings of their martyrs Scripture*
to the churches of Afia and Phrygia, which has been v ■
preferved entire by Eufebius. And what carries in
fome meafure the teftimony of thefe churches to a
higher age is, that they had now for their bifhop Po-
thinus, who was 90 years old, and wbofe early life
confequently muft have immediately followed the times
of the apoftles. In this epiftle are exa6t references
to the gofpels of Luke and John, and to the Acts of
the Apoftles. The form of reference is the fame as in
all the preceding articles. That from St John is in thefe
words : “ Then was fulfilled that which was fpoken by
the Lord, that whofoever killeth you, will think that he
doth God fervice*.” * John
Diftinft references are alfo made to other books, viz.*71* a*
A&s, Romans, Ephefians, PhilippianSj 1, Timothy,
I Peter, 1 John, Revelation. too
A. D. 140, Juftin Martyr compofed feveral books,JUU11*
which are mentioned by his difciple Tatian, by Teitul-Martir*
lian, Methodius, Eufebius, Jerome, Epiphanius, and
Photius. In his writings between 20 and 30 quota¬
tions from the gofpels and A<fts of the Apoftles are rec¬
koned up, which are clear, diftintt, and copious ; if
each verfe be counted feparately, a much greater num¬
ber ; if each expreflion, (fill more. Jones, in his book
on the Canon of the New Teftament, ventures to affirm
that he cites the books of which it confifts, particularly
the four gofpels, above 200 times.
We meet with quotations of three of the gofpels
within the compafs of half a page; “ and in other
words, he fays, Depart from me into outer darknefs,
which the Father hath prepared for Satan and his An¬
gels,” (which is from Matthew xxv. 41.) “ And again
he fafd in other words, I give unto you power to tread
upon ferpents and fcorpions, and venomous beads, and
upon all the power of the enemy.” (This from
Luke x. 19.) “ And, before he was crucified, he faid.
The fon of man muft faffer many things, and be re-
jefted of the Scribes and Pharifees, and be crucified,,
and rife again the third day ; (this from Mark viii. 31 )
All the references in Juftin are made without men¬
tioning the author; which proves that thefe books were
perfectly well known, and that there were no other
accounts of Chrift then extant, or, at lead, no others
fo received and credited as to make it neceftary to add
any marks of diftin&ion. But although Juftin men¬
tions not the authors names, he calk the books Me¬
moirs compofed by the Apojlles ; Memoirs compofed by the
ApoJU's and their Companions; which defcriptions, the
latter efpecially, exa&ly fuit the titles which the Go-
fpels and Atfts of the Apoftles now bear.
He informs us, m his firft apology, that the memoirs
of the Apojlles, or the writings of the prophets, are
read according as the time allows; and, when the reader
has ended, the prefident makes a difcourfe, exhorting
to the imitation of fuch excellent things.
A few (hort obfervations will (how the value of this
teftimony. r. The Memoirs of the Apoftles, Juft in in
another place exprefsly tells us are what are called
gofpels. And that they were the gofpels which we now
ufe is made certain by Judin’s numerous quotations of
them, and his filence about any others, 2- He de-
fcribes the general ufage of the Chriftian church.
3. He does not fpeak of it as recent or newly infti-
tuted, but in the terms in which men fpeak of eftablilh-
ed cuftoms.
5 Juftiq
SCR t *39 1 SCR
Scripture. Jufttn alfo makes fuch allufions to the following
u--v  books as ftiows that he had read them : Romans, i Co¬
rinthian*, Galatians, Ephefiam, Philippian*, Colofllans,
2 Theflalonians, Hebrews, 2 Peter ; and he afcribes
J0t the Revelation to John the Apoftle of Chrift.
0{ Papias. A. D. 116, Papias, a hearer of John, and companion
of Polycarp, as Irenseus attefts, and of the apoftolical age
as all agree, in a paffage quoted by Eufebius, from a
work now loft, exprefsly afcribes the two firft gofpels
to Matthew and Mark ; and in a manner which proves
that thefe gofpels muft have publicly borne the names of
thefe authors at that time, and probably long before; for
Papias does not fay, that one gofpel was written by
Matthew, and another by Mark; but, afluming this as
perfectly well known, he tells us from what materials
Mark colledted his account, viz. from Peter’s preaching,
and in what language Matthew wrote, viz. in Hebrew.
Whether Papias was well informed in this ftatement or
not, to the point for which this teftimony is produced,
namely, that thefe books bore thefe names at this time,
his authority is complete.
Papias himfelf declares that he received his accounts
of Chriftianity from thofe who were acquainted with the
apoftles, and that thoie accounts which he thus received
from the older Chriftians, and had committed to memory,
he inferted in his books. He farther adds, that he was
very folicitous to obtain every poffible information, efpe-
cially to learn what the apoftles laid and preached, va¬
luing fuch information more than what was written in
• Praefat. books * .
kn Op. apud A. D. io8, Polycarp was the bifhop of Smyrna,
‘tlx'anc^ difciple of John the Apoftle. This teftimony con-
t, 39. * cerning Polycarp is given by IrenSeus, who in his youth
ioa had feen him. “ I can tell the place,” faith Irenseus, “ in
Of Poly- which the blefled Polycarp fat and taught, and his go*
ing out and coming in, and the manner of his life, and
the form of his perfon, and the difeourfes he made to
the people, and how he related his converfation with
John and others who had feen the Lord, and how he
related their fayings, and what he had heard concern¬
ing the Lord, both concerning his miracles and his doc¬
trine, as he had received them from the eye-witneftes of
the word of life; all which Polycarp related agreeable
to the feriptures.”
Of Polycarp, whofe proximity to the age and coun¬
try and perfons of the apoftles is thus attefted, we
have one undoubted epiftle remaining; which, though
a fhort performance, contains nearly 40 clear allufrons
to the books of the New Teftament. This is ftrong
evidence of the refpeft which was paid to them by Chri¬
ftians of that age. Amongft thefe, although the writings
of St Paul are more frequently ufed by Polycarp than
other parts of feripture, there are copious allufions to
the gofpel of St Matthew, fome to paftages found in
the gofpels both of Matthew and Luke, and fome which
more nearly refemble the words in Luke.
He thus fixes the authority of the Lord’s Prayer,
and the ufe of it among Chriftians. If, therefore, we
pray the Lord to forgive us> <we ought alfo to forgive.
And again, With fupplication befeeching the all-feeing
God not to lead us into temptation.
In another place, he quotes the Words of our Lord ;
“ But remembering what the Lord faid, teaching,
Judge not, that ye be not judged. Forgive, and ye
(hall be forgiven; be ye merciful, that ye may obtain
mercy ; with what meafure ye mete, it fhall be meafured
to you again*. Suppofmg Polycarp to have had thefe Scripture.^
words from the books in which we now find them, it
is manifeft that thefe books were confidered by him, j ^
and by his readers, as he thought, as authentic accounts v. 7.
of Chrift’s difeourfes ; and that this point wasrinconteft-
able.
He quotes alfo the following books, the firft of
which he afcribes to St Paul; t Corinthians, Ephe-
fians, Philippians, 1 and 2 Theftalonians ; and makes
evident references to others, particularly to A£ts, Ro¬
mans, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timo¬
thy, 1 Peter, 1 John. 103
Ignatius, as it is teftified by ancient Chriftian writers, 9^ I8na*
became bilhop of Antioch about 37 years after Chrift’stius*
afeenfion; and therefore, from his time, and place, and
ftation, it is probable that he had known and converfed
with many of the apoftles. Epiftles of Ignatius are re¬
ferred to by Polycarp his contemporary. Paflages,
found in the epiftles now extant under his name, are
quoted by Irenseus, A. D. 178, by Origen, A. D,
230 ; and the occafien of writing them is fully ex¬
plained by Eufebius and Jerome. What are called the
fmaller epiftles of Ignatius are generally reckoned the
fame which were read by Irenasus, Origen, and Eufe¬
bius.
They are admitted as genuine by Voflius, and have
been proved to be fo by bifliop Pearfon with a force
of argument which feems to admit of no reply. In
thefe epiftles are undoubted allufions to Matt. iii. 15.
xi. 16. to John iii. 8. ; and their venerable author, who
often fpeaks of St Paul in terms of the higheft refpedt,
once quotes his epiftle to the Ephefians by name. 104
Near the conclufion of the epiftle to the Romans, ^
St Paul, amongft others, fends the following falutation:inas’
“ Salute Afyncritus, Phlegon, Hamas, Patrobus,
Hermes, and the brethren which are with them.’ Of
Hermas, who appears in this catalogue of Roman
Chriftians as contemporary with St Paul, there is a book
flill remaining, the authenticity of which cannot be
difputed. It is called the Shepherd, or Pajlor of Htr-
mas. Its antiquity is inconteftable, from the quotations
of it in Irenseus, A. D. 178, Clement of Alexandria,
A. D, 194, Tertullian, A. D. 200, Origen, A. D.
230. The notes of time extant in the epiftle itfelf agree
with its title, and with the teftimonies concerning it,
which intimate that it was written during the lifetime
of Clement. In this piece are tacit aliufions to St
Matthew’s, St Luke’s, and St John’s gofpels; that is
to lay, there are applications of thoughts and expref-
fions found in thefe gofpels, without citing the place or
writer from which they were taken. In this form ap¬
pear in Hermas the confcfiing and denying of Chriftf ;. x-
the parable of the feed fown ^ ; the comparifon of[2)33, 0r
Chrift’s difciples to little children ; the faying, “ he Luke xii.
that putteth away his wife, and marrieth another, com-8>9’
mitteth adultery $ the lingular expreflion, “ having 9.^att'
received all power from his Father,” is probably an allu- ^ke' 0r
fionto Matthew xxviii. 18. and Chrift being the “gate,” viii. 5.
or only way of coming “ to God,” is a plain alhifion to§ Luk<:
John xiv. 6. x. 7, 9. There is alio a probable allufion*'7^
to Adis v. 32.
The Shepherd of Hermas has been confidered as a
fanciful performance. This, however, is of no impor¬
tance in the prefent cafe. We only adduce it as evi¬
dence that the books to which it frequently alludes ex-
ifted in the firft century ; and for this purpoie it is fatis-
S a r- fadtory,
SCR
Scripture, fa&oty, as its authenticity has never been queftioned.
v i jjowever abfurd opinions a man may entertain while he
retains his urtderftanding, his teftimony to a matter of
105 fa£l will Hill be received in any court of juftice.
mem Ro 9^’ we are ’n P0^^*100 an cP^^e wr‘tten
manus. ° by Clement bifhop of Rome, whom ancient writers,
without any doubt or fcruple, affert to have been the
Clement whom St Paul mentions Phihppians iv. 3.
“ with Clement alfo, and other my fellow labourers,
whofe names are in the book of life.” 1 his epiftle is
fpoken of by the ancients as an epiftle acknowledged
by all ; and, as Irenaeus well reprefents its value, “ writ¬
ten by Clement, who had feen the bleffed apoftles and
converfed with them, who had the preaching of the
apoftles ftill founding in his ears, and their_traditions
before his eyes.” It is addrefled to the church of Co¬
rinth ; and what alone may feem a decilive proof of its
authenticity, Dionyftus bifhop of Corinth, about the
year 170, i. e. about 80 or 90'years after the epiftle
was written, bears witnefs, “ that it had been ufually
read in that church from ancient times.” This epiftle
affords, amongft others, the following valuable paf-
fages : “ Efpecially remembering the words of the
Lord Jefus, which he fpake, teaching gentlenefs and
long fuffering ; for thus he laid (t), Be ye merciful, that
ye may obtain mercy ; forgive, that it may be forgiven
unto you ; as you do, fo (hall it be done unto you ; as
you give, fo ftvall it be given unto you; as ye judge, fo
(hall ye be judged ; as ye fhew kindnefs, fo fhall kind-
nefs be fhewn unto you ; with what meafure ye mete,
with the fame it fhall be meafured to you. By this
command, and by thefe rules, let us eftabhfti ourfelves,
that we may always walk obediently to his holy words.”
Again, “ Remember the words of the Lord Jefus,
for he faid, Wo to that man by whom offences come ;
it were better for him that he had not been born, than
that he fhould offend one of my eleft ; it were better
for him that a millftone fhould be tied about his neck,
and that he fhould be drowned in the fea, than that he
(hould offend one of my little ones (u).”
He afcrxbes the firft epiftle to the (Corinthians to
Paul, and makes fuch alluftons to the following books
as is fufficient to fliew that he had feen and read them :
Atfs, Romans, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephefians,
Philippians, Coloffians, 1 Theffalonians, 1 Timothy,
2 Timothy, Titus, 1 Peter, 2 Peter.
It may be faid, as Clement has not mentioned the
books by name from which we affert thefe allufions or
references are made, it is uncertain whether he refers to
any books, or whether he received thefe expreiftons from
the difcourfes and converfation of the apoftles. Mr
Paley has given a very fatisfaflory anfwer to this objec¬
tion: ift, That Clement, in the very fame manner, name¬
ly, without any mark of reference, ufes a paffage now
* Chap, found in the epiftle to the Romans * ; which paffage,
h from the peculiarity of the words that compofe it, and
from their order, it is manifeft that he mull have taken
SCR
from the epiftle. The fame remark may be applied to Scripnjrr,
fome very fingular fentiments in the epiftle to the He- v—
brews. Secondly, That there are many fentences of
St Paul’s firft epiftle to the Corinthians to be found in
Clement’s epiftle, without any fign of quotation, which
yet certainly are quotations ; becaufe it appears that
Clement had St Paul’s epiftle before him ; !or in one
place he mentions it in terms too exprefs to leave
us in any doubt. “ Take into your hands the epiftle
of the bleffed apoftle Paul.” Thirdly, That this me¬
thod of adopting words of feripture, without reference
or acknowledgment, was a method in general ufe amongft
the moft ancient Chriftian writers. Thefe analogies
not only repel the objection, but caft the prefumption
on the other fide ; and afford a conliderable degree of
poiitive proof, that the words in queftion have been
borrowed from the places of feripture in which we now
find them. But take it, if you will, the other way, that
Clement had heard thefe words from the apoftles or firft
teachers of Chriftianity ; with reipedt to the precife
point of our argument, viz. that the feriptures contain
what the apoftles taught, this fuppofition may ferve al-
moft as well.
We have now traced the evidence to the times of the
apoftles ; but we have not been anxious to draw it out
to a great length, by introducing every thing. On the
contrary, we have been careful to render it as concile
as poffible, that its force might be difeerned at a glance.
The evidence which has been ftated is of two kinds.
Till the time of Juftin Martyr and Irenasus it conlifls
chiefly of allufions, references, and expreffions, borrow¬
ed from the books of the New Teftament, without men¬
tioning them by name. After the time of Irenaeus it
became ufual to cite the facred books, and mention the ^
authors from whom the citations were taken. loS *
The firft fpecies of evidence will perhaps appear to The al!u* '
fome exceptionable ; but it muft be remembered that funs and
it was ufual among the ancient Chriftians as well ^reference?
Jews to adopt the expreffions of Scripture without na*Tefjan,4ent
ming the authors. Why they did fo it is not neceffarybv the firft
to inquire. The only point of importance to be deter-Chriftian
mined is, whether thole references are a fufficient proof w'lt';rs
of the exiftence of the books to which they allude i f/^ffted** :
This, we prefume, will not be denied ; efpecially in the m their
prefent age, when it is fo common to charge an author time,
with plagiarifm if he happen to fall upon the fame train
of ideas, or exprefs himfelf in a (imilar manner wuth au¬
thors who have written before him. We may farther
affirm, that thefe tacit references afford a complete oof
that thofe ancient writers had no intention of impofrng
a forgery upon the world. They prove the exiftence
of the Chriftian religion and of the apoftolical writings,
without (flowing any fufpicious earneftnefs that men
(hould believe them. Had thefe books been forged,
thofe who wilhed to pals them upon the world would
have been at more pains than the firft Chriftians were
to prove their authenticity. They a&ed the part of
hone ft
[ ho 3
(t) “ Bleffed are the merciful, for they (hall obtain mercy,” Matt. v. 7. “ Forgive, and ye (ball be forgiven ;
give, and it (hall be given unto you,” Luke vi. 37, 38*.“ Judge npt, that ye be not judged ; for with what judge'
ment ye judge, ye (ball be judged, and with what meafure ye mete, it fhall be meafured to you again,” Mat. vii. 2.
(u) Matt, xviii. 6. “ But whofo (hall offend one of thefe little ones which believe in me, it were better for him
that a millftone were hanged about his neck, and that he were caft; into the fea.” The latter part of the paf¬
fage in Clement agrees more exaflly with Luke xvii. 2. “ It were better for him that a millftone were hanged
about his neck, and he caft into the fea, than that he fhould offend one of thefe little ones.”
SCR [ 141 1 SCR
Scripture, hcneft men 5 they believed them themfelves, and they
y—~ never imagined that others would fufpeft their truth.
It is a conjideration of great importance, in review¬
ing the evidence which has been now dated, that the
witnefl'es lived in different countries ; Clemens flourifh-
ed at Rome, Polycarp at Smyrna, Juftin Martyr in Sy¬
ria, Irenseus in France, Tertullian at Carthage, Origen
at Alexandria, and Eufebius at Crefarea. This proves
that the books of the New Tfcffament were equally well
known in diftant countries by men who had no inter-
icy courfe with one another.
Teftimo- Xhe fame thing is proved by teftimonies if pofiible
xues of He-exceptionable. The ancient heretics, whofe opi¬
nions were fometimes groffer and more impious than
thofe which any modern fedlary has ventured to broach,
and whofe zeal in the propagation of them equalled that
of the molt flaming enthufraft of the laft century, never
called in queftion the authenticity of the books of the
New Teftament. When they met with any paffage in
the gofpels or epiftles which they could not reconcile
to their own heretical notions, they either erafed it, or
denied that the author was infpired ; but they nowhere
contend that the book in which it flood was not writ¬
ten by the apoftle or evangelift whofe name it bore.
Eufebius relates, that the Ebionites rejedled all the
epiftles of Paul, and called him an apoftate, becaufe he
departed from the Levitical law ; and they adopted as
their rule of faith the gofpel of St Matthew, though in¬
deed they greatly corrupted it. This proves therefore
that the gofpel according to Matthew was then pub-
lifhed, and that St Paul’s epiftles were then known.
Of the heretics who erafed or altered paffages to-
make the Scriptures agree with their dodtrines, we may-
produce Marcion as an inftance, who lived in the be¬
ginning of the 2d century. He lived in an age when
he could have eaiily dilcovered if the writings of the
New Teftament had been forged ; and as he was much
incenfed againft the orthodox party, if fuch a forgery
had been committed, unqueftionably he would not have
failed to make the difcovery, as it would have afforded
the moft ample means of revenge and triumph, and en¬
abled him to eftabliftr his own opinions with lefs diffi¬
culty. But his whole condudt (hows clearly, that he
believed the writings of the New Teftament to be au¬
thentic. He faid that the gofpel according to St Mat¬
thew, the epiftle to the Hebrews, with thofe of St Pe¬
ter and St James, as well as the Old Teftament in ge¬
neral, were writings not for Chrittians but for Jews.
He publiihed a new edition of the gofpel according to
Luke, and the firft ten epiftles of Paul; in which it has
been affirmed by Epiphanius, that he altered every paf¬
fage that contradicted his own opinions : but as many
of thefe alterations are what modern critics call various
readings, though we receive the teftimony of Epipha¬
nius, we mult not rely upon his opinion (x). Hence
it is evident that the books of the New Teftament
above-mentioned did then exift, and were acknowledged
to be the works of the authors whofe names they bear.
Hr Lardner, in his General Review, fums ^p this
head of evidence in the following words : “ Noetus,
Paul of Samofata, Sabellius, Marcellus, Photinus, the
Novatians, Donatifts, Manicheans (v), Prifeillianifts,
befide Artemon, the Audians, the Arians, and divers Str'pt are*
others, all received moft or all the fame books of the v""—'
New Teftament w-hich the Catholics received; and
agreed in a like refpeCt for them as writ by apoftles or
their difciples and companions.” 10S
Celfus and Porphyry, both enemies of the Chriftian Teftimo-
religion, are powerful witneffes for the antiquity of the' *es
New Teftament. Celfus, who lived towards the end of
the fecond century, not only mentions by name, but
quotes paffages from the books of the New Teftaraent:
and that the books to which he refers were no other
than our prefent gofpels, is evident from the allufions 109
to various paffages ftill found in them. Celfus takes Ceifus,
notice of the genealogies, which fixes two of thefe gof¬
pels ; of the precepts, Refill not him that injures you,
and, If a man ftrike thee on the one cheek, offer to him
the other alfo; of the woes denounced by Chrift: ; of
his predi&ions ; of his faying that it is impoffible to
lerve two mailers ; of the purple robe, the crowm of
thorns, and the reed which was put into the hand of
Jefus ; of the blood that flowed from his body upon
the crofs, a circumftance which is recorded only by
John ; and (what is injiar omnium for the purpofe lor
which we produce it) of the difference in the accounts
given of the refurre£lion by the evangelifts* fome men¬
tioning two angels at the fepulchre, others only one.
It is extremely material to remark, that Celfus not
only perpetually referred to the accounts of Chrift: con¬
tained in the four gofpels, but that he referred to no
other accounts ; that he founded none of his objetlions
to Chriftianity upon any thing delivered in fpurious
gofpels. 110
The teftimony of Porphyry is ftill more important 01 Porphyv
than that of Celfus. He was born in the year 213, ofT’
Tyrian origin. Unfortunately for the prefent age,
fays Michaelis, the miftaken zeal of the Chriftian em¬
perors has banilhed his writings from the world; and
every real friend of our religion would gladly give the
works of one ol the pious fathers to refcue thofe of
Porphyry from the flames. But Mr Marlh, the learn¬
ed and judicious tranftator of Michaelis, relates, that,
according to the accounts of Ifaac Voffius, a manu-
fcript oi the works of Porphyry is preferved in the Me-
dicean library at Florence, but kept fo fecret that no
one is permitted to fee it. It is univerfally allowed,
that Porphyry is the moll fenfible, as well as the molt
fevere, adverfary of the Chriftian religion that antiqui¬
ty can produce. He wras verfed not only in hillory,
but alio in philofophy and politics. His acquaintance
with the Chriilians was not confined to a Angle coun¬
try ; lor he had con verfed with them in Tyre, in Si¬
cily, and in Rome. Enabled by his birth to ftudy the
Syriac as well as the Greek authors, he was of all the
adverfaries to the Chriftian religion the bell qualified to
inquire into the authenticity of the facred writings.
He poffelfed therefore every advantage which natural
abilities or a Icientific education could afford to difcover
whether the New Teftament was a genuine work of the
apoilles and evangelifts, or whether it was impofed up¬
on the world after the deceafe of its pretended authors.
But no trace of this fufpicion is anywhere to be found
in his writings^ In the fragments which ftill remain,
mention
(x) Hr Loeffer has written a learned differtation to prove that Marcion did not corrupt the facred w-ritinrrs,
(y) This muft be with an exception, however, of Fauftus, who lived fo late as the year 3S4.
SCR
Scnpfure
JJT
Authenti¬
city of the
New Te-
ffament
proved
from inter-
sal evi¬
dence,
i ia
From the
flyle.
mention is made of the grifpcls of St Matthew, St Mark,
and St John, the Afts of the Apoilles, and the epiftle
to the Galatians; and it clearly appears from the very
objeftions of Porphyry, that the books to which he al*
ludes were the fame which we poffefs at prefent. Thus
he objects to the repetition of a generation in St Mat¬
thew’s genealogy ; to Matthew’s call ; to the quota¬
tion of a text from Ifaiah, which is found in a pfalm
afcribed to Afaph ; to the calling of the lake of Tibe¬
rias a fea ; to the exprefiion in St Matthew, “ the abo¬
mination of defolationto the variation in Matthew
and Mark upon the text “ the voice of one crying in
the wildernefs,” Matthew citing it from Ifaias, Mark
from the prophets; to John’s application of the term
Word; to Chrilt’s change of intention about going up
to the feaft of tabernacles (John vii. 8.) ; to the judge¬
ment denounced by St Peter upon Ananias and Sap-
phira, which he calls an imprecation of death.
The inftances here alleged ferve in feme meafure to
fhow the nature of Porphyry’s obje&ions, and prove
that Porphyry had read the gofpels with that fort of
attention which a writer would employ who regarded
them as the depofitaries of the religion which he at¬
tacked. Befide thefe fpeeifications, there exifts in the
writings of ancient Chriltians general evidence, that the
places of Scripture, upon which Porphyry had made re¬
marks, were very numerous.
The internal evidence to prove the authenticity of
the New Teftament confrfts of two parts r The nature
of the ftyle, and the coincidence of tire New Teftament
with the hiftory of the times.
The ftyle of the New Teftament is lingular, and
differs very widely from the ftyle of clafficai authors. It
is full of Hebraifms and Syriafms ; a circumllance which
pious ignorance has coniidered as a fault, and which,
even fo late as the prefent century, it has attempted
to remove; not knowing that fhefe very deviations
from Grecian purity afford the ftrongeft prefumption in
its favour : for they prove, that the New Tejlament was
written by men of Hebrew origin, and is therefore a pro¬
duction of the firjl cenrury. After the death of the fir ft
Jewifh converts, few of the Jews turned preachers of
the gofpel; the Chriftians were generally ignorant
of Hebrew, and confequently could not write in the
ftyle of the New Teftament. After the deftru&ion of
Jerufalem and the difperlxon of the Jews, their lan¬
guage mult have been blended with that of other na¬
tions, and their vernacular phrafeology almoft entirely
loft. The language of the early fathers, though not
always the pureft claflic Greek, has no refemblance to
that of the New Teftament, not even excepting the
works of the few who had a knowledge of the Hebrew;
as Origen, Epiphanius, and Juftin Martyr, who being a
native of Paleftine, might have written in a ftyle limi-
lar to that of the New Teftament, had fuch a ftyle then
prevailed. He that lufpefts the New Teftament to be
the forgery of a more recent period, ought to produce
fome perfon who has employed a limilar di&ion ; but
thole who are converfant with eaftern writings know
well that a foreigner, who has not been enured to eaft-
[ 142 1
SCR
ern manners and modes of thinking from his infancy, Seri
can never imitate with fuccefa the oriental ftyle, much
lefs forge a hiftory or an epiftle which contains a thou-
fand incidental allufions, which nothing but truth could
fuggeft. To imitate clofely tbedbyle of the New Tefta¬
ment is even more difficult than to imitate that of any
other oriental book; for there is not a fingle author,
' among the Jews themfelves, fmee the deflrudtion
ot Jerufalem, that has compofed in a ftyle in the leait
degree like it (zj.
But though the books of the New Teftament bear fo
clofe a refemblance in idiom, there is a diverfity of ftyle
which fhows them to be the work of different perfons.
Whoever reads with attention the epiftles of Paul, mufl
be convinced that they were all written by the fame
author. An equal degree of fimilarity is to be found
between the gofpel and 1 ft epiftle of John. The wri¬
tings of St John and St Paul exhibit marks of an ori¬
ginal genius which no imitation can ever attain. The
character of Paul as a writer is drawn with great judge¬
ment by Michaelis 5 “ His mind overflows with fenti-
ment, yet he never lofes fight of his principal object,
but hurried on by the rapidity of thought, difclofes fre¬
quently in the middle a concluiion to be made only at
the end. To a profound knowledge of the Old Tefta¬
ment he joins the acutenefs of philoibphical wifdom,
which he difplays in applying and expounding the fa-
cred writings; and his explanations are therefore fome-
times fo new and unexpected, that fuperficial obfervers
might be tempted to fuppofe them erroneous. The fire
of his genius, and his inattention to ftyle, occafion fre¬
quently a twofold obfeurity, he being often too concife
to be underftood except by thofe to whom he immedi¬
ately wrote, and not 1'eldom on the other hand fo full
of his fubje£t, as to produce long and difficult parenthe-
fes, and a repetition of the fame word even in different
fenfes. With a talent for irony and fatire, he unites
the moft refined fenlibility, and tempers the feverity of
his cenfures by expreffions of tendernefs and affecbion }
nor does he ever forget in the vehemence of his zeal
the rules of modefty and decorum. He is a writer, in
fhort, of fo Angular and wonderful a compofition, that
it would be difficult to find a rival. That truly fenii-
ble and fagacious philofopher Locke was of the fame
opinion, and contended that St Paul was without an
equal.”
Poems have been forged and afcribed to former ages
with fome fuccefs. Philofophical treatifes might be in¬
vented which it would be difficult to detedf ; but there
is not a fingle inftance on record where an attempt has
been made to forge a hiftory or a long epiftle, where
the fraud has not been either fully proved, or rendered
fo fufpicious that few are weak enough to believe it.
Whoever attempts to forge a hiftory or an epiftle in the
name of an ancient author, will be in great danger of
contradidfing the hiftory or the manners of that age,
efpecially if he relate events which are not mentioned in
general hiftory, but fuch as refer to a fingle city, fed,
religk—■ or fchool.
The difficulty of forging fuch hiftories as the gofpels,
and
(z) Hie ftyle of Clemens Romanus may perhaps be an exception. By many eminent critics it has been
thought io like to that of the epiftle to the Hebrews, as to give room for the opinion that Clement either was
r ?p,1Ue» w was th€ Perioa trail fluted it from the Syro-Chaidaic language, in which it was
■'Originally compofed.
Scripture.
,T3
i.nd from
emarkable
aftances of
I oincidence
etwetn
;ofephus
md the
lew Te-
ament.
Antiq,
b. jS.
5-
d. 1,2
hap. ii.
XI.
1 A<fts
kin. a—5
SCR [ j
and fuch epiUles as thofe of Paul, cannot be overcome
by all the genius, learning, and induftry, of any in¬
dividual or fociety of men that ever lived. They con¬
tain a purer fyftem of ethics than all the ancient philo-
fcphers could invent : Theydifcover a candour and mo-
defty unexampled : They exhibit an originality in the
charafter of Jefus, and yet fuch a confiftency as the
imagination of our bell poets has never reached. New
it is a very remarkable circumftance, that hiftories writ¬
ten by four different men fhould preferve fuch dignity
and confiftency, though frequently relating different ac¬
tions of Jefus, and defeending to the moft minute cir-
cumftances in his life. The feene of adtion is too ex-
tenfive, and the agreement of fadfs with the ftate of the
times as reprefented by other hiftorians is too dole,
to admit the poffibility of forgery.
The feene of adtion is not confined to one country,
it is fuccefiively laid in the greateft cities of the Roman
empire ; in Rome, in Antioch, in Corinth, in Athens,
as well as in Jerufalem and the land of Paleftine. In¬
numerable allufions are made to the manners and opi¬
nions of the Greeks, the Romans, and the Jews; and
refpedting the Jews, they extend even to the trifles and
follies of theii; fchools. Yet after the ftridteft examina¬
tion, the New Teftament will be found to have a won-
detful coincidence and harmony with Jofephus, the
principal hiftorian of thefe times, and an enemy of Chri-
flianity.
It has been a queftion who the foldiers were who are
faid in the gofpel of Luke to have addrefled John the
Baptifl in thefe words, IV,bat Jhall <we do ? An anfwer
to this queftion may be found in Jofephus*. Herod
the tetrarch of Galilee was engaged in a war with his
father-in-law Aretas, a petty king in Arabia Petrsea, at
the very time that John was preaching ih the wilder-
nefs; and the road from Galilee to Arabia running
through that wildernefs, the foldiers on their march had
this interview with the Baptift. A coincidence like this,
which has been overlooked by all the commentators,
would not probably be attended to in a forgery.
Another inllance of an agreement no lefs remarkable
we fliall quote from the valuable work of Michaelis.
It has been a queftion of fame difficulty am®ng the
learned, who was the Ananias who commanded St Paul
to be fmitten on the mouth when he was making his de¬
fence before the council in Jerufalem *. Krebs, in his
remarks taken from Jofephus, has fhown him to have
been the fon of Nebedeni. But if fo, how can it be
reconciled with chronology, that Ananias was, at that
time, called high prieft, when it is certain from Jofe¬
phus that the time of his holding that office was much
earlier? And how comes it to pafs that St Paul fays,
I wift not, brethren, that he was the high prieft V’
The faeerdctal garb muft have difeovered who he was :
a jeft would have ill-fuited the gravity of a tribunal ;
and a falfehood is inconfiftent with the charader of St
Paul.
All thefe difficulties vanifh as foon as we examine the
fpeciai hiftory of that period : “ Ananias the fon of Ne-
bedeni was high.prieft at the time that Helena queen
of Adiabene fupplied the Jews with corn from Egypt,
during the famine which took place in the fourth year
ei Claudius, mentioned in the eleventh chapter of the
Ads. St Paul therefore, who took a journey to Jeru-
£tkm at that period, could not have been ignorant @f
43 ] SCR
the elevation cf Ananias to that dignity. Soon after Scripfure,
the holding of the firft council, as it is called, at Jeru- ^
falem, Ananias was difpoflefied of his office, in confe-
quence of certain ads of violence between the Samari¬
tans and the Jews, and fent prifoner to Rome; but being
afterwards releafed, he returned to Jerufalern. Now from
that period he could not be called high-p' iejl in the pro¬
per fenfe of the word, though Jofephus has fometimes
given him the title of taken in the more exten-
five meaning of a prieft, who had a feat and voice in
the Sanhedrim ; and Jonathan, though vve are not ac¬
quainted with the circumftances of his elevation, had
been raifed in the mean time to the fupreme dignity in
the Jevvifh church. Between the death of Jonathan,
who was murdered by order of Felix, and the high-
priefthood of Ifmael, who was inverted with that dignity
by Agrippa, eiapfed an interval during which the fa-
cerdotal office was vacant. Now it happened precifely -
in this interval that St Paul was apprehended in Jerufa-
lem : and, the Sanhedrim being defUtute of a prefident,
he undertook of his own authority the difeharge of that
office, which he executed with the greateft tyranny.
It is poffible therefore that St Paul, who had been on¬
ly « few days in Jerufalem, might be ignorant that A-
nanias, who had been difpoflefled of the priefthood, had
taken upon himfelf a truft to which he was not intitled;
he might therefore very naturally exclaim, ‘ I will not,
brethren, that he was the high-prieft !’ Admitting him
on the other hand to have been acquainted with the
fa£t, the expreffion muft be confidered as an indirect
reproof, and a tacit refufal to recognize ufurped au- -
thority.,,
Could fuch a correfpondence as this fubftfl between
truth and falfehood, between a forgery and an authen¬
tic hiftery ? or is it credible that thefe events could be
related by any perfon but a contemporary ?
Impreffed with the love of truth, and feeling con-There are
tempt as well as deteftation at pious frauds, we hefitatealfo ®ppa-
not to acknowledge, that in fome particular fadts there
is a difterence either real or apparent between Jofephus hut thefe
and the writers of the New Teftament. The objec-probably
tions arifiug from thefe differences are of two kinds : ari*e trur,i
i. Such as would prove a book not to have been vvTit-^jjj^1
ten by the author to whom it is aferibed. 2. Such as-.hut; ~
would prove that the author was miftaken, and there¬
fore not divinely infpired. To the firft clafs belongs
the following objeftion : St Paul fays' (2 Cor. xi. 32.)
that the governor of Damafcus was under Aretas the
king : but if vve are to judge from the 18th book of
the Jewifti Antiquities, which correfponds with the pe¬
riod of St Paul's journey to Damafcus, this city mull
have belonged at that time to the Romans and what
authority could Aretas, a petty king in Arabia Petraea,
have in fuch a city ? In anfwer to this queftion, J. G.
Hyne, in a difl’ertation publifhed 10175 5, has fhown it
to be highly probable that Aretas, againft whom .the
Romans, not long before the death of Tiberius, made
a declaration of war, which they neglefted to put in ex¬
ecution, took the opportunity of feizing Damafcus,
which had once belonged to his anceftors; an event
omitted by Jofephus, as forming no part of the Jewifh
hiftory, and by the Roman hiftorians as being a matter
not flattering in itfelf, and belonging only to a diftant
province. Secondly, That Aretas was by religion a Jew;
a circumftance the more credible, when we refit ft that
J udaifru
SCR
l 144 5
SCR
(Scripture.
«ij .
■Or to Ms
want of au
thentic in¬
formation
concerning
the events
that hap¬
pened near
his birth.
Judalfm had been widely propagated in that country,
and that even kings in Arabia Felix had recognized the
law of Mqfes The difficulty then is fo far removed,
that it ceafes to create fufpicion againfl jan epi !le
which has fo many evident marks of authenticity ; and
it is only to be regretted that, in order to place the
fubjcdt in the cleared point of view, we are not fut-
fkiently acquainted with the particular hiftory of Da-
mafeus.
Examples of the fecond kind are fuch as, if allowed
their full force, might indeed prove a writer not divine¬
ly infpired, but could afford no reafon to conclude that
he was not the author of the writings which bear his
name, fince miflakes may be committed by the moft ac¬
curate hiftorian. The chief difficulties of this nature
are found in the gofpel according to St Luke, and do
not apply to the writings of Matthew, John, Paul, and
Peter. Laying afide the idea of infpiration altogether,
let us inquire whether Luke or Jofephus be moft in-
titled to credit in thofe paffages where they differ ;
which of them is moft accurate, and which of them had
the beft opportunities of exploring the truth of the
fafts which they relate. Now Jofephus relates the fame
ftory differently in different parts of his works, and is
fometimes equally miftaken in them all. We do not
recolleft to have feen fuch inconiiftencies in the wri¬
tings of St Luke. Luke knew the chara&ers, and
witneffed many of the fa&s, of which he fpeaks ; and he
could receive the beft information refpedling thofe fadts
which were tranfadled in his abfence. Jofephus was
born A. D. 37, fome years after our Saviour’s afcenfion.
Now it is a very important obfervation of Michaelis,
that the period of hiftory with which mankind are leafl
acquainted is that which includes the time of their
childhood and youth, together with the twenty or thir¬
ty years immediately preceding their birth. Concern¬
ing the affairs tranfatfted during that period, we are
much more liable to fall into miftakes than concerning
thofe of a remoter age. The reafon is, that authentic
hiftory never comes down to the period of our birth ;
our knowledge of the period immediately preceding de¬
pends on hearfay ; and the events, which pafs within
the firfl eighteen or twenty years of our lives, we are
too young and heedlefs to obferve with attention. This
tnuft have been more remarkably the cafe in the time of
Jofephus than at prefent, when there were neither daily
papers nor periodical journals to fupply the want of re¬
gular annals. There was no hiftorian from whom Jo¬
fephus could derive any knowledge of the times that
immediately preceded his birth. There is a period then
of forty or fifty years, in which, even with the-moft di¬
ligent inquiry, he was expofed to error.
When we find therefore the x'elations of Luke and
Jofephus fo different as not to be reconciled, it would
be very unfair to determine without any further inquiry
in favour of jofephus. Let their charafter, and works,
and fituation, be ftridlly examined; let their teftimony
be duly weighed and compared ; and then let the pre¬
ference be given to that author who, according to the
ftridteft rules of equity and juftice, feems intitled to the
higheft degree of credit. The decifion of a jury, we
ffiall venture to fay, would in every inftance turn out in
favour of Luke.
Having thus afcertained the authenticity of the books
of the New Teftament, the next thing to be confidered
is their infptration. It is certainly of fome importance Scripttjra,
to know how far the apoftles and evangelifts were gui- —
ded in their writings by the immediate influence of the f116 .
fpirit ol God ; though this knowledge, if attainable, isnf th^Ncw
not equally important with that of the authenticity of Teftament,
thefe writings. Michaelis indeed afferts, that the divi¬
nity of the New Teftament may be proved whether we
can evince it to be written by immediate infpiration or
notf. “ The queftion (fays he), whether the books oft Chap. in.
the New Teftament are infpired ? is not fo important as § *•
the queftion, whether they are genuine ? The truth of
our religion depends upon the latter, not abfolutely on
the former. Had the Deity infpired not a fingle book
of the New Teftament, but left the apoftles and evan¬
gelifts without any other aid than that of natural abili¬
ties to commit what they knew to writing, admitting
their works to be authentic, and poffeffed of a fufficient
degree of credibility, the Chriftian religion would ftill iry
be well founded. The miracles by which it is con- Not necef.
firmed would equally demonilrate its truth, even if the <ary t0 the
perfons who attefted them were not infpired, but fimply
human witneffes ; and their divine authority is never ty accor(i.*
prefuppofed, when we difeufs the queftion of miracles, ing to the
but merely their credibility as human evidence. If the opinion of
miracles are true which the evangelifts relate, the doc- Mfthaelia,
trines of Chrift recorded in the gofpels are proved to
be the infallible oracles of God ; and, even if we admit
the apoftles to be miftaken in certain not effential cir-
cumftances, yet as the main points of the religion which
Chrift commiffioned them to preach are fo frequently
repeated, their epiftles would inftruft us as well in the
tenets of the Chriftian fyftem, as the works of Maclau-
rin in the philofophy of Newton. It is poffible there¬
fore to doubt, and even deny, the infpiration of the New
Teftament, and yet be fully perfuaded of the truth of
the Chriftian religion : and many really entertain thefe
fentiments either publicly or in private, to whom we
fliauld render great injuftice, if we ranked them in the
clafs of unbelievers.
“ Yet the Chriftian religion would be attended with
difficulty, if our principium cognafcendi re.ft.zd. not on firm¬
er ground ; and it might be obje&ed, that fufficient
care had not been taken for thofe whofe confciences
were tender, and who were anxioufly fearful of mifta-
king the fmalleft of the divine commands. The chief
articles indeed of Chriftianity are fo frequently repeat¬
ed, both by Chrift and his apoftles, that even were the
New Teftament not infpired, we could entertain no
doubt of the following do£trines : ‘ Jefus was the Mef-
fias of the Jews, and an infallible meffenger of God : he
died for our iniquity; and by the fatisfa&ion made by
his death we obtain remiffion of fins, if on our part be
faith and amendment of life : the Levitical law is abo-
lifhed, and moral precepts, with the ceremonies of Bap-
tifm and the Supper of the Lord, are appointed in its
ftead : after the prefent follows an everlafting life^ in
which the virtuous fliall be rewarded and the wicked
punifhed, and where Chrift himfelf (hall be the Judge.’
“To the epiftles indeed (fays Michaelis), infpiration
is of rea^confequence ; but with refpeft to the hiftori-
cal books, viz. the Gofpels and the A£ts of the A-
poftles, we fhould really be no lofers if we abandoned the
fyilem of infpiration, and in fome refpedts have a real
advantage. We fhould be no lofers, if we confidered
the apoftles in hiftorical fads as merely human witneffes,
6 as
s c R [ ,4
feripfW*. g* Chrifl himfelf has done in fayinfr, < ye alfo dmll hear
1
SCR
IlS
DifFerer.t
witnefs, becaufe ye have been with me from the bejin-
ning*.’ And no one that attempts to convince an un¬
believer of the truth of Chriftianity, would begin his
demonftration by prefuppofing a doftrine which his ad-
verfary denies, but would ground his arguments on the
credibility of the evangelifts as human hiftorians, for the
truth ©f t1^ miracles, the death, and the refurre&ion of
Chrift. Even thofe who examine the grounds of their
faith for their own private convi&ion, muft treat the
evangelifts as human evidence ; fince it would be argu¬
ing in a circle to conclude that the fa&s recorded in the
gofpels are true, becaufe they are infpired, when we
conclude the Scriptures to be infpired in confequence of
their contents. In thefe cafes, then, we are obliged to
coniider the evangelifts as human evidence ; and it would
be no detriment to the Chriftian caufe to confider them
nt all times as fuch in matters of hiftorical faft. We
find it nowhere exprefsly recorded that the public tranf-
aftions which the apoftles lenew by their own experi¬
ence, and of which St Luke informed himfelf by dili¬
gent inquiry, fhould be particular obje&s of divine in-
fpiration. We ftiould even be confiderable gainers, in
adjufting the harmony of the gofpels, if we were permit¬
ted to fuppofe that feme one of the evangelifts had com¬
mitted an immaterial error, and that St John has recti¬
fied feme trifling miftakes in the preceding gofpels.
The moft dangerous objections which can be made to
the truth of our religion, and fuch as are moft difficult
to anfwer, are thole drawn from the different relations
of the four evangelifts. ”
. p Before any inquiry is made refpe&ing the infpiration
ofof the books of the New Teftament, it is neceffary to
determ.ine the meaning of the term ; for theologians
have given to it a variety of fignifieations. Moft of the
German divines make it to confift in an infufion of
-words as well as ideas. Luther, Beza, and Salmafius,
TeftriCf it to ideas alone. Doddridge underftands by it
an intervention of the Deity, by which the natural fa¬
culties of the mind were dire&ed to the difeovery of
truth. Warburton and Law think it was a negative
intervention to preferve the facred writers from effential
errors. Some believe every circumftance was dictated
by the Idoly Ghoft ; others fuppole that no fupernatu-
ral afliftance was granted except in the epiftolary wri¬
tings. See Inspiration.
As there is an evident diftinftion between infpiration
and revelation, and as the origin of the Chriftian reli¬
gion may be ftill proved divine, even though it were de¬
nied that thofe who record its faCts and do&rines were
infpired in the a<ft of writing, it will be moft judicious
and fafe to employ the word mfpirat'ion in that fenfe
which can be moft eafily defended and fupported. By
doing this much may be gained and nothing loft. It
is difficult to prove to a deift that the words of Scrip¬
ture are divine, becaufe he fees that every writer has
words and phrafes peculiar to himfelf. It is difficult
alfo to prove that the ideas were infufed into the mind
of the authors while they were engaged in the aft of
writing; becaufe concerning fafts they appeal not to
f vme infpiration, but declare what they have feen and
heard. In reafoning they add their own fentiments to
what they had received from the Lord, and fubioin, e-
fpecially in their epiftles, things not connefted with reli-
^TeL. XVlfpmT Whkh I)oddridfie Sives> fccm3
applicable to ordinary gifts or the ufual endowments of Scripture,
rational creatures, rather than to the extraordinary gifts —“'V "L *
of tne Holy Spirit, which were beftowed on the a-
pol!les» Thofe who maintain that every faft or circum¬
ftance was fuggefted by divine infpiration, will find it
no eafy matter to prove their pofition. The opinion of
Warburton and Law, with proper explanations, feems
moft probable. The opinion of Grotius, that onlyHie
epilUes were infpired, may be eafily refuted.
The proof of the authenticity of the .New Teftament
depends on human teftimony : The proof of its infpi¬
ration is derived from the declaration of infpired per-
fons. , r
I n proving that the New Teftament is infpired, we The proof
prefuppofe its authenticity that the facred books wereof h eft-
written by the apoftles whofe names they bear, andpuerK-6 ?n
that they have been conveyed to us pure and uncor-tton?of^
rupted. This we have already attempted to prove, andchnft and
we hope with fuccels. The evidence of infpiration ishisa‘
the teftimony of Chrift and his apoftles, which we re.PGale8-
ceive as credible, becaufe they confirmed their doftrines
by miracles. From the important miffion of Chrift and
his apoftles, we infer that every.power was beftowed
which divine wifdom thought expedient; and from their
conduft we conclude, that it is morally impofiible that
they could lay claim to any powers which they did not
poffefs. It is proper therefore to inquire into the de-
c aiations of Chrift and his apoftles concerning the na¬
ture, degree, and extent, of the infpiration beftowed upon
the writers of the facred books.
. B confider Lhrift’s more immediate promifes ofThe dec!a«*
in pnation the apoftles, we fliall find that he hasrations°f
given them, in the moft proper fenfe of the word, atchrift*
three feveral periods, ift, When he fent the apoftles to
preach the gofpel f; ?dly, In holding a public difeourfe fMatt x.
relating to the gofpel, at which were prefent a confi-1?’ ao-
durable multitude ; 3dly, In his prophecy of the de-
ftruction of Jerufalem J. When he fent the apoftles to \ Mark xiii.
preach the gofpel, he thus addreffed them: “ When11’ Luke
they deliver you up, take no thought how or what ye™’
fhall fpeak, for it fliall be given you in that fame hour
what ye fhall fpeak ; for it is not you that fpeak, but
the fpint of your Father that fpeaketh in you.” The
fame promife was made almoft in the fame words in the
prefence ot an immenfe multitude (Luke xii. u, i2.)
From thefe paffages it has been urged, that if the a-
poftks were to be infpired in the prefence of magiftrates
in delivering fpeeches, which were foon to be forgotten,
it is furely reafonable to conclude that they would be
infpired when they were to compofe a ftandard of faith
for the ufe of all future generations of Chriftians. If
this conclufion be fairly deduced, it would follow that
the writings of the New Teftament are the didates of
inlpiration, not only in the doctrines and precepts, but
m the very words. But it is a conclufion to which
iincere Chriftians have made objections ; for, fay they
though Chrift promifes to affift his apoftles in cafes of
great emergency, where their own prudence and forti¬
tude could not be fufficient, it does not follow that he
would duftate to them thofe faCts which they knew al¬
ready, or thofe reafonings which their own calm reflec¬
tion might fupply. Befides, fay they, if the New Tef¬
tament was dictated by the Holy Spirit, and only pen¬
ned by the apoftles, what reafon can be given for the
care with which Chrift inftruCted them both during his
^ miniftry
SCR [ 146 1 SCR
Scripture, rraniflry and after his crucifixion in thofe things per-
v taining to the kin gdom of God ?
Proper idea anfwer to this, we may obferve, that though it be
of infpira. difficult to prove that the identical words of the New
tioii. Teftament were dictated by the Holy Spirit, or the train
of ideas iofufed into the minds of the facred writers,
there is one fpecies of infpiration to which the New
Teftament lias an undoubted claim. It is this, that the
memories of the apoftles were ftrengthened and their
underftandings preferved from falling into eftential errors.
'This we prove from thefe words otf our Saviour, “ and
I will pray the Father, and he will give you another
comforter, that he may abide with you for ever. He
fhall teach you all things, and bring all things to your
• Tohniiv.rememberance- whatfoever I have laid unto you*.”
16,,26. This promife was furely not reftrained to the day of
Pentecoft: it muft have been a permanent gift enabling
the apoftles at all times to remember with accuracy the
difcourfes of our Saviour. When the apoftles' there,
fore (Matthew and John) relate thofe precepts of Chriit
which they themfelves had heard, they write indeed
from memory, but under the prote&ion of the fpirit
who fecures them from the danger of miftake : and we
muft of courfe conclude that their gofpels are infpired.
Were we called upon more particularly to declare
what parts of the New Teftament we believe to be in¬
fpired, we would anfwer, The doctrines, the precepts,
and the prophefies, every thing eflential to the Chi iftian
religion. From thefe the idea of infpj’ration is infepa-
table. As to the events, the memory of the apoftles
was fufficient to retain them. If this opinion be juft,
it would enable us to account for the difcrepancies be¬
tween the facred writers, which are chiefly confined to
142
jlLangusge
in which
the New
Teftament
was com¬
peted.
Why the
greateft
part of V is
written in
Greek.
jM’ich lelis,
voi. i. chap.
4 fed, x,
j>, 101.
the relation of fails and events.
All the books of the New Teftament were originally
written in Greek, except the gofpel according to Mat¬
thew and the epiitle to the Hebrews, which there is
reafon to believe were compofed in the Syro-Chaldaic
language, which in the New Teftament is called Hebrew.
Various reafons have been affigned why the greateft
part of the New Teftament was written in Greek ; but
the true reafon is this, It was the language heft under-
ftood both by writers and readers. Had St Paul
written to a community in the Roman province of
Africa, he might have written perhaps in Latin ; but
epiftles to the inhabitants of Corinth, Galatia, Ephefus,
Philippi, and Theffalonica, to Timothy, Titus, and
Philemon, from a native of Tarfus, could hardly be ex-
pe£led in any other language than Greek. The fame
may be faid of the epiftles of St Peter, which are ad-
drefledto the Chriftians of diffeient countries, who had
no other language in common than the Greek ; and
likewife of the epiflles of St James, who wrote to Jews,
that lived at a diftance from Paleftine, and were igno¬
rant of Hebrew. The native language of St Luke, as
well as of Theophilus, to whom he addreffed his gofpel,
and A6ls of the apoftles, appears to have been Greek ;
and that St John wrote his gofpel in that language,
and not in Hebrew, is by no means a matter of furprife,
ftnee he wrote at Ephefus.
With refpeft to the epiftle to the Romans, it may
be alked indeed why St Paul did not write in Latin ?
Now, whoever propofes this queftion, muft prefuppofe
that St Paul was mafter of the Latin language in fuch
a degree as to find no difficulty in writing it 5 a matter
which remains to be proved. It is very probable that Scriptu-*ft
St Paul was acquainted with the Latin ; but between v **
underftanding a language, and being able to write it,
there is a very material difltrenee. As St Paul was a
native of Tarfus, his native language was Greek ; he
had travelled during feveral years through countries in
which no other language was fpoken, and when he ad¬
dreffed the Roman centurion at Jerufalem, he fpoke
not Latin, but Greek. Is it extraordinary, then, that
in writing to the inhabitants of Rome he fhould have
ufed a language which was there fo generally under-
ftood ? It has been long remarked, that Greek was at
that time as well known in Rome as French in any
court of modern Europe : that according to Juvenal
even the female fex made ufe of Greek as the language
of familiarity and paffion ; and that in letters of friend-
fhip Greek words and phrafes were introduced with
greater freedom than French expreffions in German
letters, as appears from Cicero’s epiftles to Atticus, and
from thofe of Auguftus preferved in the works of
Suetonius. To this muft be added a material circum-
ftance, that a great part of the Roman Chriftians con-
fifted of native Jews, who were better acquainted with
Greek than with Latin, as either they themfelyes or
their anceftors had come from Greece, Afia Minor, or
Egypt, in which Greek was the language of the coun¬
try. At leaft they read the bible in that language, as
no Latin tranfiation of the Old Teftament at that time
exifted ; and the Chriftian church at that period con-
lifting chiefly of Jews, the heathen converts in Rome
were of courfe under the neceffity of accuftoming them-
felves to the Greek language. In (hort, St Paul in his
epillle to the Romans made ufe of a language in which
alone thofe who were ig-norant of Hebrew could read
the bible. What has been here advanced refpe£ling the
epillle to the Romans is equally applicable to the Greek
of St Mark, on the fuppofition that it was writtea at
Rome.
To the above arguments may be added the example
of Jofephus, who, as well as the Apoftles, was by birth
a Jew. He even lived in Rome, which is more than
can be faid of St Paul and St Mark, who refided there
only a certain time: he was likewife younger than
either ; he came to Italy at an age which is highly
fuitable to the learning of a language, and previous to
that period had fpent feveral years in the Roman camp.
The Jewifh antiquities, the hiftory of the Jewifh war,
and the account of his own life, he wrote undoubtedly
with a view of their being read by the Romans; and
yet he compofed all thefe writings in Greek. He ex-
prefles his motive for writing his Greek account of the
Jewilh war in the following terms : “ That having writ¬
ten in his native language (/. e. the Hebrew dialetl at
that time fpoken) a hiftory of the war, in -order that
Parthians, Babylonians, Arabians, Adiabenes, and the
Jews beyond the Euphrates, might be informed of thofe
events, he was now refolved to write for the Greeks
and Romans, who had not been engaged in the cam¬
paigns, a more certain account than had hitherto been
given.” The motives which induced Jofephus to
write in Greek are fully as applicable to St Paul and
St Mark.
Michaelis has thus characterized the ftyle of the New MklaelUx
Teftament. “ The New Teftament (fays he) was^p’^.
written in a language at that time common among the ^.3,.
Jews, j>. hi.
-X
SCR r 147 T SCR
Scripture, Jews, which may be named Hebraic Greek ; the fird
traces of which we find in the tranllation of the LXX.
Is full of “ -Every man acquainted with the Greek language,
flctraifms who had never heard of the New Teftament, muft im¬
mediately perceive, on reading only a few lines, that
the ftyle is widely dhTerent from that of the claffic au¬
thors. We find this charader in all the books of the
New Teftament in a greater or lefs degree, but we
muft not therefore conclude that they poffefs an uni¬
formity of ftyle. The harflieil Hebraifms, which ex¬
tend even to grammatical errors in the government of
cafes, are the dtilinguilhing marks of the bo@k of Re¬
velation 5 but they are accompanied with tokens of
genius and poetical enthufiafm, of which every reader
muft be lenfible who has tafte and feeling. There is no
tranflation of it which is not read with pleafure even
in the days of childhood ; and the very faults of gram¬
mar are fo happily placed as to produce an agreeable
effeft. The gofpels of St Matthew and St Mark have
ftrong marks of this Hebraic ftyle 5 the former has
harfker Hebraifms than the latter, the fault of which
may be afcribed to the Greek tranflator, who has made
too literal a verfion, and yet the gofpel of St Mark is
written in worfe language, and in a manner that is lefs
agreeable. The epiftles of St James and St Jude are
fomewhat better; but even thefe are full of Hebraifms,
and betray in other refpe&s a certain Hebrew tone.
St Luke has in feveral paffages written pure and claflic
Greek, of which the four firft verfes of his gofpel may
be given as an inftance : in the fequel, where he de-
fcribes the aftions of Chrift, he has very harfh He-
brarfms, yet the ftyle is more agreeable than that of
St Matthew or St Mark. In the Ads of the apoftles
he is not free from Hebraifms, which he feems to have
never ftudioufly avoided; but his periods are more claf-
fically turned, and fometimes pofTefs beauty devoid of
art- St John has numerous, though not uncouth, He¬
braifms both in his gofpel and epiftles; but he has writ¬
ten in a fmooth and flowing language, and furpafles all
the Jewifh writers in the excellence of narrative. St
Paul again is entirely different from them all ; his ftyle
is indeed negleded and full of Hebraifms, but he has
avoided the concife and verfe-like conftrudion of the
Hebiew language, and has upon the whole a confider-
able fhare of the roundnefs of Grecian compofition. It
is evident that he was as perfedly acquainted with the
Greek manner of expreffion as with the Hebrew, and
he has introduced them alternately, as either the one
or the other fuggefted itfelf the firft, or vvas the belt
ii- approved.’'
bid fo- Michaelis has fhown that the New Teftament not
ei^nidi- only contains Hebraifms but Rabbinifms, Syriafms,
Chaldaifms, Arabifms, Latinifms, and Perfian woids,
of which he has exhibited many fpecimens. To theo¬
logians, whofe duty it certainly is to ftudy the language
cf the New Teftament with attention, we would ftre-
noufly recommend the perufal of this work, which in
the Englifh tranflation is one of the moft valuable ac-
ceflions to fcriptural criticifm that has yet appeared.
Wc fpeak of the Englifh tranflation, which the large
and judicious notes of Mr Marfh has rendered infinitely
fuperior to the original.
eculLri- ^ 0 the obfervations which have been made refpefling
:s in the the language of the New Teftament, a few remarks
™p0fi- may be added concerning the peculiarities of the ftyle
and manner of the facred writers, particularly the hr- Scn’pf&re,
florians. Thefe remarks extend to the Old Teftament   '
as well as to the New.— i he/fry? quality for which the^.^^l
facred hiliory is remarkable is implicity in the ftru&ure,,„w^
of the fentences. The firft five verfes of Gentfis furnlfh Oijcrtntioni
an example, which coniift of eleven ftntences. g he^'1 s^ranf-
fubftantives are not attended by adjeclives, nor the verbs ,[t
by adveibs, no fynonymas, no fuperlatives, no effort at *’
exprefling things in a bold, emphatical, or uncommon
manner.
2. The fecond quality is fimplicity of fentiment, par¬
ticularly in the Pentateuch, arifing from the very nature
or the early and uncultivated ftate of fociety about
which that book is converfant.
3- Simplicity of defign. The fubjecl of the narra¬
tive fo engroffes the attention of the writer, that he
himfelf is as nobody. He introduces nothing as from
himfelf, no remarks, doubts, conje&ures, or reafonings.
Our Lord’s biographers particularly excel in this qua¬
lity. This quality of ftyle we meet with in Xenophon
and C as far.
The Evangelifts may be ranked next to Genefis for
fimplicity of compofition in the fentences. John and
Matthew are diftinguifhed for it more than Mark and
Luke. But the fentiment is not fo remarkable for
fimplicity in the Evangelill as the Pentateuch. The
realbns of this difference are, the ftate of the Jews was
totally changed ; their manners, cuftoms, &c. iplit into
factions both in religion and politics. 2. Theobjedt of
our Lord’s miniftry, which rs the great fubjedt of the
gofpels, was to inculcate a dcdrine and morality with which
none of their fyftems perfedfly coincided : befides, being
conftantly oppoied by all the great men, the greater part
of his hiftory confifts of inllrudlions and difputes. 3. As
it is occupied with what our Saviour laid and what he
did, this makes two diftindfions of ftyle and manner;
that of our Saviour, and the facred penman’s. In their
own character, they neither explain nor command, pro-
mife nor threaten, praife nor blame. They generally
omit the names of our Lord’s enemies ; thus diredting
our hatred at the vices they committed, not at the per-
fons. They never mention fuch perions without ne
ceffity ; which is the cafe with the high-prieft, Pilate,
Herod, and Judas : the three firft for the chronology,
the fourth to do juftice to the eleven.
. Heredias is indeed mentioned with difhonour but her
crime was a public one. On the other hand, all5 perfons
diftinguifhed for any thing virtuous are carefully men¬
tioned, Jofeph of Atimathea, Nicodvnus, Zaccheus,
Bartimeus, Jairus, Lazarus, Mary, and Martha. I hey
record their own faults (Peter’s, i homas’s), nor do
they make any merit of their confefiion. In one uni-
form ftrain they relate the moft lignal miracles and
moft ordinary facts.
krom the narrative is excluded that quality of ftyle
which is called animation. Nothing that difeovers paf-
fion in the writer or is calculated to excite the pafiiuns
of the reader. Every thing is directed to mend the
heart.
But in the difeourfes and dialogues of our Saviour
the expreffion, without lofing any thing of its fimplicity,
is often remarkable for Ipirit and energy. Rclpedting
harmony and fmcothnels, qualities which only add an
external polifh to language, they had not the leaft ioli*
citud
T?
As
Scripture'
127
Proptr me-
thod of
iludyirg
the New
Teftament
by analyfis
@.nd induc¬
tion.
I28
Dr Camp¬
bell’s me¬
thod. Prel,
T>if to tie
Kj ofp els.
SCR '[>
As to elegance, there is an elegance which refults
from the ufe of fuch words as are rnoft in me with
thofe who are accounted fine writers, and from fuch
arrangements in the words and clauies as have generally
obtained their approbation. This is declaimed by toe
facred authors.
But there is an elegance of a fuperior order more
nearly connected with the fentiment ; and in this fort
of elegance they are not deficient. In all the oriental
languages great ufe is made of tropes, efpecially meta¬
phors. When the metaphors employed bear a ftrong
refemblance, they confer vivacity : if they be borrowed
from objebls which are naturally agreeable, beautiful,
or attradlive, they add alfo elegance- I he Bvangelifts
furnifh us with many examples of this kind of vivacity
and elegance. Our Lord borrows tropes from* corn¬
fields, vineyards, gardens, &c.
As a valuable appendage to this part of our fubjedl,
we fhall fubjoin Dr Campbell’s method of ftudying the
books of the New Teftament. This we offer to our
readers as a beautiful inftance of the judicious applica¬
tion of philofophy to facred ftudies. It is the fame
method of difcovering truth by analyfis and indudfion,
which was purlued by Sir Ifaac Newton with Inch afto-
nifhing fuccefs, which fince his time has been uniform¬
ly pradfifed in natural pliilofophy, and has been alfo
applied to chemiftiy, to medicine, to natural hiftory, and
to the philofophy of mind, by the ingenious Dr Reid.
This is the path of found philofophy, which can alone
lead to the difcovery of truth. In following it, our
progrefs may be flow, but it will be fure. If all theolo¬
gians would fteadily adhere to it, we might then enter¬
tain the pleafant hope of difcarding for ever thofe abfurd
fyllems of religion which are founded on lingle pafiages
and detached fragments of fcripture, and of eftabliftung
opinions and dodirines on a folid foundation.
“ 1. To get acquainted with each writer’s ftyle ; to ob-
ferve his manner of compofition, both in fentences and
paragraphs ; to remark the words and phrafes peculiar
to him, and the peculiar application that he may iome-
times make of ordinary words ; for there are few of thofe
writers who have not their peculiarities in all the re-
fpedls now mentioned. I his acquaintance with each
can be attained only by the frequent and attentive read¬
ing of his works in his own language.
“ 2. To inquire into the charadler, the lituation, ::nd
the office of the writer, the time, the place, and the
occafion of his writing, and the people for whole im¬
mediate ufe he originally intended his work. Every¬
one of thefe particulars will fometimes ferve to eluci¬
date expreffions otherwife obfeure or doubtful. 'I his
know ledge may in part be learned from a diligent and
reiterated perufal of the book itfelf, and in part be ga¬
thered from what authentic, or at leaft probable, ac¬
counts have been tranfmitted to us concerning thecom-
pilement of the canon.
“ 3.The laft general dire&ion is, to confider the princi¬
pal fcope of the book, and the particulars chiefly obferv-
able in the method by which the writer has purpofed to
execute his defign. This dire&ion is particularly appli¬
cable to the epiftolary writings, efpecially thofe of
Paul.
“ 4. If a paiticular word or phrafe occur, which ap¬
pears obfeure, perhaps unintelligible, the firft thing we
ought to do, if fatisfied that the reading is genuine, is
48 ] SCR
to confult the context, to attend to the manner where- Scripture
in the term is introduced, whether in a chain of reafon- v——^
ing or in a hiftorical narration, in a defeription or in¬
cluded in an exhortation or command. As the conclu-
fion is inferred from the premiffes, or as from two or
more known truths a third unknown or unobferved be¬
fore may fairly be deduced ; fo from fuch attention to
the fentence in connection, the import of an expreffiion,
hi itfelf obfeure or ambiguous, will fometimes with mo¬
ral certainty be difeovered. This, however,, will not
always anfwer.
“5. If it do not, let the fecond confideration he, whe¬
ther the term or phrafe be one of the writer’s peculia¬
rities. If fo, it comes naturally to be inquired, what
is the acceptation in which he employs it in other places l
If the fenfe cannot be precifely the fame in the paflage
under review, perhaps, by an eafy and natural metaphor
or other trope, the common acceptation may give rife
to one which perfedlly fuits the paffage in queftion.—
Recourfe to the other places wherein the word or phrafe
occurs in the fame author is of confiderable ufe, though
the term fliould not be peculiar to him.
“ 6. But thirdly, if there fhould be nothing in the
fame writer that can enlighten the place, let recourfe be
had to the parallel paflages, if there be any fuch, in the
other facred writers. By parallel paflages, I mean
thofe places, if the difficulty occur in hiftory, wherein
the fame or a fimilar ftory, miracle, or event, is related ;
if in teaching or reafoning, thofe parts wherein the
fame argument or doftrine is treated, or the fame pa¬
rable propounded ; and in moral leflbns, thofe wherein
the fame clafs of duties is recommended ; or, if the dif¬
ficulty be found in a quotation from the Old Teftament,
let the parallel paflage in the book referred to, both in
the original Hebrew, and in the Greek veriion, be con-
fulted,
“ 7. But if in thefe there be found nothing that can
throw light on the expieffion of which we are in doubt,
the fourth recourfe is to all the places wherein the word
or phrafe occurs in the New Teftament, and in the Sep-
tuagint verfion of the Old, adding to thefe the confider¬
ation of the import of the Hebrew or Chaldaic word,
whole place it occupies, and the extent of fignification,
of which in different occurrences fuch Hebrew or Chal¬
daic term is lufceptible.
“ 8. Perhaps the term in queftton is one of thofe which
very rarely occur in the New Teftament, or thofe call¬
ed ettfai; Myo/u-ncc, only once read in Scripture, and not
found at all in the tranflation of the Seventy. Several
fuch words there are. There is then a neceffity, in the
fifth place, for recurring to the ordinary acceptation of
the term in claffical authors. This is one ot thofe cafis
wherein the interpretation given by the earlieft Greek
fathers deferves particular notice. In this, however, I
limit myfelf to thofe comments wherein they give a li¬
teral expofition of the facied text, and do not run into
vifion and allegory.”
The manuferipts of the New Teftament are the na- .vTanufcript
tural fource from which the genuine readings of the of the New
Greek Teftament are to be drawn. The printed edi-Teftament.
tions are either copies of more ancient editions, or of
manuferipts ; and they have no further authority than as
they correfpond to the manuferipts from which they
were originally taken. By manuferipts of the New Tef¬
tament, we mean thofe only which were written before
the
SCR [ 149 ] SCR
Scripture, the invention of printing. The molt ancient of thefe
—~V“— are loft, and there is no manufcript now extant older than
the iixth century. Few contain the whole New Tefta-
ment ; fome contain the four gofpels ; fome the Adis
of the Apoftles and Epiftles ; and others the book of
Revelation. The greateft number are thofe which con¬
tain the firft part ; thofe which have the fecond, or the
firft and fecond together, are likewife numerous ; but
thofe of the third are extremely few. It muft be added
alfo, that in many manufcripts thofe epiftles are omitted
whole divine authority was formerly doubted.
There are many manufcripts which have been exa¬
mined only for a (ingle text, inch as 1 John v. 7. or at
leaft for a very fmall number. Others have been exa¬
mined from the beginning to the end, but not com¬
pletely, and in refpedt of all the readings. A third clafs
confifts of Inch as either have been, or are faid to have
been, completely and accurately collated. But this re¬
quires fuch phlegmatic patience, that we can hardly ex-
pedt to find in critical catalogues all the various read¬
ings which have been only once collated. Wetftein, in
collating many manufcripts anew, made ,difcoveries
which had entirely efcaped the notice of his predeceflbrs.
The fourth clafs conlifts of fuch as have been com¬
pletely and accurately collated more than once ; but
here alfo we are in danger of being led into error 
When various readings are transferred from one critical
edition to another, as from that of Gregory to Mill’s
edition, and from the latter to thofe of Bengel and
Wetftein, the manufcripts muft fometimes be falfely
named, and various readings muft frequently be omit¬
ted. And as Wetftein has marked by ciphers mam}-
fcripts that in former editions had been denoted by their
initial letters, he could hardly avoid fubftituting, in
fome cafes, one figure inftead of another. The fifth
clafs, which is by far the moft valuable, confifts of fuch
as have been printed word for word, and therefore form
an original edition of the Greek Teftament. We can
boaft but of a very few manufcripts of this kind.
Hearne printed at Oxford, in 1715, the Arits of the
Apoftles in Greek and Latin from the Codex Laudia-
irus 3. ; Knittel has annexed to his edition of Ulphilas,
p- 53—I 1 8, a copy of two very ancient fragments pre-
ferved in the library of Wolfembuttle ; the one of the
four Gofpels in general, the other of St Luke and St
John. Woide printed in 1786 the Codex Alexandri-
nus, a manufcript of great antiquity, which fhall af¬
terwards be more fully defcribed ; and the Univerfi-
ty of Cambridge has refolved to publifh, in a limi-
lar manner, the Cod. Cant. I. or, as it is fometimes
called, the Codex Bezae, the care of, which is intrufted
to Dr Kipling, a publication which will be thankfully
received by every friend to facred critfcifm. It was the
intention of the Abbe Spoletti, a few years ago, to
publifh the whole of the celebrated Codex Vaticanus;
which would likewife have been a moft valuable accef-
fion, fince a more important manufcript is hardly to be
found in all Europe. He delivered for this purpofe a
memorial to the Pope ; but the defign was not put into
execution, either becaufe the Pope refufed his aflent,
or the Abbe abandoned it himfelf. See the Oriental
Bible, vol. xxii. nQ 333. and vol. xxiii. n^ 348.
“ A very valuable library,” fays Michaelis, “ might
Be compofed of the irnpreffions of ancient manufcripts,
which, though too expenfive for a private perfon, fhould Scripture,
be admitted into every univerlity colledlion, efpecially “
the Alexandrine and Cambridge manufcripts, to which Michaelis’s
I would add, if it were now pofiible to procure it, [ ropofal
Hearne’s edition of the Codex Laudianus 3. A plan faking an
of this fort could be executed only in England, by a^’P^|||on
private' fubfcription, where a zeal is frequently difplay-n!ar,u.
ed in literary undertakings that is unknown in otherfcripts,
countries ; and it were to be wiftied that the proje£tv°i-
were begun before length of time has rendered the ma-P'
nuferipts illegible, and the attempt therefore fruitlefs.
Ten thoufand pounds would go a great way toward
the fulfilling of this requeft, if the learned themfelves
did not augment the difficulty of the undertaking, by
adding their own critical remarks, and endeavouring
thereby to recommend their publications, rather than by
prefenting to the public a faithful copy of the original.
Should pofterity be put in poffeffion of faithful imprefi*
fions of important marmferipts, an acquifition which
would render the highelt fervice to facred criticifrn, all
thefe editions of the New Teftament fhould be regulated
on the fame plan as Hearne’s edition of the Adis of
the Apoftles.” It muft be highly flattering to the pa¬
triotic fpirit of an Englifhman to hear tire encomiums
which learned foreigners have fo profufely beftowed on
our liberality in fupporting works of genius and learn¬
ing and public utility. The plan which Michaelis pro-
pofes to us, in preference to all the other nations in Eu¬
rope, is noble and magnificent, and would certainly
confer immortality on thofe men who would give it their
patronage and afliftance.
There are many ancient manufcripts, efpecially in
Italy, which have never been collated, but lie ftill un¬
explored. Here is a field where much remains to be
done. See Marfh’s Notes to Michaelis, vol. ii. p. 643.
Michaelis has given a catalogue of ancient nranu-
feripts, amounting in number to 292, to which he has
added a fhort account of each. In this place we fhall
confine our obfervations to the moft celebrated, the A-
lexandrian and Vatican manufcripts, which we have
chiefly extradled from Michaelis. T, f
I he Alexandrine manufcript confifts of four vo- Account of
lumes ; the three firft of which contain the Old Telia-Aiexan*
ment, the fourth the New Teftament, together with'11 rne ma*
the firft Epiftle of Clement to the Corinthians, and a' U CU^t*
fragment of the fecond. In the New Teftament, which
alone is the objedl of our prefent inquiry, is wanting
the beginning as far as Matthew xxv. 6. 0
Tai, likewife from John vi. 50. to viii. 52. and from
2 Cor. iv. 13. to xii. 7. It muft likewile be obferved,
that the Pfahns are preceded by the epiftle of Athana-
fius to Marcellinus, and followed by a catalogue, con.
taming thofe which are to be ufed in prayer for each
hour, both of the day and of the night ; alio by 14
hymns, partly apocryphal, partly biblical, the nth of
which is an hymn in praife of the Virgin Mary, entit¬
led ■ng'HTivx1' ^fOTOx* : further, the Hypothejes
Eufebii are annexed to the Pfalms, and his Canones to
the Gofpels. It is true, that this has no immediate
reference to the New Teftament, but may have influ¬
ence in determining the antiquity of the manufcript it-
felf.
It has neither accents nor marks of afpiration ; it is
written with capital, or, as they are called, uncial letters.,
7 and
SCR
[ *5° j
SCR
and has veiy few abbreviations. There are no inter¬
vals between the words ; but the fenl'e of a paflame is
fometiraes terminated by a point, and fometirnes by a
vacant (pace. Here arifes a fttfpicion that the copyid
did not underftand Greek, becaufe thefe marks are
fometimes found even in the middle of a word, for in-
llance Levit. v. 4. n for ^y.oary and Numb,
xiii. 29. ^ To-»c.
This manufcript was prefented to Charles I. in
1628, by Cyrillus Lucaris patriarch of Conftantinople.
Cyrillus himfelf has given the following account : “ We
know fo much of this manufcript of the holy writings of
the Old and New Teftament, that Thecla an Egyptian
lady ol diilhifticn (nobil'isfamina JEgyptia) wrote it with
her own hand 1300 years ago (a). She lived foon after
the council of Nicsea. Her name was formerly at the end
of the hook ; but when Chriftianity was fubverted in
Egypt by the errors of Mahomet, the books ot the
Chriltians fuffered the fame fate, and the name of The¬
cla was expunged. But oral tradition of no very an¬
cient date (memoria et traditlo recens) has preferved the
remembrance of it.,,
But the reader will fee that this account Is merely
traditional. Dr Semlcr very properly obferves, that
there is no more realon to rely on a tradition refpefting
the tranfcriber of an ancient manufcript, than on a tra¬
dition which relates to an ancient relic. The argu¬
ments which have been urged by Wetllein, Semler,
Oudin, and Woide, to fix the date of this manufcript,
are fo many, that it would be tedious to repeat them.
But, after all, its antiquity cannot be determined with
certainty, though it appears from the formation of the
letters, which refemble thofe of the fourth and fifth
-centuries, and the want of accents, that it was not writ¬
ten fo late as the tenth century. In this century it
was placed by Oudin, while Grabe and Schulze have
referred it to the fourth, which is the very utmoit pe¬
riod that can be allowed, becaufe it contains the epillles
of Athanafius. Wetftein, with more probability, has
chofen a mean between thefe two extremes, and referred
it to the fifth century : but we are not jollified in draw¬
ing this inference from the formation of the letters
alone, for it is well known that the fame mode of form¬
ing the letters was retained longer in feme countries
and in fome monafteries than in others.
We are now in poll'dlion of a peifcdt imprefiion of
this manufcript, which is accompanied with lo complete
and fo critical a colleblion of various readings, as is
hardly to be expedled from the edition of any other
manufcript. Dr Woide publifhed it in 1786, with
types call for that purpofe, line for line, without in¬
ternals between the words, as in the manufcript itfelf;
the copy is fo perfeft a refirmblance of the original, SetqfnMr,-
that it may fupply its place Its title is Novum Tejla-   v—
mentum G rtf cum e codice A1S. Alexandrine) qul Londm'i in
Bibliotheca Mufei Britannici affervatur deferiptum- It is a
very Iplendid folio ; and the preface of the learned edi¬
tor contains an accurate defeription of the manufeript,
with an exact lift of all its various readings, that takes
up no Ids than 89 pages ; and each reading is accom¬
panied with a remark, in which is given an account of
what his predeceffors Juninus, Walton, Fell, Mill,
Grabe, and Wetftein, had performed or negletted. 131
The Vatican manufcript contained originally the‘^ccourt
whole Greek Bible, including both the Old and New'^M^^3"
Teftament; and in this refpeCl, as well as in regard to nufcri- t.
its antiquity, it refembles none fo much as the Codex
Alexandrians, but no two mariuferipts are more dilfi-
milar in their readings, in the New Teftament as well
as in the Old. After the Gofpels, which are placed in
the ufual order, come the Adis of the Apoftles, which
are immediately followed by the feven catholic epiftles.
This muft be particularly noted, becaufe fome have con¬
tended that the fecond Epiiile of St Peter, with the
fecond and third of St jehn, were wanting. Profefior
Hwiid, in a letter dated Rome, April 12. 178!, allu¬
red Michaeiis that he had feen them with his own eyes,
that the fecond Epiftle of St Peter is placed folio 14 Hr
the fecond of St John fol. 1442, the third folio 1443 :
then follow the Epiftles of St Paul, but not in the
ufual order ; for the Epiftle to the Hebrews is pla¬
ced immediately after thofe to the Theftalonians: and
it is not improbable, that in the more ancient manu¬
fcript, from which the Codex Vatic anus was copied, this
Epiiile was even placed before that to the Ephefians,
and immediately after the Epiftle to the Galatians (b) }
for the Epiftles of St Paul are divided into 93 fec-
tions by figures written in the margin with red ink;
but the Epiftle to the Galatians ends with 59, and that
to the Ephefians begins with 70 ; the Epiitle to the
Hebrews, on the contrary, begins with 60, and ends
with 69. With the words r? Heb. ix. t4.
the manufcript ceafes, the remaining leaves being loft.
There is wanting, therefore, not only the latter part of
this Epiftle, but the Epiftles to Timothy, Titus, and
Philemon, with the Revelation of St John : but this
laft book, as well as the latter part of the Epiftle to the
Hebrews, has been fupplied by a modern hand in the
13th century. In many places the faded letters have
been alio retouched by a modern, but careful hand ;
and when the perfon who made thefe amendments, who
appears to have been a man of learning, found a read¬
ing in his own manufcript which differed from that of
the Codex Vaticanus, he has noted it in the margin,
and
(a) He wrote this in the year 1628. According to this account, then, the manufcript muff have been writ¬
ten in 328; a date to which fo many weighty objedlions may be made, that its moft ffrenuous advocates will hardly
undertake to defend it. But this error has furnifhed Oudin with an opportunity of producing many arguments
againft the antiquity of the Codex Alexandnnus, which feem to imply, that Grabe and otheis, who have referred
it to the fourth century, fuppofe it to have been written in the above-mentioned year. Now it is probable, that
the inference which has been deduced from the account of Cyrillus is mote than he himfelf intended to exprefs,
as he relates that Thecla lived after the council of Nicsea.
(b) Probably becaufe the Epiiile to the Hebrews, as well as the Eptftle to the Galatians, relates to the abet'
lition of the Mofaic law.
*33
he beft
litions ci
ie G^eek
ew Tefla
ent are
ofe of
lill,
SCR [ i
Scripture, and has generally left the text itiUf untouched, though
in fome few examples he has ventured to erafe it.
It is certain, that this manufcript is of very high an¬
tiquity, though it has been difputed which of the two
in this refpedh is entitled to the preference, the Vatic a-
nus or Alexandrinui. The editors of the Roman edi¬
tion of the Septuagint, in 1587, referred the date of
the Vatican manufeript to the fourth century, the pe¬
riod to which the advocates for its great rival refer the
Coa'ex Alexandrinus. More moderate, and perhaps more
accurate, are the fentiments of that great judge of an¬
tiquity Montfaucon, who, in his Bibliotheca Bibliathc-
ctrurv, p. 3. refers it to the fifth or fixth century ; and
adds, that though Ire had feen other manufcripts of
equal antiquity, he had found none at the fame time id
complete.
'i he Codex Vaticanvs has a great refemblancc to the
manufcripts noted by Wetftein, C. D. L. 1. 12. 33.
69. 102. and. to the Latin, Coptic, and Ethiopic ver-
fions ; but it is preferable to moft of them, in being al-
mofl; entirely free from thofe undeniable interpolations
and arbitrary correcftions which are very frequently
found in the above-mentioned manufcripts, efpecially in
D. 1. and 69. It may be applied, therefore, as a mean
not only of confirming their genuine readings, but of
delefting and correfting thofe that are fpurious. It is
written with great accuracy, and is evidently a faithful
copy of the more ancient manufcript from which it
was tranicribed. Peculiar readings, or fuch as are
found neither in other manufcripts nor ancient verfions,
are feldom difeovered in the Codex Vaticanus ; and of
the few which have been aftually found, the greateit
part are of little importance. But in proportion as the
number of fuch readings is fmall, the number of thofe
is great;, in fupport of which few only, though ancient
authorities, have been hitherto produced. " But this
manufcript has not throughout the whole New Tefta-
meut the fame uniform text.
As we. have now a beautiful printed edition of the
Alexandrine manufcript by Dr Woide, it is much to
be wifhed that we had alfo an exaft impreffion of the
Vatican manufcript. From the fuperftitious fears and
intolerant fpirit of the inquifition at Rome, all accefs
to tins manufcript was refufed to the Abbe Spoletti,
who prefented a. memorial for that purpofe. Unlefs the
pope interpofe his authority, we mult therefore defpair of
having our wifhes gratified ; but from the liberality of
fentiment which the prefect pontiff has fhown on fevt-
ral occafions, we hope that the period is not far diftant
when the Vatican library will be open to the learned ;
and when the pope will think it his greateft honour to
encourage their refearches.
The moft valuable editions of the Greek New' Tefta-
ment are thofe of Mill, Bengel, and Wetftein.
The edition of Mill, which was only finifted 14
days before his death, occupied the attention of the au¬
thor for 30 years.
The colleftions of various readings which had been
made before the time of Mill, the Velefian, the Baibe-
nm, thofe of Stephens, the London Polyglot, and Fell’s
edition, with thofe which the Biftiop had left in manu-
icnpt, and whatever he w>as able to procure elfewhere,
he brought together into one large colleftion. He
made hkewife very ccnfiderable additions to it. He
51] SCR
collated feveral original editions more accurately than Scripture,-
had been done before : he procured extrafts from Greek   *
manufcripts, which had never been collated ; and of
fuch as had been before collated, but not with Efficient
attention, he obtained more complete extrafts. It is
faid that he has collefted from manufcripts, fathers, and
verfions, not lefs. than 30,000 various readings. This
colleftion, notwithftandmg its many imperfeftions, and
the iupenonty of that of Wetftein, is ftill abfolutely ne-
ceffary to every critic : for Wetftein has omitted a great
numoer of readings which are to be found in Mill, ef¬
pecially tho.fe which are either taken from the Vulgate
or confirm its readings. Mill was indeed too much at-
tached to this verlion ; yet he cannot be accufed of par¬
tiality in producing its evidence, becaufe it is the duty
of a enne to examine the witneffes on both fides of
the qUtftion : and Wetttem, by too frequently negleft-
mg the evidence in favour of the Vulgate, has rendered
his collection leis perfeft than it would otherwfife have
been# tic Iikewrfp ^ ^^ .
. ^ Yriic aD lai eis fir wr.5 TiDie,
mgs From the ancient verfions ; and is much to be com¬
mended for the great attention which he paid to the
quotations of the fathers ; the importance of which he
had iagacity enough to difeern.
It cannot, however, be denied, that Mill’s Greek Te¬
ll ament has many imperfeftions, and fome of real im.
poitance. His extrafts from manufcripts often are not
only incomplete, but erroneous ; and it is frequently ne-
ceffary to correft his miftakes from the edition of Wet-
•LUn‘ r extrra^s from the omental verfions are alfo
impel feft, becaufe he was unacquainted with thefe lan¬
guages ; and in feleftmg readings from the Syriac, the
Arabic and Ethiopic, he was obliged to have recourfe
0 he Iratll11 tranfiations, which are annexed to thofe
veifions in the London Polyglot.
The great diligence which Mill had fhown in collec-
tlw-K many Va,n°US reafmgs> alarmed the clergy as if
he Chnftian religion had been in danger of fubverfion.
U gave occahon for a time to the triumphs of the deift,
d expofed the author to many attacks. But it is
now umverfahy known that not a fmgle article of the
Ch.iftian religion would be altered though a deift were
e if vt °f f n’S 3°,oco readings what-
caufe. fll°U d tkmk m°ft lnimical to the Chriftian
In 1734, Bengel abbot of Alpirfpach, in the dtichvnf v
of W urtemburg publifhed a new edition of the Greek f
I eftament. I he fears which Mill had excited began
to fublide upon this new publication ; for Bengel was
univerfalJy efteemed a man of piety. Bengel was not
only diligent in the examination of various reaAna-s
but the ftnaeft fenfe of the word coofeieotiou, “|r
e confidered it as an offence againft the Deity if
hrough h,s own fault, that is, through levity orcare-
Sr 3 fad,'n8 -tothefacred
text. His objeft was not merely to make a colleftion
of readings, and leave the choice of them to the iudl
ment of the reader, but to examine the evidence on both
fides, and draw the inference : yet he has not given his
own opinion fo frequently as Mill, whom he rffembled
in Ins reverence for the Latin verfion, and in the pre¬
ference winch he gave to harfh and difficult readings
before thofe which were fmooth and flowing It nSy
be cbferved m general, that he was a man of profound
learning j,.
I??
And of
Wetftcin-
SCR [ Jj
gef'ptura, loapnin^, and had a cool and Immd judgment, though
it did not prevent him from thinking too highly of the
Imtin readings, and of the Codex Alexandrinus7 with
other Latinizing manufcripts.
The imperfections of Bengel’s edition arife chiefly
from his diffidence and caution. He did not venture
to infert into the text any reading which had not al¬
ready appeared in fome printed edition, even though
he believed it to be tire genuine reading. In the book
of Revelation indeed he took the liberty to infert read¬
ings which had never been printed ; becaufe tew mavm-
fevipts had been ufed in the printing of that. book.
The celebrated edition of John James Wetflein,
which is the molt important of all, and the moft necef-
fary'to thofe engaged in facred critieifm, was publifhed
at Am Herd am in 1751 and 1752, in two volumes folio.
No man will deny that Wetftein’s Prolegomena mfcover
profound erudition, critical penetration, and an intimate
acquaintance with the Greek manufcripts. It is a work
which in many rcfpedts has given a new turn to lacred
criticifm, and no man engaged in that Itudy can cbf-
penfe with it. Wherever Wetftein has delivered his
fentiments reipefting a Greek manufcript,. which he
has done lefs frequently than Mill, and indeed lefs
frequently than we could have wifhed, he (hows himfelt
an experienced and fagacious critic. He is likewife
more concile than Mill in delivering his opinion, and
does not fupport it by producing fo great a number
of readings from the manufcript in queftion. This
concifenefs is the confequence of that warmth and hade
which were peculiar to Wetftein’s character, and which
have fometimes given birth to miftakes. The fire, of
his difpofition was likewife the caufe of his advancing
conjectures, in regard to the hiftory of his manufcripts,
which exceed the bounds of probability. But the cri¬
tical rules which he has delivered are perfectly juft; and
in this refpeCt there is a remarkable agreement between
him and his eminent predeceflbrs Mill and Bengel.
In regard to the Latin verfion alone they appear to
differ: in Mill and Bengel it has powerful, and per¬
haps partial, advocates; but in Wetftein a fevere and fa¬
gacious judge, who fometimes condemns it without a
caufe. The Greek manufcripts which confirm the read¬
ings of the Vulgate, and which he fuppofed had been
corrupted from it, he of courfe condemned with equal
feverity : and fome colle&ions of various readings which
had been made by Catholics, he made no fcruple to
pronounce a forgery, faying, “ Timeo Danaos, et dona
ferentes.” But in confequence of his antipathy to the
Vulgate, his colledion of various readings is lefs perfeCt
than it might have been.
It has been afked, 1. Whether he has quoted his
manufcripts either falfely or imperfectly, in order to
eftablifli his own religious opinions ? or, 2. Whether his
diligence and accuracy has been fuch that we may at
all times depend upon them ? To the firft of thefe que-
ftions there can be no other anfwer, than that Wetftein,
in his charafter of a critic, is perfeftly honeft. With
refpeft to the fecond, his diligence and accuracy, Mi-
chaelis thinks there is lefs reafon to pronounce him
faultlefs. But Mr Marfh has examined the examples
on which Michaelis founds his affertion, and declares
ihat Michaelis is miftaken in every one ef them.
The diligence of Wetftein can fcarcely be queftioned
^3 SCR
by any who are acquainted with his hiftory, Re tm? Seiiptme,
veiled into different countries, and examined with his v--*
own eyes a much greater number of manufcripts than
any of his predeceffors. His colleftion of various read¬
ings amount to above a million ; and he has not only
produced a much greater quantity of matter than his
predeceffors, but has likewife correfted their miftakes.
The extracts from manufcripts, verlions, and printed
editions of the Greek Teftament, which had been
quoted by Mill, are generally quoted by Wetftein.
Whenever Wetftein had no new extra&s from the ma¬
nufcripts quoted by Mill, or had no opportunity of ex¬
amining them himfelf, he copied literally from Mill |
but wherever Mill has quoted from printed editions,
as from the margin of Robert Stephens’s for inftance,
or from the London Polyglot, Wetftein did not copy
from Mill, but went to the original fource, as appears
from his having Corrected many miftakes in Mill’s quo¬
tations.
In the opinion of Michaelis, there are many defefts
in the edition of Wetftein, which require to be fup-
plied, and many errors to be corrected. Yet ftill it
muft be allowed to be a work of immenfe labour, and
moft valuable to thofe engaged in facred criticifm ; and
it is furprifing, when we confider the difficulties and la-
boar which Wetftein had to encounter, that his errors
and imperfeftions are fo few.
The propofal of Michaelis, however, of a new col¬
lation of manufcripts, in order to form a complete coi-
ledtion of various readings, is worthy the attention of
the learned. In mentioning this propofal, Michaelis
turns a wifhful eye towards Britain, the only country,
he fays, which poffeffes the will and the means to. exe¬
cute the talk. Should a refolution, he adds, be form¬
ed in this ifland, fo happily fituated for promoting the
purpofes of general knowledge, to make the underta¬
king a public concern, to enter into a fubfcription, and
to employ men of abilities in collating manufcripts both
at home and abroad, they would be able to do-more in
ten years than could otherwife be done in a century.
And could this nation direft its attention to any objed
more glorious or more ufeful than in afcertaining the
text of the facred Sciptures, and giving to pofterity an
accurate edition ? p
As the fenfe of Scripture, as well as all other books,
is affefted by the punduation, it is of importance to jvjew
determine whether the flops or points which we. find tameut.
in the facred books were ufed by the facred writers,
or have been inferted by modern tranfcribers.
We are told by Montfaucon, in his Palaographia
Graca, p. 31. that the perfon who firft diftinguifhed
the feveral parts of a period in Greek writing, by the
introdudion of a point, was Ariftophanes of Byzan¬
tium, who lived under Ptolemaeus Epiphanes, in the
145th Olympiad. But though points were not ufed
in books before this period, they were employed in in-
fcriptions above 400 years before the birth of Chrilft.
See Mont. Pal. Grac. p. 135.
Under the article Punctuation we mentioned, on
authority which we reckoned unqueftionable, that the
ancient manufcripts were written without any points.
We have now, however, difcovered, from Woide’s edi¬
tion of the Codex Alexandrinus, that points are ufed in
that manufcript, though omitted in the facjmile given
SCR [ T.n 3 SCR
grripturg, ^TontfaUCpiv That they are fopod too in the Co-
Jex Vaticanus, though not frequently, is related by
Birch in his Prolegomena, p. 14.
As the fa£t has not been generally known, that the
ancients pointed their manufcripts, and as it is an im¬
portant and interefting faft, we fhall prefent our read¬
ers with the firfl fix lines of St John’s Gofpel, as they
are pointed in the Alexandrine manufcript:
ENAPXHHNOAOrOSKAIOAOrOSHN
nrosTONerT kaioThnoaotos*
OTTO2 H NENAPXH nPOYTON©N
TIANTAAIATTOTErENETO'KAIXn
PEI2ATTOTE^ENETOOTAEEN•
OrErONENENATTXlZXTHHN"
m
Divifion
into chaj,«
ter*.
Whether any points for marking the fenfe were ufed
by the apoftles, cannot be determined ; but the points
now in ufe have been invented fince.
In the fourth century, Jerome began to add the com¬
ma and colon to the Latin verfion ; and they were then
inferted in many more ancient manufcripts. In the
fifth century, Euthalius a deacon of Alexandria divided
the New Teftament into lines. This divifion was re¬
gulated by the fenfe, fo that each line ended where fome
paufe was to be made in fpeaking. And when a co-
pyilt was difpofed to contradl his fpace, and therefore
crowded the lines into each other, he then placed a
point where Euthalius had terminated the line. In
the eighth century, the ftroke was invented which we
call a comma. In the Latin manufcripts, Jerome’s
points were introduced by Paul Warnfried and Alcuin,
at the command of Charlemagne. In the ninth cen¬
tury, the Greek note of interrogation (;) was firft ufed.
At the invention of printing the editors placed the
points arbitrarily, probably without bellowing the ne-
ceffary attention ; and Stephens, in particular, varied
his points in every edition (d).
The meaning of many palfages in the Scripture has
been altered by falfe pointing. We lhall produce one
inffance of this : Mat. v. 34. is commonly pointed in
this manner, ryu^fi \tyo ftt ofiotrat oxuc /uhtc iv to v^xxo,
and confequently tranllated, “ But I fay unto you,
fwear not at all.” But if, inllead of the colon placed
after we fubffitute a comma, the tranflation will
be, “ But I fay to you that you ought by no means to
fwear, either by heaven, for it is his throne, or by
earth, for it is his footftool.” The command of Chrill
therefore applies particularly to the abufe of oaths a-
mong the Pharifees, who on every trivial occafion
fwore by the heaven, the earth, the temple, the head,
See. but it implies no prohibition to take an oath in
the name of the Deity on folemn and important occa-
fions.
The ancients divided the New Teflament into two
kinds of chapters, fome longer and fome fliorter. This
method appears to be more ancient than St Jerome, for
he expunged a paffage from the New Teftament which
makes an entire chapter. The longer kind of chap¬
ters were called hr eves, the Ihorter capitula. St Mat-
Voi.. XVII. Part I.
thew contained, according to Jerome, 68 breves; Mark Scripture,
contained 48 5 Luke 83 ; and John 1 8. All the evan- ——
gelifts together confifted of 217 breves and 1126 capi¬
tula. The inventor of our modern divifion into chap¬
ters was Hugo de S. Caro, a French Dominican friar
who lived in the 13th century.
The ancients had two kinds of verfes, one of which
they called and the other p^y-ara. The remain
were lines which contained a certain number of letters,
like our printed books, and therefore often broke off in
the middle of a word. Jofephus’s 20 books of Antiqui¬
ties contained 60,000 of them, though in Ittiquis’s
edition there are only 40,000 broken lines.
Stichi were lines meafured by the fenfe: according t«
an ancient written lift mentioned by Father Simin, there
were in the New Teftament 18,612 of thefe.
The verfes into which the New Teftament is now Divifion
divided are more modern, and an imitation of the di- into vef-
vifion of the Old Teftament. Robert Stephens, the fe**
firft inventor, introduced them in his edition in the year
1551. He made this divifion on a journey from Ly¬
ons to Paris ; and, as his fen Henry tells us in the pre¬
face to the Concordance of the New Teftament, he
made it inter equitandum. This phrafe probably means,
that when he was weary of riding, he amufed himfelf
with this work at his inn.
This invention, of the learned printer was foon intro- fts hifad-
duced into all the editions of the New Teftament; and vantages,
it muft be confefted, that in confulting and quoting the
Scriptures, and in framing concordances for them, a fub-
divifion into minute parts is of the greateft utility. But
all the purpofes of utility could furely have been gain-
ed, without adopting the hafty and indigefted divifion
of Stephens, which often breaks the fenfe in pieces,
renders plain paffages obfeure, and difficult paflages un¬
intelligible. To the injudicious divifion of Stephens
we may aferibe a great part of the difficulties which at¬
tend the interpretation of the New Teftament, and a
great many of thofe abfurd opinions which have dif-
graced the ages of the Reformation. For as feparatc
verfes appear to the eyes of the learned, and to the
minds of the unlearned, as fo many detached fentences,
they have been fuppofed to contain complete fenfe, and
they have accordingly been explained without any re¬
gard to the context, and often in direA oppofition to
it; _ Were any modern hiftory or continued difeourfe
divided into fragments with as little regard to the fenfe,
we fhould foon find, that as many oppofite meanings
could be forced upon them as have been forced upon
the books of the New Teftament. The divifion into
verfes has been ftill more injurious to the Epiftles than
to the Gofpels, for there is a clofe conneAion between
the different parts of the Epiftles, which the verfes en¬
tirely diffolve. It is therefore to be wifhed that this
divifion into verfes were laid afide. The Scriptures
ought to be divided into paragraphs, according to the
fenie ; and the figures ought to be thrown into the mar¬
gin. In this way, the figures will retain their utility
U without
(d) The reader will perceive that the account of the origin of points is different from that given under Punc-
tuation. But the heft authors differ upon this fubjeA. We ftiall perhaps reconcile the difference, by fuppo-
fmg that points were invented at the time here mentioned, but were not in general ufe till the time mentioned
sunder the article Punctuation.
S C, R [ I
Scrjjture. without their difadvantages. Dr Campbell, in his
y"" beautiful tranflation of the Gofpels, has adopted this
method with great judgment and fuccefs ; and he who
will read that translation, will perceive that this finale
alteration renders the Gofpels much more intelligible,
!40 and, we may add, more entertaining (e).
Meaning The word ETArrFAtov fignifies any joyful tidings,
of the word ar)(j exa<^]y correfponds to our Englifh word Gospel.
’ In the New Teftamert this term is confined to “ I he
glad tidings of the coming of the Mefilah.” I hus, iu
Mat. xi. 5. our Lord fays, “ The poor have the Go-
fpel preached that is, The coming of the Meffiah is
preached to the poor. Hence the name of Gofpei was
given to the hiftories of Chrift, in which the cfood news
of the coming of the Meffiah, with all its joyful circutn-
r fiances, are recorded.
Goft4ei ac- That the.Gofpei according to Matthew was compo-
cordirg to fed, fays Dr Campbell, by one born a Jew, familiarly
St Mat- acquainted with the opinions, ceremonies, and cuftoms
* CW' of his countrymen ; that it was compofed by one con-
verfant m the facred writing*, and habituated to their
idiom ; a man of plain fenfe, but of little or no learning,
except what he derived from the Scriptures of the Old
Teftament; and finally, that it was the produ&ion of
a man who wrote from convi&ion, and had attended
clofely to the fads and fpeeches which he related, but
who in writing entertained not the molt diftant view
of fetting off himfelf—we have as ftrong internal evi¬
dence as the nature of the thing will admit, and much
ftronger than that wherein the mind ninety-nine cafe&
out of a hundred acquiefces.
54. 1 SCR
That tbs author of this hiftory of our blefied Savi. Scr’p'ure#
our was Matthew, appears from, the teflimony of the —vr—^
early Chriftians. It is attefted by Jerome, Augufttn,Its ^!en-
Epipha iius, and Chryfoftom, and in fuch a manner as idcy.
(hews that they knew the fa£l to be uncontroverted,
and judged it to be incontrovertible. Origen, who
flourifhed in the former part of the 3d rentury, is alfo
rcfpeftable authority. He is quoted by Eufebius in a
chapter * wherein he fpecially treats of Origen’s account * Hijf,
of the facred canon. “ As I have learned (fays Ori-1^ £>• cap,
gen) by tradition concerning the four gofpels, which
alone are received without difpute by the whole church
of God under heaven ; the firil was written by Mat¬
thew, once a publican, afterwards an apoftle of Jefus
Chnft, who delivered it to the Jewi/h believers, compofed
in the Helreiv language” In another place he fays,
“ Matthew writing for the Hebrews who expedted him
who was to defcend from Abraham and David, fays
the lineage of Jefus Chriif, fon of David, fon of Abra¬
ham.” It muft be obferved, that the Greek word
TrapaSoe ( does not exadlly correfpond to the Englifh
word tradition, which, fignifies any thing delivered orally
from age to age. n*p*,JWic properly implies any thing
tranfmitted from former ages, whether by oral or writ¬
ten tcftimony. la this acceptation we find it ufed in
fcripturef: “ Hold the traditions (r“f rafaWtic) which f Theff.il,
ye have been taught, whether by word or cur tpflle.” I5*
The next authority to which we fhall have recourfe
is that of Irenaeus bifhop of Lyons, who had been a
difciple of Polycarp. He fay's in the only book of his
extant, that “ Matthew, among the Hebrews, wrote a Eufeb. WJl.
gofpei Bed. lib
cap 8,
(tj We fhall here fubjoin, as a curiofity, what the anonymous author terms the Old and New Tejlament d'ffeded..
It contains an enumeration of all the books, chapters, verfes, words, and letters, which occur in the Englifh
Bible and Apocrypha. It isfaidto have occupied three years of the author’s life, and is a lingular inftanct oi the
trifling employments to winch fuperftition has led mankind.
The Old and New Testament difledled.
Books in the Old
Chapters
Verfes
Words
Letters
- 39 in the New - 27 Total - 66
929 - - - 260 1189
23,214 - - - 7959 3 r»T 7 3
592,439 - - - 18',25.3 773>692
2,728,100 - - - 838,380 3,566,480
The middle Chapter and the leaft in the Bible is Pfalm 117.
The middle Verfe is the 8th of the Ji8th Pfalm.
The middle time is the 2d of Chronicles, 4th Chap. 16th Verfe.
The word And occurs in the Old Teflament 35*543 times.
'i'lie fame in the New Teftament occurs 10,684 times.
The word Jehovah occurs 6855 times.
Apocrypha.
Chapters 183
Verfes - 6081
Words 152,185
Old Testament.
The middle Book is- Proverbs.
The middle Chapter is Job 29th.
The middle Verfe is 2d Chron. 20th Chap, between 17th and i 8th. Verfes.
The leaft Verfe is 1 Chron. ift Chap, and ift Verfe.
New Testament.
The middle Book is Theffalonians 2d.
The middle Chapter is between the 13th and 14th Romans.
The middle Verfe is 17th Chap. 17th Verfe.
The leaft Verfe is 1 ith Chap. John, Verfe 35.
The 2ift Verfe of the 7th Chapter of Ezra has all the letters of the alphabet:
The 19th Chapter of 2d of Kings and 37th of Ifaiah are alike.
Scripture
§ Euftb.
tiijl, Eccl.
lib cap,
39*
143
I-anguage
in which
it was
written.
SCR. [ 1
gofpel in their own language, whilft Peter and Paul
were preaching the gofpel at Rome and founding the
church there.,,
To the teftimony of thefe writers it may be objedled,
that, except Irenaeus, they all lived in the third and
fourth centuries, and confequently their evidence is of
little importance. But there is fitch unanimity in the
teftimony, that it mult have been derived from fome
authentic fource. And is it fair to quetlion the veraci¬
ty of refpeAable men merely becaufe we knew not
from what writings they received their information ?
Many books which were then extant are now loll; and
how do we know but thefe might have contained luf-
ficient evidence ? Irenaeus at leafl had the beft opportu¬
nities of information, having been well acquainted in his
youth with Polycarp, the difciple of John ; no objec¬
tion can therefore be made to his evidence. But we
can quote an authority flill nearer the times of the
apoltles. Papias bifhop of Hierapolis, in Cafarea, who
flourilhed about A. D. 116, affirms that Matthew wrote
his gofpel in the Hebrew tongue, which every one in¬
terpreted as he was able §. Papias was the companion
of Polycarp, and befides mull have been acquainted with
many perfon's who lived in the time of the apollles.
The fadf therefore is fully eltablilhed, that Matthew,
the apollle of our Saviour, was the author of that gof¬
pel which is placed firll in our editions of the New Tef-
tament.
The next fubjeft of inquiry rcfpefts the language in
which it was written. This we are allured by Papias,
by Irenteus, and Origen, was the Hebrew; but the
truth of this fact has been difputed by Erafmus, Whit-
b7» and others. Whitby urges the improbability that
Providence would have fuffered the original of this
gofpel to be loll, and nothing to remain but a tranfla-
tion. This is an argument of no force againlt written
teftimeny ; indeed we are always in danger of drawing
falfe conclufions when we argue from our own opinions
of the conduft of Providence. For Hit •ways are not
as our <waysy nor His thoughts as our thoughts. But
though we are forced to acknowledge that the gofpel
according to Matthew which we poflefs is a tranflation,
it is evidently a clofe one ; and the very circumllance
that it has luperfeded the original, is a clear proof that
it was thought equally valuable by the ancient Chrifti-
ans. It is necefiary to remark, that the language in
which the gofpel according to Matthew was original¬
ly compofed, and which is called Hebrew by Papias,
Irenaeus, and Origen, is not the fame with the Hebrew
of the Old Teftament: it was what Jerome very pro¬
perly terms Syro-Chald^ic, having an affinity to both
languages, but much more to the Chaldean than to the
Syrian.
The time when this gofpel was compofed has not
been precifely afcertained by the learned. Irenaeus fays
that “ Matthew publilhed his gofpel when Peter and
Paul were preaching at Rome.” Now Paul arrived at
Rome A. D. 60 or 61, and it is very probable fuifered
tnartyrdom in A. D. 65. This may be jullly concluded
from comparing the relation of Tacitus with that of O-
rolius, a writer of the filth century. Orofms having
jff 'ar tke given an account of Nero’s perfecution of the Chriifians,
and of the death of the two apoftles in it. adds, that it
was followed by a peltilence in the city, and other di-
fafters. And Tacitus relates that a peltilence prevailed
*44
L)ate,
Firdner's
5; ] SCR
in the city, and violent Itorms took place in Italy, tn tine Scripture.^
year of Chrift 65-. Matthew’s gofpel was therefore wmit
ten between the year 60 and 65. - a !/{ <•
That this hiftory was primarily intended for the ufc^f drllS!t
of the Jews, we have, belides hiitorical evidence, very"
itrong prefumptions from the book itfelf. Every cir- ^
cumltance is carefully pointed out which might conciliate^,'fJ
the faith of that nation ; every unnecelfary expreffion Matthew’*
is avoided, which might in any w*ay ferve to obltruft it. GofptL
To come to particulars, there was no fentiment relating
to the Meffiah with which the Jews were moreftrongly
poflelfed, than that he mull be of the race of Abraham,
and of the family of David. Matthew, therefore, with
great propriety, begins his narrative with the genealogy
of Jelus. That he fliould be born at Bethlehem tn
Judea, is another circumllance in which the learned
among the Jews were univerfally agreed. His birth in
that city, with fome very memorable circumiiances that
attended it, this hiftonan has alfo taken the firii op¬
portunity to mention. Thofe pafiages in the prophets,
or other facred books, which either foretel any thing
that fhould happen to him, or admit an allulive appella¬
tion, or were in that age generally underftood to be
applicable to events which reipedt the Meffiah, are never
pafled over in iilence by this Evangelitt. i he fulfil¬
ment of prophecy was always to the Jews, who were
convinced of the infpiration of their iacred writings,
ilrong evidence. Accordingly none of the Evangelilis
has been more careful than Matthew, that nothing of
this kind fhould be overlooked. .
That which chiefly diilinguilhes Matthew's writings Diftin-
from thofe of the other Evangehfts, is the minute andituiihmg
diitindt manner in which he has related many of ourclura<aer*
Lord’s difeourfes and moral inllrudtions. Ot thefe his
fermon on the mount, his charge to the apoitlcs, his
illultrations of the nature of his kingdom, and his pro¬
phecy orr mount Olivet, are examples. He has alio
wonderfully united {implicity and energy in relating the
replies of his mailer to the cavils ot his adveriaries.
Being early called to the apoltldhip, he was an eye
and ear witnefs of moll of the things which he relates.
And there are circurntlances which incline Dr Campbell
to think that Matthew has approached as near the pre-
cife order of time in which the events happened as any
of the Evangelitt s.
Concerning the life of the apollle Matthew we have
nothing to add, as the principal circurnitances in his
life have already been mentioned. See Matthew.
The Gofpel according to Matthew is cited ieven times
in the epilile of Barnabas, twice in the firlt eptflie of
Clemens Romanus to the Corinthians, eight times in the
Shepherd of Hernias, fix times in Poly carp’s fmall epiltle
to the Philippuuis, and feven times in the Imaller eptilles
of Ignatius. Thefe citations may be ieea at full length
in JoneS i Ke<u> and Full Method of Jett ting the Canon,
with the parallel paffitges in the goipei according to
Matthew. . _ T4,
1 hat Mark was the author or the gofpel which bears Gofpfi sc-
his name, and that it was the fecond m the order of turning to
time, is proved by the unanimous tefiimony of the au-’',t !Viark-
cient ChrDians. Many authorities are therefore ua- avtf-r.
neceffary ; we (hall only mention thofe of Papias and tidty,
Irenseus. Eufebius has preferved the following paflage
of Papias: “ This is what was related by the elder (that H!fl. Eccl.
is, John, not the apoiiie, but a difciple of Jefus) ; Mark!ill> 5* cai'*
II 2 being D
SCR
Scr'pUire.
*49
And date.
Adv. Hner
lib. 3 cap.
X.
jPrtfdte to
lAurk.
n I Pet. V.
*3-
•5®
.Language
in which i
was writ-
iea.
>51
Deftgn ol
being Peter’s interpreter wrote exa£ly whatever he
remembered, not indeed in the order wherein things
were fpoken and done by the Lord; for he was not
himfelt a hearer or follower of our Lord ; but he after¬
wards, as I faid, followed Peter who gave inftruftions
as fuited the occafions, but not as a regular hiftory of
our Lord’s teaching. Mark, however, committed no
miftake in writing fuch things as occurred to his me¬
mory : for of th,s one thing he was careful, to omit
nothing which he had heard, and to infert no falfehood
into his narrative.” Such is the teftimony of Papias,
which is the more to be regarded as he afligns his au¬
thority. He fpake not from hearfay, but from the in¬
formation which he had received from a moit credible
witnefs, John the elder, orprefbyter, a difciple of Jefus,
and a companion of the apoilles.
Irenseus, after telling us that Matthew publilhed his
gofpel whilft Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome,
‘adds: “ After their departure OloJ'o*), Mark alfo, the
difciple and interpreter of Peter, delivered to us in
writing the things which had been preached by Peter.”
The Greek like the Enghlh word departure,
may either denote death, which is a departure out of
the world, or mean a departure out of the city. It is
probably in the former of thefe fenfes it is here ufed.
Yet by the accounts given by fome others, Mark’s
gofpel was publifhed in Peter’s lifetime, and had his
approbation. The gofpel of Mark is fuppofed to be
but two years poiterior in date to that of Matthew.
The precife year, however, cannot be determined with
certainty ; and it is a matter ol no importance, fmee we
have afeertained the author and the time in which he
lived.
Mark has generally been fuppofed to be the fame
perfon who is mentioned in the ads and fome of Paul’s
epiftles, who is called John, and was the nephew of Bar¬
nabas. But as this perfon was the attendant of Paul
and Barnabas, and is nowhere in feripture faid to have
accompanied Peter in his apoftolical million, which
ancient writers inform us the author of the gofpel did,
Dr Campbell has juflly concluded that thefe were dif¬
ferent perfons. The author of the gofpel is certainly
meant by Peter when he fays Marcus my Jon Jalutetb
you II..
That Mark wrote his gofpel in Greek, is as evident¬
ly conformable to the teflimony of antiquity, as that
Matthew wrote his in Hebrew or Syro-Chaldaic. The
cardinals Baronins, and Bellarmine, anxious to exalt the
language in which the vulgate was written, have main¬
tained that this Evangelifl publifhed his work in Latin.
T he only appearance of teftimony which has been pro¬
duced in fupport of this opinion is the infeription fub-
joined to this gofpel in Syriac, and in fome other ori¬
ental verfions. But thefe poftferipts are not the tefti-
monies of the tranflators : they proceed from the con-
jedure of fome tranferiber ; but when written, or by
whom, is equally unknown. Againft pofitive teftimony
therefore they are entitled to no credit.
From the Hebraifms in the flyle, we fhould readily
conclude that the author was by biith and education a
jew. ’I here are alfo expreflions which fhow that he
had lived for fome time among the Latins, as *!VTverav,
“ centurion,” and “• fentinel;” words which
do not occur in the other gofpels. There ate other
internal evidences that this gofpel was written be-
[ 156 1
s c
R
firft
time the Jor« Scripture*
13 added to the
yond the confines of Judea. The
dan is mentioned, « river," 13 added to tne —" —■»
name for explanation ; for though no perfon in Judea
needed to be informed that Jordan was>a river, the cafey^
was different in diflant countries. The word Gehenna, Mark’t
which is tranflated Hell in the New Teflament, origi-
nally flgnified the Valley of Hlnnom, where infants had
been facrificed by fire to Moloch, and where a conti.
nual fire was afterwards kept up to confume the filth of
Jerufalem. As this word could not have been under-
ftood by a foreigner, the Evangelifl adds, by way of
explanation, “ the unquenchable fire.”
Inftead of the word Mammon, he ufes the common
term xpw?tcc “ riches.” When he employs the oriental
word Corhon, he fubjoins the interpretation ® £fJ
that is, “ a gift.” Thefe peculiarities will corroborate
the hiftorical evidence that has been already mentioned,
that Mark intended his gofpel for the ufe of the Gen¬
tiles. rys
It has been affirmed that this evangelifl is the abridger Mark not
of Matthew. It is true that Mark fometimes copies^ a^r^*
the expreffions ufed by Matthew ; but he is not to be|^r.°^ew,
conlidered as a mere abridger, for he omits altogether *
feveral things related by Matthew, viz. our Lord’s pe¬
digree, his birth, the viftt of the Magians, Jofeph’s
flight into Egypt, and the cruelty of Herod. Dr
Lardner has given a lift; of thirty-three paffages, where¬
in circumftances are related which are omitted by the
other evangelifts. There is one parable, and an account
of two miracles peculiar to Mark. The parable or fi»
militude is mentioned in chap. iv. 26. One of thefe mi¬
racles was the curing of a deaf and dumb man, chap.
v“- S1* 37* The other was the giving fight to a blind-
man at Bethfaida, chap. viii. 22, 26. The flyle of
Mark, inflead of being more concife than that of Mat¬
thew, is more diffufe. That he had read Matthew’s
gofpel cannot be dofibted, but that he abridged it, is a
miltake.
According to the teflimony which has been already gu^eri-
produced, Mark derived his information from the a-vedhism-
pottle Beter. It would be improper, therefore, not to re formation
mark, that this evangelifl has omitted many thingsfrom i>e‘
tending to Peter’s honour, which are related in the
other gofpels, and has given the moll particular account
of Peter’s fall. This gofpel is feven times cited by Ire-
naeus, and nine times by Tertullian. IS4
That the author of the gofpel which is. the third in Gofpel ac-
order was Luke, the companion of the apoftle Paul, is cording to
evident from the teftimonies of Irenams, Clemens ofSt Luke‘
Alexandria,, Origen, Tertullian, and many fucceeding
writers. But it has been difputed whether he was a
Jew or a Gentile. That Luke was a Jew by biith, or
at leafl by religion, may be argued from his being a
conftant companion of Paul. If he had been an un-
circumcifed Gentile, exceptions would have been made
to him, efpecially at Jerufalem; but nothing of that
kind appears. It is alio rendered highly probable, from
his mode of computing time by the Jewifh feflivals, and
from his- frequent ufe of the Hebrew idiom. It has been
fuppofed that Luke, was one of the 70 difciples ; but he
does not pretend to have been a witnefs of our Lord’s
miracles and teaching ; on the contrary, he tells us in
h:s.introduction, that he received his information from
others.
Tire defign of Luke in writing his gofpel was to fu-Dellg?* of
peiiedek,
Scripture.
156
From what
fotirc# of
informa¬
tion it was
derived.
157
Has fup-
piied ma¬
ny omif-
fions of
the two
former
gofpels.
T)r Camp-
bell s Pri¬
nce to
Luke's
Co/pel.
153
Style and
conif ofi-
tion of it.
SCR [ 1
perfede fome Impcrfeft and inaccurate hiflories of our
Saviour, which had then been publifhed. What theie
were, it is impoffible now to determine, as they are
not mentioned by any contemporary writer, and probab¬
ly did not furvive the age in which they were com-
pofed.
It has been fuppofed that Luke chiefly derived his
information from the apoftle Paul, whom he faithfully
attended m his travels ; but, from Luke’s own words,
we are led ta conclude, that the principal fource of his
intelligence, as to the fafts related in the gofpel, was
from thofe who had been eye and ear witnefles of what
our Lord both did and taught. Now Paul evidently
was not of this number. It was from converfing with
fome of the twelve apoftles or dilciples of our Lord,
who heard his difcourfes and faw his miracles, that he
obtained his information.
As to the time when this gofpel was written, we
have hardly any thing but conje&ure to guide us. But
as Origen, Eufebius, and Jerome, have ranged it after
thofe of Matthew and Mark, we have no reafon to
doubt but they were written in the fame order.
The gofpel by Luke has fupplied us with many inte-
refting particulars which had been omitted both by
Matthew and Mark. It has given a diftindl narration
of the circumftances attending the birth of John the
Baptiil and the nativity of our Saviour. It has given
an account of feveral memorable incidents and cures
which had been overlooked by the reil; the conver*
fion of Zaccheus the publican ; the cure of the woman
who had been bowed down for 18 years ; the cure of
the dropfical man ; the cleanflng of the ten lepers ; the
inhofpitable treatment of our Saviour by the Samari¬
tans, and the inilrudtive rebuke which he gave on that
occafon to two of his difciples for their intemperate
zeal; alfo the affecting interview which he had after his
refurre&ion with two of his difciples. Luke has alfo
added many edifying parables to thofe which the other
evangelifts had recorded. Moll of thefe are fpeciSed
by Irenasus as particularly belonging to this gofpel,
and has thereby (hown to us, without intending it, that
the gofpel of Luke was the fame in his time that it is
at prefent.
The ftyle of this evangelift abounds as much with
Hebraifm? as any of the facred writings, but it contains
more of the Grecian idiom than any of them It is
alfo diftinguilhed by greater variety and copioufnefs-;
qualities which may be juftly afcribed to the fuperior
learning of the author. His occupation as a phyfician
would naturally induce him to employ fome time in
reading, and give him eafier accefs to the company of
the great than any of the other evangelifts. As an
inflance of Luke’s copioufnefs, Dr Campbell has re¬
marked that each of the evangelilts has a number of
words which are ufed by none of the reft ; but in Luke’s
gofpel the number of fuch peculiarities or words, tifed
in none of the other gofpels, is greater than that of the
peculiar words found in all the three other gofpels put
together; and that the terms peculiar to Luke are lor
the moft part long and compound words. The lame
judicious writer has alfo obfeived, that there is more of
compofition in Luke’s fentences than is found in the
other three, and confequently lefs fimplicity. Of this
the very fir ft fentence is an example, which occupies
no lei’s than four verfes. Luke, too, has a greater re-
57 r s c ,R
femblance to other hiftorians, in giving what may be Scripture,^
called his own verdift in the narrative part of this work; v •
a freedom which the other evangelifts have feldom or
never ventured to ufe. He calls the Pharifees lovers Chap, xvi,
of money; in diftinguiihing Judas Ifcariot from the14'
other Judas, he ufes the phrafe, he who proved a traitor,
y.ou i-ywiTO TtpoSoT*;). Matthew and Mark exprefs the
fame fentiment in milder language, “ he who delivered
him up.” In recording the moral inftru&ions of our
Lord, efpecially his parables, this evangelift has united
an affecting fweetnefs of manner with genuine fimpli-
eity. t 159
This gofpel is frequently cited by Clemens Romanus, cited by
the contemporary of the Apoftles, by Ignatius, and ancient
Juftin Martyr. Irenaeus has made above a hundred
citations from it. In his lib. 3. adv. Heeref. c. 14. he
vindicates the authority and perfedtion of Luke’s gof¬
pel, and has produced a collection of thofe fadts which
are only recorded by this evangelift. 160
That the gofpel which is placed laft in our editions Gofpel aci
of the New Teftament was written by John, one 0^T°[^ir,Sta
our Saviour’s apoftles, is confirmed by the unanimous-*
teftimony of the ancient Chriftians. He was the fon
of Zebedee, a filherman of Bethfaida in Galilee, by
his wife Salome, and the brother of James, furnamed
the elder or greater. He was the beloved difciple of
our Saviour, and was honoured, along with Peter and
James, with many marks of diftindtion which were not
conferred on the other difciples. He poffeffed a high
degree of intrepidity and zeal, a warm and affedlionate
heart, and was ftrongly attached to his mafter. His >
brother James and he were honoured with the title of
Boanerges, or Sons of Thunder. He was anxious to7
reftrain whatever he confidered as a mark of difrefpedt
againft his mafter, and to punifti his enemies with feve-
rity. He was incenfed againft fome perfons for at¬
tempting to caft out demons in the name of Jefus ; and
required them to defift becaufe they were not his dif¬
ciples. James and he propofed to our Saviour to call
down fire from heaven to punifti the inhofpitable Sama¬
ritans. Nor was the courage of John lefs ardent than
his zeal. When Peter had difowned his Lord, and all
the other difciples had fled,. John continued to attei.rd
his mafter. tie was prefent at his trial, and followed
him to the crofs, where he was a fpeftator of his fuf-
ferings and death. The interview between Jefus and
this difciple at Calvary, though concifely related, is an
event which will ftrongly affedt every man of feeling,
while it convinces him of the unalterable- affection of
Jefus to his beloved difciple, as well as difeovers his
refpeftful tendernefs for his mothers See John. - ^
The ancients inform us, that there were two- motives M itive;}^
which induced John to write his gofpel : the one, that for wri.-
he might refute the herefies of Cerinthus and the Nico-c‘“g
laitans, who had attempted to corrupt the Chriftian
doctrine ; the.other motive was, that he might fupply
thofe important events in the life of our Saviour which
the other evangelifts had omitted. Of the foamer of
thefe motives Iremeus gives us the following account-:
John, defirous to extirpate the errors fow-n in tire
minds of men by Gerinthus, and fbme time before by
thofe called Nicolaitans, publifn'ed his gpfptl; ,v herein
he acquaints us that there is one God, who made all
things by his word, and not, as they fay, one who is
the Creator of the world, and another who is the father
off
SCR [ 158 ] SCR
Script’ire Gf t^e Lord ; one t.tie fon 0f the Creator, and another 4. The Jewifit Scriptures. Indeed the conclufion that Scrpnmr.
‘ the Chrift, from the fuperceleftial abodes who defcend- Jefus was the Meffiah the Son of God, naturally arifes  
ed upon Jefus, the fon of the Creator, but remained from almoft every miracle which our Saviour is faid ta
impaflible, and afterwards fled back into his own pie- have performed and ftom every dilcourfe that he de¬
livered. Tins declaration is very often made by our
Saviour himfelf; particularly to the woman of Sama¬
ria, to Nicodeimis, and to the blind man whom be had
eared.
161
Hot to
xonAue
tieietict;
roma or fulnefs.” As Iren a? us is the medt ancient au¬
thor who has written upon this fubjedt, many appeals
have been made to his authority. The authority of
Irenteus is certainly refpedtable, and we have often re¬
ferred to his teftimony with confidence ; but we think
it neceflary to make a dillindtion between receiving his
164
It mu'l be evident to every reader, that John ftudi-Is afu( } Ie_
oufly paffes over thole padages in our Lord’s hiftory n;ent to
• • • • the o'htr
ree gef-
163
But to
prove that
Jeftis was
rhe Mef-
fiah the
•Non of
Cod,
* John xv,
teftimony to a matter of faft, and implicitly adopting and teaching which had been treated at large by the'!^
his opinion. He does not tell us, that he derived his other evangelifts, or if he mentions them at all he men-'J!
information from any preceding writer, or indeed from tions them (lightly. This confirms the teftimpnv of'
any perfon at all. Nay, he items to have believed that ancient writers, that the firlt three gofpels were writ-
John wrote againft theie heretics by a prophetic fpirit; ten and published before John compofed his gofpel.
Except the relation of our Saviour’s trial, death, and
refurreftion, almolt every thing which occurs in this
book is new. The account of our Saviour’s nativity,
of his baptifm, and of his temptation in the wildernefs, bell's Prt
is omitted ; nor is any notice taken of the calling of/'" *»
notions that divide the Lord, fo far as it is tn their the twelve apoftles, or of their million during our Sa- 7ol'n t
power.” ' viour’s life. It is remarkable, too, that not one pa- (Jo'^eL
Indeed it feems very improbable that an apollle rable is mentioned, nor any of the preditlions relating
to the deliru&ion of Jerufalem. All the miracles re¬
corded by the other evangelifts are palled over, except
the miraculous fupply of provilion, by wkich five thou-
fand were led : and it is probable that this miracle was
related for the lake of the difeourfe to which it gave
birth. The other miracles w'hieh are mentioned are
few in number, but in general they are minutely de¬
tailed. They confift of thefe : the turning of water
into wfine at Cana ; the cure of the difeafed man at the
pool of Bethefda ; the cure of the man that had been
blind from his birth ; the reftoring of Lazarus to life ;
and the healing of the fervant’s ear vyhich Peter had
cut off. But valuable would this gofpel be, though it
had only recorded the confolation of Jefus to his diici-
ples previous to his departure ; which exhibits a moil
admirable view of our Saviour’s character, of his care-
and tender regard for his diljiples. Having opened
every fource of comfort to their defponding minds;
exhorted them to mutual love, and to the obedience of
bis Father’s precepts ; having warned them of the im¬
pending dangers and farrows—our Saviour concludes
with a prayer, in the true fpirit of piety and benevo¬
lence ; ardent without enthufiafm, ibbtr and rational
without lukewarmnefs. ^
The time in which this gofpel was written has not Time at
been fixed with any precifion. Irenteus informs us, that which it
it was written at Ephefus, but leaves us to conjedure ^ writ-
whether it was written before or after John’s returnten‘
Irom Patinos. He was basilhed to Patmos by Domi-
tian, who reigned 15 years, and according to the bell
till, and leledts feme of the greateft miracles of Jefus computation died A. I). 96. The perfecution which
to prove bis divine million. In the filth chapter he occaliooed the exile of John commenced in the 14th
prelents us with a difeourfe which our Saviour deliver- year of Domitian’s reign, if John wrote his gotpel
ed in the temple in the prefence of the Jews, wherein alter his return to Ephefus, which is affirmed by Epi-
he Hates in a very diftinft manner the proofs of bis phanius to have been the cafe, we may fix the date of
million from, x. 1 he telltmony ol John; 2. Plisown mi- it about the year 97 (f). l6(y
racks; 3. The declaration of the Father at his baptilin ; This gofpel is evidently the production of an illite-Styie of it.
" rate
for he fays in another place, chap. xx. 30. “ As John
the difciple of our Lord allures us, faying. But thefe
are written, that y* might believe that Jeius is the
Chrift, the Son of God, and that believing ye might
have ife through his name ; FonR$f.i-.i\G tbefe biajphemuus
Ihould write a hiftory of our Lord on purpofe to con¬
fute the wild opinions of Cerinthus or any other here¬
tic. Had John confidered fuch a confutation necef-
fary, it is more likely that he would introduce it into
an epiftle than blend it with the aftions of his vene¬
rable Mailer. But were .the opinion of Irenjsus well-
founded, we Ihould furcly dilcover fome traces of it in
the gofpel of John ; yet except in the iutrodu&ion,
there is nothing that can with the leaft lhadow of pro¬
bability be applied to the opinions of Cerinthus ; and
few, we prefume, will affirm, that the gofpel of John was
compofed merely for the fake of the firft eighteen
verfes.
The intention of John in w’riting his gofpel wras far
more extenfive and important than to refute the opi¬
nions of a few men who were to fink Into oblivion in the
courfe of a few centuries. It was evidently (according
to the opinion of Clemens of Alexandria) to fupply the
omilfions of the other evanaeliits : It was to exhibit the
evidences of the Chriftian religion in a diftintl and per-
fpicuous manner : It w^as, as he himfelf in the conclu¬
fion of his gofpel affures us, to convince his readers,
that fefus is the Mejfioh, the Son of God, and that be¬
lieving they might have life through his name *. Now it
wall appear to any perfon who reads this gofpel with
attention, that he lias executed his plan with aftonilh-
ing ability, and has given the moll circumftantial and
fatisfaefory evidence that Jefus was the Melfiah the Son
of God. After declaring the pre-exiftence of Jefus,
he proceeds to deliver the teftimony of John the Bap-
(t It has been argued from a paffage in this gofpel, that it muft have been written before the deftruclion of
j erulalem. In (peaking of the pool of Bethfaida, John ufes the prefent tenfe ; His words are, “ There is at
Jerufakin.”
SCR ■ [
Scri^ure. rate Jew, and its Ityle is remarkable for fimplicity.
W"1 w"*”" abounds more with Hebraifm# than any of the other
gofpels; and contains fome llrong oriental figures which
6 are not readily underftood by an European.
Oftenquo This gol'pel is cited once by Clemens Romanus, by
tei by *n- Barnabas three times, by Ignatius five times, by Judin
<ieiu Chri- jviartyr fix times, by Irenaeus, and above forty times
by Clemens Alexandrinus.
Ads of the The book \yhich we intitle the A£ls of the Apodles
apoulee. conn efts the gofpels and the epidles. It is evidently a
continuation of Luke’s gofpel, which appears both from
the introduftion andfrom the attefiations of ancientChri-
159 3 SCR
It errors and falfe notions which prevailed among them, Sc iprure.
and to inculcate thofc virtues in which they were molt " ~v
deficient. . 171.
The plan on which thefe Letters are written
fird, to decide the controverfy, or refute the erroneous
notions which had arifen in the fociety to which the
epilfle was addreded : And, fecondly, to recommend
thofe duties which their falfe doArines might induce
them to negleA ; at the fame time inculcating in ge¬
neral exhortations the mod important precepts of Chri-
hian morality. x7j
Of the epiftles fourteen were written by St Paul. Arranged
dians. Both are dedicated to Theophilus ; and in the Thefe are not placed according to the order of time in in chrono-'
• • * -•* — - * — ’ - T ’ <• , v .   but according to the fup-‘0? calCr-
beginning of the AAs a reference is made to his gofpel,
which he calls a former treat'fe^ recording the aAions
and difcourfes of Jefus till his afcenfion to heaven.
Luke is mentioned as the author of the AAs of the
Apodles by Irenxus, by Tertullian, by Origen, and
Eufebius.
From the frequent ufe of the fird perfon plural, it is
manifed that Luke the author was prefent at many of
the tranfaAions which he relates. He appears to have
accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi. He attend¬
ed him alfo to Jerufalem, and afterwards to Rome,
where he remained for two years. He is mentioned by
Paul in feveral of thofe epidles which were written from
Rome, particularly in the 2d epidle to Timothy, and in
the epidle to Philemon.
This book contains the hidory of the Chriftian
church for the fpace of about 28 or 30 years, from the
time of our Saviour’s afcenfion to Paul’s arrival at Rome
in the year 60 or 61. As it informs us that Paul redded
two years in Rome, it mud have been written ader the
year 63 ; and as the death of Paul is not mentioned, it
is probable it was compo&d before that event, which
happened A. D. 65.
The AAs of the Apodles may be divided inf© feven
parts. 1. The account of our Saviour’s afeenfiorr, and
of the occurrences which happened on the fird Pente-
cod after that event, contained in chap. i. ii. 2. The
tranfaAions of the Chriftrans of the circumcifion at Je¬
rufalem, in Judea, and Samaria, chap. hi.—ix. xr.
1—2 t. xii. 3. TranfaAions in Caefarea, and the admif-
fion of the Gentiles, chap x. 4. The fird circuit of Bar-
nabas and Paul among the Gentiles, chap. xi. 22. xiii.
xiv. 5. EmbafFy to Jerufalem, and the fird council
held in that city, chap. xv. 6. Paul’s fecond journey,
chap. xvi.—xxi. 7. His arredment, trial, appeal to
Csciar, and journey to Rome, chap. xxi. to the end of
r^0 the book.
Often cited The A As of the Apodles are cited by Clemens Ro¬
by the ear-manus, by Polycarp, by Judin Martyr, thirty times by
ly Chrifti- Ireilaeus> an(J feven times by Clemens Alexandrimis.
All the eflential doArines and precepts of the Chri-
flian religion were certainly taught by our Saviour him-
felf, and are contained in the gofpels. The epiftles may
be eonfidered as commentaries on the doArines of the
gofpel, addrefled to particular focieties, accommodated
to their refpeAivc fttuations; intended to refute the
which they were compofed, .v—. —- —r
pofed precedence of the focieties or perfons to whom
they were addrefled. It will be proper therefore to
exhibit here their chronological order according to Dr
Lardner.
/I Tabtr of St Paul's EprsTiss, with the Places where,
ami times when, written, according to Dr Lardner.
F.p’Ve*. Places. A.fl).
1 ThefTalonians Corinth 5*
2 Theffalonians Corinth . 52
f Corinth or \ near the end of 5 2
169
Contents
of that
book.
Galatians
1 Corinthians
1 Timothy
Titus
2 Corinthians
Romans
Ephefians
2 Timothy
philippians
Coloffiarts
Philemon
Hebrews
Ephefus
Ephefus
Macedonia
C Macedonia
or near it
Macedonia
Corinth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
f Rome or
1 Italy
}
y or beginning of 53
the beginning of5 3
56
^ bef. the end of 56
about OAober 57
about February 58
about April 61
about May 61
bef. the end of 62
bef. the end of 62
bef. the end of 62
in Spring of 63
A Tj9cs of the Catholic Epistles and the Reff.la~
tion, according to Dr Lardner.
Epiflle. Place.
James Judea
The two Eprftles ] Rom(.
{
of Peter
1 John
2d and 3d of
John
Jude
Revelation
Ephefus
^ Ephefus
Unknown
C Patmoa or
Ephefus
A. I>.
61
[.■or beg. of 62
64
80
80
9©
about
[ between
\ and
64 or 65
95 or 96
174
17*
The epif-
-ties.
It is more difficult to underftand the epiftafety wri- Caufe» of
tings than the gofpels ; the caufe of which is evident, their obiau
Many things are omitted in a letter, or flightly mentioned1"11?-
becaufe fuppofed to be known by the perfon to whom
it is addrdfecL To a fkranger this will create much
difficulty.
Jerufalem.” Now if thefe words had been written after the deftruAion of Jerufalem, it is urged the paft tenfe
would have been ufed, and not the prefent. This argument is mote fpecious than forcible. Though Jerufalem
was demoliihed, docs it follow that the pool of ikthhuda was dried up ?
SCR t «
Scripture,^ eJJfUculty, The bufinefs ^boxit which St Paul wrote
■ *was certainly well known to his correfpondents ; but at
this diftance of time we can obtain no information con¬
cerning the occcafion of his writing, of the charafter
and circumftances of thofe perfons for whom his letters
were intended, except what can be gleaned from the
writings themfelves. It is no wonder, therefore, tho*
many allufions (hould be obfctire. Befides, it is evi¬
dent from many paflages that he anfwers letters and
queftions which his correfpondents had fent him. If
thefe had been preferved, they would have thrown
more light upon many things than all the notes and
T7S conje&ures of the commentators.
Caufes of The caufes of obfcurity which have been now men-
obfcurity tioned are common to all the writers of the epiftles;
St'paulV0 kut are fome peculiar to St Paul. I. As he had
•epiftles. an acute an^ fertile mind, he feems to have written
with great rapidity, and without attending much to the
common rules of method and arrangement. To this
caufe we may afcribe his numerous a*nd long parenthe-
fes. In the heat of argument he fometimes breaks off
abruptly to follow out fome na*v thought; and when
he has exhaufted it, he returns from his digreffion with¬
out informing his readers ; fo that it requires great at¬
tention to retain the conneftion. 2. His frequent change
of perfon, too, creates ambiguity : by the pronoun / he
fometimes means himfelf; fometimes any Chriftian ;
fometimes a Jew, and fometimes any man. In tiling
the pronoun we he fometimes intends himfelf, fome¬
times comprehends his companions, fometimes the apof.
ties ; at one time he alludes to the converted Jews, at
another time to the converted Gentiles. 3. There is a
third caufe of obfcurity; he frequently propofes ob-
jeftions, and aufwers them without giving any formal
intimation. There are other difficulties which arife
from our uncertainty who are the perfons he is addref-
fing, and what are the particular opinions and praftices
to whieh he refers. To thefe we may add two exter¬
nal caufes, which have increafed the difficulty of under-
fianding the epiftles. 1. The dividing them into chap¬
ters and verfes, which diftblves the connexion of the
parts, and breaks them into fragments. If Cicero’s
epiftles had been fo disjointed, the reading of them
would be attended with lefs pleafure and advantage,
and with a great deal more labbur. 2. We are accuf-
* .tomed to the phrafeology of the epiftles from our in¬
fancy ; but we have either no idea at all when we ufe
it, or our idea of it is derived from the articles or fyftetn
which we have efpoufed. But as different fedts have
arbitrary definitions for St Paul’s phrafes, we fhall ne¬
ver by following them diicover the meaning of St Paul,
who certainly did not adjuft his phrafeolpgy to any
snan’s fyftem.
The beft plan of ftudying the epiftles is that which
was propofed and executed by Mr Locke. This we
(hall prefent to our readers in the words of that acute
and judicious author.
Mr Locke’s “ After I had found by long experience, that the
° th*1" readinS anc^ comments in the ordinary way
epiftLs. C Prove<^ n°t ft> fuccefsful as I wifhed to the end propo¬
fed, I began to fufpeft that in reading a chapter as was
ufual, and thereupon fometimes confulting expofitors
upon fome hard places of it, which at that time moft
affe&ed me, as relating to points then under confidera-
tion in my own mind, or in debate amongft others, was
60 ] SCR
not a right method Jo get into the true fenfe of thefe
epiftles. I faw plainly, after I began once to refleft —*v—J
on it, that if any one ffiould write me a letter as long
as St Paul’s to the Romans, concerning fuch a matter
as that is, in a ftyle as foreign, and expreffions as du¬
bious as his feem to be, if I ffiould divide it into fifteen
or fixteen chapters, and read one of them to-day, and
another to-morrow, &c. it is ten to one I ffiould ne¬
ver come to a full and clear comprehenfion of it. The
way to underftand the mind of him that writ it, every¬
one would agree, was to read the whole letter through
from one end to the other all at once, to fee what was
the main fubjeA and tendency of it: or if it had feve-
ral views and purpofes in it, not dependent one of an¬
other, nor in a fubordination to one chief aim and end,
to difcover what thofe different matters were, and
where the author concluded one, and began another ;
and if there were any neceffity of dividing the epiftle
into parts, to make the boundaries of them.
“In the profecution of this thought, I concluded it ne-
ceffary, for the underftanding of any one of St Paul’s
epiftles, to read it all thro’ at one fitting, and to obfeive
as well as I could the drift and defign of his writing it.
If the fir ft reading gave me fome light, the fecond gave
me more ; and fo I perfifted on reading conftantly the
whole epiftle over at once till I came to have a good
general view of the apoftle’s main purpofe in writing
the epiftle, the chief branches of his difcourfe wherein
he profecnted it, the arguments he ufed, and the difpo-
fition of the whole.
“ This, I confefs, is not to be obtained by one or
two hafty readings ; it muft be repeated again and again
with a clofe attention to the tenor of the difcourfe, and
a perfedl negledt of the divifions into chapters and ver¬
fes. On the contrary, the fafeft way is to fuppofe
that the epiftle has but one bufinefs and one aim, till
by a frequent perufal of it you are forced to fee there
are diftindl independent matters in it, which will for¬
wardly enough ffiow themfelves.
“ It requires fo much more pains, judgment, and ap¬
plication, to find the coherence of oblcure and abftrufe
writings, and makes them fo much the more unfit to
fcrve prejudice and preoccupation when found ; that it
is not to be wondered that St Paul’s epiftles have with
many paffed rather for disjointed, loofe, pious difcourfes,
full ot warmth and zeal, and overflows of light, rather
than for calm, ftrong, coherent reafonings, that carried
a thread, of argument and confiftency all through
them.”
Mr Locke tells us he continued to read the fame
epiftle over and over again till he difcovered the fcope
of the whole, and the different fteps and arguments by
which the writer accompliffies his purpofe. For he was
convinced before reading his epiftles, that Paul was a
man of learning, of found fenfe, and knew all the doc¬
trines of the gofpel by revelation. The fpeeches record¬
ed in the A6ts of the Apoftles convinced this judicious
critic that Paul was a clofe and accurate reafoner: and
therefore he concluded that his epiftles would not be
written in a loofe, confufed, incoherent ftyle. Mr Locke
accordinglyjfollowed the chain of the apoftle’s difcourfe,
obferved his inferences, and carefully examined from what
premifes they were drawn, till he obtained a general out¬
line of any particular epiftle. If every divine would
follow this method, he would foon acquire fuch a know*
I ledge
SCR
[ 16
Scripture
177
tpiftle to
j-'cRomans
178
t? date.
; *79
feneral de
$n
180
nd analy-
of it.
ledge of Paul’s ftyle and manner, that he would perufe
his other Epiftles with much greater eafe.
That the Epiftle to the Romans was written at Co-
rinth by St Paul, is alcertained by the teftimony of
the ancient Chriftians. It was compofed in the year
58, in the 24th year after Paul’s converfion, and is the
feventh epiftle which he wrote. From the Atts of the
Apoftles we learn that it muft have been written with¬
in the fpace of three months; for that was the whole
period of Paul’s relidence in Greece, (Aits xx. 1, 2, 3.)
The following analyfis of this epiftle we have taken
from a valuable little treatife, intitlcd A Key to the
New Teftament, which was written by Dr Percy bi-
fhop of Dromore. It exhibits the intention of the
apoftle, and the arguments which he ufes to prove his
different propolitions, in the moil concife, diftinct, and
eonneited manner, and affords the belt view of this
Epiftle that we have ever feen.
‘‘ The Chriftian church at Rome appears not to
have been planted by any apoftle ; wherefore St Paul,
left it ffiould be corrupted by the Jews, who then
fwarmed in Rome, and of whom many were converted
to Chriftianity, fends them an abftrait of the principal
truths of the gofpel, and endeavours to guard them
againft thofe erroneous notions which the Jews had of
juftification, and of the eleih’on of their own nation.
“ Now the Jews affigned three grounds for juftifica¬
tion. Firft, ‘ The extraordinary piety and merits of
their anceftors, and the covenant made by God with
thefe holy meu., They thought God could not hate
the children of fuch meritorious parents : and as he had
made a covenant with the patriarchs to blefs their po-
fterity, he was obliged thereby to pardon their fins.
Secondly, ‘ A perfect knowledge and diligent ftudy of
the law of Mofes.’ They made this a plea for the re-
miffion of all their fins and vices. Thirdly, ‘ The works
of the Levitical law,’ which were to expiate fin, efpe-
cially circumcifion and lacrifices. Hence they inferred
that the Gentiles muft receive the whole law of Mofes,
in order to be jullified and faved.
“ Phe do&rine of the Jews concerning eleftion was,
‘ That as God had promifed to Abraham to blefs his feed,
to give him not only fpiritual bleffings, but alfo the land
of Canaan, to fuffer him to dwell there in prolperity, and
to confider him as his church upon earth That there¬
fore this bleffing extended to their whole nation, and
that God was bound to fulfil thefe promifes to them,
whether they were righteous or wicked, faithful or un-‘
believing. They even believed that a prophet ought
not to pronounce againft their nation the prophecies
with which he was ini'pired ; but was rather to beg of
God to expunge his name out of the book of the living.
“ Thefe previous remarks will ferve as a key to un¬
lock this difficult Epiftle, of which we fhall now give a
fhort analyfis. See MicbaelWs Lectures on the New Tejla-
ment.
“ K The Epiftle begins with the ufualfalutatioh with
which the Greeks began their letters, (chap.i. 1—7.)
“ II. bt Paul profeffes his joy at the fiourifhing ftate
of the church at Rome, and his defire to come and
preach the gofpel (vet. 8—19.); then he infenfibly
introduces the capital point he intended to prove, viz.
“ 111. 1 he fubjeft of the gofpel (ver. 16, 17.), that
it reveals a righteoufnefs unknown before, which is de-
Vot. XVII. Part I.
(1 SCR
rived folcly from falth^and to which Jews and Gentiles Scripture,
have an equal claim, v——
“ IV. in order to prove this, he ffiows (chap.i. 18.—
iti. 20.) that both Jews and Gentiles are * under fin,’
i. e. that God will impute their fins to Jews as well as
to Gentiles.
“ Plis arguments may be reduced to thefe fyllogifms
(ch. ii. 1. 17 — 24.) 1. ‘ The wrath of God is reveal¬
ed againft thofe who hold the truth in unrighteouf-
nels ; i. e. who acknowledge the truth, and yet fin
againft it. 2. The Gentiles acknowledged truths;
but, partly by their idolatry, and partly by their other
deteftable vices, they finned againft the truth they ac¬
knowledged. 3. Therefore the wrath of God is re¬
vealed againft the Gentiles, and punifheth them. 4. The
Jews have acknowledged more truths than the Gen¬
tiles, and yet they fin. 5. Confequently the Jewiffi fm-
ners are yet more expofed to the wrath of God (ch. xi.
1 — 12.) Having thus proved his point, he anfwers
certain obje&ions to it. Obj. 1. ‘ The Jews were well
grounded in their knowledge, and ftudied the law.*
He anfwers, If the knowdedge of the law, without ob-
ferving it, could juftify them, then God could not have
condemned the Gentiles, who knew the law by nature,
(ch. ii. 13 —16.) Obj. 2. ‘ The Jews were circumci-
fed.’ Jnf. That is, ye are admitted by an outward
fign into the covenant with God. This fign will not
avail you when ye violate that covenant (ch. ii. 29. to
the end). Olj. 3. ‘ According to this do&rine of St
Paul, the Jews have no advantage before others.’ Anf.
Yes, they ftill have advantages ; for unto them are com¬
mitted the oracles of God. But their privileges do
not extend to this, that God ffiould overlook their fins,
which, on the contrary, Scripture condemns even ia
the Jews (ch. iii. 1 —19.) Obj. 4. ‘ They had the Le¬
vitical law and facrifices.’ Anf. From hence is no re-
miffion, but only the knowledge of fin, (ch. iii. 20.)
“ V. From all this St Paul concludes, that Jews and
Gentiles may be juftified by the fame means, namely,
without the Levitical law, through faith in Chrift:
And in oppofition to the imaginary advantages of the
Jews, he ftates the declaration of Zechariah, that God ia
the God of the Gentiles as well as of the Jews, (ch. iii.
21. to the end.)
“ VI. As the wdiole bleffing was promifed to the
faithful defendants of Abraham, whom both Scripture
and the Jews call his children, he proves his former af-
fertion from the example of Abraham ; who was an
idolater before his call, but was declared juft, by God,
on account of his faith, long before his circumcifion.
Plence he takes occafion to explain the nature and
fruits of faith, (ch. iv. 1. v. 1 r.)
“VII. He goes on to prove from God’s juftice,
that the Jews had no advantages over the Gentiles
with relpcdl to juftification. Both Jews and Gentiles
had forfeited life and immortality, by the means of one
common father of theirVace, whom they themfelves had
not chofen. Now as God was whiling to reftore im¬
mortality by a new fpiritual head of a covenant, viz.
Chrift, it was juft that both Jews and Gentiles fhould
ffiare in this new reprefentative of the whole race (ch. v.
12. to the end).—Chap. v. ver. 15, 16. amounts to this
negative queftion, ‘ Is it not fitting that the free gift
ffiould extend as far as the offence V
x VIII.
SCR
S<ri| twrr, VIII. He fhows that the do^Irlne of juflification,
uiii y—*. as ijy lays us under the ftrpngeft obligations
of holinefs, (ch. vi. i. to the e'nd.)
“ IX. He fhows that the law of Mofes no longer
concerns us at all; for our junification arifes from our
appearing in God’s fight, as if a&ually dead with Chriil
on account of our fins ; but the law of Mofes was not
given to the dead. On this occafion he proves at large,
that the eternal power of God over us is not afle&ed
by this; and that whilft we are under the law of Mofes
we perpetually become fubjeft to death, even by fins
of inadvertency, (ch. vii. I. to the end.)
“ X. Hence he concludes, that all thofe, and thofe
only, who are united with Chrift, and for the fake of
his union, do not live according to the flefh, are free
from all condemnation of the law, and have an undoubt¬
ed fhare in eternal life, (ch. viii. i —17 )
“ XI. Having defcribed their bleflednefs, he is aware
that the Jews,, who expefted a temporal happinefs,
Ihould objed to him, that Chriftians notwithftanding
endure much fuffering in this world. He anfwers this
objedion at large, (ch. viii. 18. to the end )
“ XII. He fhows that God is not the iefs true and
faithful, becaufe he doth not juftify, but rather rejeds
and punifhes, thofe Jews who would not believe the
Meffiah, (ch. ix. x xi.) In difcuffing this point, we
may obferve the cautious manner in which, on account
of the Jewifh prejudices, he introduces it (ch. ix. 1 — 5.),
as well as in the difcuffion itfelf.
u He fhows that the promifes of God were never
made to all the potterity of Abraham, and that God al¬
ways referved to himfelf the power of choofing thofe
f ons ot Abraham whom, for Abraham’s fake, he intend¬
ed to blefs, and of punifhing the wicked fons of Abra¬
ham ; and that with refped to temporal happinefs or
inifcry, he was not even determined in his choice by
their works. Thus he rejeded Ifhmael, Efau, the If-
taelites in the defert in the time of Mofes, and the great¬
er part of that people in the time of Ifaiah, making
them a facriHce to his juflice, (ch. ix. 6—29.)
“ He then proceeds to fhow that God had reafon to
rejed moft of the Jews then living, becaufe they would
not believe in the Meiiah, though the gofpel had been
preached to them plainly enough, (ch. ix. 3c. x. to the
end). However, that God had not rejeded all his
people, but was ftill fulfilling his promife upon many
thoufand natural defendants of Abraham, who believed
in the Meffiah, and would in a future period fulfil
them upon more ; for that all Ifrael would be convert¬
ed, (ch. xi. 1—32.) And he concludes with admiring
the wife counfds of God, (ver. 33. to the end.)
“ XIII. From the dodrine hitherto laid down, and
particularly from this, that God has in mercy accepted
the Gentiles ; he argues, that the Romans thould con-
fecrate and offer themfelves up wholly to God. This
leads him to mention in particular fome Chriitian duties,
(ch. xii.), vrz.
“ XIV. He exhorts them to be fubjed to magi-
ftrates (ch. xiii. 1—7 ) ; the Jews at that time being
given to fedition.
“ XV. To love one another heartily (ver. 2—10.)
And,
“ XVI. To abflain from thofe vices which were
eonfidered as things indifferent among the Gentiles,
(ver, 1 j. to the end.)
SCR
“ XVII. He exhorts the Jews and Gentiles {« the Scripts*
Chriftian church to brotherly unity, (ch. xiv. 2. xv. —
*3-)
“ XVIII. He concludes his Epiftle with an excvtl?
for having ventured to admonifh the Romans, whom he
had not converted ; with an account of his journey to
Jerulalem; and with fome falutations to thofe perfons
whom he meant to recommend to the church at Rome.”
See Michaghs's LtBures on the New Tejlnment. ^
Corinth was a wealthy and luxurious city, built upon FirftEplft^
the iflhmus which joins the Morea to the northern to the C«.
parts of Greece. In this city Paul had fpent two
years founding a Chriftian church, which confifted of
a mixture of Jews and Gentiles, but the greater part
Gentiles. ^
About three years after the apoftle had left Corinth, jts
he wrote this Epittle from Ephelus in the year 56 or
57, and in the beginning of Nero’s reign. That it
was written from Ephefus, appears from the falutation
with which the Epiftle clofes, (chap. xvi. 19.) “ The
churches of Afia falute you. Aquila and Prifcilla fa-
lute you much in the Lord.” From thefe words it is
evident, in the ift place, that the Epiftle was written
in Afia. 2dly, It appears from Ads xviii. 18, 19.
that Aquila and Prifcilla accompanied Paul from Co¬
rinth to Ephefus, where they feem to have continued
till Paul’s departure.
St Paul had certainly kept up a conftant intercourfe
with the churches which he had founded ; for he was
evidently acquainted with all their revolutions. They
feem to have applied to him for advice in thofe diffi¬
cult cafes which their own underftanding could not
folve ; and he was ready on all occafions to corred their
miftakes.
This Epiftle confifts of two parts. 1. A reproof General de.
for thofe vices to which they were moft propenfe ; fign of it.
2. Au anfvver to fome queries which they had propo-
fed to him.
The Corinthians, like the other Greeks, had been
accuftomed to fee their philofophers divide themfelves
into different feds; and as they brought along with
them into the Chriftian church their former opinions
and cuftoms, they wifhed, as before, to arrange them¬
felves under different leaders. In this Epiftle Paul ^
condemns thefe divifions as inconfiftent with the fpfritThe apof-
of Chriftianity, which inculcates benevolence and una-tle reproves
nimity, and as oppofite to the condud of Chriftian teach-^ h'ouo*
ers, who did not, like the philofophers, afpire after the
praife of eloquence and wifdom. They laid no claim
to thefe nor to any honour that cometh from men.
The apoftle declares, that the Chriftian truths were re¬
vealed from heaven ; that they were taught with great
plainnefs and fimplicity, and proved by the evidence of
miracles, (chap. i. 1). He diffuades them from their di¬
vifions and animofities, by reminding them of the great
trial which every man’s work muft undergo ; of the guilt
they incurred by polluting the temple or church of
God ; of the vanity of human wifdom ; and of glorying
in men. He admonifhes them to efteem the teachers
of the gofpel only as the fervants of Chrift ; and to re¬
member that every fuperior advantage which they enjoy¬
ed was to be aferibed to the goodnefs of God, (chap,
iii. 4). •
2. In the fifth chapter the apoftle confiders the cafe
of a notorious offender, who had married his ftepmo-
ther j
[ ifiz ]
4
/
SCR [ i
ittifvre- r^iar 5 and tells them, that he ought to be excommuni-
^ cated. He alfo exhorts the Chriftians not to aflbciate
with any perfon who led fuch an openly profane life.
3, He cenfures the Corinthians for their litigious dif-
pofition, which caufed them to profecute their Chri-
tlian brethren before the Heathen courts. He expreffes
much warmth and furprife that they did not refer their
differences to their brethren ; and concludes his exhor¬
tations on this fubjeft, by alluring them that they
ought rather to allow themfelves to be defrauded than
to feek redrefs from Heathens (chap. v. 1—9).
4. He inveighs againft thofe vices to which the Co¬
rinthians had been addifted before their converiion, and
dpecially againft fornication, the criminality of which
they did not fully perceive, as this vice was generally
overlooked in the fyftems of the philofophers, (ch.
vi. to. to the end).
And an- Having thus pointed out the public irregularities
fwers cer- with which they were chargeable, he next replies to cer-
ftion^which *ain queftion8 which the Corinthians had propofed to
they had ^‘rn ^7 letter* He, I. Determines fome queftions
iropofedto relating to the marriage ftate ; as, ift, Whether it was
mb. good to marry under the exifling circumftances of the
church ? And, 2d, Whether they Ihould withdraw from
their partners if they continued unbelievers ? (ch. vii).
2. He inftrufts them how to aft with refpeft to idol
offerings. It could not be unlawful in itfelf to eat the
food which had been offered to idols ; for the confecra-
tion of flelh or wine to an idol did not make it the pro¬
perty of the idol, an idol being nothing, and therefore
incapable of property. But fome Corinthians thought
it lawful to go to a feaft in the idol temples, which at
the fame time were places of refort for lewdnefs, and
to eat the facrifices whilft praifes were fung to the idol.
This was publicly joining in the idolatry. He even
advifes to abftain from fuch participation as was lawful,
rather than give offence to a weak brother; which he
entorces by his own example, who had abftained from
many lawful things, rather than prove a fcandal to the
gofpel, (chap. viii. ix. x.)
3. He anfwers a third query concerning the man¬
ner in which women fhould deliver any thing in pub¬
lic, when called to it by a divine impulfe. And here
he cenfures the unufual drefs of both fexes in prophefy-
ing, which expofed them to the contempt of the Greeks,
among whom the men ufually went uncovered and the
women veiled.
Being thus led to the confideration of the abufes
that prevailed in their public worlhip, he goes on to
cenfure the irregularities which were committed at their
love-feafts, or, as we term them, the Lord’s Supper. It
was a common praftice with the Greeks at their fo-
cial fuppers for every man to bring his own provifions
along with him, not, however, to lhare them with the
company, but to feaft upon them in a folitary manner.
Thus the rich ate and drank to excefs, while the poor
were totally neglefted. The Corinthians introduced
the fame praftice in the celebration of the Lord’s Sup¬
per, thus confounding it with their ordinary meals, and
without ever examining into the end of the inftitution.
It was this grofs abufe that Paul reproves in the nth
chapter. He alfo cenfures their conduft in the exer-
cife of the extraordinary gifts of the Holy Ghoft ; he
{hows them they all proceeded from the fame fpirit, and
63 ] SCR
were intended for the inftruftion of Chriftian focietfes} Scripture,
that all Chriftians ought to be united in mutual love ;
and that tendernefs ought to be fhown to the moft in-
conliderable member, as every one is fubfervient to the
good of the whole (chap. xii). In the 13th chapter
he gives a beautiful defcription of benevolence, which
has been much and juftly admired. He reprefents it
as fuperior to the fupernatural gifts ©f the fpirit, to the
moft exalted genius, to univerfal knowledge, and even
to faith. In the 14th chapter he cautions the Corin¬
thians againft oftentation in the exercife of the gift of
languages, and gives them proper advices.
4. lie afferts the refurreftion of the dead, in oppoii-
tion to fome of the Corinthians who denied it, found¬
ing it upon the refurredlion of Jefus Chrift, which he
confiders as one of the moft effential doftrines of Chri-
llianity. Pie then anfwers fome objeftions to the re¬
furreftion, drawn from our not being capable of under-
ftanding how it will be accomplifhed, (chap, xv.) He
then concludes with fome direftions to the Corinthian
church concerning the manner of collefting alms ; pro-
mifes them a viht, and falutes fome of the members.
The ftcond Epiftle to the Corinthians was wiittenThel'econd
from Macedonia in the year 57, about a year after theEPiftle to
former. See 2 Cor. ix. 1—5. viii. and xiii. 1. Corm-
St Paul’s firft Epiftle had wrought different effefts*
among the Corinthians : many of them examined their State of the
conduft ; they excommunicated the inceftuous man ; Corinthian
requefted St Paul’s return with tears; and vindicatedchurc^*
him and his office agatnft the falfe teacher and his adhe¬
rents. Others of them ftill adhered to that adveriary
of St Paul, exprefsly denied his apoftolic office, and
even furniftied themfelves with pretended arguments
from that Epiftle. He had formerly promifed to take
a journey from Ephefus to Corinth, thence to vifit the
Macedonians, and return from them to Corinth (2 Cor.
i. 15, 16). But the unhappy ftate of the Corinthian
church made him alter his intention (verfe 23 ), fince
he found he muft have treated them with feverity.
Hence his adverfaries partly argued, i. That St Paul
was irrefolute and unfteady, and therefore could not be
a prophet: 2. The improbability of his ever coming to
Corinth again, fince he was afraid ®f them. Such was
the ftate of the Corinthian church when St Paul, after
his departure from Ephefus, having vifited Macedonia,
(Afts xx. 1.) received an account of the above parti¬
culars from Titus ( 2 Cor. vii. 5, 6.), and therefore wrote
them his fecund Epiftle about the end of the fame
year, or the beginning of 38.
But to give a more diftinft view of the contents of
this Epiftle: thecontent.
1. 1 he apoftle, after a general falutation, expreffes his of this E.
grateful fenfe bf the divine goodnefs; piofeffing his eonfi-Piftle*
dence in God, fupported by a fenfe of his own integri¬
ty ; makes an apology for not having viiited the Corin¬
thians as he had intended, and vindicates himfelf from
the charge of ficklenefs, (chap. i).
2. He forgives the inceftuous man, whofe conduft
had made fo deep an impreffioa on the apoftle’s mind,
that one reafon why he had deferred his journey to Co¬
rinth was, that he might not meet them in grief, nor
till he had received advice of the effeft of his apoitolical
admonitions. He mentions his anxiety to meet Titus
at Troas, in order to hear of their welfare ; expreffes
X 2 his
SCR [164
Scripture, his thankfulnefs to God for the fuccefs attending his
miniftry, and fpeaks of the Corinthians as his creden¬
tials, written by the finger of God, (chap. ii. iii. 1—6.)
' 3. He treats of the office committed to him of
preaching the redemption ; and highly prefers it to
preaching the law : to which probably his adverfaries
had made great pretences. They had ridiculed his fuf-
ferings; which he fhows to be no difgrace to the go-
fpel or its miniiters; and here he gives a ihort abltrafit
of the do Trine he preaches, (chap. iii. 6. v. to the
end).
He expatiates with great copioufnefs on the temper
with which, in the midit of affliTions and perfecutions,
he and his brethren executed their important embafly ;
and with great affeTion and tendernefs he exhorts them
to avoid the pollution of idolatry, (chap. vi). He en¬
deavours to win their confidence, by telling them how
much he rejoiced in their amendment and welfare, and
how forry he had been for the diilrefs which his necef-
fary reproofs had occafioned, (chap. vii). He then ex¬
horts them to make liberal contributions for the Chri-
flians in Judaea. He recommends to them the ex¬
ample of the Macedonians, and reminds them of the be¬
nevolence of the Lord Jefus. He exprefies his joy for
the readinefs of Titus to affift in making the colleftion;
and makes alfo honourable mention of other Chriftian
brethren, whom he had joined with Titus in the fame
commiffion, (chap. viii). He then, with admirable ad-
drefs, urges a liberal contribution, and recommends
them to the divine bleffing, (chap. ix).
4. Next he obviates fome refleTions which had been
thrown upon him for the mildnefs of his conduT, as if
it had proceeded from fear. He afferts his apollolical
power and authority, cautioning his opponents againft
urging him to give too fenfible demonftrations of it,
(chap. x). He vindicates himfelf againft the infinua-
tions of fome of the Corinthians, particularly for having
declined pecuniary fupport from the church ; an attion
which had been ungeneroufly turned to his difadvan-
tage. To ffiow his fuperiority over thofe defigning
men who had oppofed his preaching, he enumerates his
fufferings ; gives a detail of fome extraordinary revela¬
tions which he had received ; and vindicates himfelf from
the charge of boalling, by declaring that he had been
forced to it by the defire of fupporting his apoftolical
charadler, (chap xi. xii.) He clofes the Epiftle, by
affuring them with great tendernefs how much it would
grieve him to demonltrate his divine commiffion by fe-
verer methods
The Galatians were defcended from thofe Gauls who
had formerly invaded Greece, and afterwards fettled in
Lower Afia. St Paul had preached the gofpel among
them in the year 5 1, foon after the council held at Jeru-
falem, (ATs xvi. 6). Afia fwarmed at that time with
zealots for the law of Mofes, who wanted to impofe it
upon the Gentiles, (ATs xv. 1) Soon after St Paul
had left the Galatians, thefe falfe teachers had got
among them, and wanted them to be circumcifed, &c.
This occafioned the following Epiftle, which Michaelis
thinks was written in the fame year, before St Paul left
Theffalonica. Dr Lardner dates it about the end of the
year 52, or in the very beginning of 53, before St Paul
fet out to go to Jerufalem by way of Ephefus.
The fubjeT of this Epiftle is much the fame with
189
Epiftle to
the Gala¬
tian?.
190
The date
] SCR
that of the Epiftle to the Romans ; only this queftlon Scripture,
is more fully confidered here, “ Whether circumcifion,  J
and an obfervance of the Levitical law, be neceifary to j9/,
the falvation of a Chriftian convert ?” It appears, tents of it.
thefe Judaizing Chriftians, whofe indiredl views St Paul
expofes (Afts xv. i. Gal. v. 3, 9.), at fin ft only re-
prefented circumcifion as neceflary to falvation ; but af¬
terwards they infilled upon the Chriftians receiving the
Jewifh feftivals, (Gal. iv. 10).
As St Paul had founded the churches of Galatia,
and inftmTed them in the Chriftian religion, he does
not fet before them its principal doTrines, as he had
done in the Epiftle to the Romans; but referring them
to what he had already taught (chap. i. 8, 9.J, he pro¬
ceeds at once to the fubjeT of the Epiftle.
As it appears from feveral paffages of this Epiftle,
particularly chap. i. 7, 8, 10. and chap. v. 11. that
the Judaizing Chriftians had endeavoured to perfuade
the Galatians that Paul hirnfelf had changed his opi¬
nion, and now preached up the Levitical law ; lie denies
that charge, and affirms that the doTrines which he had
taught were true, for he had received them from God
by immediate revelation. He relates his miraculous
converfion ; afterts his apoftolical authority, which had
been acknowledged by the difciples of Jefus ; and, as a
proof that he had never inculcated a compliance with
the Mofaic law, he declares that he had oppofed Pe¬
ter at Antioch for yielding to the prejudices of the
Jews* . . . . , .
Having now vindicated his charafter from the fufpi- Arguments
cion of ficklenefs, and fhown that his commiffion was which
divine, he argues that the Galatians ought not to fub-the aPn’‘J*e
mit to the law of Mofes : 1. Becaufe they had received the law of
the Holy Ghoft and the gifts of miracles, not by the VIofec wa<
law, but by the gofpel, (chap. iii. 1—5). 2. Becaufeno' S ca¬
the promifes which God made to Abraham were not
reftriTed to his circumcifed defeendants, but extended
to all who are his children by faith, (chap. iii. 6—18).
In anfwer to the objection, To what then ferveth the
law ? he replies, That it was given becaufe of tranf-
greffion ; that is, to preferve them from idolatry till the
Meffiah himfelf (hould come. 3. Becaufe all men, whether Loch on tit
Jews or Gentiles, are made the children of God by faith, EpiJUeu
or by receiving the Chriftian religion, and therefore do
not ftand in need of circumcifion, (eh. iii. 26—29.)
From the 1 ft verfe of chapter iv. to the 1 xth, he ar¬
gues that the law was temporary, being only fitted for
a ftate of infancy ; but that the world, having attained
a ftate of manhood under the Meffiah, the law was
of no farther ufe. In the remaining part of chap. iv.
he reminds them of their former affeTion to him, and
affures them that he was Hill their iincere friend. He
exhorts them to ftand fall in the liberty with which
Chrift had made them free ; for the fons of Agar, that
is, thofe under the law given at Mount Sinai, are in
bondage, and to be caft out; the inheritance being de-
figned for thole only who are the free-born fons of God
under the fpiritual covenant of the gofpel.
The apoftle next confutes the falfe report which had ^ *93^
been fpread abroad among the Galatians, that Paul ^.'Xatss
himfelf preached up circumcifion. He had already in- bis own
diredlly refuted this calumny by the particular account charadler
which he gave of his life; but he now diredtly and open- frnm/:llfe
lir it in tHp fnllnvAyinrr mnnn#ar •
ly contradicts it in the following manner :
3 3* By
Scripture,
194
Epiftle to
scr r 1
j. By affaring them, that all who thought circum-
cifion necefifary to falvation could receive no benefit
from the Chriftian religion, (chap, v 2- 4).
2. By declaring, that he expected juftification only
by faith, (ver. 5, 6)
3. By teflifying, that they had once received the
truth, and had never been taught fuch falfe doftrines
by him, (ver. 7, 8).
4. By infinuating that they fhould pafs feme cenfure
on thofe who milled them (ver. 9, 10.), by declaring
that he was perfecuted for oppofmg the circumcifion
of the Chriftians, (ver x 1).
5. By expreffing a wifh that thofe perfons fhould be
cut off who troubled them with his doctrine.
This Epiftle affords a fine inftance of Paul’s fkill in
managing an argument. The chief objeftion which
the advocates for the Mofaic law had urged againft
him was, that he himfelf preached circumcilion. In
the beginning of the Epiftle he overturns this flander
by a ftatement of fafts, without taking any exprefs
notice of it ; but at the end fully refutes it, that it
might leave a ftrong and lading impreffion upon their
minds.
He next cautions them againft an idea which his ar¬
guments for Chriftian liberty might excite, that ic con¬
fided in licentioufnefs. He fhows them it does not
confift in gratifying vicious defires; for none are
under ftronger obligations to moral duties than the Chri¬
ftian. He recommends gentlenefs and meeknefs to the
weak (chap, vi 1—5 ), and exhorts them to be liberal
to their teachers, and unto all men (ver. 6 —10). He
concludes with expofing the falfe pretences of the Ju-
daizing teachers, and afferting the integrity of his own
conduct.
Ephefus was the chief city of all Afia on this fide
an 3.
the Ephtfi- Mount Taurus. St Paul had paffed through it in the
year 54, but without making any flay, (Afts xviii. 19—
21). The following year he returned to Ephefus
again, and ftaid there three years, (chap, xix.) Du¬
ring his abode there he completed a very flourifhing
church of Chriftians, the firfl foundations of which had
been laid by fome inferior teachers. As Ephefus was
frequented by perfons of diftindtion from all parts of
Afia Minor, St Paul took the opportunity of preach¬
ing in the ancient countries (ver. 10.) ; and the other
churches of Afia were confidered as the daughters of
the church of Epheius ; fo that an Epiftle to the E-
phelians was, in effedt, an epiftle to the other churches
of Afia at the fame time.
Dr Lardner (hows it to be highly probable that this
Epiftle was written in the year 61, foon after Paul’s
arrival at Rome.
As Paul was in a peculiar manner the apoftk of the
Gentiles, and was now a prifoner at Rome in confe-
quence ot having provoked the Jews, by afferting that
an obfervance ot the Mofaic law was not neceftary to
obtain the favour of God, he was afraid left an advan¬
tage Ihould be taken of his confinement to unfettle the
minds of thofe whom he had converted. Hearing that
the Epheftans flood firm in the faith of Chrift, without
fubmitting to the law of Mofes, he writes this Epiftle
to give them more exalted views of the love of God, and
of the excellence and dignity of Chrift. This Epiftle
is not compofed in an argumentative or didadlic ftyle :
The firft three chapters coniift almoft entiiely of thankf-
~ T9S
The date
196
And defign
Of it.
65- ] SCR
givings and prayers, or glowing deferiptions of the Scripture,
bleffings of the Chriftian religion. This circumftance —y——^
renders them a little obfeure ; but by the affxftance of
the two following epiftles, which were written on the
fame occafion, and with the fame defign, the meaning
of the apoftle may be eafily difeovered. The laft three
chapters contain pradlical exhortations. He firft incul¬
cates unity, love, and concord, from th£ confideration
that all Chriftians are members of the fame body, of
which Chrift is the head. He then advifes them to
forfake the vices to which they had been addidfed while
they remained heathens. He recommends juftice and
charity ; ftrenuoufiy condemns lewdnefs, obfeenity, and
intemperance, vices which feem to have been too com¬
mon among the Epehiians. In the 6th chapter he
points out the duties which arife from the relations of
hulbands and wives, parents and children, mailers and
fervants ; and concludes with ftrong exhortations to
fortitude, which he deicribes in an allegorical man¬
ner. 197
The church at Philippi had been founded by Paul, Epiftle to
Silas, and Timothy (Adis xvi.), in the year , 1, and had1*?6 Ehillp-
continued to ftrow a ftrong and manly attachment to*)iar‘5"
the Chrifttan religion, and a tender affedlxon for the
apoftle. Hearing of his imprifonment at Rome, they
fent Epaphroditus, one of their pallors, to fupply him
with money. It appears from this Epiftle that he was
in great want of neceffaries before this contribution ar¬
rived ; for as he had not converted the Romans, he did
not confider himfelf as intitled to receive fupplies from
them. Being a prifoner, he could not work as former¬
ly ; and it was a maxim of his never to accept any pe¬
cuniary affiftance from thofe churches where a fadlion
had been railed againft him. From the Philippians he
was not averfe to receive a prefent in the time of want,
becaufe he confidered it as a mark of their affedlion, and
becaufe he was affured that they had condudled them-
felves as fincere Chriftians. g
It appears from the apoftle’s own words, that this The date
letter was written while he was a prifoner at Rome,
(chap. i. 7, 13. iv. 22.); and from the expedlation which
he difeovers (chap. ii. 24.) of being foon releafed and
reftored to them, compared with Philemon v. 22. and
Heb. xiii. 13. where he expreffes a like expectation in
ftronger terms, it is probable that this Epiftle was writ¬
ten towards the end of his firft imprifonment in the
year 62.
The apoftle’s defign in this Epiftle, which is quite And defigrs
of the practical kind, feems to be, “ to' comfort the of it.
Philippians under the concern they had expreffed at the
news of his imprifonment; to check a party-fpirit that
appears to have broke out among them, and to pro¬
mote, on the contrary, an entire union and harmony
of affedion ; to guard them againft being feduced from
the purity of the Chriftian faith by judaizing teachers j
to fupport them under the trials with which they ftrug-
gled ; and, above all, to infpire them with a concern to
adorn their profeffion by the molt eminent attainments
in the divine life.” After fome particular admonitions
in the beginning of the 4th chapter, he proceeds in
the 8th verfe to recommend virtue in the moft extenfive
fenfe, mentioning all the different foundations in which,
it had been placed by the Grecian philofophers. To¬
wards the clofe of the Epiftle, he makes his acknow¬
ledgments to the Philippians for the feafonable and libe,
ral
Strjpture,
aoo
Spiftle tn
the Colofli-
ans.—Date
and deftgn
of it.
act
To guard
the Colofli
ans again ft
the danger-
ous doc¬
trines of
the Jews.
Percy's Key
it the Neiv
"Xejlument.
ttot
The argu¬
ments
which the
apoftle em¬
ploys.
SCR [165
ral fupply which they had Cent him, as It was To con¬
vincing a proof of their affe&ion for him, and their
concern for the fupport of the gofpel, which he pre¬
ferred far above any private fecular intereft of his own ;
exprefsly declaiming all felfifh, mercenary views, and
alluring them with a noble fimplicity, that he v/as able
upon all occafions to accommodate his temper to his cir-
cumftances ; and had learned, under the teachings of Di¬
vine grace, in whatever ftation Providence might fee fit
to place him, therewith to be content. After which,
the apoftle, having encouraged them to expedt a rich
fupply of all their wants from their God and Father,
to whom he devoutly afcribes the honour of all, con¬
cludes with falutations from himfelf and his friends at
Rome to the whole church, and a folemn benedidfion,
(verfe to. to the end) ; and declares, that he rejoiced in
their liberality chiefly on their own account.
The Epiftle to the Coloflians was written while Paul
was in prifcm (chap. iv. 3.), and was therefore probably
compofed in the year 62. The intention of the apoftle,
as far as can be gathered from the Epiftlc itfelf, was
to fecure the Coloflians from the influence of fome doc¬
trines that were fubverfive of Chriftianity, and to ex¬
cite them to a temper and behaviour worthy of their fa-
cred charadter. A new fedl had arifen, which had
blended the oriental philofephy with the fuperltkious
opinions of the Jews.
They held, 1. That God was furrounded by demons
or angels, who were mediators with God, and therefore
to be worfhipped. 2. That the foul is defiled by the
body ; that all bodily enjoyments hurt the foul, which
they believed to be immortal, though they feem to
have denied the refurredtion of the body, as it would
only render the foul ftnful by being reunited to it.
3. That there was a great myftery in numbers, parti¬
cularly in the number feven ; they therefore attributed
a natural holinefs to the feventh or Sabbath day, which
they obferved more ftridtly than the other Jews. They
fpent their time moftly in contemplation ; abftained
from marriage, and every gratification of the fenfes ;
ufed wafhings, and thought it fxnful to touch certain
things ; regarded wine as poifon, &c.
The arguments againft thefe doftrines are managed
with great fldll and addrefs. He begins with exprefiing
great joy for the favourable charadter which he had heard
of them, and aflures them that he daily prayed for their
farther improvement. Then he makes a fhort digref-
fion, in order to defcribe the dignity of Jefus Chrift;
declares that he had created all things, whether thrones
or dominions, principalities and powers ; that he alone
was the head of the church, and had reconciled men
to the Father. The inference from this defcription is
evident, that Jefus was fuperior to angels ; that they
were created beings, and ought not to be worfhipped.
Thus he indiredtly confutes one dodtrine before he for¬
mally oppofes it. Paul now returns from his digreflion
in the 21 ft verfe to the fentiments with which he had
introduced it in the 13th and 14th verfes, and again
exprefles his joy that the Philippians remained attach¬
ed to the gofpel, which was to be preached to the
Gentiles, without the reftraints of the ceremonial law.
Here again he ftates a general dodtrine, which was in-
confiftent with the opinions of thofe who were zealous
for the law of Mofes; but he leaves the Coloflians to
draw the inference, (chap, i.)
1 SCR
Having again affured them of his tender eonesrn for ScHkH’**,
their welfare, for their advancement in virtue, and that J
they might acknowledge the myftery of God, that is,
that the gofpel was to fuperfede the law of Mofes, he
proceeds diredtly to caution them againft the philofophy
of the new teachers, and their fuperftitious adherence
to the law ; fhows the fuperiority of Chrift to the an*
gels, and warns Chriftians againft worfhipping them.
He cenfures the obfervation of Sabbaths, and rebuke*
thofe who required abltinence from certain kinds o£
food, and cautions them againft perfons who aftiime a
great appearance of wifdom and virtue, (chap, ii.)
In the 3d chapter he exhorts them, that, inftead ofExhorta-
being occupied about external ceremonies, they ought to ^ons'
cultivate pure morality. He particularly guards them
againft impurity, to which they had before their con-
veriion been much addidied. He admonifhes them
againft indulging the irafcible paflions, and againfl
committing falfehood. He exhorts them to cultivate the
benevolent affedlions, and humility, and patience. He
recommends alfo the relative duties between hufbands
and wives, parents and children, mailers and fervants.
He enjoins the duties of prayer and thankfgiving
(ch. iv. 2.), and requefts them to remember him in their
petitions. He enjoins affability and mild behaviour to
the unconverted heathens (verfe 6th) ; and concludes
the Epiftle with matters which are all of a private nature,
except the direftions for reading this Epiftle in the
church of Laodicea, as well as in the church of Co-
lofle. 204
This Epiftle is addreffed to the inhabitants of Thefla-Firft Epiftle
lonica, the capital of Macedonia, a large and populous to theThef-
city. It appears from the Adis, chapter xvii. 1. thatla omsU1*’
the Chriftian religion was introduced into this city by
Paul and Silas, foon after they had left Philippi. At
firft they made many converts; but at length the Jews,
ever jealous of the admiflion of the Gentiles to the fame
privileges with themlelves, ftirred up the rabble, which
aflaulted the faoufe where the apoille and his friends
lodged ; fo that Paul and Silas were obliged to flee to
Berea, where their fuccefs was foon interrupted by the
fame reftlefs and implacable enemies. The apoftle
then withdrew to Athens ; and Timothy, at his defire,
returned to Theflalonica (x Theff. iii. 2.) to fee what
were the fentiments and behaviour of the inhabitants
after the perfecution of the Jews. From Athens Paul
went to Corinth, where he flayed a year and fix months;
during which, Timothy returned with the joyful tidings,
that the Theffalonians remained ftedfatl to the faith,
and firmly attached to the apoftle, notwithftanding his 105
flight. Upon this he fent them this Epiftle, A. D. 52, The date
in the 12th year of Claudius.
This is generally reckoned the firft Epiftle which Paul
wrote; and we find he was anxious that it fhould be
read to all the Chriftians. In chap. v. 27. he ufes
thefe words ; “ I adjure you by the Lord, that this
Epiftle be read unto all the holy brethren.” This di-
redlion is very properly inferted in his firft Epiftle. ^
The intention of Paul in writing this Epiftle was evi-An(j
dently to encourage the Theffalonians to adhere to the of it.
Chriftian religion. This church being ftill in its in¬
fancy, and opprefled by the powerful Jew*, required to
be eilabliftied in the faith. St Paul, therefore, in the
three firft chapters, endeavours to convince the Theffa-
lonians of the truth and diviaity of his gofpel, both by
the
scr r i
fffr'piwe. the m!Mcu!fl«is of the Holy Ghoft which had been
imparted, and by his own conduA when among them.
While he appeals, in the firft chapter, to the mira¬
culous gifts of the Holy Spirit, he is very liberal in
his commendations. He vindicates himfelf from the
charge of timidity, probably to prevent the Tkellalo-
niana from forming an unfavourable opinion of his for¬
titude, which his flight might have excited. He af-
ferts, that he was not influenced by felfifh or dilhonour-
able motives, but that he was anxious to pleafe God
and not man. He expreffes a ftrong affe&ion for them,
and how anxious he was to impart the bleffings of the
gofpeh He congratulates himi’elf upon his fuccefs;
mentions it to their honour that they received the gof*
pel as the word of God and not of man, and there¬
fore did not renounce it when perfecution was railed by
the Jews. He expreftes a ftrong defire to vifit the
7'heffalonians; and affnres them he had been hitherto
retained againft his will.
As a farther proof of his regard,'the apo^le in¬
forms them, that when he came to Athens, he was fo
much concerned, left, being difcouraged by his fufl’er-
ings, they Ihould be tempted to call off their profef-
iion, that he could not forbear fending Timothy to
comfort and firengthen them ; and exprefles, in very
ftrong terms, the fenflble pleafure he felt, in the midft
of all his afflictions, from the favourable account he re¬
ceived of their faith and love ; to which he adds, that
he was continually praying for their farther eftablilhment
in religion, and for an opportunity of making them an¬
other vifit, in order to promote their edification, which
lay fo near his heart, (chap, iii, throughout.)
Having now fliown his paternal affection for them,
with great addrefs he improves all that influence which
his zeal and fidelity in their fervice muft naturally have
given him to inculcate upon them the precepts of the
gofpel. He recommends chaftity, in oppofition to the
prevailing praCtice of the heathens; jultice, in oppofi¬
tion to fraud. He praiies their benevolence, and en¬
courages them to cultivate higher degrees of it. He
recommends induftry and prudent behaviour to tlicir
heathen neighbours. In order to comfort them under
the lois of their friends, he allures them that thofe who
were fallen afleep in Jtfus Ihould be raifed again at the
laft day, and Ihould, together with thofe who remained
alive, be caught up to meet their Lord, and lhare his
triumph, (chap, iv.) He admonilhes them to prepare
for this folemn event, that it might not come upon them
unawares ; and then concludes the Epiftle with various
exhortations.
SecendE- The fecond Epiftle to the Tlteffalonians appears to
uiftle to the have been written foon after the firft, and from the fame
Theffalom- place ; for Silvanus or Silas, and Timothy, are joined
together with the apoftle in the infcriptions of this
10g Epiftle, as well as of the former.
Contcntscf The apoftle begins with commending the faith and
it. charity of the Thefialonians, of winch he had heard a
favourable report. He expreffes great joy on account
of the patience with which they fupported perfecution ;
and obferves that their perfecution was a proof of a
67 1
SCR
righteous judgment to come, where their perfeeutm** Sfr>tH*e,
would meet with their proper recompeufe, and the —“^r***^
righteous be delivered out of all their affliftions. He
allures them of hia conftant prayers for their farther im¬
provement, in order to attain the felicity that was pro-
mi fed, (chap, i.)
From mi funder Handing a paftage in his former letter,
ft appears that the Theffalonians believed the day of
judgment was at hand. To rectify this miftake, ho
informs them that the day of the Lord will not come
till a great apoftacy has overfpread the Chriftlan world,
the nature of which he deferibes (g). Symptoms of this
my fiery of iniquity had then appeared ; but the apoftle
exprefles his thankfulnefs to God that the Theffalo-
mans had efcaped this corruption. He exhorts them
to ftedhHnefs, and prays that God would comfort and
Wrengthen them, (chap, ii.)
He requeils the prayers of the ThefTalonians for him
and his two afiiftants, at the fame time expreffing his
confidence that they would pay due regard to the in¬
ti ructions which he had given them. He then pro¬
ceeds to correct fome irregularities. Many of *he
Theflaloniaus ftem to have led an idle diforderly life ;
thefe he fevereiy reproves, and commands the faithful
to fliun their company ft' they ftiil remained incorri-
Sible- aoc,
VV hen the firft Epiftle to Timothy was written, it is FifftEpiftfe
difficult to alce’-tain. Lardner dates ft in 56; Mill,to l'in,othv»
Whitby, and Macknight, place it in 64 ; but the ar- ^cu wriN
gmnents on which each party founds their opinion are C
too long to infert here.
I imothy was the intimate friend and companion ofjntenuon
Paul, and is always mentioned by that apoftle with and con-
much afte&ion and efteem. Having appointed him totclKS ot »t*
fuperintend the church of Ephefus during a journey
which he made to Macedonia, he wrote this letter, in
order to direft him how to drfeharge the important
trull which was committed to him. This was the
more neceflary, as I imothy was young and unexperi¬
enced, (1 I im. iv. 12.) In the beginningof the EpiftI*
he reminds him of the charge with which he had in-
trufted him, to wit, to preferve the purity of the gof¬
pel againft the pernicious dodtrines of the Judaixing
teachers, whofe opinions led to frivolous controverfies,
and not to a good life. He ffiows the ufe of the law
ol Mofes, of which thefe teachers were ignorant. This
account of the law, he allures 1 imothy, was agreeable
to the reprdentation of it in the gofpel, with the preach¬
ing of which he was intrufted. He then makes a dr-
greflion, in the fulnefs of his heart, to exprefs the
feme which he felt of the gpodnefs of God towards
him.
In the fecoud chapter the apoftle preferibes the
manner in which the worlhip of God was to be per¬
formed in the church of Ephefus ; and in the third ex¬
plains the qualifications of the perfons whom he was to
ordain as bifhops and deacons. In the fourth chapter
he foretels the great corruptions of the church which
were to prevail in future times, and tnftru&s him how
to fupport the facred charadter. In the fifth chapter
he
(g) For an explanation of this prophecy, Dr Hurd’s Sennons may be confulted.
power, to which it correfponds with aftonilhing exaclnefs.
He applies it to the papat
SCR
[ i68 ]
SCR
an
Second E-
piltle to
Timothy.
an
Scripnire, he teaches Timothy howto admonifJi the old and young
of both fexes ; mentions the age and charadler of fiich
widows as were to be employed by the fociety in feme
peculiar office ; and fubjoins feme things concerning the
refpcA due to elders. In the fxxth chapter he deferibes
the duties which Timothy was to inculcate on flaves ;
condemns trifling controverfies and pernicious difputes;
cenfures the exceffive love of money, and charges the
rich to be rich in good works.
That the fecond Epiftle to Timothy was written
from Rome is univerfally agreed ; but whether it was
during his firit or fecond imprifonment has been much
difputed. That Timothy was at Ephefus or in Afia
Minor when this Epillle was fent to him, appears from
the frequent mention in it of perfons reliding at Ephe-
Defign and fus. The apoftle feemsto have intended to prepare Ti-
contents of mothy for thofe fufferings which he forefaw he would
be expofed to. He exhorts him to couflancy and per-
feverance, and to perform with a good confcience the
duties of the facrcd funftion.
The falfe teachers, who had before thrown this
church into confuflon, grew every day worfe : infomuch
that not only Hymenaus, but Philetus, another Ephe*
fian heretic, now denied the refurredtion of the dead.
They were led into this error by a difputc about words.
At flrft they only annexed various improper fignifica-
tions to the word refurreSion, but at laft they denied it
altogether ( h) ; pretending that the refurre&ion of the
dead was only a refurredfion from the death of fin, and
fo was already paft. This error was probably deri¬
ved from the eaftern philofophy, which placed the
origin of fin in the body, .(chapter ii.) He then
forewarns him of the fatal apoflacy and declenfion that
was beginning to appear in the church ; and at the
fame time animates him, from his own example and
the great motives of Chriflianity, to the moft vigorous
and refolute difeharge of every part of the minifterial
office.
This Epiftle is addreffed to Titus, whom Paul had
appointed to prefide over the church of Crete. It is
difficult to determine either its date or the place from
which it was fent. The apoftle begins with reminding
Titus of the reafons for which he had left him at
Defign and Crete ; and direfts him on what principles he was to
contents of a6t in ordaining Chriftian paftors : the qualifications of
at- whom he particularly deferibes. To fhow him how
cautious he ought to be in fele&ing men for the facred
office, he reminds him of the arts of the Judaizing
teachers, and the bad chara&er of the Cretans, (chap¬
ter i).
He advifes him to accommodate his exhortations to
the refpe&ive ages, fexes, and circumftances, of thofe
whom it was his duty to inftrutft; and to give the
greater weight to his inftruftions, he admonifhes him
to be an example of what he taught, (chap. ii). He
exhorts him alfo to teach obedience to the civil magi-
ftrate, becaufe the judaizing Chriftians affirmed that no
obedience was due from the worfhippers of the true
God to magiftrates who were idolaters. He cautions
ai3
Epiftle to
Titus.
againft eenforioufnefs and contention, and recommends Scripture,
meeknefs ; for even the beft Chriftians had formerly
been wicked, and all the bleffings wliich they enjoyed
they derived from the goodnefs of God. pie then en¬
joins Titus ftrenuoufly to inculcate good works, and to
avoid ufelefs controverfies ; and concludes with direct¬
ing him how to proceed with thofe heretics who at¬
tempted to fow diffenfion in the church. *
The Epiftle to Philemon was written from Rome at F.piftle-to
the fame time with the Epiftles to the Coloffians and Philemon.
Philippians, about A. D. 62 or 63. The occafien it
the letter was this : Onefimus, Philemon’s flave, had ^
robbed his mafter and fled to Rome ; where, happily
for him, he met with the apoftle, who was at that time
a prifoner at large, and by his inftrudtions and admoni¬
tions was converted to Chriftianity, and reclaimed to a
feufe of his duty. St Paul feems to have kept him for Dojjr!Jg!^
fome confiderable time under his eye, that he might be pamiiy
fatisfied of the reality of the change ; and, when he hadpoorer,
made a fufficient trial of him, and found that his beha¬
viour was entirely agreeable to his profeffion, he would
not detain him any longer for his own private conveni¬
ence, though in a fitwation that rendered fuch an affift*
ant peculiarly defirable (compare ver. 13, 14.), but lent
him back to his mafter ; and, as a mark of his efteem,
entrufted him, together with Tychicus, with the charge
of delivering his Epiftle to the church at Colofle, and
giving them a particular account of the ftate of things
at Rome, recommending him to them, at the fame
time, as a faithful and beloved brother, (Col. iv. 9).
And as Philemon might well be fuppofed to be ftrong-
ly prejudiced againft one who had left his fervice in fo
infamous a manner, he fends him this letter, iii which
lie employs all his influence to remove his fufpicions,-
and reconcile him to the thoughts of taking Onefimus
into his family again. And whereas St Paul might
have exerted that authority which his character as an
apoftle, and the relation in which he flood to Philemon
as a fpiritual father, would naturally give him, he choo-
fes to intreat him as a friend ; and with the fofteft and
moft; infinuating addrefs urges his fuit, conjuring him
by all the ties of Chriftian fiiendftiip that he would not
deny him his requeft : and the more effedlually to pre¬
vail upon him, he reprefents his own peace and happi-
nefs as deeply interelled in the event ; and fpeaks of O-
nefimus in fuch terms as were beft adapted to foften his
prejudices, and diipofe him to receive one who was fo
dear to himfelf, not merely as a fervant, but as a fellow
Chriftian and a friend. _ _ ai6
It is impoffible to read over this admirable Epiftle, with- The ftcil!
out being touched with the delicacy of fentiment, and the and add ref*
mafterly addrefs that appear in every part of it. W e fee
here, in a moft flriking light, how perfectly confiftent c),ver, in
true politenefs is, not only with all the warmth and fin- this Epiftle.
cerity of the friend, but even with the dignity of the
Chriftian and the apoftle. And if this letter were to
be confidered in no other view than as a mere human
compofition, it muft be allowed a mafter-pieee in its
kind. As an illuftration of this remark, it may not be
improper
(h) This is by no means uncommon amongft men ; to begin to difpute about the fignification of words, and
to be led gradually to deny the thing fignified. This appears to have been the came of moft^duputes, and t re
general beginnings of fcepticifm and infidelity.
SCR f t
tfripture. imprclp«r to Compare ir with an eptiik of riirry, that
—-v  feems to'have been wrktch; upon a hmilar occaficn, {lib.
tx. let. 2 1.) ; which, though penned by one that was
reckoned to excel in the epiftolary ftyle, and though it
has undoubtedly many beauties* yet mult he acknow¬
ledged, by every impartial reader, vaaly interior to this
.4I? animated compofjtion of the apoftle.
Efimeto The Epiltte to the Hebrew? has been genemliy a-
brews wa* feribed to Paul; but the truth of this opinion has been
lompofed fufpe<5ted by others, for three reafens : t. The name of
fey i'aul. writer is nowhere mentioned, neither in the begin¬
ning ner in any other part of the Epiftle. 2 The ftyle
is faid to be more elegant than Paul’s- 3. There are
expreffions in the Epiule w’hich have been thought un-
fuitable to an apoftle’s charafter. r. In anfwer to the
firft objedlion, Clemens Alexandrinus has afligfted a
Jflvcknigbt very good reafon : “ Writing to the Hebrews ffaYs he)»
*€U>‘ who had conceived a prejudice again0 him, and were
fufpicious of him, he wifely declined fetting his name
at the beginning, left he {hould offend them.,, 2. Ori-
gen and Jerome admired the elegance of the ftyle, and
reckoned it fuperior to that which Paul has exhibited
in his Epiftles: but as ancient teftimony had afiigned it
to Paul, they endeavoured to anfwer the objection, by
fuppofing that the fentiments were the apoftle’s, but
the language and compofttion the work, of feme other
perfon. If the Epilfle, however, be a tranflation,
which we believe it to be, the elegance of the language
may belong to the tranllator. As to the compolition
and arrangement, it cannot be denied that there are
many fpecimcns in the writings of this apoftle not in¬
ferior in thefe qualities to the Epiftle to the Hebrews.
It is objefted that in Heb. ii. 3. the writer of this
Epiftle joins himftlf with thofe who had received the
gofpel frdm Chrift’s apoftles. Now Paul had it from
Chritl himfelf. But Paul often appeals to the teftimo-
-ny of the apoftles in fupport of thofe truths which he
had received from Revelation : We may inftance 1 Cor.
-9 xv. 5, 6, 7, 8. ; 2 Tim if. 2.
<Qm>ted as This Eptftle is hot quoted till the end of the fecond
his by an- century, and even then dees not feem to have been uni
wtntvm- ^ felly reCet*ed. This ftlence might be owing to the
Hebrews thetnfdces, who Suppofing this letter had no
relatu to the Gentiles, might be at no pains to diffufe
topics o The authors, however, on whofe teftimo-
ny we receive it as authentic, are entitled to credit;
for they lived fo near the age of the apoftles, that they
were in no danger1 of being impofed on ; and from the
numerous Kft of books which they rejetted as fpuriou?,
we are ttfiured that they were very careful to giiard
•gainIt impofition. It is often quoted as Paul’s by Cle¬
mens Alexandrinus, about the year 194. It is recei¬
ved and quoted as Paul’s by Origin, about 2304 by
Dionyfius biftiop of Alexandria'in 247 4 and by a nu-
merous lift of fuceeeding writers.
Written in The Epiftle to the Hebrews was originally written
'ChalXk ^ Hebrew, or rather Syro-Chaldaic ; a fatt which we
Lmgusge. believe on the tetlimony of Oentens Alexandrimis, Je-
vome, and Eufebius To this it has been •objetted,
that as thefe writers'have not referred to any authority,
■we ought to confider what they fay on this fubjett mere¬
ly as an opinion But a< they State no reaforts for
adopting this opinion, but only mention as a tatt that
Paul wrote to the Hebrews in their native language,
we muft allow that it is their tellimony which they
VOL, XVII. Parti.
69 1 s ~ .
produce, and not their opinion. Bufebius informs us, Seryttuv,
that feme fuppofed Luke the Evangelift, and others v—
Clemens Romanus, to have been the tranflator.
According to the opinion of ancient writers, parti-
cularly Clemens Alexandrinus, Jerome, and Euthaliu#,
this Epiffle was addrefied to the Jews in Paldline 
The fcope of the Epiftle confirms this opinion. aio
Having now given fufficient evidence that this E-Date of ft.
piile was written by Paul, the time when it was writ¬
ten may be eafily determined : For the falutation from
the faints of Italy (chap. iv. 24.\ together with the
apoftle’s promife to fee the Hebrews i ver. 23.), plain¬
ly intimate, that his confinement was then either ended
or on the eve of being ended. It muft therefore have
been written foon after the Epifties to the Coloffians,
Epheftans, and Philemon, and not long before Paul left
Italy, that is, in the year 61 or 62.
As the zealous defenders of the Mofaic law Would Argrb Jr#
naturally infill on the divine authority of Mofes, on the^j'^"u
majefty and glory attending its promulgation by the cJ "
miniftry of angels, and the great privileges it afforded
thofe who adhered to it 5 the apoftle Ihows,
I. That in all thefe fevtral articles Chriftianity had
an infinite fnperiority to the law. „ „ 111
This tonic he purfues from chap. i. to xi. wherein Defign of
he reminds*the believing Hebrews of the extraordinary
favour (hown them by God, in fending them a reveia-rhe truth
tion by his own fon, whofe glory was far fuperior to of the
that of angels (chap. i. throughout) ; very naturally
inferring from hence the danger of defpiling Chrift
account of his humiliation, which, in perfett confift- ^diority
ence with his dominion over the world to come, was « the law
voluntarily fubmitted to by him ror wife-and important0! M0fe*i
reafon« : .particularly to deliver us from the fear of
death, and to encourage the freedom of our aecefs to
God (chap. ii. throughout). With the fame view he
magnifies Chrift as fuperior to Mofes, their great legif-
lator ; and from the punilhment inflitted on thofe who
rebelled againft the authority of Mofes, infers the dan¬
ger of contemning the promifes of the gofpel (chap.
iii. 2 - 1.3). And as it was an eafy tranfition to call to
mind on this occafion that reft in Canaan to which the
authority invefted in Mofes was intended to lead them;
the apoftle hence cautions them againft vnbdic', as
what would prevent their entering into a fuperior ftatc
of reft to what the Jews ever enjoyed (chap. iii. 14.
iv. 11). This caution is ftill farther enforced by aw.
ful views of God’s omnifcience, and a lively reprefenta-
tion of the high priefthood of Chrift (chap. iv. to the
end ; and Chap. v. throughout). In the next place, he
intimates the very hopeleis fit nation of thofe who apo-
ftatife from Chriftianity (chap vi. 1—9 ) ; and then,
for the comfort and confirmation of fincere believers,
displays to them the goodnefs of God, and his faithful
adherence to his holy engagements/; the‘performance of
which is-foaled by the entrance of Chrift into heaven as
our-forerunner (chap. vi. 9. to the end). Still far¬
ther to ilkifirate the character o! our Lord, he enters
into a .parallel between him and Melchizedec as to
their title and defeent ; and, from inftances wherein the
priefthood of Melchizedec excelled the Levitical, infers,
that the glory of the .priefthood ot Chrift lurpaffed that
under the law (chap. vii. 1 — 1 7) From thefe premifes
the apoiil'e argues, that the Aaronical priefthood was
not only excelled, but confummated by that of Chrift,
Y to
Scripture
ma
And to a.
nimate
them to
bear per-
fecution
with forti.
tude.
til
The feven
Catholic
cpilUes,
SCR [ i
to which it was only introductory and fubfbvient} and
of courfe, that the obligation of the law was henceforth
diflblved (chap. vii. iB. to the end). Then recapitu*
lating what he had already demondrated concerning the
fuperior dignity of Chrift’s prieffhood, he thence illu-
ftrates the diltinguifned excellence of the new cove¬
nant, as not only foretold by Jeremiah, but evidently
enriched with much better promifes than the old (ch.
viii. throughout) : Explaining farther the dodtrine of
the priefthood and interceflion of Chrifl, by comparing
it with what the Jewifh high-priefts did on the great
day of atonement 'chap. ix. i-~ 14). Afterwards he
enlarges on the neceffity of fliedding Chrift’s blood, and
the fufficiency of the atonement made by it (chap. ix.
15* to the end) : and proves that the legal ceremonies
could not by any means purify the confcience : whence
he infers the iniufficiency of the Mofaic law, and the
neceffity of look in beyond it chap. x. 1 —15.1 He
then urges the Hebrews to improve the privileges which
iuch an high-prieft and covenant conferred on them, to
the purpefes ®f approaching God with confidence, to
a con n ant attendance on his worfhip, and moft benevo¬
lent regards to each other (chap x 15—25).
The apo le having thus obviated the infinaations and
objeftions of the Jews, for the fatisfa£Hon and eitablifh-
ment of the believing Hebrews, proceeds,
II. To prepare and foitify their minds againft the
ftorm of perfecution which in part had already befallen
them, which was likely to continue and be often renewed,
he reminds them of thofe extremities they had endu¬
red, and of the fatal effedts wrhich would attend their
apoftacy (chap x. 26. to the end) ; calling to their
remembrance the eminent examples of faith and forti¬
tude exhibited by holy men, and recorded in the Old
Teftament (chap. xi. 1—29). He concludes his dif-
courfe with glancing at many other illuftrious wor¬
thies ; and, befides thofe recorded in Scripture, refers
to the cafe of feveral who fuffered under the perfecu¬
tion of Antiochus Epiphanes (2 Maccab. chap. viii.
See. chap. xi. 30. xii. 2).
Having thus finifhed the argumentative part of the
Epiftle, the apoftle proceeds to a general application ;
in which he exhorts the Hebrew Chriftians to patience,
peace, and holinefs (Chap. xii. 3—14.) ; cautions them
againft fecular view's and fenfual gratifications, by lay¬
ing before them the incomparable excellence of the
bleffings introduced by the gofpel, which even the Jew¬
ifh economy, glorious and magnificent as it was, did by
no means equal; exhorts them to brotherly affedtion,
purity, compafiion, dependence on the divine care, fted-
faftnefs in the profefiion of truth, a life of thankfulnefs
to God, and benevolence to man : and concludes the
whole with recommending their pious minifters to their
particular regaid, intreating their prayers, faluting and
granting them his ufual benedidfion.
The feven following Epiftles, one of James, two of
Peter, three of John, and one of Jude, have been di-
ftinguifhed by the appellation of catholic or general epif¬
tles, becaufe moft: of them are inferibed, not to parti¬
cular churches or perfons, but to the body of Jewifh
or Gentile converts over the world. The authenticity
of fome of thefe has been frequently queftioned, viz.
the Epiftle of James, the fecond of Peter, the Epiftle of
Jude, and tire fecond and third of John. The ancient
7° 1 SCR
Chriftinns were very cautious in admitting any books Scripture
into their canon whofe authenticity they had any reafon —-v-'—^
to fufpedf. They rejedled all the writings forged by Macknigbt
heretics in tbe name of the apoftles, and certainly, there-on the
fore, would not receive any without firft fubjeding them^"‘
to a fevere ferutiny. Now', though thefe five epiftles
were not immediately acknowledged as the writings of
the apoftles, this only fhows that the perfons who
doubted had not received complete and inconteftable
evidence of their authenticity. But as they were af¬
terwards univerfally received, we have every reafon to-
conclude, that upon a ftrid examination they were
found to be the genuine piodudions of the apoftles.
i he truth is, fo good an opportunity had the ancient
Chriftians of examining this matter, fo careful were
they to guard againft impofition, and fo well founded
was their judgment concerning the books of the New
i eftament, that, as E)r Lardner obferves, no w'riting
which they pronounced genuine has yet been proved
fpurious, nor have w'e at this day the leaft reafon to
believe any book genuine which they rejeded. M4
That the Epiftle of James was written in the apofto-Epi-ftle of
iical age is proved by the quotations of ancient authors. James the
Clemens Romanus and Ignatius feem to have made LefSl
references to it. Origen quotes it once or twice.—
There are feveral reafons why it was not more generally
quoted by the firft Chriltian writers. ®eing written to
corred the errors and vices which prevailed among the
Jews, the Gentiles might think it of lefs importance to
them, and therefore take no pains to procure copies of
it. As the author was fometimes denominated James
the Juft, and often called bifhop of Jerufalem, it might
be doubted whether he was one of the apoftles. But
its authenticity does not feem to have been fufpeded on
account of the dodrines which it contains. Ih modern
times, indeed, Luther called it a ftrawy epiftle (epijlola
JlramineaJy and excluded it from the facred writings, on
account of its apparent oppofition to the apoftle Paul
concerning juftification by faith.
This Epiftle could not be written by James the Elder,
the fon of Zebedee, and brother of John, who was be¬
headed by Herod in the yeat 44, for it contains paifages
which refer to a later period. It mud, therefore, ’.lave
been the compofition of James the Lefs, the tm of
Alpheus, who was called the LorcPs broth , becaufe
he was the fon of Mary, the fifter of our Lord’s mo¬
ther. As to the date of this Epiftle, Lardner fixes it t he /ate
in the year 61 or 62.
James the Lefs ftatedly refided at Jerufalem, whence
he hath been ftyled by fome ancient fathers biftiop of
that city, though without fufficient foundation. Now Doddridge't
James being one of the apoftles of the circumcihon, Family Ex-
while he confined his perfonal labours to the inhabitants ^er*
of Judea, it was very natural for him to endeavour by
his writings to extend his fervices to the Jewiih Chrif¬
tians who were difperfed abroad in more diftant re-
gions. For this purpofe, there are two points which And defign
the apoftle feems to have principally aimed at, though of it.
he hath not purfued them in an orderly and logical me¬
thod, but in the free epiftolary manner, handling them
jointly or diftindtly as occafions naturally offered. And
thefe were, “ to correA thofe errors both in doftrine
and pradice into which the Jewifti Chriftians had fallen,
which might otherwife have produced fatal confequen-
ces s
aa?
Firfl Epi-
ftle of
Ecter.
SCR [17
Scripture, ces; and then to eftabllfh the faith and animate the
■—v  hope of fincere believers, both under their prefent and
their approaching fufftrings.”
The opinions which he is moft anxious to refute are
thefe, that God is the author of fin, (ch 1. 13.) ; that
the belief of the do&rines of the gofpel was fufficient
to procure the favour of God for them, however defi¬
cient they were in good works, (ch. ii.) He difluades
the Jews from afpiring to the office of teachers in the
third chapter, becaufe their prejudices in favour of the
law of Mofes might induce them to pervert the dodtrines
of the gofpel. He therefore guards them againft the
fins of the tongue, by representing their pernicious ef*
fedts ; and as they thought themfelves wife and intelli¬
gent, and were ambitious of becoming teachers, he ad-
vifes them to make good their pretenfions, by fhowing
themfelves poffeffed of that wifdom which is from above,
(ch. iii.)
The deftruddion of Jerufalem was now approaching ;
the Jews were fplit into fadtions, and often flaughtered
one another; the apoftle, therefore, in the fourth chap¬
ter, admonifhes them to purify themfelves from thofe
vices which produced tumults and bloodfhed. To roufe
them to repentance, he foretels the miferies that were
coming upon them. JLaftly, he checks an irreligious
fpirit that feems to have prevailed, and concludes the
Epiftle with feveral exhortations.
The authenticity of the firft Epiflle of Peter has
never been denied. It. is referred to by Clemens
Romanus, by Polycarp, and is quoted by Papias, Ire-
nseus, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Tertullian. It is
addreffed to the ftrangers fcattered through Pontus, &c.
who are evidently Chriftians in general, as appears from
chap. it. 10. “ In time pad they were not a people,
but are now the people of God.” From Peter’s lend¬
ing the falutation of the church at Babylon to the
Chriftians in Pontus, &c. it is generally believed that
he wrote it in Babylon. There was a Babylon in
Egypt and another in Aflyria. It could not be the
former, for it w as an obfeure place, which feems to
have had no church for the four firft centuries. We
have no authority to affirm that Peter ever was in Af
fyria. The moft probable opinion is that of Grotius,
Whitby, Lardner, as well as of Eufebius, Jerome, and
others, that by Babylon Peter figuratively means Rome.
Lardner dates it in 63 or 64, or at the lateft 65.
And d f Peter’s chief defign is to confirm the do&rine of
of >t e ^ Paul, wdiich the falfe teachers pretended he was op-
pofing ; and to affure the pr« felytes that they flood in
the true grace of God, (ch. v. 12.) With this view he
calls them ele£t; and mentions, that they had been
declared fuch by the effufion of the Holy Gholt upon
them, (ch. i. r, 2.) He affures them that they were re¬
generate without circumcifion, merely through the gof¬
pel and refurreftion of Chrift, (ver. 3,4. 21— 25.) ;
and that their fufferings were no argument of their be¬
ing under the difpleafure of God, as the Jew's imagined,
(ver. 6—12 ) He recommends it to them to hope
for grace to the end, (ver. 13.) He teflifes, that
they were not redeemed by the Pafchal lamb, but
through Chrift, w'hom God had preordained for this
purpofe before the foundation of the world, (ver.
18 20.)
The feeond Epiftle of Peter is not mentioned by any
ancient writer extant till the fourth century', from which
aa8
The cate
129
t ] S G R
time it has been received by all Chriftians except the Sy- Scripture.^
rians. Jerome acquaints us, that its authenticity was
difputed, on account of a remarkable difference be- ^eCond
tween the ftyle of it and the former Epiftle. But this gp ftfe of
remarkable difference in ftyle is confined to the 2d chap- Peter-. The
ter of the 2d Epiftle. No objeftion, however, can be aut^fc|1tuc‘"
drawn from this circumftanee ; for the fubje& of that proyed
chapter is different from the reft of Peter’s writings,
and nothing is fo w’ell known than that different fubjerifs
fuggefl different ftyles. Peter, in deferibing the cha-
rafter of fome flagitious impoftors, feels an indignation
which he cannot fupprefs: it breaks out, therefore, in
the bold and animated figures of an oriental writer.
Such a diverfity of ftyle is not uncommon in the belt
writers, efpecially wdren warmed with their fubjeft. 431
This obje&ion being removed, we contend that this Prom in-
Epiftle was written by Peter, from the infeription, Si- evic
man Peter a fervant and an apojile of jferus Chrijl, It
appears from chap. i. 16, 17, ) 8, that the writer was
one of the difciples who faw the transfiguration of our
Saviour. Since it has never been aferibed to James or
John, it muft therefore have been Peter. It is evident,
from chap. iii. I. that the author had written an Epiftle
before to the fame perfons, which is another circum-
ftance that proves Peter to be the author.
It is acknowledged, however, that all this evidence is
merely internal ; for we have not been able to find any
external evidence upon the fubjeft. If, therefore, the
credit which we give to any fadf is to be in proportion
to the degree of evidence with which it is accompaniedj,
we ftrall allow more authority due to the gofpels than
to the epiltles ; more to thofe epiftles which have been
generally acknowledged than to thofe which have been
controverted ; and therefore no d'.&rine of Chriilianity
ought to be founded folely upon them. It may alfo be
added, that perlaos the beft way of determining what
are the effential do&rines of Chriftianity would be to
examine .'hat are the dodbines which occur ofteneft
in the gofpels ; for the gofpels are the plainefl parts of
the New Teftament; and their authenticity is moft
completely proved. They are therefore beft tnted for
common readers Nor will it be denied, we prefume,
that our Saviour taunht all the dodbines of the Chrif-
tian religion himfelf; that he repeated them on different
occafions, and inculcated them with an earneftnefs pro¬
portionable to their importance. The Epiftlcs are to be
confrdered as a commentary' on the effential dodtrines of
the gofpel, adapted to the fituation and circumftances of
particular churches, and perhaps fometrmes explaining
dodtrines of inferior importance. 1. The effential doc¬
trines are therefore firft to be fought for in the gofpels,
and to be determined by the number of times they occur.
2.They are to be fought for, in the next place, in the un¬
controverted Epiftles, in the fame manner. 3.No effential
dodlrine ought to be lounded on a fingle paffage, nor
on the authority of a controverted Epiftle.
That Peter was old, and near his end, when he
wrote this Epiftle, may be inferred from chap. i. 14.
“ Knowing that ihortly I muft put off this tabernacle,
even as our Lord Jefus has (hewn me.” Lardner thinks
it was written foon after the former. Others, perhaps
with more accuracy, date it in ^7.
The general defign of this Epiftle is, to confirm the DTitu of
dodfrines and inftrudbons delivered in the former; “ to it,
excite the Chriftian converts to adorn, and fledfaftly ad-
Y 7. here
SCR
r i
4.V3
Firft Epi-
ftle of John
Us authen¬
ticity apd.
Ityle.
*34
Defign of
^Scripture, here to their holy religion, as a religion proceeding
~'r from God, notwithftanding the artifices of falfe teach¬
ers, whofe charafter is at large deferibed; or the per*
fecution of their bitter and inveterate enemies.’'
The firft. Epiille of John is aferibed by the unanimous
fuffrage of the ancients to the beloved difciple of our
Lord. It is referred to by Polycarp, is quoted by
Papias, by Irenasus, and was received as genuine by
Clemens Alexandrines, by Dionyfius of Alexandria,
by Cyprian, by Origen, and Eufebius. There is inch
a refemblance between the ftyle and fentiments of this
Epiftle and thofe of the gofpel according to John, as
to afford the higheft degree of internal evidence that
they are the compofition of the fame author. In the
ftyle of this apoille there is. a remarkable peculiarity,
and efpecially in this Epiftle. Plis fentences, confidered
feparately, are exceeding clear and intelligible ; but
when we fearch for their connexion, we frequently
meet with greater difficulties than we do even in the
Epiftles of St Paul. The principal ftgnature and cha-
racteriftic of his manner is. an artlefs and amiable fim-
plicity, and a fingular modefty and candour, in conjunc¬
tion with a wonderful fublimity of fentiment. His con¬
ceptions are apparently delivered to us in the order in
which they arole to his own mind, and are not the pro-
dinft of artificial reafoning or laboured inveftigation.
It is impoffible to fix with any precifion the date of
tliis Epiftle, nor can we determine to what perfons it
was addrtffed.
The leading defign of the apoftle is to ffiow the in.
fufficiency of faith, and the external profeffion of reli¬
gion, feparate from morality ; to guard the Chriftians
to whom he writes againft the delufive arts of the cor¬
rupters of Chriftianity, whom he calls Antichrift ; and
to inculcate univerfal benevolence. His admonitions
concerning the neceffity of good morals, 'and the inef¬
ficacy of external piofeffions, are fcattered over the
Epiftle, but are moft frequent in the lit, ad, and 3d
chapters. The enemies or corrupters of Chriftianity,
againft whom he contends, feem to have denied that
Jefus was the Meffiah, the Son of God (chap. ii. 22.
v. i.), and had actually come into the world in a human
form, (chap. iy. 2, 3.) The earneftnefs and frequency
with which this., apoitle recommends the duty of bene¬
volence is remarkable. Pie makes it the diftinguiffiing
ehara&eriltic of the difciples of Jefus, the only fare
pledge of our love to God, and the only affurance of
eternal life, (chap. ill. 14, 15.) Benevolence was his
favourite theme, which he affeftionately preffed upon
others, and conftantly pra&ifed himfelf. It was con-
fpicuous in his condiuft to his great Mafter, and in the
reciprocal affeftion which it infpired in his facred breaft.
He continued to recommend it in hislaft words. When
In's extreme age and infirmities had fo wafted his ftrength
that he was incapable to exercife the duties of his of-
fyce, the venerable old man, anxious to exert in tire fer-
vice of his Mafter the little ftrength which ftffi remain¬
ed, caufed himfelf to be carried to church, and, in the
midft of the congregation, he repeated thefe words,
Little children, love one another.”
It has been obierved by Dr Mill that the fecond and
third Epiftles of John are lo Ihort, and refemble the firft
fo much in fentiment and ftyle, that it is not worth
while to contend about them. The fecond Epiftle con-
Second and
third Epi
ftie of
John.*
436
72 1 SCR,
fifb only, of 13, verfes ; and of thefe eight may be found Scriptu
in the ift Epiftle, in which the fenfe or language is pre-
cifely the fame.
Idic fecond Epiftle is quoted by, Iremeus, and was
received by Clemens Alexandrtnus, Both were ad¬
mitted by Athanafius, by Cyril of Jerufolem, and by
Jerome. The fecond is addrefftd to a woman of di-
ftin&ion whofe name is by fome fnppoied to be Cvria
(taking for a proper name), by others TcAA. The
third is iaftribed to Gaius, or Cains according to the
Latin orthography, who, in the opinion of Lardner, was
an eminent Chriftian, that lived in fome city of Afia
not far from Ephefus, where St John chiefly refided
after his leaving Judea. The time of writing thefe
two Epiftles cannot be determined with any certainty-
They are fo fhort that an analyfis of them is not necei-
fary.
The Epiftle of Jude is cited by no ancient Chriftian Epiffie of
writer extant before Clemens Alexandrians about the Dde. It#
year 194 ; but this author has transcribed eight or ten.autfunt*i’
verfes in his Stromata and Pedagogue. It is quoted.01^
once by Tertullian about the year 200 ; by Origen fre¬
quently about 230. It was not however received by ,
many of the ancient Chriftians, on account of a.fuppo-
fed quotation from a hook of Enoch. But it is not
certain that Jude quotes any book. He only fays that
Enochprophefiedy Joying, The Lord cometh <with ten thou-
fand of his faintf. Thefe might be words of a prophecy
preferved by tradition, and inferted occafionally in dif¬
ferent writings. Nor is there any evidence that there
was fuch a book as Enoch’s prophefies in the time o£
Jude, though a book of that name was extant in the
fecond and third centuries. As to the date of this
Epiftle nothing beyond conjecture can be produced.
The defign of it is, by deferibing the character of And de-
the falfe teachers, and the punilhments to which they ftp.
were liable, to caution Chnftians againft liftening to
their fuggeftions, and being thereby perverted from the
faith and purity of the gofpel.
The Apocalypfe or Revelation has not always been The’/\po-
unanimoufiy received as the genuine production of the calypf.. ft*
apoftle John. Its authenticity is proved, however, by
the teftimony of many refpettable authors of the firft ^ 1)1
centuries. It is referred to by the martyrs of Lyons :
it was admitted by Juftin Martyr as the work of the
apoftle John. It is often quoted by Irenteus, by The-
ophilus bifhop of Antioch, by Clement of Alexandria,
by Tertullian, by Origen, and by Cyprian of Carthage.
It was alio received by Heretics, by Novatus and his fol¬
lowers, by the Donatifts, and by theArians. For the firft
two centuries no part of the New Teftament was more
univerfstlly acknowledged, or mentioned with higher re-
IpeCt. But a difpute having arifen about the millen¬
nium, Caius with fome others, about the year 212, to
end the controverly as fpeedily and effediuajly as pof-
fible, ventured to deny the authority of the book
which had given occalion to it.
The book of Revelation, as we learn from Rev. x. 9. The date
was written ic the ifle of Fatmos. According to the
general teftimony of ancient authors, John was baffilhed
into Patmos in the reign of Domitian, and re ft? red by
his fucceftor Nerva. But the book could not be pu-
bliffied till after John’s releale, when he returned to E-
phefus. As Domitiaa died in 96, and his perfecution
5 did
»4°
Dr New¬
ton’s ex-
jlifhed.
S- C R T i
jcnj tttrc. did not commence till near the end of hia reign, the; Re*
u—;— velaticm mi^ht therefore he publidied in 96 or 97.
Here we fhould conclude } but aa the curious reader
Kt* may- defire to be informed how the prediftions revealed
tc ihe Nt ii- in ibis booh of St John have ufually been interpreted
fyhmtnt. and applied, we {hall coniillently with our fubjeft
fubjoin a key the prophecies contained in the Rtvt/a-
tim. This 'is extra&ed from the learned differtations of
Dr Newton, biihop of Briltol (1) : to which the reader
isrefened for a more full illuftration of the feveral parts,
as the concifenefs of our plan only admits a fiiort analy-
lis on abridgment of them.
Nothing of a. prophetical nature occurs in the hr ft
n... - three chapters, except, 1.. What is faid concerning the
plication oi 0f Ephefus, that her ^ candleftick ftrall be re-
thecies” moved out of. its place,” which is now verified, not
which have only in this, but in all the other Afxatic churches which
b*en aiiea exiited at that time ; the light of the gofpel having
i d) accom• bcen tHi.Len from them, not only by their herejies and
divifions-from within, but by the arms of the fiaracens
from without: And, 2. Concerning the church of
Smyrna, that fire (hall “ have tribulation ten days j”
that is, in prophetic language, “ ten years referring
to the perfecutioa of Diodeiian, which alone of all the
general perfeeutions lafbed fo long.
The next five capters relate to the opening of the
Seven Seals ; and by-thefe feals are intimated io many
different periods of the prophecy. Six of thefe feals
are opened in: the fixth and feventh chapters.
The fir ft feal or period is memorable for conquefts.
It commences with Vefpafian, and terminates in N.erva;
and during this time Judea, was fubjugated. The fe~
condfeal is noted for-war and {laughter. It commences
with Trajan, and continues thiough his reign, and that
of his fucceffors. In this period,"the jews were entire¬
ly routed and difperfed ; and great was the {laughter
and devaluation occafioned by the contending parties.
'1 he third feal is charaderifed. by a rigorous execution
of.juftice, and an abundant provilion ofcorn, wine, and
oil. It commences with Septimius Severus. He and
Alexander Severus were- juft and fevere emperors, and
at the fame time highly celebrated for the regard,
they paid to the felicity of their people, by procu¬
ring them plenty of every thing, and particularly
corn, wine, and oil This peried lalted during the
reigns of the Septimian family. rY\\t fourth feat is dii-
tinfuifhed by a concurrence of evils, luch as war, fa¬
mine, peililence, and wild bealts.; by all which, tfie Ro¬
man empire was remarkably infeded from the reign of
Maximin to that of Dioclefian. The fifth feal begins
at Dioclefian, and-is fignalized by the great.perfecution,
from whence arofe that memorable era, the Era of
Martyrs. With Conftantine begins, the ftxtb Jeal, a
period of revolutions, pictured forth by great commo¬
tions in earth and in heaven, alluding to the fubverlion
of Paganifm and the ettablifhraent of. Chriilianity. This
period lafted from the reign of Conftantine the Great
to that of Theodofius the. firft. Theyiwn/Ay^z/includes
under it the remaining parts of the prophecy, and com-
73 ]j S C R;
prebends feverv peeiods- diftinguifhed by the founding of
feven trumpets.
As the feals foretold the ftate of the Roman em¬
pire before and till it became Chriltian, fo the trum¬
pets forefhow the fate of it afterwards 4 each trumpet
being an alarm to one nation or other, roofing them up
to overthrow that empire^
Four of thefe trumpets are founded in the eighth
chapter.
At the founding.of the firft. Alarm and his Goths
invade the Roman.empire, befiege Rome twice, and fet
it oa fire in feveral places. At the founding of the fe-
cond, Attila and his Huns wafte the Roman provinces,
and compel the eaftern emperor 1 heodofius the fecond,
and the wtftevn emperor Valentinian the third, to fub-
mit to {hameful terms. A t the founding of the third,
Genferic and his Vandals arrivejfrom Africa ; fpod and
plunder Rome, and fet fail again with immenfe wealth
and innumerable captives. At the founding of the
fourth, Odoacerand the Heruli put an end to the very
name of the weftern empire ; Theodoric founds the
kingdom of the Oftrogoths in Italy ; and at laft Italy
becomes a province of the eaftern empire, Rome being
governed by a duke under the exarch of Ravenna.
As the foregoing trumpets relate chiefly to the down-
fal of the weftern empire, fo do the two following t©
that of the eaftern. They are founded in the ninth,
tenth, and part of the eleventh chapters. At the found-
in x of the fifth trumpet, Mahomet, that blazing ftar, ap¬
pears, opens the bottomlefs pit, and with his locufts the
Arabians darkens the fun and air. And at the founding
of the lixth, a period not yet finiftied, the tour angels,
that is, the four fultanes, or leaders of the Turks and
Othmans, are loofed from the river Euphrates. The
Greek or Eaftern empire was cruelly “ hurt and tor¬
mented” under the fifth trumpet ; but under the fixih,
it was “ llain,” and utterly deftroyed.
The Latin or Weftem Church not being reclaim¬
ed bv the ruin of the Greek or Eaftern, but ftill
perfiitang in their idolatry and wickednefs; at the be¬
ginning of the tenth chapter, and under the found of
tins fixth trumpet, is introduced a vifion preparative to
the prophecies relpecting the Weftern Church, wherein
an angel is repi Tented, having- in his hand a little book,
or codicil, dei’eribing the calamities that ihould overtake
that church. The rneafuring of the temple Ihows, that
during all this, period there will be fome true Chnltians,
who will conform themfelves to the rule of God’s word,
even whilft the outer court, that is, the external and
more extenfiw part of this temple or church, is trodden
under foot by Gentiles, !, e. fuch Chrillians as, in their
idolatrous woiftu’p and perfecuting practice, refemble
and outdo the Gentiles theqftelves. Yet againll thde
corrupters of religion there will always be fome true
witneftes. to proteit, who, however they may be Over¬
borne at times, and in appearance reduced to death, y«*fc
will arife again from time to time, till at laft they tri¬
umph and glorioully afeend. The eleventh chapter
concludes with the founding of the feventh trumpet.
In
(1) Differtations on the prophecies which have remarkably been fulfilled, and at this time ate fulfilling, in the
world, vol. iii. 8vo.
•Scripture,
ScHvf' tier.
SCR
In the twelfth chapter, by the woman bearing a man-
child is to be underftood the Chriltian cliurch ; by the
gieat rev' dragon,, the heathen Roman empire ; by the
man-child whom the woman bore, Conftantine the
Great; and by the war in heaven* the contefts between
the Chrdtian and Heathen religions.
In the thirteenth chapter, by the beaft with feven
heads and ten horns, unto whom the dragon gave his
power, feat, and great authority, is to be underftood,
not Pagan but Chriftian, not imperial but paual Rome;
in fubmitting to whofe religion, the world did in effe6t
fubmit again to the religion of the dragon. The ten.
horned beaft therefore reprefents the Romifli church
and ftate in general: but the beaft with two horns like
a lamb is the Roman clergy; and that image of the
ten-horned beaft, which the two-horned beaft caufed to
be made, and infpired with life, is the pope ; whofe
number is 666, according to the numerical powers of
the letters conftituting the Roman name JLatinuSy
or its equivalent in Hebrew, rron Romiiih.
r r74 ]
SCR
3°
I
300
S
10
50
70
200
666
200 1
6 1
40 a
10 *
10'
4000
666
Chapter xiv. By the lamb on mount Sion is meant
jelus; by the hundred forty and four thoufand, his
church and followers ; by the angel preaching the ever-
^ the firft principal effort made towards a
relormation by that public oppofition formed againft the
worlhip of faints and images by emperors and bilhops in
the eighth and ninth centuries; by the angel crying,
“ Babylon is fallen,” the Waldenfes and Albigenfel
who pronounced the church of Rome to be the A-
pocalyptic Babylon, and denounced her deftruaion ;
and by the third angel, Martin Luther and his fellow
reformers, who protefted againft all the corruptions of
the church of Rome, as deftruaive to falvation. For
an account of the doarines and precepts contained in
the Scriptures, fee Theology. For proofs of their
divine origin, fee Religion, Prophecy, and Mi¬
racles.
, SCRIVENER, one who drawls contraas, or whofe
punneis it is to place money at intereft. If a ferivener
is entrufted with a bond, he may receive the intereft •
and if he fails, the obligee (hall bear the lols : and fo
>t is it he receive the principal and deliver up the bond;
for being entrufted with the fecurity itfelf, it muft be
prefumed that he is trufted with power to receive inte¬
rest or principal; and the giving up the bond on pay-
ment of the money fhall be a difeharge thereof. But
if a ferivener fhall be entrufted with a mortgage-deed,
he hath only authority t© receive the intereff, not the
principal; the giving up the deed in this cafe not being
fuffiuent to ref!ore the eftate, but there muft be a re¬
conveyance, &c. It is held, where a ferivener puts out
his clients money on a bad fecurity, wLich upon in-
SuiL'bebVb^6^™ earfi,y IOURd f°’ >’et he c?Pnnot In
equity be charged to anfwer for the money; for it is
ncrupfe.
here faid, no one would venture to put out money of Scrobieu.
another vipon a fecurity, it he were obliged to warrant *u*
and make it good in cafe a lofs fhould happen, without
any fraud in him.
SCROBICULUS cordis, the fame as Anticar-
dium.
SCROFANELLO, in ichthyology, a name by
which feme have called a fmall fifh of the Mediterra¬
nean, more ufually known by the name of the fcor-
panel.
SCROLL, in Heraldry. See that article, chap. iv.
fed. 9. When the motto relates to the creft, the fcroll
is properly placed above the atchievement; otherwife it
fhuuld be annexed to the efcutcheon. Thole of the
order of knighthood are generally placed round fhields.
SCROPHULA, the king’s evil. See Medicine.
n° 349-
SCROPHULARIA, Figwort, in botany : A ge¬
nus of the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didy-
namia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 40th otder, Perjonat*. The calyx is
quinquefid ; the corolla almoft globofe, and refupinated;
the capfule bilocular. There are feveral fpecies, of
which the moft remarkable are, 1. Nodo/a, or the com¬
mon figwort, which grows in woods and hedges. The
root is tuberous ; the ftalks are four or five feet high,
and branched towards the top; the leaves are heart-
ftiaped, ferrated, and acute. The flowers are of a dark
red colour, ftraped like a cap or helmet; the low'er lip
greemfh : they grow in loofe dichotomous fpikes or ra~
cemi at the top of the branches. The leaves have a fe¬
tid fmell and bitter tafte. A decoaion of them is faid
to cure hogs of the meafles. An ointment made of the
root was formerly ufed to cure the piles and ferophu-
lous fores, but is at prefent out of praaice. 2. Hqua-
tlca, water-figwort, or betony. The root is fibrous;
ftem erea, fquare, about four feet high. The leaves
are oppofite, elliptical, pointed, flightly fcalloped, on
decurrent footftalks. Flowers purple, in loefe naked
fpikes. It grows on the Tides of rivulets and other
wet places, and has a fetid fmell, though not lo ftrong
as the preceding. The leaves are ufed in medicine as a
correaor of fena, and in powder to promote fneezing.
3. Scorodonia, or balm-leaved figwort. The ftem is
erea, fquare, about two feet high. The leaves are
oppofite, doubly ferrated. The flowers are dufky pur¬
ple, in compofite bunches. It grows on the banks of
rivulets, &c. in Cornwall. 4* Hernaiu, or yellow fig-
wort. . The ftalks are fquare, hairy, brown, about two
feet high. The leaves are heart fhaped, roundifh, hai¬
ry, indented, oppofite. The flowers are yellow, on
fingle forked footftalks from the ala; of the leaves. It
grows in hedges in Surry.
SCROTUM. See Anatomy, n° 107.
SCRUPI, in natural hiftory, the name of a clafs of
foflils, formed in detached mafles, without any crufts ;
of no determinate figure or regular ftrurfture ; and com-
pofed of a cryftall.ne or fparry matter, debafed by an
admixture of earth in various proportions. Under this
clafs are comprehended, •. The teiaugia. 2. j he petri-
dia. 3. 1 he Uthczvgia. 4- Che jajpides or jafpers.
SCRUPLE, Scrupulus, or ScruPutum, the leaft
of the weights ufed by the ancients, which amongft
the Romans was the 24th part of an ounce, or the 3d
part of a dram. T he fcruple is ftili a weight among
SCR [
Scrapie, «g, eontRmtnpf the 3d part of a dram, or JO grain*.
Scrutiny Among goldfmUhs it is 24 grains,
Scruple, in Chaldean chronology, is part of
an hour, called by the Hebrews' helakin. Thefe fcruples
are much ufed by the Jews, Arabs, and other eaitem
people, in computations of time.
Scuvplf.s of half Duration, an arch of the moon’s or¬
bit, which the moon’s centre defcribes from the begin¬
ning of an eclrpfe to its middle.
Scruples of Immrrjion or Incidence, an arch of the
moon’s orbit, which her centre deferibes from the be¬
ginning of the eclipie to the time when its centre falls
into the ihadow.
Scruples of Emefion, an arch of the moon’s orbit,
which her centre defcribes in the time from the firtt
emerfion of the moon’s limb to the end of the eclipfe.
SCRUTINY, (Scrutitmm)y in the primitive church,
an examination or probation praftiled in the lad. week,
©f Lent, on the catechumens, who were to receive bap-
tifm on the Eafter-day. The fcrutiny was performed
with a great many ceremonies. Exorcifms and prayers
were made over the heads of the catechumens; and on
Palm Sunday, the Lord’s Prayer and Creed were given
them, which they were afterwards made to rehearfe.
This cuftom was more in ufe in the church o! Rome
than anywhere elfe ; though it appears, by fome miflals,
to have been likewife ufed, though much later, in the
Gallican church. It is fuppofed to have ceafed about
the year 860. Some traces of this pra&ice ftill re¬
main at Vienne, in Danphine, and at Liege.
Scrutiny is alfo ufed, in the canon law, for a tick'
et or little paper billet, wherein at eleClions the electors
write their votes privately, fo as it may not be known
for whom they vote. Among us the term fcrutiny is
chiefly ufed for a drift perufal and examination of the
feveral votes haftily taken at an eleftion ; in order to
find out any irregularities committed, therein, by un¬
qualified voters, &c»
»7S 1 S C U
SCRUTORK, or ScRuroiit (from the French ef* ScrxU'»re
eritoire), a kind of cabinet, with a door or lid opening i!
downwards, for conveniency of writing on, &c. ocB pom.g,
SCRY, in falconry, denotes a large flock of fowl.
SCUDDING, the movement by which a ftiip is car¬
ried precipitately before a tempeft. As a Chip flies with
amazing rapidity through the water whenever this ex¬
pedient is put in praftice, it is never attempted in a
contrary wind, unlefs when her condition renders her
incapable of fuftaining the mutual effort of the wind
and waves any longer on her fide, without being ex-
pofed to the moil imminent danger of being overfet.
A fhip either feuds with a fail extended on her fore-
maft, or, if the ftorm is exceffive, without any fail
which, in the fea-phrafe, is called feudding under bare
poles. In Hoops and fchooners, and other fmall veffels*
the fail employed for this purpofe is called the fquare-
fail. In large fhips, it is either the forefail at large,
reefed, or with its goofe-wings extended, according
to the degree of the tempeff ; or it is the fore-top failj
clofe reefed, and lowered on the cap; which laft is
particularly ufed when the fea runs io high as to be¬
calm the forefail occafionally, a circumftance which ex-
pofes the fhip to the danger of broaching-to. The prin¬
cipal hazards incident to feudding are generally, a poop¬
ing fea; the difficulty of fleering, which expofes the
veffel perpetually to the rifle of broaching-to ; and the
want of fufficient fea-room. A fea ftriking the fhip
violently on the flern may dafh it inwards, by which
fhe muff inevitably founder. In broaching-to (that is,
inclining fuddenly to windward), fhe is threatened with
being immediately overturned ; and, for want of fea-
room, fhe is endangered by ffiipwreck on a lee-fhore, a
circumftance too dreadful to require explanation.
SCULPONEJE, among the Romans, a kind of
fhoes worn by Haves of both fexes. Thefe fhoes were
only blocks of wood made hollow, like the French fa-
bots.
Definition Y ^ the art of carving wood or hewing ftone into ima.
of feufp- X ges- ft is an art of the moft remote antiquity,
ture. being praftifed, as there is rtafon to believe, before the
Origin of general1 deluge. We are induced to affign to it this
early origin, by confidering the expedients by which,
in the firft ftages of fociety, men have everywhere lup-
plied the place of alphabetic charafters. Thefe, it is
univerfally known, have been pifture-writiug, fuch. as
that of the Mexicans, which, in the progrefs of refine¬
ment and knowledge, was gradually improved into the
hieroglyphics of the Egyptians and other ancient na¬
tions. See Hieroglyphics.
That mankind fhould have lived near 1700 yearsj
from the creation, of the world to the flood of Noah,
without falling upon any method to make their concep¬
tions permanent, or to communicate them to a diftance,
is extremely improbable ; efpecially when we call to
mind that fuch methods of writing have been found, in
modem times, among people much lets enlightened than
thofe mult have been who were capable of building
T U R E,
fuch a veffel as the ark. But if the antediluvians were
acquainted with any kind of writing, there can be little
doubt of its being hieroglyphical writing. Mr Bryant
has proved’that the Chaldeans were poffeffed of that art
before the Egyptians ; and Berofus * informs us, that * ApuJ
a delineation of all the monftrous forms which inhabit-
ed the chaos, when this earth was in that ftate, was toR 37*
be feen in the temple of Bel us in Babylon. This deli¬
neation, as he deferibes it* mult have been a hiitory in
hieroglyphical characters ; for it confifted of human fi¬
gures with wings, with two heads, and fome with the
horns and legs of goats. This is exactly limilar to the
hieroglyphical writing of the Egyptians ; and it was
preferved, our author fays, both in drawings and engra.
vings in the temple of the god of Babylon. As Chal¬
dee was the. firft peopled region of the earth after the
flood, and as it appears from Pliny f, as well as from (.
Berofus, that the art of engraving upon bricks baked lib. 7,
in the fun was there carried to a confiderable degree of cap-
perfection at a very eaily period, the probability cer-
6 tninly
iy6
Not i’olely
from «<lo-
J* ty.
famly h, tl-.at'VheC’ralclcans fieri yet! the art of hi'e^gly-
piiical 'writing, and confequently the laldinrtenta of the
art of fcul.pture, from their ant' iilevian "enceftore.
It is generally thought that foulptare had its origin
from idolatry, as it was found neceffary to place before
the people the images of their gods to enliven the fer¬
vour of their devotion : but this is probably a rctitake.
^I’he worfhip of the heavenly bodies, as the only gods
of the heathen nations prevailed f6 longbefore the dei-
f.cation or'dead men was thought of (fee Polytheism},
that we cannot fuppofc mankind to have been, during
nil that time, ignorant of the art of hicroglyphical wri¬
ting. But the deification of departed heroes undoubt-
'fdly gave rife to the almoft univerfal practice of repre¬
s C U L P T U Pv E.
to prefent the fubfrance of his fcattsred hints -in one
view, we will not be confident that we have omitted
none of them The ox, fays he, was the Scythian em¬
blem of the generator of animal life, and hence it 'be¬
came the principal divinity of the Arabians. The fer-
pent was the fymbol of the fource of intelligent nature.
Phefe were the common points of union in all the firil
reltu ions cf the earth.. From Egypt the Ilraelites car¬
ried with them a religious veneration for the ox and the
ferpent. Their veneration for the ox appeared foon af¬
ter they marched into the wildemefs, when in the ab-
fence of Mofes they called upon Aaron to make them
gods which fliould go before them. The idea of ha¬
ving an idol to go before them, fays our author, was
o , , . . c . 1 r r . 6 £ tingle luciu, lays aur autnor, was
lentisg the gods by images of a human form ; and completely Scythian; for fo the Scythians afted in all
therefore we mdl conclude, that the elements of iculp- their prog refs through Afia, with this difference that
tore were known before that art was employed to en- their Idol was a living animal. The Ifn>elites having:
hven the devotion or idolatrous worfmppers. The py- ' gained their favourite god, which was an ox (not a calf
Vahuds and obehfks of Egypt, which were probably as it is rendered in the book of Exodus), next pro-
Though it
pro! ably
coi.tribu
ted to car.
ry the art
to perfec-
< feiou.
temples, dr rather altars, dedicated to the fun (fee Py¬
ramid), Were covered from top to bottom with hiero-
glyphical emblems of men, beafts, birds, fifhes, and rep¬
tiles, at a period prior to that in which there is any un
exceptionable evidence that mere fiatue-worfhip pre¬
vailed even in that nurfery of idolatry.
Tut though it appears thus evident that pi&ure
ceeded to hold a feftival, which was to be accompa¬
nied with dancing ; a fpecies of gaiety common in the
feftivals which were held in adoration of the emblematic
(/r-ota/ or ox in that very part of Arabia near Mourft
Sinai where this event took place. It is mentioned
too as a curious and important fad, that the ox which
was Tevered in Arabia was called Adona\. According.
- - . r , r  ... vy SJ uvnai. AiCCOrOing-
wnting was the firft employment of the fculptor, we ly Aaron announcing the feaft to the ox or golden calf,
are far from imagining that idolatrous worfhin cKH nnr ... , j b , . , . ,3
■are far from imagining that idolatrous worfhip did not
Contribute to carry his art to that perfedtion which it
attained in fome of the nations of antiquity. Even in
The dark ages of Europe, when the other fine arts were
alrr.oft txtinguifhed, the mummery of the church of
tRome, and the veneration which file taught tor her
faints and martyrs, preferved among the Italians fome
fpeaks thus, to-morrow is a feaft to Adona:, which is in
our tranflation rendered /a /A Lord. In the time of
Jeroboam we read of the golden calves fet up as obje&s
of worfhip at Bethel and Dan. Nor was the reverence
paid to the ox confined to Scythia, to Egypt, and to
Afia ; it extended much farther. The ancient Cimbri,
as the Scythians did, carried an ox of bronze before
*’eftiges of the filler-arts of iculpture and painting ; and them on all their expedit ons. Mr Bromley alfo in
uq Hninan nature io T .t . A r .
u a l ir-, y —
therefore, as human nature is everywhere the fame, it
is rcafonable to believe that a fimilar veneration for he
roes and demigods would, among the ancient nations,
have a fimilar efreft. But if this be fo, the prefump-
tion is, that the Chaldeans were the firft who invented
the art of hewing blocks of wood and ftone into the fi¬
gures of men and other animals; for the Chaldeans were
forms us, that as great refpe<£l was paid to the living
ox among the Greeks as was offered to its fymbol
among other nations.
The emblem of the ferpent, continues Mr Bromley,
was marked yet more decidedly by the exprefs direc¬
tion of the Almighty. That animal had ever been
confidefed as emblematic of the fupreme generating
unqueftionably the firft idolaters, and their eaily pro- power of intelligent life : And was that idea fays he
ereism fculoture is confirmed bv the united tt-ftimmiiVc iv. r- V < ,
Mr otom-
ley’s theo¬
ry, that
fculpture
wra< iiivent-
-ed by the
acyihians.
grefs in fculpture is confirmed by the united teftimonies
of Berofus, Alexander Polyhiftor, Apollodorus, and
Pliny ; not to mention the eaftern tradition, that the
father of Abraham was a ftatuary.
Againft this conclulion Mr Bromley, in his late Hi-
ftory of the Fine Arts, has urged fome plaufible argu¬
ments. In ftating thefe he profeffes-not to be original,
or to derive his information from the fountain-head of
antiquity. l ie adopts, as he tells us, the theory of a
French writer, who maintains, that in the year of the
world 1949, about 300 years after the deluge, the
Scythians under Brourna, a defeendant of Magog the
fon of Japhet, extended their comjudls over the greater
part of Afia. According to this iyftem, Brouina was
not only the civilizer of India, and the anthot of the
braminical do&rines, but alfo d/ffuied the principles of defs
difeouraged, I'o far as it went to be a fign or fymbol of
life, when C-od laid to Mofes, “ Make thee a brazen
ferpent, and fet it upon a pole, and it {hall come to pafa
that every one who is bitten, when he looketh upon it,
firall live.’5 In Egypt the lerpent furrounded their Ifia
and Ollris, the diadems of their princes, and the bon¬
nets of their priefts. 'The ferpent made a diftingutfhed
figure in Grecian fculpture. The fable of Echidite,
the mother ofthe Scythians, gave her figure termina¬
ting as a ferpent to all the founders of ftates in Greece;
from which their earlieft fculptors reprdented in that
form the Titan princes, Cecrops, Draco, and even Eric-
-thonius- Befides the fpear ot the image of Minerva,
which Phidias made for the citadel ot Athens, he pla-.
ced a fel-|>eat, which was luppofed to guard that god-
the Scythian mythology over Egypt, Phoenicia, Greece,
and the continent of Alia.
Ol thefc principles Mr Bromley has given us ’no-di-
ftindf enumeration : the account which he gives of them
i« not to be found in one place, but to be collefted from
> variety cf diftant pafiages. -In Attempting therefore
The ferpent was combined with many other figure;.
It foinetimes was coiled round an egg as an emblem of
the creation; fometimes round a trident, to fibow it#
power over the fea ; fometimes it encircled a flambeau,
to reprefent life and death.
In Egypt, as well as in Scythia and India, the di¬
vinity
SCULP
vinity was repreferi'ted on the leaves of the tamara or
■ lotus. Pan was worfhippecl as a god in that country,
as well as over the eaft. Their fphinxes, and all their
combined figures of animal creation, took their origin
from the mother of the Scythians, who brought forth
an offspring that was half a woman and half a ferpent.
Their pyramids and obeliilcs arofe from the idea of
flame ; the firft emblem of the fupreme principle, in¬
troduced by the Scythians, and which even the influ¬
ence of Zoroafter and the Magi could not remove.
We are told that the Bacchus of the Greeks is de¬
rived from the Brouma of the Indians ; that both are
reprefented as feated on'a iwan fwimming over the
waves, to indicate that each was the god of humid na¬
ture, not the god of wine, but the god of waters. The
mitre of Bacchus was fhaped like half an egg ; an em¬
blem taken from this circumflance, that at the creation
the egg from which all things fprung was divided in
the middle. Pan alfo was revered among the Scythians;
and from that people were derived all the emblems by
which the Greeks reprefented this divinity.
It would be tedious to follow our author through
the whole of this fubject ; and were we to fubmit to
the labour of collefting and arranging his fcattered ma¬
terials, ■we Ihould iiill view his fyftem with fome degree
of fufpicion. It is drawn, as he informs us, from the
work of M. D’Ancarville, iutitled, Recherches fur i’Ori-
gine, PRfprit, et les Progres, des Arts de la Grece.
IU founded r^'° f°rm conclufions concerning the origin of nations,
the rife and prcgrefs of the arts and fciences, without
the aid of hiftorical evidence, by analogies which are
fometimes accidental, and often fanciful, is a mode
of reafoning which cannot readily be admitted. There
may indeed, we acknowledge, be resemblances in the re¬
ligion, language, manners, and cuftoms, of different na¬
tions, fo ftriking and fo numerous, that to doubt of
their being defcended from the fame flock would favour
of fcepticifm. But hiflorical theories muft not be a-
dopted rafhly. We mull be certain that the evidence
r is credible and fatisfaftory before, we proceed to deduce
any conclufions. We mull firft know whether the
Scythian hiflory itfelf be authentic, before we make
any comparifon with the hiflory of other nations. But
what is called the Scythian hiftory, every man of learn¬
ing knows to be a colle&ion of fables. Herodotus and
J uflin are the two ancient writers from whom we have
the fulleft account of that warlike nation; but thefe two
hiftorians contradidl each other, and both write what
cannot be believed of the fame people at the fame pe¬
riod of their progrefs. Juftin tells ns, that there was a «
long and violent conteft between the Scythians and E-
gyptians about the antiquity of their refpedlive nations;
and after Hating the arguments on each fide of the que-
ftion, which, as he gives them*, are nothing to the pur-
pofe, he decides in favour of the claim of, the Scy¬
thians. Herodotus was too partial to the Egyptians,
not to give them the palm of antiquity : and he was
probably in the right ; for Juftin defcribes his moft
ancient of nations, even in the time of Darius Hyf-
tafpes, as ignorant of all the arts of civil life. “ They
occupied their land in common (fays he), and cultiva¬
ted none of it. They had no houfes nor fettled habi¬
tations, but wandered with their cattle from defevt to
defert. In thele rambles they carried their wives and
children in tumbrels covered with the ikins of beafts,
Vol. XVII. Part I.
* Lib. a.
cap. x.
TURK. 177
which ferved as houfes to protefl them from the ftorms
of winter. They were without laws, governed by the
diilates of natural equity. They coveted not gold or
filver like the reft of mankind, and lived upon milk and
honey. Though they were expofed to extreme cold,
and had abundance of flocks, they knew not how to
make garments of wool, but clothed themfelves in the
Ikins of wild beafts J.” This is the moft favourable l Db. a.
account which any ancient writer gives of the Scythi-
ans. By Strabo^ and Plerodotus || they are reprefented § 7*
as the moft favage of mortals, delighting in war and
bloodfhed, cutting the throats of all (Dangers who came
among them, eating their flelh, and making cups and
pots of their Ikulls. Is it conceivable that fuch fava-
ges could be fculptors ; or that, even fuppofing their
manners to have been fuch as Juftin reprefents them, a
people fo Ample and ignorant could have impofed their
mythology upon the Chaldeans, Phenicians, and Egyp¬
tians, whom we know by the moll incontrovertible evi¬
dence to have been great and poll (Tied nations fo early
as in the days of Abraham ? No ! We could as foon
admit other novelties of more importance, with which
the French of the prefent age pretend to enlighten the
world, as this origin afligned by Mr Bromley to the art
of fculpture, unlefs fupported by better authority than
that of D’Ancarville.
The inference of our author from the name of the
facred ox in Arabia, and from the dancing and gaiety
which were common in the religious fellivals of the
Arabians, appears to us to be very haflily drawn. At
the early period of the departure of the Ifraelites from
Egypt, the language of the Hebrews, Egyptians, and
Arabians, differed not more from each other than do
the different dialefts of the Greek tongue which are
found in the poems of Homer (fee Philology, Sett.
TIL) ; and it is certain, that for many years after the
formation of the golden-calf, the Hebrews were flran-
gers to every fpecies of idolatry but that which they
had brought with them from their houfe of bondage.
See Remphan.
Taking for granted therefore that the Scythians did
not impofe their mythology upon the eailern nations,
and that the art of fculpture, as well as hieroglyphic
writing and idolatrous worihip, prevailed firfl among
the Chaldeans, we fhall endeavour to trace the progrefs
of this art through fome other nations of antiquity, till
we bring it to Greece, where it was carried to the high-
eft perfection to which it has yet attained.
The firft intimation that we have of the art of fculp-
ture is in the book of Genefis, where we are informed,
that when Jacob, by the divine command, was return¬
ing to Canaan, his wife Rachel carried along with her
the teraphim or idols of her father. Thefe we are al¬
lured wete fmall, fince Rachel found it fo ealy to con¬
ceal them from her father, notwithftanding his anxious
fearch. We are ignorant, however, how thefe images
were made, or of what materials they were compofed.
The firft perfon mentioned as an artill of eminence is
Bezaleel, who formed the cherubims which covered the
mercy-feat.
The Egyptians alfo cultivated the art of fculpture ; - r ,6.
but there were two circumftances that obftruCled its
progrefs, i. The perfons of the Egyptians were not ^
poffeffed of the graces of form, of elegance, or of fym-
metry; and of confequence they had no perftft Itandard
Z to
178 S C U L 1
to model their tafte. They refembled the Chinefe in
the cad of their face, in their great bellies, and in the
clumfy roundinor of their contours. 2. They were re¬
trained by their laws to the principles and practices of
their anceftors, and were not permitted to introduce any
innovations. Their ftatues were always formed in the
fame iliff attitude, with the arms hanging perpendicular¬
ly down the lides. What perfection were they capable of
who knew no other attitude than that of chairmen ?
So far were they from attempting any improvements,
that in the time of Adrian the art continued in the
lame rude Hate as at firfl:; and when their flavilh adu¬
lation for that emperor induced them to place the fta-
tue of his favourite Antinous among the objecls of
their worfhip, the fame inanimate ftiffnefs 'in the atti¬
tude of the body and polition of the arms was obferved.
We believe it will fcarcely be neceflary to inform our
readers that the Egyptian llatue juft now mentioned is
very different from the celebrated ftatue of Antinous,
of which fo many moulds have been taken that imita¬
tions of it are now to be met with almoft in every cabi¬
net in Europe.
Notwithftanding the attachment of the Egyptians to
ancient ufages, Winkelman thinks he has difeovered two
different ftyles of fculpture which prevailed at different
periods. The firft of thefe ends with the cor.queft of
Egypt by Cambyfes. 'I he fecond begins at that time,
7 and extends beyond the reign of Alexander the Great.
jcirft fty’e. In -the firft ftyle, the lines which form the contour are
ftraight and projecting a little ; the pofition is ftiff and
unnatural: In fitting figures the legs are parallel, the
feet fqueezed together, and the arms fixed to the (ides;
but in the figures of women the left arm is folded a-
crofs the breaft ; the bones and mufcles are faintly dif-
cernible ; the eyes are flat and looking obliquely, and
the eyebrows funk; features which deftroy entirely the
beauty of the head ; the cheek-bones are high, the chin
fmall and piked ; the ears are generally placed higher
than in nature, and the feet are too large and flat. In
fhort, if we are to look for any model in the ftatues of
Egypt, it is not for the model of beauty but of defor¬
mity. The ftatues of men are naked, only they have
a fhort apron, and a few folds of drapery furrounding
their waift : The veftments of women are only diftin-
guiflrable by the border, which rifes a little above the
furface of the ftatue. In this age it is evident the E-
3 gyptians knew little of drapery.
Second Of tl)e fecond ftyle of fculpture praeftifed among the
Egyptians, Winkelman thinks he has found fpecimens
in the two figures of bafaltes in the Capitol, and in an¬
other figure at Villa Albani, the head of which has
been renewed. The two firft of thefe, he remarks, bear
vifible traces of the former ftyle, which appear efpecially
in the form of the mouth and Ihortnefs of the chin.
The hands poffefs more elegance ; - and the feet are
placed at a greater diftance from one another, than was
cuftomary in more ancient times. In the firft and third
figures the arms hang down clofe to the Tides. In the
fecond they hang more freely. Winkelman fufpefts
that thefe three ftatues have been made after the con-
queft of Egypt by the Greeks. They are clothed with
a tunic, a robe, and a mantle. The tunic, which is
puckered into many folds, defeends from the neck to
the ground. The robe in the firft and third ftatues
feems clofe to the body, and is only perceptible by
> t u it E.
fome little folds. It is tied under the breaft, and co¬
vered by the mantle, the two buttons of* which are
placed under the epaulet.
_ The Antinous of the Capitol is compofed of two
pieces, which are joined under the haunches. But as
all the Egyptian ftatues which now remain have been
hewn out of one block, we muft believe that Diodorus,
in faying the ftone was divided, and each half finiftied
by a feparate artizan, fpoke only of a coloffus. The
fame author informs us, that the Egyptians divided the
human body into 2^ parts; but it is to be regretted
that he has not given a more minute detail of that di-
vifion.
The Egyptian ftatucs were not only formed by the
chifel, they were alfo polifhed with great care. Even
thofe on the fummit of an obelifk, which could only be
viewed at a diftance, were finifhed with as much labour
and care as if they had admitted a clofe infpe&ion. As
they are generally executed in granite or bafaltes, Hones
of a very hard texture, it is impoflible not to admire
the indefatigable patience of the artifts.
The eye was often of different materials from the reft
of the ftatue ; fometimes it was compofed of a precious
ftone or metal. We are affured that the valuable dia¬
mond of the emprefs of Ruflia, the largeft and moft
beautiful hitherto known, formed one of the eyes of the
famous ftatue of Scheringham in the temple of Bra-
ma.
Thofe Egyptian ftatues which ftill remain are com¬
pofed of wood or baked earth : and the ftatues of earth
are covered with green enamel.
The Phenicians poffeffed both a charadler and fitua- Pheniciau
tion highly favourable to the cultivation of ftatuary. fculpture, -
They had beautiful models in their own perfons, and
their induftrious ehara&er qualified them to attain per-
fe&ion in every art for which they had a tafte. Their
fituation raifed a fpirit of commerce, and commerce in¬
duced them to cultivate the arts. Their temples fhone
with ftatues and columns of gold, and a profufion of
emeralds was everywhere fcattered. All the great works
of the Phenicians have been unfortunately deftroyed;
but many of the Carthaginian medals are ftill preferved,
ten of which are depofited in the cabinet of the grand
duke of Florence. But though the Carthaginians were
a colony of Phenicians, we cannot from their works
judge of the merit of their anceftors. ro
The Perfians made no diftinguifhed figure in the arts This art not:
of defign. They were indeed fenfible to the charms ofcultivat«l
beauty, but they did not ftudy to imitate them. Their ^°pgr
drefs, which confided of long flowing robes conceal-fian.
ing the whole perfon, prevented them from attending to
the beauties of form. Their religion, too, which taught
them to worfliip the divinity in the emblem of fire, and
that it was impious to reprefent him under a human
form, feemed almoft to prohibit the exercife of this art,
by taking away thofe motives which alone could give it
dignity and value ; and as it was not cuftomary among
them to raife ftatues to great men, it was impoffible
that ftatuary could flourifli in Perfia. ,r
The Etrurians or ancient Tufcans, in the opinion of Etrurian
Winkelman, carried this art to fome degree of perfec-^ulpturs.
tion at an earlier period than the Greeks. It is faid to
have been introduced before the fiege of Troy by De-
dalus, who, in order to efcape the refentment of Minos
king of Crete, took refuge in Sicily, from whence he
palled«
S C U L
ia
yirfl: ftyle.
*3
Second
paffed into Italy, where he left many monuments of his
art. Paufanias and Diodorus Siculus inform us, that
fome works afcribed to him were to be feen when they
wrote, and that thefe pofleffed that character of majef*
ty which afterwards diitinguifhed the labours of Etru¬
ria.
A character ftrongly marked forms the chief diitine-
tion in thofe productions of Etruria which have defcend-
ed to us. Their ftyle was indeed harrti and overchar¬
ged ; a fault alfo committed by Michael Angelo the ce¬
lebrated painter of modern Etruria ; for it is not to be
fuppofed that a people of fuch rude manners as the E-
trurians could communicate to their works that vivid-
nefs and beauty which the elegance of Grecian manners
infpired. On the other hand, there are many of the
Tufcan ftatues which bear fo clofe a refemblance to
thofe of Greece, that antiquarians have thought it pro¬
bable that they were conveyed from that country or
Magna Grsecia into Etruria about the time of the Ro¬
man conqueft, when Italy was adorned with the fpoils
of Greece.
Among the monuments of Etrurian art two different
ftyles have been obferved. In the firfl the lines are
ftraight, the attitude ftiff, and no idea of^ beauty ap¬
pears in the formation of the head. The contour is not
well rounded, and the figure is too {lender. The head
is oval, the chin piked, the eyes flat, and looking
afquint.
Thefe are the defcCts of an art in a ftate of infancy,
which an accomplilhed mailer could never fall into, and
are equally confpicuous in Gothic ftatues as in the pro¬
ductions of the ancient natives of Florence. They re-
femble the ftyle of the Egyptians fo much, that one is
almoft induced to fuppofe that there had once been a
communication between thefe two nations; but others
think that this ftyle was introduced by Dedalus.
Winkelman fuppofes that the fecond epoch of this
art commenced in Etruria, about the time at which it
had reached its greateft pertedlion in Greece, in the
age of Phidias 5 but this conjecture is not fupported by
any proofs. To deferIbe the fecond ftyle of fculpture
among the Etrurians, is almoft the fame as to delcribe
the ftyle of Michael Angelo and his numerous imita*
tors. The joints are ftrongly marked, the mufcles
railed, the bones diftinguifhable; but the whole mien
harfti. In defigning the bone of the leg, and the repa¬
ration of the mufcles of the calf, there is an elevation
and ftrength above life. The ftatues of the gods are de-
figned with more delicacy. In forming them, the artifts
were anxious td ftiow that they could exercife their
power without that violent diftenfion of the mufcles
which is neceflary in the exertions of beings merely
human ; but in general their attitudes are unnatural, and
the adfions drained. If a ftatue, for inftance, hold any
thing with its fore-fingers, the reft are ftretched out in
a ftift pofition.
According to ancient hiftory, the Greeks did not
emerge from the favage ftate till a long time after the
Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Indians, had arrived at a
confiderable degree of civilization. The original rude
inhabitants of Greece were civilized by colonies which
arrived among them, at different times, from Egypt
and Phenicia. Thefe brought along with them the re.
ligion, the letters, and the arts of their parent cpun_
P T U R E,
tries : and if fculpture had its otigin from the worihip
©f idols, there is reafon to believe that it was one of
the arts which were thus imported ; for that the gods
of Greece were of Egyptian and Phenician extraction
is a faCl incontrovertible ; (fee Mysteries, Mytho-
loqy, Philology, feft. 7. Philosophy, n9 19, and
Titan.) The original ftatues of the gods, however,
were very rude. The earlieft objeCts of idolatrous wor-
fliip have everywhere been the heavenly bodies ; and the
fymbols confecrated to them were generally pillars of a
conical or pyramidal figure. It was not till here-wor-
ihip was engrafted on the planetary, that the fculptor
thought of giving to the facred ftatue any part of the
human form (fee Polytheism, n9 19, 23) ; and it
appears to have been about the era of their revolution
in idolatry that the art of fculpture was introduced
among the Greeks. The firft reprefentations of their
gods were round ftones placed upon cubes or pillars ;
and thefe ftones they afterwards formed roughly, fo as
to give them fomething of the appearance of a head.
Agreeable to this defeription was a Jupiter, which Pau*
fanias faw in Tegeum, in Arcadia. Thefe reprefenta¬
tions were called Hermes ; not that they reprefented
Mercury, but from the word herma> which fignified a
rough ftone. It is the name which Homer gives to
the ftones which were ufed to fix veffels to the ftiore.
Paufanias faw at Pheres 30 deities made of unformed
blocks or cubical ftones. The Lacedemonians repre-
fer.ted Caftor and Pollux by two parallel polls ; and
a tranfverfe beam was added, to exprefs their mutual af-
feCtion.
If the Greeks derived from foreign nations the rudi¬
ments of the arts, it muft redound much to their ho¬
nour, that in a few centuries they carried them to fuch
wonderful perfeClion as entirely to eclipfe the fame of
their mailers. It is by tracing the progrefs of fculpture
among them that we are to ftudy the hiftory oi this
art; and we fliall fee its origin and fuccefiive improve¬
ments correfpond with nature, which always operates
{lowly and gradually.
View of Grecian Sculpture.
The great {uperiority of the Greeks in the art of Caufet
fculpture may be afcribed to a variety of caufes. The which pro-
influence of climate over the human body is fo ftriking, mote(l
that it muft have fixed the attention of every thinking
man who has refk&ed on the fubjecl. 1 he violent Greece,
heats of the tonid zone, and the excefiive cold of the
polar regions, are unfavourable to beauty. It is only
in the mild climates of the temperate regions that it
appears in its moft attractive charms. Perhaps no
country in the world enjoys a more ferene air, lefs taint¬
ed with mills and vapours, or poffefies in a higher de¬
gree that mild and genial warmth which can unfold and
expand the human body into all the fymmetry of muf-
cular ftrength, and all the delicacies of female beauty in
greater perfeClion, than the happy climate of Greece ;
and never was there any people that had a greater tafte
for beauty, or were more anxious to improve it. Of
the four willies of Simonides, the fecond was to have
a handfome figure. The love of beauty was fo great
among the Lacedemonian women, that they kept in
their chambers the ftatues of Nereus, of Narciffus, of
Z z Hya-
SCULPTURE.
Hyadnthus, and of Caftor and Pollux ; hoping that by
often contemplating them they might have beautiful
children.
There was a variety of eircumftances in the noble and
virtuous freedom of the Grecian manners that rendered
thefe models of beauty peculiarly fubfervient to the
cultivation of the fine arts. There were no tyrannical
Jaws, as among the Egyptians, to check their progrefs.
They had the belt opportunities to ftudy them in the
public places, where the youth, who needed no other vail
than chaftity and purity of manners, performed their
various exercifes quite naked. '1 hey had the ftrongell
motives to cultivate fculpture, for a ftatue was the
jhigheft honour which public merit could attain. It was
an honour ambitioufly fought, and granted only to
thofe who had diking uifhed themfelves in the eyes of
their fellow citizens. As the Greeks preferred natural
qualities to acquired accomplilhments, they decreed the
firft rewards to thofe who excelled in agility and ftrength
of body. Statues were often raifed to wreftlers. Even
the moft eminent men of Greece, in their youth, fought
renown in gymnaftic exercifes. Chryfippus and Cle-
anthes diftinguifiied themfelves in the public games
before they were known as philofophers. Plato appear¬
ed as a wreftler both at the Ilthmian and Pythian games;
and Pythagoras carried off the prize at Elis, (lee Py¬
thagoras.) The paffion by which they were infpired
was the ambition of having their ftatues erefted in the
moft facred place of Greece, to be feen and admired by
the whole people. The number of ftatues erected on
different occafions was immenfe; of courfe the number
of artifts muft have been gteat, their emulation ardent,
and their progrefs rapid
As moft of their ttatues were decreed for thofe who
vanquifhed in the public games, the artifts had the op¬
portunity of feeing excellent models ; for thofe who
furpaffed in running, boxing, and wreftling, muft in ge¬
neral have been well formed, yet would exhibit different
kinds of beauty.
The high eftimation in which fculptors were held
was very favourable to their art. Socrates declared the
artifts the only wife men. An artift could be a legifla-
tor, a commander of armies, and might hope to have
his ftatue placed befide thofe of Miltiades and Themif-
tocles, or thofe of the gods themfelves. Befides, the
honour and fuccefs of an artift did not depend on the
caprice of pride or of ignorance. The produftions of
art were eftimated and rewarded by the greateft fages
in the general affembly of Greece, and the fculptor who
had executed his work with ability and tafte was con¬
fident of obtaining immortality.
It was the opinion of Winkelman, that liberty was
highly favourable to this art; but, though liberty is
abfolutely neceffary to the advancement of fcience, it
may be doubted whether the fine arts owe their im¬
provement to it. Sculpture fiourifhed moft in Greece,
when Pericles exercifed the power of a king ; and in
the reign of Alexander, when Greece was conquered.
It attained no perfedtion in Rome till Auguftus had en-
Ilaved the Romans. It revived in Italy under the pa¬
tronage of the family of Medici, and in France under
the defpotic rule of Louis XIV. It is the love of
beauty, luxury, wealth, or the patronage of a powerful
individual, that promotes the progrefs of this art.
It will now be proper tp give a particular account of
the ideas which the Greeks entertained concerning the 1.5
ftandard of beauty in the different parts of the human fJreciari
body. And with rcfpedi to the head, the profile
which they chiefly admired is peculiar to dignified t aU
beauty. It confiits in a line almoft ftraight, or marked .
by fuch flight and gentle inflections as are fcarcely di- 1 lePr°fita
ftinguiihable from a ftraight line. In the figures of wo¬
men and young perfons, the forehead and nofe form a
line approaching to a perpendicular.
Ancient writers, as well as artifts, affure us that the
Greeks reckoned a fmall forehead a mark of beauty,
and a high forehead a deformity. From the fame idea,
the Circaflians wore their hair hanging down over their
foreheads almoft to their eyebrows. To give an oval
form to the countenance, it is neceffary that, the hair
fhould cover the forehead, and thus make a curve about
the temples; otherwife the face, which terminates in an
oval form in the infei'ior part, will be angular in the
Iiigher part, and the proportton will be deftroyed. This
rounding of the forehead may be feen in all handfome
perfons, in all the heads of ideal beauty in ancient fta¬
tues, and efpecially in thofe of youth. It has been
overlooked, however, by modern ftatuaries. Bernini,
who modelled a ftatue of Louis XIV. in his youth,
turned back the hair from the forehead.
It is generally agreed that large eyes are beautiful; The eye»,
but their fize is of lefs importance in fculpture than
their form, and the manner in which they are enchafed.
In ideal beauty, the eyes are always funk deeper than
they are in nature, and confequently the eyebrows
have a greater projedlion. But in large ttatues, placed
at a certain diftance, the eyes, which are of the fame
colour with the reft of the head, would have little effeft
if they were not funk. By deepening the cavity of the
eye, the ftatuary increafes the light and fhade, and thus
gives the head more life and expreffion. The fame prac¬
tice is ufed in imall itatues. The eye is a charadferif-
tic feature in the heads of the different deities. In the
ftatues of Apollo, Jupiter, and Juno, the eye is large and
round. In thofe of Pallas they are alfo large ; but by
lowering the eyelids, the virgin air and expreffion of mo-
defty are delicately marked. Venus has fmall eyes, and
the lower eyrelid being raifed a little, gives them a lan-
guifhing look and an enchanting fweetnefs. It is only
neceffary to fee the Venus de Medicis to be convinced
that large eyes are not effential to beauty, efpecially if
we compare her fmall eyes with thofe which refemble
them in nature. The beauty of the eyebrows confifls
in the finenefs of the hair, and in the fharpnefs of the
bone which covers them ; and matters of the art con-
fidered the joining of the eyebrows as a deformity,
though it is fometimes to be met with in ancient fta¬
tues.
The beauty of the mouth is peculiarly neceffary to ^
conftrtute a fine face. The lower lip muft be fuller e 01011
than the upper, in order to give an elegant rounding
to the chin. 'The teeth feldom appear, except in laugh¬
ing fatyrs. In human figures the lips are generally
clofe, and a little opened in- the figures of the gods.
The lips of Venus are half open.
In figures of ideal beauty, the Grecian artifts never
interrupted the rounding of the chin by introducing a
dimple : for this they confidered not as a mark of beau¬
ty, and only to be admitted to diftinguilh individuals.
'I he dimple indeed appears in fome ancient ftatues, but
to
The cars.
n
5*he hair.
tt
The hands,
»3
The legs
and feet.
SCULPTURE.
i8t
antiquaries fufpeft it to be the work of a modern hand.
It is fufpe&ed alfo> that the dimple which is feme-
times found on the cheeks of ancient ftatues is a mo¬
dern innovation.
No part of the head was executed by the ancients
with mere care than the ears, though little attention
has been given to them by modern artifts. This cha¬
racter is fo decifive, that if we obferve in any ftatue
that the ears are not highly finiihed, but only roughly
marked, we may conclude with certainty that we are
examining a modern production. i he ancients were
very attentive to copy tne precife form of the ear in
taking likeneffes. Thus, where we meet with a head
the ears of which have a very large interior opening,
we know it to be the head of Marcus Aurelius.
The manner in which the ancient artifts formed the
hair alfo enables us to diftinguifh their works from
thofe of the moderns. On hard and coarfe {tones the hair
was fhort, and appeared as if it had been combed with a
wide comb ; for that kind of ftone was difficult to work,
and could not without immenfe labour be formed into
curled and flowing hair. But the figures executed in
marble in the moft flourifhing period of the art have
the hair curled and flowing ; at leaft where the head
was not intended to be an exaCt refemblance, for then
the artift conformed to his model. In the heads, of
women, the hair was thrown back, and tied behind in a
waving manner, leaving confiderable intervals; which
gives the agreeable variety of light and fhade, and pro¬
duces the effefts of the claro-obfcuro. The hair of the
Amazons is difpofed in tnis manner. Apollo and Bac¬
chus have their hair falling down their fhoulders ; and
young perfons, till they arrived at manhood, wore their
hair long. The colour of the hair which was reckon¬
ed moft beautiful, was fair ; and this they gave without
diftindion to the moft beautiful of their gods,.Apollo
and Bacchus, and likewife to their moft illuftrious he¬
roes.
Although the ravages of time have preferved but
few of the hands or feet of ancient ftatues, it is evident
from what remains how anxious the Grecian artifts
were to give every perfedion to thefe parts. i he
hands of young perfons were moderately plump, with
little cavities or dimples at the joints of tne fingers.
The fingers tapered very gently from the root to the
point, like well-proportioned columns, and the joints
were fcarcely perceptible. The terminating joint was
not bent, as it commonly appears in modern ftatues.
In the figures of young men the joints of the knee
are faintly marked. The knee unites the leg to the
thigh without making any remarkable projedions or
cavities. The moft beautiful legs and beft-turned
knees, according to Winkelman, are preferved in the
Apollo Saurodhones, in the Villa Borghefe ; in the
Apollo which has a fwan at its feet; and in the Bacchus
of Villa Medicis. The fame able connoifleur remarks,
it is rare to meet with beautiful knees in young per¬
fons, or in the elegant reprefentations of art. As the
ancients did not cover the feet as we do, they gave to
them the moft beautiful turning, and ftudied the form
of them with the moft fcrupulous attention.
The breafts of men were large and elevated. The ^
breafts of women did not poffels much amplitude. T. he an(j*jower
figures of the deities have always the breafts of a virgin, part 0{- tj^e
the beauty of which the ancients made to confift in a body,
gentle elevation. So anxious were the women to re-
femble this ftandard, that they ufed feveral arts to re-
ftiain the growth of their breafts. 1 he breafts of the
nymphs and goddeffes were never reprefented fwelling,
becaufe that is peculiar to thofe women who fuckle.
The paps of Venus contrad and end in a point, this
being confidered as an effential charaderiftic of perfed
beauty. Some of the moderns have tranfgreflfed thefe
rules, and have fallen into great improprieties.
The lower part of the body in the ftatues of men
was formed like that of the living body after a profound
lleep and good digeftion. The navel was coniiderably
funk, efpecially in female ftataes. ay
As beauty never appears in equal perfedion in every Meal beau-
part of the fame individual, perled or ideal beauty can
only be produced by feleding the moft beautiful parts
from different models; but this muft be done with fuch
judgment and care, that thefe detached beauties when
united may form the moft exad fymmetry. Yet the
ancients fometimes confined themfelves to one indivi¬
dual, even in the moft flouriffiing age. Theodoras,
whom Socrates and his difciples vifited, ferved as a mo-
Ad to the artifts erf his time. Phryne alfo appears to
have been a model to the painters and fculptors. But
Socrates, in his converfation with Parrhafius, fays, that
when a perfed beauty was to be produced, the artifts
joined together the moft ftriking beauties which could
be colleded from the fineft figures. We know that
Zeuxis, when he was going to paint Helen, united in
one pidure all the beauties of the moft handfome women
of Crotona.
26
The Grecian fculptors, who reprefented with fuchjj^^3^
fuccefs the moft perfed beauty of the human form,
were not regardlefs of the drapery of their ftatues.
They clothed their figures in the moft proper fluff,
which they wrought into that fhape which was heft •
calculated to give effed to their defign.
The veflments of women in Greece generally con-
fifted of linen cloth, or fome other light ftuff, and in
latter times of filk and fometimes of woollen cloth.
They had alfo garments embroidered with gold. In
the works of fculpture, as well as in thofe of paintiag,.
one may diftinguifh the linen by its tranfparency and
f'mall united folds. The other light fluffs which were
worn by the women (a) were generally of cotton pro¬
duced in the ifle of Cos ; and thefe the art of ftatuary
was able to diftinguifh from the linen veftments. The
cotton cloth was fometimes ftriped, and fometimes em-
bellifhed with a profufton of flowers. Silk was alfo
employed ; but whether it was known in Greece before
the time of the Roman emperors cannot eafily be deter¬
mined. In paintings, it is diftinguifhable by changing
its colour in different lights to red, violet, and fky-blue.
There were two forts of purple; that which the Greeks
called the co/our of the Jea, and Tyrian purple, which
refembled lac. Woollen garments are eaiily known by
the
(a) Men fometimes wore cotton, but all who did fo were reckoned effeminate.
tiie amplitude of their folds. Befides thefe, cloth of
gold fometimes compofed their drapery: but it was
not like the modern fabric, confiding of a thread of
gold or of diver fpun with a thread of filk ; it was com-
pol'ed of gold or filver alone, without any mixture.
1 he veftments of the Greeks, which deferve particu-
*7 Jar attention, are the tunic, the robe, and the mantle.
The tunic. I he tunic was that part of the drefs which was next
to the body. It may be feen in lleeping figures, or in
thofe in difhabdle ; as in the Flora Farnele, and in the
ftatues of the Amazons in the Capitol. The youngeft
of the daughters of Niobc, who throws herfelf at lier
mother’s iide, is clothed only with a tunic. It was of
linen, or fome other light duff, without fleeves, fixed
to the fhoulders by a button, io as to cover the whole
bread.^ None but the tunics af the goddefs Ceres and
comedians have long draight fieeves.
The robe. > J he robes of women commonly confided of two long
pieces of woollen cloth, without any pai titular form, at¬
tached to the fhoulders by a great many buttons, and
fometimes by a clafp. They had draight fleeves which
came down to the wrifts. I fie young girls, as well as
the women, fadencd their robe to their fide by a cinc¬
ture, in the fame way as the high-pried of the Jews fa-
iiened his, as it is (till done in many parts of Greece.
The cinflure formed on the fide a knot of ribbons
fometimes refembling a rofe in fhape, which has been
particularly remarked in the two beautiful daughters of
Niobe. In the younger of thefe the cin&ure is feen
palling over the fhoulders and the back. Venus has
two cinaures, the one palling over the fhoulder, and
the other furrounding the waift. The latter is called
19 ce-r?s ky the poets.
The man- -^he mantle was called peplon by the Greeks, which
■tk. fignifies propei ly the mantle of Pallas. The name was
afterwards applied to the mantles of the other gods, as
well as to thofe of men. This part of the drefs was not
iquare, as fome have imagined, but of a roundifh form,
i he ancients indeed fpeak in general of fquare mantles,
but they received this fliape from four taflels which
were affixed to them ; two of thefe were vifible, and
two were concealed under the mantle. The mantle
was brought under the right arm, and over the left
moulder ; fometimes it was attached to the fhoulder by
two buttons, as may be feen in the beautiful ftatue of
3o .Leucothoe at Villa Albani.
?tehC0lT. co^our of veftments peculiar to certain ftatues
Scms 18 t0° C“nous to be To begin with the fi¬
gures of the gods.—rJ he drapery of Jupiter was red,
that of Neptmie is fuppofed by Winkelman to have been
fea-gieen. i he fame colour alfo belonged to the Ne¬
reids and Nymphs. The mantle of Apolio was blue
or violet. Bacchus was drefted in white. Martianus
Capella affigns green to Cybele. Juno’s veftments were
fky-blue, but fhe fometimes had a white veil. Pallas
w as robed m a flame-coloured mantle. In a paintino-
of Herculaneum, Venus is in flowing drapery of a gol¬
den yellow. Kings were arrayed in purple ; priefts in
white ; and conquerors fometimes in feq-green.
C U L P T u R E.
iV ith refpe& to the head, women generally wore no
covering but their hair ; when they wifhed to cover
their head, they ufed the corner of their mantle. 
.sometimes we meet with veils of a fine tranfparent tex-
ture. Old women wore a kind of bonnet upon their
head, an example of which may be feen in a ftatue in
the Capitol, called the frjjica , but Winkelman thinks
it is a ftatue of Hecuba.
The covering of the-feet confifted of fnoes or fan-
dais. The fandals were generally an inch thick, and
compofed of more than one foie of cork. Thofe of
Pallas in Villa Albani has two foies, and other ftatues
had no lefs than five.
V ink Elman has affigned four different ftyles to this 3*
a^t* Abe anctent ftyle, which continued until the time frT
of I hidias ; the grand ftyle, formed by that celebrated among thc
Itatuary ; the beautiful, introduced by Praxiteles, A- Greeks,
pellcs, and Lyfippus ; and the imitative ftyle, pradlifed
by thofe artifts who copied the works of the ancient
mafters.
i he moft authentic monuments of the ancient ftyle p*. .
are medals, containing an infeription, which leads uscicntflyle.
back to very diftant times. The writing is from right
to left in the Hebrew manner ; a ufage which was aban¬
doned before the time «f Flerodotus. The ftatue of
Agamemnon at Elis, which was made by Ornatas, has A
an infeription from right to left. This artifar. flourifh-
ed 50 years before Phidias ; it is in the intervening pe¬
riod therefore between thefe two artifts, that wc are to
look for the cefl'ation of this pra&ice. The ftatues
formed in the ancient ftyle were neither diftinguifhed
by beauty of fhape nor by proportion, but bore a cloie
refemblance to thofe of the Egyptians and Etrurians
(b) ; the -yes were long and flat; the fe&ion of the
mouth not horizontal; the chin was pointed ; the curls
of the hair were ranged in little rings, and refembled
grains mclofed in a heap of raifins. What was ftill
worfe, it was impoffible by inlpeding the head to di-
ftinguifh the iex
The characters of this ancient ftyle were thefe : The
defigning was energetic, but harffi ; it was animated,
but without gracefulnefs ; and the violence of the ex-
preffion deprived the whole figure of beauty.
The grand ftyle was brought te perfection by Phi-pheiL,?
dias, Polycletus, Scopas, Alcamenes, Myron, and other ftylef
illuftnous artifts. It is probable, from fome pafiases
of ancient writers, that in this ftyle were preferved fome
charadters of the ancient manner, fuch as the ftraight
lines, the fquares and angles. The ancient mafters,
fuch as Polycletus, being the legiflators of propor¬
tions, fays Winkelman, and of confequence thinking
they had a right to diftribute the meafures and di-
menfions of the parts of the human body, have un¬
doubtedly facrificed fome degree of the form of beauty
to a grandeur which is harfh, in comparifon of the flow¬
ing contours and graceful forms of their fucccffor? ;
J he moft confiderable monuments of the grand ftyle
are the ftatues of Niobe and her daughters, and a fi¬
gure
the Greeks received the rudiments ^f^h^ art ml ^ tLe ®rtlcles to.yhl’ch we liave referred, that
debted for the elements of fciencc, ' t h'ure ^iom tbe nations to winch they were confefledly in.
S C U L P
g'ure of Pallas, to be feen in Villa Alban! ; which, how¬
ever, mud not be confounded with the ftatue which is
modeHed according to the fir ft ftyle, and is alfo found
in the fame place. The head poffefTes all the chatac*
ters of dignified beauty, at the fame time exhibiting the
rigidnefs of the ancient ftyle. The face is defe&ive in
gracefulnefs ; yet it Ts evident how eafy it would have
been to give the features more roundnefs and grace.
The figures of Niobe and her daughters have not, in
the opinion of Winkelman, that aufterity of appear¬
ance which marks the age ot the ftatue of Pallas. They
are charafterized by grandeur and fimplicity : fo limple
are the forms, that they do not appear to be the tedious
productions of art, but to have been created by an in-
ftantaneous effort of nature.
The grace. The third ftyle was the graceful or beautiful. Lyfip-
ful ftyle. pus was perhaps the artift who introduced this ftyle.
Being more converfant than his predeceffors with the
fweet, the pure, the flowing, and the beaut’ful lines of
nature, he avoided the fquare forms which the mafters
of the fecond ftyle had too much employed. He was
of opinion that the ufe of the art was rather to pleafe
than to aftonilh, and that the aim of the artift Ihould
be to raife admiration by giving delight. The artifts
who cultivated this ftyle did not, however, negleft to
ftudy the fublime works of their predeeeffors. They
knew that grace is confiftent with the moft dignified
beauty, and that it poffeffes charms which mull ever
pleafe : they knew alfo that thefe charms are enhanced
by dignity. Grace is infuled into all the movements
and attitudes of their ftatues, and it appears in the de¬
licate turns of the hair, and even in the adjufting of the
drapery. Every fort of grace was well known to the
ancients ; and great as the ravages of time have been
amongft the works of art, fpeeimens are Hill preferved,
in which can be diftinguilhed dignified beauty, attrnaive
beauty, and a beauty peculiar to infants. A fpecimen
of dignified beauty may be feen in the ftatue of one of
the mufes in the palace of Barberini at Rome ; and in
the garden of the pope, on the Quirinal is a ftatue of an¬
other mufe, which affords a fine inftance of attractive
beauty. Winkelman fays that the moft excellent mo¬
del of infant beauty which antiquity has tranfmitted to
us is a fatyr of a year old, which is preferved, though
1 a little mutilated, in Villa Albani.
Tie imita- The great reputation of Praxiteles and Apelles raifed
Jive ftyle. an ardent emulation in their fuccefibrs, who defpairing
to furpafs fuch illuftrious mafters, were fatisfied with
imitating their works. But it is well known that a
mere imitator is always inferior to the matter whom
he attempts to copy . When no original genius appears,
the art mult therefore decline.
.
Materials Clay was the firft material which was employed in
ftatues.C'an ftatuai7- '^'n ^n^ance tk’8 may be ^een in a figure
‘ of Alcamenes in bas-relief in Villa Albani. The an¬
cients ufed their fingers, and efpecially their nails, to ren-
-y der certain parts more delicate and lively: hence arofe the
r £'ay and phrafe ad unguem fattus homo., “ an accomplilhed man.,,
plafter. It was the. opinion of count Caylus that the ancients
did not ufe models in forming their ftatues. But to dif-
prove this, it is only neceffary to mention an engraving
on a ftone in the cabinet of Stofch, which reprefents
Prometheus engraving the figure of a man, with a
plummet in his hand, to meafure the proportions of his
t u R E. ■ ,83
model. The ancients as well as the moderns made
works in platter ; but no fpecimens remain except fome
figures in bas-relief, of which the moft beautiful were
found at Baia. ^3
The works made of Ivory and filver were generally Ivory, ftf.
of a fmall fize. Sometimes, however, ftatues of a pro-ve.r' anc*
digious fize were formed of gold and ivory. The co-8”1”’
loffal Minerva of Phidias, which was compofed of thefe
materials, was 26 cubits high. It is indeed fcarcely
poflible to believe that ftatues of fuch a fize could en¬
tirely confift of gold and ivory. The quantity of ivory
neceffary to a coloffal ftatue is beyond conception. M.
de Pauw calculates that the ftatue of Jupiter Olympus,
which was 54 feet high, would confume the teeth of
300 elephants.
^ The Greeks generally hewed their marble ftatues out Marbles
of one block, though they after worked the heads fepa-
rately, and fometimes the arms. The heads of the
famous group of Niobe and her daughters have been
adapted to their bodies after being feparately f niftied. It
is proved by a large figure reprefenting a river, which
is preferved in Villa Albani, that the ancients firft
hewed their ftatues roughly before they attempted to
finifh any part. When the ftatue had received "its per-
fedt figure, they next proceeded to polifti it with pumice-
ftone, and again carefully retouched every part with
the child.
The ancients, when they employed porphyry, ufually Porphyry*
made the head and extremities of marble. It is true,
that at Venice there are four figures entirely compofed
of porphyry; but thefe are the produdtions of the Greeks
of the middle age. They alfo made ftatues of bafaltes
and alabafter.
Without expreffion, gefture, and attitude, no fi-ExprYlficw
gure can be beautiful, becaufe in thefe the graces al-anii al¬
ways rdide. It was for this reafon that the graces aretude’
always reprefented as the companions of Venus.
The expreffion of tranquillity was frequent in Gre¬
cian ftatues, becaufe, according to Plato, that was con-
fidered as the middle ftate of the foul between pleafure
and pain. Experience too ftiows that in general the
moft beautiful perfons are endowed with the fweeteft
and moft engaging manner. Without a fedatel tran¬
quillity dignified beauty could not exift. It is in this
tranquillity, therefore, that we muft look for the com¬
plete difplay of genius.
The moft elevated fpecies of tranquillity and repofein thefts-
was Itudied in the figures of the gods. The father oftues of tbs-
the gods, and even inferior divinities, are reprefentedS0^*
without emotion or refentment. It is thus that Homer
paints Jupiter fhaking Olympus by the motion of his
hair and his eyebrows.
Shakes his ambrohal curls, and gives the nod,
The ftamp of fate and fan&ion of the god.
Jupiter is not always exhibited in this tranquil ftate. In
a bas-relief belonging to the Marquis Rondini he ap¬
pears feated on an arm-chair with a melancholy afpedt.
The Apollo of the Vatican reprefents the god in a fit of
rage againlt the ferpent Python, which he kills at a
blow. The artift, adopting the opinion of the poets,
has made the nofe the feat of anger, and the lips the
feat of difdain. 45
Toexprefsthe aaionof a hero, the Grecian fculptors!"
0 ' delmeatedhsrwfev
i84 S C U L
delineated the countenance of a noble virtuous character
n preffing his groans, and allowing no exprefiion of pain
to appear. In deferibing the aftions of a hero the
poet has much more liberty than thtf artift. 1 he poet
can paint them Inch as they were before, men were
taught to fubdue their paffions by the reftraints of law,
or the refined cuftoms of focial life. But the artift,
obliged to leledt the mod beautiful forms, is reduced to
the neceffity of giving fuch an expreflion o*7 the patlions
as may not fhock our feelings and difgufl us with his
production. The truth of thefe remarks will be ac¬
knowledged by thofe who have feen two of the molt beau¬
tiful monuments of antiquity ; one of which reprefents
the fear of death, the other the mod violent pains and
fufferings. The daughters of Niobe, againft whom Diana
has difeharged her fatal arrows, are exhibited in that
date of dupefaCtion which we imagine mud take place
when the certain profpeft of death deprives the foul of
all fendbility. '1 he fable prefer.ts us an image of that
itupor which Efchylus deferibes as feizing the Niobe
when they wrere transformed into a rock. The other
monument referred to is the image of Laocoon, which
exhibits the mod agonizing pain that can affeCt the
mufcles, the nerves, and the veins. The fuflerings of
the body and the elevation of the foul are expred'ed in
every member with equal energy, and form the mod
fublime contrad imaginable. Laocoon appears to fuf-
fer with fuch fortitude, that, wTilft his lamentable dur¬
ation pierces the heart, the whole figure fills us with an
ambitious defire of imitating his condancy and magna¬
nimity in the pains and iufferings that may fall to our
lot.
Philoftetes is introduced by the poets fhedding tears,
uttering complaints, and rending the air wuth his groans
and cries ; but the artid exhibits him filent and bear¬
ing his pains with dignity. The Ajax of the celebra¬
ted painter Timomachus is not drawn in the aft of de-
droying the fiieep which he took for the Grecian chiefs,
but in the moments of refleftion which fucceeded that
frenzy. So far did the Greeks carry their love of
ealmnefs and flow movements, that they thought a
quick dep always announced rudicity of manners. De-
ir.odhenes reproaches Nicobulus for this very thing ;
and from the words he makes ufe of, it appears, that to
fpeak with iniblence and to walk hadily were reckoned
44 lynonymous.
fn the fta- In the figures of women, the artids have conformed
tues of t0 the principle obferved in all the ancient tragedies, and
women. recommended by Aridotle, never to make women fhow
too much intrepidity or exceffive cruelty. Conforma¬
ble to this maxim, Clytemnedra is reprefented at a little
didance from the fatal fpot, watching the murderer, but
wuthout taking any part with him. In a painting of
Timomachus reprefenting Medea and her children,
when Medea lifts up the dagger they fmile in her face,
and her fury is immediately melted into compaffion for
the innocent viftims. In another reprefentation of the
fame fubjeft, Medea appears heiitating and indecifive.
Guided by the fame maxims, the artids of mod refined
tade were careful to avoid all deformity, choofing rather
to recede from truth than from their accuftomed refpeft
for beauty, as may be feen in feveral figures of Hecuba.
Sometimes, however, die appears in the decrepitude of
age, her face furrowed with wrinkles, and her breads
hanging down.
p T u R E.
Illuftrious men, and thofe invefted with offices of 45
dignity, are reprefented with a noble adurance and firm,n t,!l' ftp-
afpeft. The datues of the Roman emperors refemble
thofe of heroes, and are far removed from every fpecies {,crors.
of flattery, in the gedure, in the attitude, and aftion.
They never gppear with haughty looks, or with the
fplendor of royalty ; no figure is ever feen prefenting
any thing to them with bended knee, except captives ;
and none addred’es them with an inclination of the head.
In modern works too little attention has been paid to
the ancient cojiume. Winkelman mentions a bas-relief,
which was lately executed at Rome for the fountain of
Trevi, reprefenting an architeft in the aft of prefenting
the plan of an aqueduft to Marcus Agrippa. The
modern fcnlptor, not content writh giving a long beard
to that illuftrious Roman, contrary to all the ancient
marble ftatues as well as medals which remain, exhibits
the architeft on his knees.
In general, it was an eftablifhed principle to banifh all
violent paffions from public monuments. This will
ferve as a decifive mark to diftinguifh the true antique
from fuppofititious works. A medal has been found
exhibiting two Aftyrians, a man and woman tearing
their hair, with this infeription, Assyria, f.t. palaes-
tina. in. potest, p. r. redac. s. c. The forgery of
this medal is manifeft from the word Pa/aejiir.a, which
is not to be found in any ancient Roman medal with a
Latin infeription. Befides, the violent aftion of tearing
the hair does not fuit any fymbolical figure. This ex¬
travagant ftyle, which was called by the ancientsparen-
thyrjis, has been imitated by moll of the modern artifts.
Their-figures refemble comedians on the ancient theatres,
who, in order to fuit the dillant fpeftators, put on paint¬
ed malks, employed exaggerated geftures, and far over¬
leaped the bounds of nature. This ftyle has been re¬
duced into a theory in a treatife on the palfions compo-
fed by Le Brun. The defigns which accompany that
work exhibit the paffions in the very highell degree,
approaching even to frenzy: but thefe are calculated to
vitiate the taile, efpecially of the young ; for the ardour
of youth prompts them rather to feize the extremity
than the middle ; and it will be difficult for that artilt
who has formed his tafle from fuch empaffioned models
ever to acquire that noble fimplicity and fedate gran¬
deur which diftinguilhed the works of ancient tafte.
Proportion is the bafis of beauty, and there can beOfpropor-
no beauty without it; on the contrary, proportion may d013*-
exift where there is little beauty. Experience every
day teaches us that knowledge is diftinft from tafte ; and
proportion, therefore, which is founded on knowledge,
may be ftriftly obferved in any figure, and yet the figure
have no pretenlions to beauty. The ancients confider-
ing ideal beauty as the moft perfeft, have frequently-
employed it in preference to the beauty of nature.
The body confifts of three parts as well as the mem¬
bers. The three parts of the body are the trunk, the
thighs, and the legs. The inferior part of the body
are the thighs, the legs, and the feet. The arms alfo
confift of three parts. Thefe three parts muft bear a
certain proportion to the whole as well as to one an¬
other. In a well formed man the head and body muft
be proportioned to the thighs, the legs, and the feet, in
the fame manner as the thighs are proportioned to the
legs and the feet, or the arms to the hands. The face
7
Ay''
SCULP
part?, that js, three times the length
of the nofe ; but the head is not four times the length of
the nofe, as fome writers have afferted. From the place
where the hair begins to the crown of the head are
only three-fourths of the length of the nofe, or that
part Is to the nofe as 9 to 12.
It Is probable that the Grecian, as well as Egyptian
artifts, have determined the great and fmall proportions
by fixed rules; that they have eftabllfhed a pofidve
meafure for the dlmenfions of length, breadth, and cir¬
cumference. This fuppofition alone can enable us to
account for the great conformity which we meet with
in ancient ftatues. Winkelman thinks that the foot was
the meafure which the ancients ufed in all their great
dimenfions, and that it was by the length of it that
they regulated the meafure of their figures, by giving
to them fix times that length. This in fa& is the
length which Vitruvius afiigns, Pes vero aftitudinis cor¬
poris fexta, 1. 3. cap. r. That celebrated antiquary
thinks the foot is a more determinate meafure than
the head or the face, the parts from which modern
painters and fculptors too often take their proportions.
This proportion of the foot to the body, which has ap¬
peared ftrange and incomprehenfible to the learned
Huetius, and has been entirely teje&ed by Ferrault, is
however founded upon experience. After meafuring
with great care a vail number ol figures, Winkelman
found this proportion obferved not only in Egyptian
ftatues, but alfo in thofe of Greece. This fad may be
determined by an infpe&ion of thofe ftatues the feet
of which are perfed. One may be fully convinced of
it by examining fome divine figures, in which the
artifts have made fome parts beyond their natural di¬
menfions. In the Apollo Belvidere, which is a little
more than feven heads high, the foot is three Roman
inches longer than the head. The head of the Venus
de Medicis is very fmall, and the height of the ftatue is
feven heads and a half: the foot is three inches and a
half longer than the head, or precifely the fixth part of
the length of the whole ftatue.
Practice of Sculpture.
47
Ctredan We have been thus minute in our account of the
fculpture Grecian fculpture, becaufe it is the opinion of the ablelt
diedV^he critics that modern artifts have been more or lefs emi-
nlodern ar- nent as they have ftudied with the greater or lefs atten-
tiils. tion the models left us by that ingenious people :
Winkelman goes fo far as to contend that the moft fi-
niftied works of the Grecian mafters ought to be ftudied
in preference even to the works of nature. This ap¬
pears to be paradoxical; but the reafon affigned by the
Abbe for his opinion is, that the faireft lines of beauty
are more eafily difeovered, and make a more ftriking
and powerful imprefiion, by their reunion in thefe fub-
lime copies, than when they are fcattered far and wide
in the original. Allowing, therefore, the ftudy of na¬
ture the high degree of merit it fo juftly claims, it muft
neverthelefs be granted, that it leads to true beauty by
a much more tedious, laborious, and difficult path, than
the ftudy of the antique, which prefents immediately to
tiie artift’s view the objeft of his refearches, and com¬
bines in a clear and ftrong point of light the various
rays of beauty that are difperfed through the wide do¬
main of nature.
As foon as the artift has laid this excellent founda-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
TURK. 18s
tion, acquired an intimate degree of familiarity with
the beauties of the Grecian ftatues, and formed his tafte
after the admirable models they exhibit, he may then
proceed with advantage and affurance to the imitation
of nature. The ideas he has already formed of the per-
feftion of nature, by obferving her difperfed beauties
combined and collected in the compofitions of the mi.
cient artifts, will enable him to acquire with facility,
and to employ with advantage, the detached and partial
ideas of beauty which will be exhibited to his view in a
furvey of nature in her actual ftate. When he difeovers
thefe partial beauties, he will be capable of combining
them with thofe perfeft forms of beauty with which
he is already acquainted. In a word, by having always
prefent to his mind the noble models already mention¬
ed, he will be in fome meafure his own oracle, and will
draw rules from his own mind. 4g
There are, however, two ways of imitating nature. Two way*
In the one a {ingle object occupies the artift, who en-gfimiu-
deavours to reprefent it with precifion and truth ; in tin£ na"
the other, certain lines and features are taken from a
variety of objedls, and combined and blended into one
regular whole. All kinds of copies belong to the firft
kind of imitation ; and productions of this kind muft
be executed neceflarily in the Dutch manner, that is to
fay, with high finiftting, and little or no invention. But
the fecond kind of imitation leads diredtly to the invefti-
gation and difeovery of true beauty, of that beauty
whofe idea is connate with the human mind, and is only
to be found there in its higheft perfection. This is
the kind of imitation in which the Greeks excelled, and
in which men of genius excite the young artifts to ex¬
cel after their example, viz. by ftudying nature as they
did.
After having ftudied in the productions of the Gre¬
cian mafters their choice and exprefiion of feleCt na~
ture, their fublime and graceful contours, their noble
draperies, together with that fedate grandeur and ad¬
mirable fimplicity that conftitute their chief merit, the
curious artifts will do well to ftudy the manual and me¬
chanical part of their operations, as this is abfolutely
neceflary to the fuccefsful imitation of their excellent
manner. '' v 49
It is certain that the ancients almoft always formed Models o£
their firft models in wax: to this modern artifts have ftatues.
fubftituted clay, or fome fuch compofition : they prefer
clay before wax in the carnations, on account of the
yielding nature of the latter, and its {ticking in fome
meafure to every thing it touches. We muft not, how¬
ever, imagine irom hence that the method of forming
models of wet clay was either unknown or neglefted
among the Greeks ; on the contrary, it was in Greece
that models of this kind were invented. Their author
was Dibutades of Sicyon ; and it is well known that
Arcelilas, the friend of Lucullus, obtained a higher de¬
gree of reputation by his clay models than by all his
other productions. Indeed, if clay could be made to
preferve its original moifture, it would undoubtedly be
the fitteft fubftance for the models ol the fculptor; but
when it is placed either in the fire or left to dry im¬
perceptibly in the air, its folid parts grow more com¬
pact, and the figure lofing thus a part of its dimenfions,
is neceffarily reduced to a fmaller volume. This dimi¬
nution would be of no confequencc did it equcdly affeCt
the whole figure, fo as to preferve its proportions en-
A a tire„
SCULPTURE.
tire. But this is not the cafe : for the fmaller parts
of the figure dry fooner than the larger ; and thus lofing
more of their dimenfions in the fame fpace of time than
the htter do, the fymmetry and proportions of the figure
inevitably fuffer. This inconveniency does not take
place in thofe models that are made in wax. It is In¬
deed extremely difficult, in the ordinary method of
working the wax, to give it that degree of fmoothnefs
that is neceffary to reprefent the loftnefs of the carna¬
tions or flefiiy parts of the body. This-inconvenience
may, however, be remedied, by forming the model firll
' in clay, then moulding it in plailer, and lafily calling it
in wax. And, indeed, clay is feldom ufed but as,a mould
in which to call a figure of plafter, ftucco, or wax, to
ferve henceforth for a model by which the meafures and
proportions of the ftatue are to be adjufted. In ma¬
king waxen models, it is common to put half a pound
of colophony to a pound of wax ; and fome add turpen-
tine, melting the whole with oil of olives.
Mer’in d of So much for the firft or preparatory fteps in this
wo.kirg procedure. It remains to confider the manner of work-
tie and" t^ie mar^^e after the model fo prepared ; and the me-
‘ thod here followed by the Greeks feems to have been
extremely different from that which is generally obler-
ved by modern artifts. In the ancient ftatues we
find the mod ftriking proofs of the freedom and bold-
nefs that accompanied each ftroke of the child, and
which refulted from the artilt’s being perfectly fure of
the accuracy of his idea, and the precifion and lleadi-
nefs of his. hand : the mod minute parts of the figure
carry thefe marks of affurance and freedom; no indica¬
tion of timoroufnefs or diffidence appear ; nothing that
can induce us to fancy that the artid had occafion to
correid any of his drokes. It is difficult to find, even
in the fecond-rate produftions of the Grecian artids,
any mark of a falfe droke or a random touch. This
firmnefs and precifion of the Grecian chifel were cer¬
tainly derived from a more determined and perfect fet
of rules than thofe which are obferved in modern times.
The method generally obferved by the modern fculp-
tor is as follows : Firlf, out of a great block of marble
he faws another of the fize required, which is perform¬
ed with a fmooth deel faw, without teeth, calling water
, and fand thereon from time to time; then he fafhions
it, by taking off what is fuperduous with a deel point
and a heavy hammer of foft iron ; after this, bringing
it near the rrreafure required, he reduces it dill nearer
with another finer point; he then ufes a flat cutting
inflrument, having notches in its edge; and then a
chifel to take off the fcratches which the former has
left ; till, at length, taking rafps of different degrees of
finenefs. by degrees he brings his work into a condition
for polifhing.
After this, having dudied his model with all poffible
attention, he draws upon this model horizontal and per¬
pendicular lines which interfeft each other at right
angles. He afterwards copies thefe lines upon his
marble, as the painter makes ufe of fuch tranfverfal
lines to copy a pifture, or to reduce it to a fmaller fize.
Thefe traniverial lines or fquares, drawn in an equal
number upon the marble and upon the model, in a man¬
ner proportioned to their refpehtive dimenfions, exhibit
accurate meafures of the furfaces upon which the artid
is to work ; but cannot determine, with equal precifion,
2he depths that are proportioned to thefe furfaces.—■
The fculptor, indeed, may determine thefe depths by
obferving the relation they bear to his model; but as
his eye is the only guide he has to follow in this edi-
mate, he is always more or lefs expofed to error, or at
lead to doubt. He is never fure that the cavities made
by his chifel are exaft; a degree of uncertainty accom¬
panies each droke; nor can he be affured that it has
carried away neither too much nor too little of his mar¬
ble. It is equally difficult to determine, by fuch lines
as have already been mentioned, the external and inter¬
nal contours of the figure, or to transfer them from the
model to the marble. By the internal contour is un-
derdood that which is deferibed by the parts which ap¬
proach towards the centre, and which are not marked
in a driking manner.
It is farther to be noticed, that in a complicated and
laborious work, which an artid cannot execute without
affidance, he is often obliged to make ufe of foreign
hands, that have not the talents or dexterity that are
neceffary to finiffi his plan. A fingle droke of the chifel
that goes too deep is a defect not to be repaired ; and
fuch a droke may eafily happen, where the depths are
fo imperfectly determined. Defeats of this kind are in¬
evitable, if the fculptor, in chipping his marble, begins
by forming the depths that are requifite in the figure he
deligns to reprefent. Nothing is more liable to error
than this manner of proceeding. The cautious artid
ought, on the contrary, to form thefe depths gradually,
by little and little, with the utmod circumfpecfion and
care ; and the determining of them with precifion ought
to be confidered as the lad part of his work, and as the
finifhing touches of his chifel. ^
The various inconveniences attending this method of copy-
determined feveral eminent artids to look out for one ing ancient
that would be liable to lefs uncertainty, and produCliveltatue5*
of fewer errors. The French academy of painting at
Rome hit upon a method of copying the ancient fta¬
tues, which fome fculptors have employed with fuccefs,
even in the figures which they finifhed after models in clay
or wax. This method is as follows. The datue that is
to be copied is inclofed in a frame that fits it exadtly.
The upper part of this frame is divided into a certain
number of equal parts, and to each of thefe parts a
thread is fixed with a piece of lead at the end of it.
Thefe threads, which hang freely, (how what parts of
the datue are mod removed from the centre with much
more perfpicuity and precifion than the lines which are
drawn upon its furface, and which pafs equally over the
higher and hollow parts of the block : they alfo give
the artid a tolerable rule to meafure the more ftriking
variations of height and depth, and thus render him.
more bold and determined in the execution of his plan.
But even this method is not without its defeats : for
as it is impoffible, by the means of a draight line, to
determine with preciiion the procedure of a curve, the
artid has, in this method, no certain rule to guide him
in his contours; and as often as the line which he is to
deferibe deviates from the direction of the plumb line,,
which is his main guide, he mud neceffarily find himfelf
at a lofs, and be obliged to have recourfe to conjecture.
It is alfo evident, that this method affords no certain
rule to determine exadtly the proportion which the va¬
rious pants of the figure ought to bear to each other,
confidered in their mutual relation and connections*
The artid, indeed, endeavours to fupply this defect by
2 inter-
SCULPTUR E.
187
interfetting the plumb-lines by horizontal ones. This
recourfe has, ntverthelefs, its inconveniences, lince the
fquares formed by tranfverfal lines, that are at a diftance
from the figure (though they be exactly equal), yet
reprefent the parts of the figure as greater or fmaller,
according as they are more or lefs removed from our
poiition or point of view. But, notwithfianding thefe
inconveniences, the method now under confideration is
certainly the bell that has hitherto been employed : it is
more pradlicable and iure than any other we know,
though it appears, from the remarks we have now been
making, that it does not exhibit a lure and univerfal cri¬
terion to a fculptor who executes alter a model. 51
To poliih the ftatue, or make the parts of it fmoothp£" P!>h&
and lleek, they ufe pumice-ftone and fmelt; then tripoli;
and when a Hill greater luftre is required, they ufe
burnt draw. Forthe Cajting of Statuesy lee Foundery,
and Plastez of Paris.
s c u
SCUM, properly denotes the impurities which a li¬
quor, by boiling, calls up to the furface. The term
feum is alfo ufed for what is more properly called the
fcoria of metals.
SCUPPERS, in a {hip, are certain channels cut
through the water-ways and fides of a firip, at proper
diltances, and lined with plated lead, in order to carry
the water off from the deck into the fea. The (cup¬
pers of the lower deck of a firip of war are ufually fur-
nifired with a leathern pipe, called the fcvpper-hofe, which
hangs downward from the mouth or opening of the
feupper. The intent of this is to prevent the water
from entering when the firip inclines under a weight of
fail.
SCURVY, in medicine, fee that article, n3 351,
where we have given an account of the fymptoms,
caufes, and modes of prevention and cure, according to
fome of the moll eminent writers in medicine. We have
here only to add, that, in the opinion of Dr Beddoes,
the mineral acids, elpecially the nitric and vitriolic, may
be employed in the prevention or cure of this dreadful
difeafe with as much fuccefs as the vegetable acids.—
But of all- the fubllances that can at once be cheaply
procured and long preierved, he thinks the concrete
acid of tartar by far the moil promifing. It is very
grateful, and comes near to the citric acid. In tropi¬
cal countries the feurvy is feldom known.
Scvkvr grafs, in botany. See Cochlearea.
The officinalis, or common officinal feurvy-grafs,
grows upon rocks on the fea coalt, and on the High¬
land mountains, abundantly. It has an acrid, bitter,
and acid talle, and is highly recommended for the feur¬
vy. There are inftances oi a whole firip’s crew having
been cured of that diltemper by it ; and as it abounds
with acid falts, there can be no doubt but that it is a
great refiller-of putrefadlion. The bell way of taking
it is raw in a falad. It is alfo diuretic, and ufeful in
dropfies. 'I he Highlanders elteem it as a good lio-
machic.
The coronopus, another fpecies, was fome years ago
rendered lamous, the allies of it being an ingredient in
Mrs Joanna Stephens’s celebrated medicine tor the Hone
and gravel ; but, unfortunately for thole affii&ed witli
that excruciating complaint, it has not been able to
fupport its credit. It is acrid, and talles like garden
crefs.
SCUTAGE (feutagium, Sax. fcildpening), was a tax
or contribution railed by thofe that held lands by
knights fervice, towards furnilhing the king’s army, at
one, two, or three merks for every knight’s fee. Hen¬
ry III. for his voyage to the Holy Land, had a tenth
granted by the clergy, andfeutage three merks of every
S C Y
knight’s fee by the laity. This was alfo levied by
Henry II. Richard I. and King John. See Knight*
Service.
SCUTE [feutum), a French gold coin of 3 s. qd.
in the reign of king Henry V. Catharine queen of
England had an affurance made her of fundty caHks,
manors, lands, &c. valued at the fum of 40,000 fcutest
every two whereof were worth a noble. Rot. Pari. 1.
Hen. VI.
SCUTELLARIA, Sku^l-cap, in botany : A ge¬
nus of the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didy-
namia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 40th order, Perfonatce. The calyx is fiiort,
tubulated, has the mouth entire, and dole after flower¬
ing. There are two fpecies in Britain, thegalericulata and
minor. 1. The Galcriculata, Blue Skull-cat), or Hooded
Willow-herb. The Hems are weak, branched, and above
a foot high ; the leaves are heart-lhaped, narrow-point¬
ed, on fiiort toot-fialks, and fcalloped ; the flowers are
blue, in pairs, on pedicles from the ?.ke of" the leaves,
and pendulous. It grou's on the banks of rivers and
laKes, is bitter, and has a garlic fmell. 2. Minor, little
red Skull-cap, or Willow-herb. The fialks are about
eight inches high; the leaves are heart-fhaped, oval;
the flow’ers are purple. It grows in fens, and on the
fides of lakes.
SCUTTLES, in a fiup, fquare holes cut in the
deck, big enough to let down the body of a man, and
which ferve upon fome occafions to let the people
down into any room below, or from one deck to ano¬
ther.
SCYLAX, a celebrated mathematician and gcof
grapher ol Caria, flourifhed under the reign of Darius
Flyflafpes, about 558 B. C. Some have attributed to
him the invention ot geographical tables. We have
under his name a geographical wrork publilhed by Hoef-
chelius ; but it is written by a much later author, and
is perhaps only an abridgment of Scylax’s Ancient Geo-
graphy.
SCYLLA (anc. geog.), a rock in the Fretum Si-
culum, near the coalt of Italy, dangerous to (hipping,
oppofrte to Charybdis, a whirlpool on the coalt ol Si¬
cily ; both of them famous in mythology.
Scylla and Charybdis have been almofi fubdued by Fhdhcrland't
the repeated convulfions of this part of the earth, and 7W up the
by the violence of the current, which is continually in- ^trait^ ..
creating the breadth of tire Straits. If proper allow- Le’tcr XU*
ance be made for thefe circumftances, we fhall acquit
the ancients of any exaggeration, notwitlutandiog the
very dreadful colours in which they have painted this
pafiage. It is formed by a low peniiifula, called Capf
Pelorus, ftretching to the eaflward on the Sicilian fide,
A a z mime-
S C Y [ 188 ] S C Y
Scyl’a immediately within which lies the famous whirlpool of
II . Charybdis, and by the rocks of Scylla, which a few
cyt ia’ miles'below on tlie Calabrian (hore projeft towards the
weft. The current runs with furprifing force from one
to the other alternately in the direction of the tide, and
the tides themfelves are very irregular. Thus veftels,
by fhunning the one, were in the utmoft danger of be¬
ing fwallowed up by the other
At prefent, in moderate weather, when the tide is
either at ebb or flood, boats pals all over the whirl¬
pool: but, in general, it is like the meeting of two con¬
tending currents, with a number of eddies all around;
and, even now, there is fcarcely a winter in which there
are not fome wrecks.
“ At the time when we palled the Straits (fays Cap¬
tain Sutherland, from whom we have obtained this ac¬
curate information) the weather was as favourable as
• we could wilh $ and yet, in fpite of a ftrong breeze and
the current, which hurried us on with furprifing velo¬
city, the fhip’s head was fuddenly whirled round near
three points ; but the wind blowing frefh, in a few fe-
conds fhe dafhed through the eddy that had caught her;
for, to avoid Scylla, and fecure Mdfina, we had kept
pretty clofe to Charybdis.”
SCYROS, an ifland in the JEgean fea, at the diftance
of about 28 miles north-call from Eubcna. It is 60
miles in circumference. It was originally in the pofief-
fion of the Pelafgians and Carians. Achilles retired
there to avoid going to the Trojan war, and became
father of Neoptolemus by Deidamia the daughter of
king Lyeomedes. Scyros was conquered by the Athe¬
nians under Cimbn. It was very rocky and barren.
bJow Sciro. E. Long. 25. o. N. Eat. 38. 15.
SCYTALA laconica, in antiquity, a ftratagem
or device of the Lacedemonians, for the feeret writing
of letters to their correfpondents, fo that if they ftould
chance t© be intercepted, nobody might be able to
read them.—To this end they had two wooden rollers
or cylinders, perfedlly alike and equal; one whereof
was kept in the city, the other by the perfon to whom
the letter was direfted. For the letter, a fldn of very
thin parchment was wrapped round the roller, and
thereon was the matter written ; which done, it was
taken off, and fent away to the party, who, upon put¬
ting it in the fame manner upon his roller, found the
lines and words in the very fame difpofitiom as when
they were fii ft written. This expedient they fet a very
high value on ; though, in truth, artlefs and grofs
enough: the moderns have improved vaftly on this me¬
thod of writing. See Cipher.
SCYTAL1A, in botany : A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the oclandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe that are
doubtful. The calyx is very fhort, monophyllous, and
fomewhat quinquedentated ; the corolla pentapetalous ;
the filaments hairy at the bafe ; the berry unilocular,
with one feed of a foft pulpy confiftence. There is on¬
ly one fpecies, viz. the Simnjis, a native of the Eaft In¬
dies.
SCYTHIA, an ancient name for the northern parts
©f Afia, now known by the name of Tartary ; alfa for
fome of the north-eaftern parts of Europe.
This vaft territory, which extends itfelf from the Ifter
or Danubej the boundary of tire Celts, that is, from
about the 25th to almoft the noth degree of eaft Ion- 6cvtMa„
gitude, was divided into Scythia in Europe and Scy-
thia in Afia; including, however, the two Sarmatias;
or, as they are called by the Greeks, Sauromatias, now
the Circaffian Tartary, which lay between and fevered
the two Scythias from each other. Sauromatia was
alio diftinguiftied into European and Afiatic ; and was
divided from the European Scythia by the river Lon
or Tanais, which falls into the Pains Mentis ; and from
the Afiatic by the Rdia, now Volga, which empties it¬
felf into the Cafpian fea.
1. The Afiatic Scythia comprehended, in gene¬
ral, great Tartary, and Ruffia in Afia ; and, in par¬
ticular, tire Scythia beyond or without Iroaus, contain¬
ed the regions of Bogdoi or Oftiacoi, and Tanguti.
That within, or on this fide Imaus, had Turkeftan and
Mongal, the Ufbeck or Zagatai, Kalmuc and Nagaian
Tartars ; befides Siberia, the land of the Samoiedes, and
Nova Zembla. Thefe three laft not being fo foon in¬
habited as the former, as may be reafonably fuppofed*
were wholly unknown to the ancients ; and the former
were peopled by' the Ba£trians, Sogdians, Gandari,
Sacks, and Maffagetes. As for Sarmatia, it contained
Albania, Iberia, and Colchis ; which makes now the
Circaffian Tartary, and the province of Georgia.
2. Scythia in Europe reached (towards the fouth-
vveft) to the Po and the Alps, by which it was divided
from Celto-Gallia. It was bounded on the fouth by the
Tfter or Danube and the Euxine fea. Its northern li¬
mits have been fuppofed to ftretch to the fpring-heads of
the Borifthenes or Nieper, and the Rha or Volga, and
fo to that of the Tanais The ancients divided this
country into Scythia Arimafpaea, which lay eaftward,
joining to Scythia in Afia; and Sarmatia Europeana
on the weft. In Scythia, properly fo called, were the
Arimafpaei on the north ; the Getae or Dacians along
the Danube, on the fouth; and the Neuri between
thefe two. So that it contained the European Ruffia
or Mufcovy, and the Lefler Crim Tartary eaftward; and,
on the weft, Lithuania, Poland, part of Hungary^
Tranfilvania, Walachia, Bulgaria, and Moldavia. Sar¬
matia is fuppofed to have reached northward to that’
part of Swfcdeland called Fentngia, now Finland; in
which they placed the Ocenes, Fanoti, and Hippopodes.
This part they divided from northern Germany, now
the weft part of Sweden atxl Norway, by the Mare
Sarmaticum or Scytbicumy which they fuppofed ran up
into the northern ocean; and, dividing Lapland into
two parts, formed the weftern part of Sweden, with
Norway, into one ifland, and Finland into another j
fuppofing this alio to be cut off from the continent by
the gulph of that name.
Although the ancient Scythians were celebrated as
a warlike people, yet their hiftory is- too uncertain ami
obfeure to enable us to give any detail which would not
prove equally tirefome and uninterefting to the reader.
Mr Pinkerton, in a differtationon their origin, endeavours
to prove that they were the moft ancient of nations j
and he affigns for the place of their firft habitation the
country known by the name of Perfia. From Perfia,
he thinks, they proceeded in numerous hordes weftward;
fm rounded the Euxine, peopled. Germany, Italy, Gaul,
the countries bordering on the Baltic, with part of
Britain and Ireland, 'i hat the, Scythians were of Afi-
SEA [ *89 1 SEA
origin ennno,. we think, he queHioned ijnd as tn^n^
unprobabfy ^hate^ee^i their* parenl count,; l bu, when fekin,. it fometimes rifes into lofty mountains. If the
our author contends that their empire had fubfifted for
more than 1500 years before Ninus the founder of the
Aflyrian monarchy, and that it extended from Egypt to
the Ganges, and from the Perfian gulf and Indian lea to
the Cafpian, we cannot help thinking that his preju¬
dices againft the Celts, and his defire to do honour to
Ee*,
depth of the fea be in proportion to the elevation of
the land, as has generally been fuppofed, its greateft
depth will not exceed five or fix miles, for there is no
mountain fix miles perpendicular above the level 0* the
fea. The fea has never been a&ually founded to a
hisefavouHte Goths'^have made him advance Tparadox ^nTthat^tWwe refts entirely upon coijeaure and
r 7? Fr,:inby
Jkh . variety of ^ ^
Scythian Lamb, in natur y ; depth ot the fea is in general well known, it has always
^rYTHROPS agenerical name given by Mr La- been found proportioned to the height of the Ihore ;
^^S^bithertobut^^ t K
obferved. 11^ ThTbiinXge convex, fur- low, the water fs (hallow. Whether this analogy holds
lowrdTn ihe fides.’aud ben, at the tip f the noftril. arc at a diftance from the (here, experiments alone can de¬
flated at the bafe of it. and the tongue is cloven at the te . . t ^ quantity of water contained in the Quairir,
^ feafwlt tdepth l nnk/own, is impoffible But if Sw
tail’, is black. The^l has each feather banded with we fuppde w,th ^contain.
Ss o'fthe'feathe" are marked with black and white 128,235,759 miles, will contain 32,058,939.75
iv-amrlo TIip toes are placed two forwards and two cubic miles or water. . f
bands. 1 he toes are piace ; d Let us now endeavour to compute the quantity of
£So^hE: ag„™:; belike hX pait wa^Zich is conftant.y difehajd into the fea. For
What pro-
I onion the
furface of
the fea
bears to
that of the
land.
S^n^tbutitis^uen^d^thatvaf! the^
b°Wh1t mopo^n iheTp^ficies of the fea bears to into the fea. Let us now fuppofe, what is perhaps not
tha^of the'land cannot eafily be afetrtained. Bnffon has ^
Depth of
the fea.
fuppofed that the furface of our globe is equally divided
between land and water, and has accordingly calculated
the fuperficies of the fea to be 85,490,506 (quare miles.
But it is now' well known that the ocean covers much
more than the half of the earth’s furface. _ Bu(fon be¬
lieved the exiftence of a vaft fouthern continent, which
Captain Cook has (hown to be vifionary. It was this
circumttance which mifled him. According to the
moll accurate obfervations hitherto made, the iunaee 01
tire fea is to the land as three to one; the ocean therefore
extends over 128,235,759 f(luare miles, fuppofing the
fuperficies of the whole globe to be 170,9 1,012 fquare
miles. To afeertain the depth of the fea is (till more
difficult than its fuperficies, both on account of the
numerous experiments which it would be nectfiary to
make, and the want of proper inftiuments for that pur-
pofe. Beyond a certain depth the fea has hitherto
been found unfathomable ; and though feveial methods
have been contrived to obviate this difficulty, none of
them has completely anfwered the purpole. We know
proportioned to the extent of that country. The Po<
from its origin to its mouth traverfes a country 380
miles long, and the rivers which fall into it on every
fide rife from fources about fixty miles diftant from it-
The Po, therefore, and the rivers which it receives, wa¬
ter a country of 45,600 fquare miles. Now fince the
whole fuperficies of the dry land is about 42,745>253'
fquare miles,, it follow*,- from our fuppofition, that the
quantity of water difeharged by all the rivers in the
world, in one day, is 36 cubic miles, and in a year
13,140. If therefore the fea contains 32,058,939 cubic
miles of water, it would take all the rivers in the w'orld
2439 years to difeharge an equal quantity. _ _
It may feem furprifing that the fea, fince it is con- ;t
tinually receiving fuch animmenle fupply of water, does a e% not
not vifibly increafe, and at laft cover the whole earth, increafe-
But our furpiife will oeafe, if we confkkr that the ri¬
vers thcmfclves are fupplied from the fea, and that tliey
do nothing more than carry back thofe waters w Inch
them has completely an w^re P T ^ „radually the ocean is continually lavifhing upon the earth. Dr
“ Zt eft, t HhiV^ Mley h»s dvmonftZd ,hat the vapoqts raifcd from
ce^in diftance, the depth in the middle of the ocean the fea and ttanfpoited upon and are inffic.enhto matn-
Zm be prodigious. Indeed the numerous iflands tarn al! the nversu. the world f he fnr.phcty of this
everywhere featured in the fea demonlUate the eon- great proeefe » aflomftung: the fea not only cormete
Sea.
SEA [ ,
diflant countries, and renders it eafy to tranfport the
commodities of one nation to another, but its v/aters
rihn<{ in the air ddeend in fhowers to fertilife the earth
and nourifh the vegetable kingdom, and colledting into
rivers flow onwards, bringing fertility and wealth and
commerce along with them, and again return to the fea
to repeat the fame round.
3hil ^ "i he knowledge of this procefs of nature might, one
yheWon * 'v0>dd think, have convinced philofophers that the pro-
thisfub- portion between fea and land continued always nearly
the fame. Philofophers however have formed different
theories about this as well as moft other fubjefis, main¬
taining on the one hand that the fea is continually
encroaching on the land, and on the other that the land
is conftantly gaming on the fea. Both fides have fup-
ported their theories by arguments, demonftrations, and
uncontrovertible fadls!
The height of the mountains, fay the philofophers
Theories
ject
land.
Arguments
who affirm who. f“PP®.rt the encroachments of the fea, is continual-
that the featy dimimfhing ; expofed to the violence of every ftorm,
is encroach-the hardeft rocks mult at laft give way and tumble
on the down. The rivers are continually fweeping- along with
them particles of earth which they depofite in the bot¬
tom ot the fea. Both the depth of the ocean then and
the height of the dry kmd muft be always decreafing ;
the waters therefore muft, unlcfs a part of them were
annihilated, fpread owm a greater extent of furface in
proportion as thefe caufes operate. This reafoning,
convincing as it is, might be confirmed by a great
number of fadts : it will be fufficient however to men¬
tion one or two. In the reign of Auguftus the ifle of
Wight made a part of Britain, fo that the Englifh
croffed over to it at low water with cart loads of tin ;
yet that illand is at prefent feparated from Britain by a
channel half a mile wide. Tire Godwin fands on the
eaftern fhore of England were formerly the fertile eflate
of earl Godwin. Nor are the encroachments of the
fca confined to Britain. In the bay of Bais near Na¬
ples there are remains of houfes and ftreets flill vifible
below the prefent level of the fea. The fea therefore
is making continued encroachments upon the land ; and
the time will come, fay they, when the waters will again
cover the furface of the earth.
Such are the arguments of thofe philofophers who
maintain the continual encroachments of the fea. Thofe
who maintain the oppofite theory, that the land is gra¬
dually gaining on the fea, though they pretend not to
on deny the fafts advanced by their opponents, affirm that
the ica. t}ley ar£ altogether infufficient to eflablifli the hypo-
thefis which they were brought forward to lupport.
Though the rivers cairy down particles of earth into
the fea, thefe, fay they, are either accumulated on other
fhores, or, collefting in the bottom of the ocean, harden
into Hone, which being pofiefTed of a vegetative power
rifes by degrees above the furface of the fea and form
rocks, and mountains, and iflands. The vegetative na¬
ture of ftone indeed is f'ufficient, of itfelf, to convince
us that the quantity of earth muft be daily accumula¬
ting, and confequently that the furface of the fea is di-
minifhing in extent. Cellms, a Swedifh philofopher
(for tins difpute has been catried on in Sweden with
the greateft keennefs), has endeavoured to build this
Argument
cf thofe
who affirm
that the
lard is
90 H SEA
theory with more folid materials than vegetable ftone. Sea^ «
In a curious memoir, publiilred in 1743, lie afterts that —v—^
the Baltic and the Atlantic, at leaf! that part of it which
wafhes Norway, is conftantly diminifhing; and he proves
this by the teftimony of a great many aged pilots and
fifhermen, who affirmed that the fea was become much
Shallower in many places than it had been during their
youth : that many rocks formerly covered with water
were now feveral feet above the furface of the fea : that
loaded veffels ufed formerly to ride in many places where
pinnaces and barks could now with difficulty fwim.
He produces inftances of ancient lea port towns now
feveral leagues from the fhore, and of anchors and
wrecks of vefiels found far within the country. He
mentions a particular rock which 168 years before was
at the bottom of the fea, but was then railed eight feet
above its furface. In another place where the water
50 years before had reached to the knee there was then
none. Several rocks, too, which during the infancy of
fome old pilots had been two feet under water, were
then three feet above it. From all thefe obfervations
M. Celfius concludes, that the water of the Baltic do-
creafes in height 4! lines in a year, 4 inches 5 lines in
18 years, 4 feet 5 inches in a hundred years, and in a
thoufand years 45 feet. Confcious, however, that thefe
fails, how conclufive foever as far as relates to the Bal¬
tic, can never determine the general queftion, M. Celfius
advances another aigument in fupport of his theory.
All that quantity of moifture, fays he, which is imbibed
by plants is loft to the general mats of water, being
converted into earth by the putrefaction of vegetables.
This notion had been mentioned by Newton, and was
adopted by Van Helmont: if granted, it follows as a
confequence that the earth is continually increafin*’-
and the water diminifiiing in a very raoid degree. 3
Suqh are the arguments advanced in lupport of both Thefe ar-
theories ; for it is needlefs to mention a notion of Lin-Sclents,
naeus that the whole earth was formerly covered withexamillcd*
water except a fingle mountain. When fairly weighed,
they amount to nothing more than this, that the fea
has encroached upon the land in feme places, and reti¬
red in others ; a conclufion which we are very willimr
to allow. What was advanced by thofe philofophers^
who maintain that the fea is continually encroaching
on the land, about the depth of the fea conftantly di¬
minifhing, muft remain a mere affertion till they prove
by experiment's, either that this is really the cafe, or
that nature has no way of reftoring thofe particles cf
earth which are walked down by the rivers. Nor have
they any good reafen to affirm that the height of the
mountains is decreafing. Can a fingle uncontrovertible
in fiance be produced of this? Are the Alps or the Apen¬
nines, or Taurus, or Caucafus, lets lofty now than they
were a thoufand years ago ? We mean not to deny that
the rain actually walhes down particles of earth from
the mountains, nor to affirm that the hardeft rocks are
able to refift continual {forms, nor that many mountains
have fnffered, and continue to iuffer daily, from a thou¬
fand accidents. But the effedts produced by all thefe
caufes are fe trifling as to be altogether impercepti¬
ble (a). Nature has affiduoufly guarded again A fuch ac¬
cidents ; flie has formed the mmmtains of the moll dura¬
ble
(a) M. Geniannc pretends that the Pyrenean mountains become an inch lower every ten years. But even ac¬
cording-
SEA
Sea.
9
Bottom of
the fca.
ble materials; and where they are covered with earth,
fhe has bound it together by a thick and firm matting of
grads, and thus fecured it from the rains ; andfhould ac¬
cident deprive it of this covering, fhe takes care imme¬
diately to fupply the defeft. Even fnuuld the earth be
fwept away together with its covering, nature has Hill
f'uch rcfources left as frequently reftore things to their
f ormer Hate. Many kinds of mofs, one would be tempted
to think, have been created for this very purpofe : they
take root and fiourifh almofl upon the bare rock, and
furnifh as they decay a fufficient bed for feveral of the
hardy Alpine plants. Thefe perifh in their turn, and
others fucceed them. The roots of the plants bind
fait the earth as it accumulates, more plants fpring up
and fpread wider, till by degrees the whole lurface is
covered with a firm coat of grafs. Even the rain,
which always contains in it a good deal of earth, con¬
tributes fomething to ha (ten the procefs.
As the vegetation of itone, an argument advanced
by the philofophers who fupport the oppofite theory,
is now, we believe, given up by all parties, it is need-
lefs to take any farther notice of it here, (fee Stone).
The hypotheiis of M. Celfius, that water is converted
into earth, has alfo (hared the fame fate, becauie it w'as
unfupported by experiment, and contrary to every thing
that we know either about earth or water. It is a
little extraordinary that philofophers have been fo lavifh
of water as to convert it in this manner into itone and
earth, when they had given it, one would think, fuffi¬
cient employment before in making new worlds and in
confuting Mofes.
As the fea covers fo great a portion of the globe, we
fhould, no doubt, by exploring its bottom, difeover a
va(t number of interelting particulars. Unfortunately
in the greater part of the ocean this has hitherto been
impoffible. Part, however, has been examined ; and the
difeoveries which this examination has produced may
enable us to form fome idea at lead of the whole. The
bottom of the fea, as might have been conjeftured in¬
deed beforehand, bears a great refemblance to the iur-
face of the dry land, being, like it, full of plains, rocks,
caverns, and mountains ; fome of which are abrupt and
aimed perpendicular, while others rife with a gentle de¬
clivity, and fometimes tower above the water and form
iflands. Neither do the materials differ which compote
the bottom of the fea and the bafis of the dry land. If
we dig to a condderable depth in any part of the earth.,
we uniformly meet with rock; the fame thing holds in
the fea. The drata, too, are of the fame kind, difpo-
fed in the fame manner, and form indeed but one whole.
Hie fame kind of mineral and bituminous fubdances
are alfo found interfperfed with thefe drata ; and it is
to them probably that the fea is indebted for its bitter
tade. Over thefe natural and original drata an artifi¬
cial bed has pretty generally been formed, compofed of
different materials in different places. It conlida fre¬
quently of muddy tartareous fubitances firmly cemented
t 19* J
SEA
together, fometimes of (hells or coral reduced to pow- Sea,
dcr, and near the mouths of rivers it is generally com-
pofed of fine fand or gravel. The bottom of the fea
refembles the land likewife in another particular: many
frefh fprings and even rivers rife out of it, which, dif-
placing the fait water, render the lower part of the fea
wherever they abound quite frefh. An indance of this
kind occurs near Goa on the wedern coad of Indo-
dan *, and another § in the Mediterranean fea not far * *
from Marfeilles. Thefe facts occafioned a notion, which Ma"
later experiments have exploded, that the fea beyond a ^'Marft li
certain depth was always frefh. Hijloire *
Subdances of a very beautiful appearance are fre- Pi>yfi?ue
quently brought up by the founding line from the bot-/a
tom or the fea. The plummet is hollowed below, and 'farlie r"
this cavity filled with tallow, to which fome of the fub¬
dances adhere which form the bed of the ocean. Thefe
are generally fand, gravel, or mud; but they are fome-
times of the brighted fcarlet, vermilion, purple, and
yellow ; and fometimes, though lefs frequently, they are
blue, green, or white. Thefe colours are owing to a
kind of jelly which envelopes the fubdances, and va-
nifh entirely as foon as this jelly dries. At times, how¬
ever, they affume the appearance of tartareous cruds,
and are then fo permanent, that they can be received
into white wax melted and poured round them, and
perhaps by proper care might be converted into valu¬
able paints.
Sea-water is really, as any one may convince himfelf by Colour o£
pouring it into a glafs, as clear and tranfparent as river the da.
water. The various appearances therefore which it af-
fumes are owing to accidental caufes, and not to any
change in the water itfelf. The depth, or the materials
which compofe the bottom of the fea, occafions it to
affume different colours in different places. The Ara¬
bian gulph, for inftance, is faid to be red from the co¬
lour of the fands which form its bed. The appearance
of the fea is affecled too by the winds and the fun,
while the clouds that pafs over it communicate all their
various and fleeting colours. When the fun fhines it
is green ; when the fun gleams through a fog it is yel¬
low ; near the north pole it appears black; while in
the torrid zone its colour is often brown. Sometimes
the fea affumes-a luminous appearance. See Eight,
ri° a, 7. /
' • * IT
The fea contains the greateft quantity of fait in theSaltrefsc.!'
torrid zone, where otherwife from the exceffive heatchefca-
it would he in danger of putrefaction : as we advance
northward this quantity diminifiies, till at the pole it
nearly vanifhes altogether. Under the line Lucas found
that the fea contained a feventh part of folid contents,
confiding, chiefly of fea falt. At Harwich he found k
yielded VTth of fea-falt. At Carlfcroon in Sweden it
contains TVth part (n), and on the coad of Greenland
a great deal leis. This deficiency of fait near the poles
probably contributes a good deal towards the prodigi¬
ous quantities of ice which are met with in thefe leas ;
for
cording to his own calculation, it would require a million of years to level thefe mountains with the plain,
though they continued to decreafe at the fame rate j and philofophers tell us that this rate is condantly di-
minifhing !
(b) This gradual diminution of faltnefs from the equator to the pole is not, however, without particular ex¬
ceptions- The Mediterranean fea contains T’Tth of ka-falt, which is lefs than, the German fca contains.-
SEA. [ tQ2 1 SEA
fiei, fait water requires a much greater degree of cold
'*■" ' vto freeze it than frefh water. It was this.circumftance*
probably, together with its conftant motion, which in¬
duced the ancients to believe that the fea never froze.
Even among the moderns it has been a generally re¬
ceived opinion, that fea-ice is originally formed in ri¬
sers. Buffon has made the great quantities of ice
■with which the South fea abounds an argument for the
exiltence of a continent near the Antarctic pole. But
it is now well known that great quantities of ice are
formed at a diftance from land. Sea-ice is of two kinds;
field ice, which extends along the Ihore, and is only two
or three feet thick ; and mountain ice, which abounds
in the middle of the ocean. The fize of thefe moun¬
tains is fometimes prodigious. The fea-ice is always
frefh, and has been often of great ufe to navigators.
The weight of fea-water is to that of river-water as 73
to 70 ; that is, a cubic foot of fea-water weighs 73 lb.
while the fame quantity of river-water weighs only 701b.;
but this proportion varies in different places. It is
worthy of our attention, too, that the water at the fur-
face of the fea contains lefs fait than near the bottom;
the difference indeed is inconfiderable, but ftill it is
fomething. The Compte de Marfigli found the fame
quantity of water, when taken from the bottom of the
Mediterranean, to weigh one ounce three pennyweights
51 grains; whereas from the furface it weighed only one
ounce three pennyweights 49 grains. He repeated
Ia the experiment frequently with nearly the fame refult.
Tempera- The fea, with refpe& to temperature, may be divided
ture of the ;nto two regions : The firfl begins at the furface of the
water, and defeends as far as the influence of the fun’s
rays ; the fecond reaches from thence to the bottom of
Ihyle de the fea. In fummer the lower region is confiderably
fTcmpcrie cojder than ^ upper . but it is probable that during
Sufmarina- winter the very reverfe takes place ; at leaft the Compte
rum. de Marfigli found it fo repeatedly in the Mediterranean.
This naturally refults from the fituation of the water
near the bottom of the fea. Uninfluenced by the chan¬
ges in the atmofphere, it retains always nearly the fame
degree of temperature : and this is confiderably above
congelation ; for the lowet region of the fea, at leaft in
the temperate parts of the world, was never known to
T,anf. freeze. Captain Ellis let down a fea-gage (fee Gage)
for in latitude 250 13' north, and longitude 250 12' weft,
P’-2I3- to take the degrees of temperature and faltnefs of the
fea at different depths. It defeended 5346 feet, which
is a mile and eleven fathoms. He found the fea falter
and colder in proportion to its depth till the gage had
defeended 3900 feet, when the mercury in the thermo,
meter came up at 53; but the water never grew colder,
though he let down the gage 2446 feet lower. At the
j, furface the thermometer ftood at 84.
The fea The fea has three kinds of motion : I. The firft is
has three that undulation which is occafioned by the wind. This
motions. motion is entirely confined to the furface ; the bottom
cccafloned even ^urIng tiie mofl; v»oJent remains perfe&ly
by the calm. Mr Boyle has remarked, from the teftimony of
*viad feveral divers, that the fea is affefted by the winds
only to the depth of fix feet. It would follow from
this, that the height of the waves above the furface does
not exceed fix feet ; and that this holds in the Mediter¬
ranean at leaft, we are informed by the Compte de Mar¬
figli, though he alfo fometimes obferved them, during
3 very violent tempeft, rife two feet higher. It is af¬
firmed by Pliny, and feveral other ancient writer, that
oil calms the waves of the fea; and that divers were ac.  *
cuftorned to carry fome of it for that purpofe in their ,
mouths. This account was always confidered by the oil, r
moderns as a fable, and treated with fuch contempt, that
they did not even deign to put it to the teft of experi-
riment, till Dr Franklin accidentally difeovered its
truth. Happening in 1757 to be in the middle of a
large fleet, he obferved that the water round one or two
veffels was quite calm and imooth, while everywhere
elfe it was very much agitated by the winds. He ap¬
plied to the captain for an explanation of this phenome¬
non, who replied, that the cooks, he fuppofed, had
thrown their greafy water out at the fcupper-holes, and
by that means oiled the fides of the veffels in queftion.
This anfwer did not fatisfy the Dodftor at firft ; but re-
collefting what Pliny had faid on the fubjetft, he refol-
ved at leaft to try the experiment. He did fo accord¬
ingly in 1762, and found that oil aftually calmed the
waves of the fea. He repeated the experiment upon
lake Clapham : the oil fpread itfelf with great rauidity
upon the furface, but did not produce the defired ef-
feeft, becaufe, having been thrown in upon the fide op-
pofite to the wind, it was immediately driven to the
edge of the water. But upon throwing in a like quan¬
tity upon the other fide of the lake, it calmed in an in-
ftant feveral yards of the furface; and gradually fpread-
ing, rendered all that part of the lake, to the extent of
at leaft half an acre, as fmooth as glafs. The curious
effecl produced by this liquid may be accounted for by
the repulfion which exifts between oil and water, and
between oil and air, which prevents all immediate con-
taft, all rubbing of the one upon the other. »
2. The fecond kind of motion is that continual ten- i\4ot;on ta. I
dency which the whole water in the fea has towards the wards the
weft. It is greater near the equator than about the we'd—Cur«
poles; and indeed cannot be faid to take place at all in reius.
the northern hemifphere beyond the tropic. It begins
on the weft fide of America, where it is moderate:
hence that part of the ocean has been called Pacific.
As the waters advance weftward their motion is accele¬
rated ; fo that, after having traverfed the globe, they
ftrike' with great violence on the eaftern fhore of Ame¬
rica. Being flopped by that continent, they turn north¬
ward, and run with conliderable impetuofity into the
gulph of Mexico; from thence they proceed along the
coaft of North America, till they come to the fouth
fide of the great bank at Newfoundland, when they
turn off, and run down through the Weftern Hies.
This current is called the Gulph Stream. It was firft
accurately deferibed by Dr Franklin, who remarked
alfo, that the water in it having been originally heated
in the torrid zone, cools fo gradually in its paffage
northward, that even the latitude might be found in
any part of the ftream by means of a thermometer.—-
This motion of the fea weftward has never been ex¬
plained: it feems to have fome connexion with the
trade-winds and the diurnal revolution of the earth on
its axis. 16
3. The third and moft remarkable motion of the fea Motion oe-
is the tide, which is a regular fwell of the ocean once^
every 12 hours, owing, as Newton has demonftrated,the tl e'
to the attraction of the moon. In the middle of the
fea the tide feldom rifes higher than one or two feet,
but on the coaft it frequently reaches the height of 45
1 feet.
SEA
*nd.ia fome places even more.
[ 193
The tide gene¬
rally life* higher in the evening than in the morning :
on the coaft of Britain this holds in winter, but in fum-
mer the morning tides are higheft. In fame feas it is
faid that there are no tides. This cannot be owing to
Jtheir being furrounded by land, becaufe there is a tide
in the lakes of North America. For an explanation of
thefe and other phenomena we refer to the article Tide.
SEA-Air, that part of the atmofphere which is above
the fea.
Sea-air has been found falubrious and remarkably
heneiicial in fome dillempers. This may be owing to
its containing a greater portion of oxigenous gas or vi¬
tal-air, and being lefs impregnated with noxious vapours
than the land. Dr Ingenhoufz made feveral experi¬
ments to afcertain the falubrity of fea-air. By mixing
equal meafures of common air and nitrous air, he
found, that at Gravefend, they occupied about 104, or
one mealure, and of a mealure: whereas on fea,
about three miles from the mouth of the Thames, two
meafures of air (one of common and one of nitrous
air) occupied from 0.91 to 0.94. He attempted a li-
milar experiment on the middle of the channel between
the Englifh coaft and Oftend ; but the motion of the
Ihip rendered it impra£ticable. He found that in rainy
and windy weather the fea-air contained a fmaller quan¬
tity of vital air than when the weather was calm. On
the fea-lhore at Oftend it occupied from 944- to 97 ;
at Bruges he found it at 105 ; and at Antwerp 1094-.
Dr Ingenhoufz thus concludes his paper :
prt!. Tr.-rnf. It appears, from thefe experiments, that the air at
783,p.3J4. fea and clofe to it is in general purer and fitter for ani¬
mal life than the air on the land, though it feems to be
fubjedf to the fame inconftancy in its degree of purity
with that of the land ; fo that we may now with more
confidence fend our patients, labouring under confmnp-
tive diforders, to the fea, or at leaft to places fitu&ted
clofe to the fea, which have no marfhes in their neigh¬
bourhood. It feems alfo probable, that the air will be
found in general much purer far from the land than near
the fhore, the former being never fubject to be mixed
with land air.
Dr Damman, an eminent phyfician and profefTor
royal of midwifery at Ghent, told Dr Ingenhoufz, that
when he was formerly a practitioner at Ofiend, daring
feven years, he found the people there remarkably heal¬
thy ; that nothing was rarer there than to fee a patient
labouring under a confumption or afthma, a malignant,
putrid, or fpotted fever; that the difeafe to which they
are the moll fubjedl, is a regular intermittent fever
in autumn, when fudden tranfitions from hot to cold
Weather happen.
.People are in general very healthy at Gibraltar,
though there are very few trees near that place ; which
Dr Ingenhoufz thinks is owing to the purity of the
air, arifing from the neighbourhood of the fea.
Moft fmall Hands are very healthy.
At Malta people are little fubjed to difqafes, and live
to a very advanced age.
SsA-Anemony. See AmuAL-Fh'wer.
SKA-Bear. ? o T,
SEA-Calf. 5 See 1 HOCA-
Sea-Cow. See Trichecus.
Sea-Cvow, MiRE-Crow, or Peiuit, See Larvs*
Vol. XVII. Part L
4 S E. A
SsA-Dead. See Asphaltites. »
SsA-Devil. SeeLoPHius.
SEA-Dragon, a monitor of a very fmgular nature. In
the Gentleman’s Magazine for the year 1749, we have
the account of a fea-dragon which was faid to be taken'
between Orford and South would, on the coall of Suf¬
folk, and afterwards carried round the country as a cu~
riofity by the fifherman who caught it.
“ Its head and tail (fays the writer) refemble thofe of
an alligator ; it has two large fins, which ferve it'both
to fwim and to fly ; and though they were fo dried that
I could not extend them, yet they appear, by the folds,
to be fiiaped like thofe which painters have given to
dragons and other winged monfters that ferve as fup-
porters to coats of arms. Its body is covered with im¬
penetrable fcalcs ; its legs have two joints, and its feet
are hoofed like thofe of an afs : it has five rows of very-
white and fharp teeth in each jaw, and is in length
about four feet, though it was longer when alive, it
having fhrunk as it became dry.
“ It was caught in a net with mackerel ; and being
drap;ged on fhore, was knocked .down with a ftretcher
or boat-hook. The net being opened, it fuddenly
fprung up, and flew above 50 yards: the man who firfl
leized it had feveral of his fingers bitten off; and the
wound mortifying, he died. It afterwards faftened on
the man’s arm who (hows it, and lacerated it fo much,
that the mufcles are fhrunk, and the hand and fingers
diftorted ; the wound is not yet healed, and is thought
to be incurable. It is faid by fome to have been
deferibed by naturalifis under the name of the Sea-
dragon.” See Plate CCCCXL1X.
SsA-Gage. See Sea-GAos.
Sea Hare. See I.aplysia.
SsA-Horfe, in ichthyology, the Englifh name of the
Hippocamus. See Syngnathus.
SEA-Lemon. See Doris.
Sea-Lwti. See Phoca.
Sea-Mo1!, or Sea-Mcw. See Larus.
SsA-Maa. See Mermaid.
SsA-Marh. The erection of beacons, light-houfes,
and fea-marks, is a branch of the royal prerogative.
By 8 Eliz. 13. the corporation of the Trinity-houfe
are empowered to fet up any beacons or fea-marks
wherever they fhall think them neceflary ; and if the
owner of the land or any other perfon fhall defiroy
them, or take down any lleeple, tree, or other known
fea-mark, he fhall forfeit icol. Sterling; or, in cafe
of inability to pay it, he fhall be ipfo faSo outlawed.
Sea-Needle, Gar-JiJh. See Esox.
SEA-Nettle. See Animal-Flower.
SsA-Pie, or Oyjler-Catcher. See H^matopus.
Sea- Plant], are thofe vegetables that grow in falt-wa-
ter within the fhores of the fea. The old botanifts dir
vided thefe into three clafles. 1. The firft clafs, accord¬
ing to their arrangement, contained the Algec, the fu¬
el, the Jea-moJJes or confervas, and the different fpe*
cies of fponges. 2; The fecond contained fubftances of
a hard texture, like Hone or horn, which feem to have
been of the fame nature with what we call ■z.oophyta,
with this difference, that we refer fponges to this clafs
and not to the firft. The third clafs was the fame with
our lithophyta,. comprehending corals, mandrepora. See.
It is now well known that the genera belonging to the
B b fecond
SEA
t »94 1
SEA
feconc! and third of - thefe clafles, and even fome refer¬
red to the firft, are not vegetables, but animals, or the
produ&kms of anXnals. See Corallina, Madrepora,
Spongia. Sea-plants, then, properly fpeaking, belong
to the clafs of cryptogamia, and the order of algae ;
and, according to Bomare, are all comprehended under
the genuf! of fucus. We may alfo add feveral fpecies
of the tdva and conferva and the fargazo. The hici
and marine uivae are immerfed in the lea, are feffile, and
without root. -The marine confervse are either feffile
or floating. The fargazo grows beyond foundings.
As tome fpecies of the fucus, when dried and pre¬
ferred, are extermeiy beautiful, the curious, and efpeci-
ally thofe who profecute the ftudy of botany, muft be
anxious to know the beft method of preferving them,
•without deftroying their colour and beauty. The fol¬
lowing method is recommended by M. Mauduyt. Take
a ffieet of paper, or rather of palteboard, and cover it
with varnifh on both fldes ; and having rowed in a boat
to the rock where the fucus abounds, plunge your var-
niffied paper into the water, and, detaching the fucus,
receive it upon the paper. Agitate the paper gently in
the water, that the plant may be properly fpread over
it; and lift them up together foftly out of the water :
then fix down with pins the ftrong flalks, that they
may not be difplaced, and leave the plant lying upon
the varniffied paper- to dry in the open air. When it is
fully dry, the different parts will retain their pofition,
and the plant may be preferved within the leaves of a
book. If you wiffi to free it from the flime and fait
which adheres to it, it may be waffied gently in frefn wa¬
ter, after being removed from the rock on which it
grew.
SsA-Serpent, a monftrous creature, faid to inhabit the
northern Teas about Greenland and the coafts of
Norway. The following marvellous account of this
monfter is given by Guthrie. “ In 1756, one of them
was ffiot by a mafter of a fliip: its head refembled that
of a horfc ; the mouth was large and black, as were the
eyes, a white mane hanging from its neck; it floated on
the furface of the water, and held its head at leaft two
feet out of the fea : between the head and neck were fe-
ven or eight folds, which were very thick ; and the
length of this fnake was more than 100 yards, fome fay
fathoms. They have a remarkable averfion to the ifnell
of cailor ; for which reafon, (hip, boat, and bark mafters
provide themfelves with quantities of that drag, to pre¬
vent being overfet, the ferpent’s olfadtory nerves being
remarkably exquifrte. The particularities related of this
animal would be incredible, were they not attefted upon
oath. Egede, a yery reputable author, fays, that on the
6th day of July 1734, a large and frightful fea-monuer
railed itftlf fo high out of the water, that its head
reached above the main-top-maft of the ffiip; that it
had a long fharp fnout, broad paws, and fpouted water Sea.
like a whale ; that the body feemed to be covered with
fcales ; the fkin was uneven and wrinkled, and the lower
part was formed like a fnake. The body of this monfler
is fatd to be as thick as a hogffiead; his fkin is varie¬
gated like a tortoife (hell; and his excrement, which
floats upon the furface of the water, is corrofive.” Not-
withftanding the belief of Guthrie, and the teflimony
which he produces, We cannot help doubting of the ex-
illence of the fea-ferpent. Its bulk is faid to be fo dif*
proportionate to all the known animals of our globe,
that it requires more than ordinary evidence to render it
credible ; but the evidence which is offered is fo very
feeble and unfatisfadtory, that no man of found judge¬
ment would think it fufficient to eftablifh the truth of
an extraordinary f?£t.
SEA-Sicktiefs, a diforder incident to moft perfons on
their firft going to fea, occafioned by the agitation of
the veffel. In voyages, fea-ficknefs, though it continues
in general only tor the firft day or two, is extremely Mo/cfey't
haraffing to fome people at intervals, efpecially on m\'T,0Piial
increafed motion of the veffel. Sometimes, by long con- D‘Jc,lJei‘
tinuance, it caufes fever, headach, quick pulfe, thirft,
white tongue, and a total deprivation of the retention
of the ftomach ; evils which are always difficult to re¬
move, and frequently terminate only with the voyage.
This indiipofition is confiderably alleviated by a fmall
tea fpoonful of ether, taken now and then in a glafs of
water, and applying fome of it to the temples and nof-
trils. The ancient writers recommend acid fruits, bread
and vegetables foaked in vinegar, after the ftomach has
been cleanfed by vomiting; but not to attempt to fup-
prefs the vomiting until that end was obtained. An old
remedy for iea-ficknefs, and a very common one among
failors, is a draught or two of fea water ; which, though
a difgufting medicine at fuch a time, yet where the hi ft
paffages are foul and loaded, generally produces the de-
fired effedt when the perturbation it occalions ceafes.
Sea-Star. SccAsterias.
SEA-Urchine. See Echinus.
SsA-Water, the fait water of the fea. The principal
falts contained in fea-water are, ift, Common marine or
culinary fait, compounded of foffil alkali or foda and
marine acid ; zdly, A fait formed by the union of the
fame acid with magnefian e.arth ; and, laltly, A fma'ft
quantity of felenite. The quantity of faline matter con¬
tained in a pint of fea-water, in the Britifh ftas, is, ac¬
cording to Neumann, about one ounce in each pint (a).
The faltnels of this water is judged to arife from
great multitudes both of mines and mountains of fait
difperfed here and there in the depths of the fea. Dr
Halley fuppofes that it is probable the greateft part of
the fea-falt, and of all fait lakes, as the Cafpian Sea,
the Dead Sea, the Lake of Mexico, and the Titicaca
(a) In Sir Torbern Bergman’s analyfis of fea-water taken up in the beginning of June 1776, about the lae
titude of the Canaries, from the depth of 60 fathoms, the folid contents of a pint of die water were,
Grs- 1
Of common fait
Salited magnelia
Gypfum
253tt
69VT
8A
3*
or 5
9.
z
Grs.
to/*
Total
33°tt J
S E A [ t
w Peru, is derived from the water of the rivers which
they receive : and fince this fort of lakes has no exit or
difcharge but by the exhalation of vapours, and alfo
(ince thefe vapours are entirely frelh or devoid of fuch
particles, it is certain that the faltnefs of the fea and of
fuch lakes mult from time to time increafe; and thereibre
the faltnefs at this time muft be greater than at any time
heretofore. He further adds, that if, by experiments
made in different ages, we could find the different quan¬
tity of fait which the fame quantity of water (taken
up in the fame place, and in all other the fame cir-
cumftances) would afford, it would be eafy from thence,
by rules of proportion, to find the age of the world
very nearly, or the time wherein it has been acquiring
its prefent faltnefs.
This opinion of Dr Halley is fo improbable, that it
is furprifing fo acute a philofopher could have adopted
it. 'That frefh water rivers fhould in the courfe of
many thoufand years produce faltnefs in the fea, is
quite incredible. If this were the cafe, every fea or
great body of water which receives rivers muft be fait,
and muft poffefs a degree of faltnefs in proportion to
the quantity of water which the rivers difcharge. But
fo far is this from being true, that the Palus Meotis
and the great lakes in America do not contain fait but
frefh water. It may indeed be objected, that the quan¬
tity of fait which the rivers carry along with them and
depofitin the fea, muft depend on the nature of the foil
through which they flow, which may in fome places
contain no fait at all; and this may be the reafon why
the great lakes in America and the Palus Meotis are
frtfh. But to this opinion, which is merely hypotheti-
<ial, there are infurmountabie obje&ions. It is a curious
faft that the faltnefs of the fea is greateft under the line,
and diminiflies gradually as we advance to the poles:
We muft therefore fuppofe, if Dr Halley’s theory be
true, that the earth contains more fait in the tropical
regions than in the temperate zones, and more in the
temperate zones than in the frigid ; and confequently
that the rivers in thefe different regions contain a quan¬
tity of lalt proportionable to their diftance from the
equator. This, however, muft firft be proved by ex¬
periment, and cannot be aflumed as an eftabliflied fait.
B.ut thereds another circumftance that entirely deftroys
this theory. If we allow that the fea receives its lalt-
nefs from the rivers, it muft be equally fait or nearly fb
in every part of the earth. For, according to a Ample
and well known principle in chemiftry, w/ien any Jub-
Jiance is dijjblved in water with the ajfijlance of agitation,
at whatever part of the water it is introduced, it will be
equally dijfufed through the whole liquid. Now though it
were true that a greater quantity of fait were introdu¬
ced into the lea under the line than towards the poles,
from the conftant agitation occafioned by the wind and
tide, the fait muft loon pervade the whole mafs of water.
To fay that the fuperior degree of heat in the tropical
regions may difiblve a greater quantity of fait, will not
deftroy our argument; for it is an eftabliflied principle
in chemiftry, that cold water will difiblve nearly as great
a quantity of fait as hot water can diflblve.
The faltnefs of the fea has alfo been aferibed to
the folution of fubterraneous mines of fait which is
fuppofed to abound in the bottom of the fea and along
its fhores. But this hypothefis cannot be fupported.
95 1 SEA
If the fea were conftantly diffolvirtg fait, it would foon
become faturated ; for it cannot be faid that it is de¬
prived of any part of its fait by evaporation, fince rain¬
water is frefh. If the fea were to become faturated,
neither fifties nor vegetables could live in it. We mutt
therefore defpair of being able to account for the falt¬
nefs of the fea by fecond caufes ; and muft fuppofe that
it has been fait from the creation. It is impoflible in¬
deed to fuppofe that the waters of the fea were at any
period frefh fince the formation of fifties and fea-plants:
for as thefe will not live in water faturated with fait,
neither will they live in water that is frefti ; we therefore
conclude that the faltnefs of the fea has been nearly the
fame in all ages. This is the fimpleft hypothefis of the
three that has been mentioned. It explains beft the
various phenomena, and is involved in feweft difficulties.
We (hall, however, allow that there may be fome ex¬
ceptions ; that the faltnefs of fome Teas, or of particu¬
lar parts of the fame fea, may be increafed by mines of
rock-falt difperfed near its ftiores.
With regard to the ufe of this fait property of fea-
water, it is obferved, that the faltnefs of the fea pre-
ferves its waters pure and fweet, which otherwife would
corrupt and ftink like a filthy lake, and confequently
that none of the myriads of creatures which now live
therein could then have a being. From thence alfo the
fea-water becomes much heavier, and therefore ftiips of
greater fize and quantity may be ufed thereon. Salt¬
water alfo doth not freeze fo foon as frefh-water, whence
the feas are more free for navigation. We have a dif-
fertation, by Dr Ruffel, concerning the medical ufes of
fea-water in difeafes of the glands, &c. wherein the au¬
thor premifes fome obfervations upon the nature of fea-
water, confidered as impregnated with particles of all
the bodies it paftes over, fuch as fubrnarine plants, fifh,
falls, minerals, &c. and faturated with their feveral ef¬
fluvia, to enrich it and keep it from putrefaftion: whence
this fluid is fuppofed to contrail a foapinefs ; and the
wftiole collection, being pervaded by the fulphureous
fleams pafling through it, to conftitute what we call
fea-water ; the confeffed diftinguifhing charaileriftics of
which are faltnefs, bitternefs, nitrofity, and uniluofity :
whence the author concludes, that it may be juftly ex-
pt’iled to contribute fignally to the improvement of
phylic. The cafes in which our author informs us we
are to expeil advantage from fea-water are, i. In all
recent obftruilions of the glands of the inteflines and
mefentery. 2. All recent obftruilions of the pulmo-
nary glands, and thole of the vifeera, which frequently
produce confumptions. 3. All recent glandular fwel-
hngs el the neck, or other parts. 4. Recent tumors
of the joints, if they are not fuppurated, or become
fchirrous or cancerous, and have not carious bones for
their caufe. 5. Recent defluxions upon the glands of
the eyelids. 6. All defoedations of the ikin, from an
eryfipelas to a lepra. 7. Difeafes of the glands of the
nofe, with their ufual companion a thicknefs of the lip.
8. Obftruilions of the kidneys, where there is no in¬
flammation, and the ftone not large. 9. In recent ob-
ftnuflions of the liver, this method will fee proper,
where it prevents conftipations of the belly, and affifls
other medicines diredled in i&erical cafes. The fame
remedy is faid to be of fignal fetvice in the bronchocele;
and is likewife recommended for the prevention of
B b 2» thole
SEA [ inS ], SEA
s*3- t?iofe bilious colics that fo frequently affe& our ntari-
ners.
Prefervation of Sra-Watsr from Putrefafi'wn, As it
is fometunes nectfiary to prefevve fea-Water in caflcs for
btithinq and other purpoles, it is of importance to know
how to keep it from putrefaction. Many experiments
Were made to determine this point by Mr Henry, and
-are recorded in the firft volume of the Memoirs of the
/Literary and Philofophiccd Society of Manchefter. His
firft experiment we {hall here prefent to our readers.
“ To one quart of fea-water were added two fcruples
of frefh quicklime ; to another, half an ounce of com¬
mon culinary fait; and a third was kept as a flandard
■without any addition. The mouths of the bottles be¬
ing loofely covered with paper, they were expofed to
the a&ion of the fun in fome of the hotteft weather
in fummer. In about a week the flandard became
very offenftve; and the water, with the additional
quantity of fait, did not' continue fweet many hours
longer ; whereas that with lime continued many months
without ever exhibiting the leaft marks of putridity.”
When he added a dram more of quicklime, the whole
of the magnefia contained in the water was feparated ;
and when a further addition was made, a lime-water
was immediately formed. He therefore concluded, that
two fcruples of quicklime are fufHcient to preferve a
quart of fea-water. The proportions, however, may
vary a little, according to the ftrength of the quick-
j lime employed.
[Different Frefheningof Sej~Water. The method of making
methods of fea-water frefh was long a defideratum in navigation,
fea water’ ^any methods have been propofed for this purpofe. Mr
Appleby publifhed an account of a procefs which he had
inftituted in the year 1734* He diftilled fea-water
with a quantity of lapis infernalis and calcined bones ;
but this procefs was foon laid afide, as it was not only
difficult in itfelf, but rendered the wrater unpalatable.
Hr Butler propofed foap-leys in place of Mr Appleby’s
ingredients ; but the water was dill liable to the
fame objection. Dr Stephen Hales recommended
powdered chalk ; but his method was expen live, and
did not improve the tafte of the water.. Dr Lind
of Portfmouth diftilled fea-water without any ingre¬
dients ; but as the experiment he made w'as per¬
formed in a vefiel containing only two quarts, with a
glafs receiver in his ftudy, nothing concluiive can be
2 drawn from it for the ufe of failors. At length Dr
Dr Irving’s Irving brought the procefs to a very high degree of fim-
plicity and perfe&ion* by which the water is obtained
pure, without much expence of fuel or a complicated
apparatus. For this valuable dilcovery he received a
reward of L. 5000. The advantages of his method re¬
main to be {bated, which may be reduced to the follow¬
ing : 1. The abolifhing all ftills, ftill-heads, worm-pipes,
and their tubes, which occupy fo muchfpace as to ren¬
der them totally incompatible with the neceffary bufinefs
of the (hip and uling in the room of thefe the flip’s
kettle or boiler, to the top whereof may occafionally be
applied a fimple tube, which can be ealily made on board
a vefiel at fea, of iron plate, ftove funnel, or tin fheet
fo that no fituation can prevent a {hip from being com¬
pletely fupplied with the means of diftilling fea-water.
2. In eonfequence of the principles of dillillation being
fully afeertained, the contrivance of the fimpleit means
of obtaining the greateft quantity of dillilled water, by Sea,
making the tube i'uffieiently large to receive the whole w-ol
column of vapour, and placing it nearly in a horizontal
direction, to prevent any compreffion of the fluid, which
takes place fo much with the common worm. 3 The
adopting of thefimpleftand moll efficacious means of con-
deniing vapour; for nothing more is required in the di«
{filiation but keeping the furface of the tube always wet,
which is done by having fome fea-water at hand, and a
perfon to dip a mop or fwab into this water, and pafs it
along the upper furface of the tube. By this operation
the vapour contained in the tube will be entirely con-
denfed with the greateft rapidity imaginable ; for by the
application of the wet mop thin flieets of water are uni¬
formly {pread, and mechanically preffed upon the fur¬
face of the hot tube ; which being converted into va¬
pour make way for a fucceffion of frefh fheets ; and
thus, both by the evaporation arid clofe contaft of the
cold water conftantly repeated, the heat is carried off
more effeftually than by any other method yet known.
4. The carrying on the diftillation without any addi¬
tion, a correft chemical analyfis of fea-water having
evinced the futility of mixing ingredients w-ith it, either
to prevent an acid from rifing with the vapour, or to de-
fbroy any bituminous oil fuppofed to exift in fea-water,
and to contaminate the diftilled water, giving it that
fiery unpalatable tafte infeparable from the former pro.
cefles. 5. The afeertaining the proper quantity of fea .
water that ought to be diftilled, whereby the hefh wa¬
ter is prevented from contraifting a noxious impregna¬
tion of metallic falts, and the veffel from being corroded
and otherwife damaged by the falts caking on the bot¬
tom of it. 6. The producing a quantity of fweet and
wholefome water, perfettly agreeable to the tafte, and
fufficient for all the purpofes of {hipping. 7. The ta¬
king advantage of the dreffing the fhip's proviiions, fo
as to diftil a very confiderable quantity of water from the
vapour, which would otherwiie be loft, without any ad¬
dition of fuel. To fum up the merits of this method in
a few words: The ufe of a fimple tube, of the moft;
eafy conft ruff ion, applicable to any {hip’s kettle. The
reje&ing all ingredients ; afeertaining the proportion of
water to be diftilled, with every advantage of quality,
faving of fuel, and prefervation of boilers. The ob¬
taining frefh water, wholefome, palatable, and in fuffi¬
cient quantities. Taking advantage of the vapour
which afeends in the kettle while the {hip’s provifionSr
are boiling. All thefe advantages are obtained by the
above mentioned Ample addition to the common {hip’s,
kettles. But Dr Irving propofes to introduce two fur¬
ther improvements. The firJt is a hearth, or Hove, fo
conftrufted that the fire which is kept up the whole
day for the common bufinefs of the ihip ferves likewiie
for diftillation.; whereby a fufficient quantity of water
for all the economical purpofes of the thip may be ob¬
tained, with a very inconiiderable addition to the expence
of fuel. The other improvement is that of fubftituting,
even in the largeft fhips, call-iron boilers, of a new con-
ftru&ion, in the place of coppers. 3
As foon as fea-water is put into the boiler, the tube Diretfions
is to be fitted either into the top or lid, round: which, if {or diihll-
neceffary, a bit of wet linen may be applied, to make it ^ fe,i'wapl
fit clofe to the mouth of the veffel; there will be no
occafion for luting, as the tube ads like a funnel in car-
4 *.ying
SEA
r >97 i
SEA
Plate
scccxi-vm,
f 4 ,
XiOrgna s
method of
frefhening
ryiag off the vapour.’ 'When the water begins tn boil,
the vapour fhould be allowed to pais freely fora minute,
which will effedlually clean the tube and upper part of
the boiler. The tube is afterwards to be kept con-
frantly wet, by palling a mop or fwab, dipped in fea
water, along its upper furface. The wafte water run-
ping from the mop may be carried off by means of a
board made like a fpout, and placed beneath the tube.
The diltillation may be continued till three-fourths of
the water be drawn off, and no further. This may be
afcertained either by a gauge-rod put into the boiler, or
by meafuring the water diitilled. The brine is then to
be let out. Water may be diitilled in the fame manner
while the provifions are boiling. When the tube is
made on fhore, the belt fubftance for the purpofe is
thin copper well tinned, this being more durable in long
voyages than tin-plates. Tnltead of mopping, the tube,
if required, may have a cafe made alfo of copper, lo
much larger in diameter as to admit a thin fheet of wa¬
ter to circulate between them by means of.a fpiral cop¬
per thread, with a pipe of an inch diameter at each end
of the cafe ; the lower for receiving cold water, and the
upper for carrying it off when heated.
When only a very fmall portion of room can be con¬
veniently allowed for diffillation, the machine (n° 2.),
which is only 27 inches long, may be fubftituted, as
was done in this voyage. The principal intention
of this machine, however, is to diltil rum and other
liquors ; for which purpofe it has been employed with
extraordinary fuccefs, in preventing an empyreuma, or
fiery tafte.
Figure 1. reprefents in perfpeftive a fe&ion of the
two boilers taken out of the irame. In the back part
at Df E, are feen openings for the cocks. On the top
is a diftilling tube A, B, C, five inches diameter at A,
and decreafing in fize to three inches at C ; the length
from B to C is five feet. Near C is a ring to prevent
the water which is applied to the furface from mixing
with the dillilled water. In the infide of the tube, below
B, is a fmall lip or ledging, to hinder the diftilled water
from returning into the boiler by the rolling of the fhip.
In figure 2. A, B, C, D, reprefent a vertical feftion
of a copper box, 27 inches long, feven inches wide, and
11 in height, tinned on the infide. In the bottom F is
an aperture about fix inches in diameter, having a ring to
fit on the ftill or boiler. The dotted lines which run nearly
horizontal, are veffelsof thin copper, tinned on the out-
fide, two feet long, feven inches wide, and three quarters
of an inch deep. At G is a funnel to receive cold water*
which is conveyed into the veflels by communicating
pipes, contrived in fuch a manner as to form a complete
and quick circulation of the water through their whole
extent. When the water is become hot by the aftion
of the {team, it is difcharged by the horizontal pipe at
A. E is a pipe from which the diftilled water or Ipirits
fun, and is bent in fuch a form that the liquor running
from it a£ts as a valve, and hinders any (team from efca-
ping that way. On the top of the box, at H, is a fafety-
valve, which prevents any danger from a great accu¬
mulation of vapour not condenfed for want of a pro¬
per fupply of cold water.
We fhall now mention a different method, difcovered
by the Chevalier Lorgna, by congelation of fea-water.
itby coiige-^ea water reclu‘resa very great degree of cold in order
lation. to become ice. Ouf author found that a freezing mix¬
ture, made by mixing three parts of pounded ict’ with
two parts of common fait, was quite fufficient to freeze
it. The cold produced by this mixture is equal to about
40 below nought of Fahrenheit’s thermometer.
• A quantity of fea-vvster is never entirely congealed,
a portion of it always remaining fluid ; and, what is very
remarkable, this fluid part is incomparably more full of
fait and more naufeous than the reft : hence, if this be
feparated from the congealed part, the latter on being
melted will be found to contain much lefs fait than it
did before congelation. This we {hall call the water of
the fir/} purification.
If the water of the fidl purification be again congeal¬
ed, a part of it will remain fluid as in the firft opera¬
tion. This fluid portion will contain a greater propor¬
tion of fait than the reft, which is of courfe more pure,
and, being melted, forms the water of the lecond puri¬
fication. Thus, by repeatedly freezing the fame fea-wa¬
ter, and feparating the fluid from the congealed part in
every operation, it is at la ft perfetftly purified, lo as to
be entirely diveiled of fait, and as fit for diink and other
purpofes as the pure ft water that is ufed.
At firft the fea-vvater, in order to be congealed, re¬
quires a very great degree of cold, as mentioned above,
the ice formed in it cOnlifts rather of leaks or filaments,
than of a compadl body, and the quantity of the fluid
parts bears a confiderable proportion to the quantity of
ice. But as the water, by undergoing the fueceffive
congelations, becomes more and more pure, fo it be¬
comes capable of being congealed by a fmaller and
fmaller degree of cold ; the ice is at the fame time more
compadft, and in greater quantity ; the fluid part at lull
becoming very inconfiderable.
Sp.A-lVeec}, or Alga Marina, is commonly ufed as a
manure on the fea-coaft, where it can be procured in
abundance. The beft fort grows on rocks, and is that
from which kelp is made. The next to this is called,
the peafy fea-weed \ and the worft is that with a long
llalk. In the neighbourhood of Berwick, the farmers
mix it with liable-dung and earth, and thus obtain a
great quantity of excellent manure. Sea-weed is found
alfo to be a very fit manure for gardens, as it not only
enriches them, but deltroys the vermin by which they
are ufually infefled.
Sea-Wo If See Anarxhicas.
Saltnefs of the Sea. See Sea-Water.
Smith Sea See Pacific Ocean, and’.S’or/TW Sea.
SEAL, a puncheon,, piece of metal, or other mat¬
ter, ufually either round or oval; whereon are engra--
ven the arms, device, &c. of Tome prince, Hate, com¬
munity, magiftrate, or private perfon, often with a le¬
gend or infeription ; the impreffion whereof in wax
ferves to make a£ls, inftruments, &c. authentic.
The ufe of feals, as a mark, of authenticity to letters
and other inffruments in writing, is extremely ancient.
We read of it among the Jews and Perfians in the ear-
lieft and molt facred records of hiflory. And in the
book of Jeremiah there is a very remarkable inllance,,
not only of an atteftation by feal, but alfo of the other
ufual formalities attending a Jewilh purchafe. In the
civil law alfo, Teals were the evidence of truth, and
were required, on the part of the witneffes at leall, at
the atteftation of every tellament; But in the times of
our Saxon ancellors, they were not much in ule in.
England. For though Sir Edward Coke relies on an
inilance'
SEA [ 198 ] SEA
Sea!. inftance of king Edwyn’a making ufe of a feal about
loo years before the conqueit, yet it does not follow
that this was the ufage among the whole nation : and
perhaps the charter he mentions may be of doubtful
authority, from this very circumftance of its being feal-
ed ; fince we are alfured by all our ancient hiftorians
that fealing was not then in common ufe. The method
of the Saxons was, for fuch as could write to fubfcribe
their names, and, whether they could write or not, to
affix the fign of the crofs; which cuftom our illiterate
vulgar do for the mod part to this day keep up, by
figning a crofs for their mark when unable to write
their names. And indeed this inability to write, and
therefore making a crofs in its dead, is honedly avowed
by Caedwalla, a Saxon king, at the end of one of his
charters. In like manner, and for the fame unfurmount-
able reafon, the Normans, a brave but illiterate nation,
at their fird fettlement in France ufed the pra£Iice of
fealing only, without writing their names ; which cudom
continued when learning made its way among them,
though the reafon for doing it had ceafed ; and hence
the charter of Edward the ConfefTor to Wedminder-
abbey, himfelf being brought up in Normandy, was
witnefled only by his feal, and is generally thought to
be the olded fealed charter of any authenticity in Eng¬
land. At the Conqued, the Norman lords brought
over into this kingdom their own faffiions ; and intro¬
duced waxen feals only, indead of the Englifh method
of writing their names, and figning with the fign of the
crofs. The 'impreffions of thefe feals were fometimes a
knight on horfeback, fometimes other devices; but
coats of arms were not introduced into feals, nor in¬
deed ufed at all till about the reign of Richard I.
who brought them from the croifade in the Holy Land,
where they were fird invented and painted on the fiiields
of the knights, to difiinguifii the variety of perfons of
every Chridian nation who reforted thither, and who
could not, when clad in complete dee!, be otherwife
known or afcertained.
This negle£t of figning, and refting only upon the
authenticity ol feals, remained very long among us; for
k was held in all our books, that fealing alone was fuf-
ficient to authenticate a deed : and fo the common form
of atteding deeds, “ fealed and delivered,^ continues to
S E A M A
Definition. ^ this word we exprefs that noble art, or, more
-O purely, the qualifications which enable a man
to exercife the noble art of working a fhip. A sea¬
man, in the language of the profeffion, is not mere¬
ly a mariner or labourer -on board a fiiip, but a man
who underdands the ftru&ure of this wonderful machine,
and every fubordinate part of its mechanifm, fo as to
enable him to employ it to the bed advantage for pufh-
ing her forward in a particular diredtion, and for avoid¬
ing the numberlefs dangers to which fhe is expofed by
the violence of the winds and waves. He alfo knows
what courfes can be held by the fhip, according to the
wind that blows, and what cannot, and which of thefe
is molt conducive to her prog refs in her intended voy-
age ; and he mud be able to perform every part of the
this day ; notwithdanding the datute 29 Car. II. c. 3. Seat
revives the Saxon cuftom, and exprefsly dke&s the fign- II
ing in all grants of lands and many other fpecies°of s,eam‘
deeds : in which, therefore, figning feerns to be now as
necefTary as fealing, though it hath been fometimes held
that the one includes the other.
The king’s great feal is that whereby all patents, com-
miffions, warrants, &c. coming down from the king arc
fealed ; the keeping whereof is in the hands of the lord
chancellor. The king’s privy-feat is a feal that is ufually
firft fet to grants that are to pafs the great feal.
Seal. See Kkrprr of the Privy-Seal.
Seal is alfo ufed for the wax or lead, and the im«
preffion thereon affixed to the thing fealed.
An amalgam of mercury with gold, reduced to the
confiftence of butter, by draining off part of the mer¬
cury through leather, has been recommended as a pro¬
per material for taking off the impreffion of feals in wax.
In this date, the compound fcarcely contains one part
of mercury to two of gold ; yet is of a fiiver whitenefs,
as if there was none of the precious metal in it. In
this date it grows foft on being warmed or worked be¬
tween the fingers; and is therefore proper for the purpofe
above-mentioned, but is not fuperior to fome amalgams
made with the inferior metals, as is well known to fome
impodors, who have fold for this ufe amalgams of the
bafe metals as curious preparations of gold.
Seal, in zoology. See Phoca.
SEALER, an officer in chancery appointed by the
lord chancellor or keeper of the great feal to feal the
writs and indruments there made in his prefence.
SEALING, in architecture, the fixing a piece of*’
wood or iron in a wall with plader, mortar, cement,
lead, or other folid binding. For daples, hinges, and
joints, plader is very proper.
Sealing-IVux. See Wax.
SEAM, or Seme of corn, is a meafure of eight bu-
ffiels.
Seam of G/afs, the quantity of 120 pounds, or 24.
dones, each five pounds weight. The feam of wood is
an horfe-load.
Seam, in mines, the fame with a vein or dratum cf
metal.
N S H I P.
neceffary operation with his own hands. As the fea-
men exprefs it, he mud be able “ to hand, reef, and
deer.” ^
We are judified in calling it a nolle art^ not only by Importance
its importance, which it is quite needlefs t» amplify oranii
embelliffi, but by its immenfe extent and difficulty, and
the prodigious number and variety of principles on
which it is founded—-all of which mud be polfeffed in
fuch a manner that they fit all offer themfelves without
refle&ion in an indant, otherwife the pretended feaman
is but a lubber, and cannot be traded on his watch.
The art is praftifed by perfons without what we call
education, and in the humbler walks of life, and there¬
fore it fuffers in the edimation of the carelefs fpe&a-
tor. It is thought little of, beeaufe little attention is
paid
199
Difficulty
of the ai t,
Which has
been zeal-
oufly culri-
Vateti hy
the French
philofo-
i>hers.
SEAMANSHIP.
paid to it. But if multiplicity, variety, and intricacy
of principles, and a fyHemat ic knowledge of thefe prin¬
ciples, intitle any art to the appellation of fcienttfic and
liberal, feamanfhip claims theie epithets in an eminent
degree. We are amufed with the pedantry of the fea-
man, which appears in his whole language. Indeed it
is the only pedantry that amufes. A fcholar, a foldier,
a lawyer, nay, even the elegant courtier, would difguft:
us, were he to make the thoufandth part of the alluflons
to his profcfhon that is well received from the jolly Tea¬
man ; and we do the feaman no more than juftice. His
profefTton mujl engrofs his whole mind, otherwife he can
never learn it. He poffefies a prodigious deal of know¬
ledge ; hut the honeft tar cannot tell what he knows, or
rather what he feds, for his fcience is really at his fin¬
gers ends. We can fay with confidence, that if a per-
fon of education, verfed in mechanics, and acquainted
with the llructure of a fhlp, were to obferve with atten¬
tion the movements which are made on board a iirft or
fecond rate fnip of war during a {hitting ftorm, under
the diredfion of an intelligent officer, he would be rapt
in admiration.
What a pity it is that an art fo important, fo diffi¬
cult, and fo intimately conne&ed with the invariable
laws of mechanical nature, fhoyld be fo held by its pof-
feffors, that it cannot improve, but mud die with each
individual. Having no advantages of previous educa^
tion, they cannot arrange their thoughts ; they can
hardly be faid to think. They can far lefs exprefs or
communicate to others the intuitive knowledge which
they pofiefs; and their art, acquire4, by habit alone, is
little different from an inftinft. We are as little in-
titled to expedt improvement here as in the architec¬
ture of the bee or the beaver. The fpecies (pardon
the allufion ye generous hearts of oak) cannot improve.
Yet a (hip is a machine. We know the forces which
add. on it, and we know the refults of its conftrudh'on—
all thefe are as fixed as the laws of motion. What hin¬
ders this to be reduced to a fet oi praddical maxims, as
well founded and as logically deduced as the working
o! a tdeam engine or a cotton mill. The ftoker or the
fpinner adds only with his hands, and may “ whittle as
he works for want of thoughtbut the rnechanift, the
engineer, thinks for him, improves his machine, and di-
redds him to a better praddice. May not the rough fea¬
man look for the fame affiftance; and may not the inge¬
nious fpeculatift in his clofet unravel the intricate thread
of mechanifm which connedds all the manual operations
with the unchangeable laws of nature, and both iurniffi
the feaman with a better machine and diredd him to a
more dexterous ufe of it ?
We cannot help thinking that much may he done ;
nay, we may fay that much has been done. We think
highly of the progreffive labours of Renaud, Pitot, Bou-
guer, Du Hamel, Groignard, Bernoulli, Euler, Romme,
and others; and are both furprifed and forry that Bri¬
tain has contributed fo little in thefe attempts. Gor¬
don is the only one of our countrymen who has given a
profefledly fcientific treatife on a fmall branch of the
fubjedd. . The government of France has always, been
ftrongly impreffed with the notion of great improve¬
ments being, attainable by fyftematic ftudy of this art ;
and. we are indebted to the endeavours of that ingenious
nation for any thing of pradtical importance that has
been obtained. M.*Bouguer was proftflbr of hydro-
logy at one of the marine academies of France, and
was enjoined, as part of his duty, to compofe differta-
tions both on the conftruddion and the working of fhipo.
His Traits du Na-vire, and his Manoeuvre des Vaiffeaux,
are undoubtedly very valuable performances: So are
thofe of Euler and Bernoulli, confidered as mathemati¬
cal dittertations, and they are-wonderful works of ge¬
nius, conlidered as the ptodnddions of perfonswho hard¬
ly ever faw a {hip, and were totally unacquainted with
the profeffion of a feaman. In this refpedt Bouguer
had great fuperiority, having always lived at a fea-port,
and having made many very long voyages. His trea-
tifes therefore are infinitely better accommod'ated to the
demands of the feaman, and more direftly inttruftive ;
but {fill the author is more a mathematician than an ar-
tift, and his performance is intelligible only to mathe¬
maticians. It is true, the academical education of the
young gentlemen of the French navy is fuch, that a
great number of them may acquire the preparatory
knowledge that is necettary ; and we are well informed
that, in this refpedk, the officers of the Britiih navy are
greatly inferior to them.
But this veiy circumftance has furniffied to many Argument
perfons an argument againit the utility of thofe per- againft the
formances. It is faid that, “ rtOtwithftanding this fu-lltiiity of
perior mathematical education, and the poffeffion 0ftheirPfffor“
thofe boatted performances of M. Bouguer, the French inaacei:'
are gieatly inferior, in point of feantanlhip, to our coun¬
trymen, who have not a page in their language to in-
ftruft them, and who could not perufe it if they*had it.4/
Nay, fo little do the French themfelves feem fenfible of
the advantage of thefe publications, that no perfon a-
mong them has attempted to make a familiar abridge¬
ment oi them, written in a way fitted to attradf atten¬
tion ; and they ftdl remain negledted in their original
abttrufe and uninterefting form.
We wifh that we could give a fatisfa&ory anfwer to
this obfervation. It is juft, and it is important. Thefe
very ingenious and learned diflertations are by no means
fo ufetul as we fnould e^peft. They are large books,
and appear to contain much; and as their plan is logical,
it feems to occupy the whole fubjeft, and therefore to
have done almoft all that can be done. But, alas! they
have only opened the fubjea, and the ftudy is yet in its
infancy. The whole fcience of the art mutt" proceed
on the knowledge of the impulfions of the wind and
water. Thefe are the forces which aft on the machine ;
and its motions, which are the ultimatum of our re-
fearch, whether as an end to be obtained or as a thing
to be prevented, mutt depend on thefe forces. Now it
is with refpeft to this fundamental point that we are as 5
yet almoft totally in the dark.. And, in the perform- Which are
ances or M. Bouguer, as alfo in thofe of the other an- C01|iefitdly
thors we have named, the theory of thefe forces byerro,leous
which their quantity and the direftion of their action
are afcertained, is altogether erroneous ; and its refults tai princi-
deviate fo enormoufly from what is obferved in the mo- Plesi
tions of a ftip, that the perfon who ftiould direft the
operations on Ihipboard, in conformity to the maxims
deducible from M. Bouguer’s propofitions, would be
baffled in moll of his attempts, and be in danger of lo-
fing the {hip. The whole proceeds on the fuppofed
truth of that theory which Hates the impulfe of a fluid
200
S E A M A
tc be in tbe proportion of the ffjUfire of the fine of the
angle of incidence ; and that ita aftion on any fmall
portion, fuch as a fquare foot of the fails or hull, is the
lame as if that portion were detached from the reft, and
were expofed, fingle and alone, to the wind or water in
the fame angle. But we have fliown, in the article
Resistance of Fluids, both from theory and expei ience,
that both of thefe principles are erroneous, and this to
a very great degree, in cafes which occur moft fre¬
quently in pratlice, that is, in the fmall angles ot in¬
clination. When the wind falls nearly perpendicular on
the fails, theory is not very erroneous ; but in thefe
cafes, the circumftances of the flap’s fituatiou are gene¬
rally fuch that the praaice is eafy, occurring almoft
without thought; and in this cafe, too, even confider-
able deviations from the very heft praaice are of no
great moment. The interefting cafes, where the in¬
tended movement requires or depends upon very .ob¬
lique aaions of the wind on the fails, and its praaica-
bility^&r impraaicabiiity depends on a very fmall varia¬
tion of this obliquity ; a miftake of the.force, either as
to intenfity or direaion, produces a mighty cffe.a on
the refulting motion. This is the cafe in failing to
windward \ the moft important of all the general pro¬
blems of feamanfhip. The trim of the fails, and the
courfe of the fliip, fo as to gain moft on .the wind, are
very nice things ; that is, they are confined within very
narrow limits, and a fmall miftake produces a very con-
ftderable effeft. The fame thing obtains in many of
the nice problems of tacking, box-hauling, wearing af¬
ter lynig-to in a ftorm, &c.
The error in the fecond affertion of the theory is.ftill
greater, and the adlion on one part of the fail or hull is fo
greatly modified by its aftion on another adjoining part,
that a ftay-fail is often feen hanging like a.loofe rag, al-
tho’ there is nothing between it and the wind ; and this
inertly becaufe a great fail in its neighbourhood fends
off a lateral ftream of wind, which completely hinders
the wind from getting -at it. Till the theory of the
aftion of fluids be eftabliflied, therefore, we cannot tell
what are the forces which are afting on every' point of
the fail and hull: Therefore we cannot tell either the
mean intenfity or direftion of the whole force which
afts on any particular fail, nor the intenfity and mean
direftion of the refiftance to the hull; circumftances
abfolutely neceflary for enabling us to fay what will be
their energy in producing a rotation round any particu¬
lar axis. In like fanner, we cannot, by fuch a com¬
putation, find the fpontaneous axis of converfion (fee
Rotation), or the velocity of fuch converfion. In
Ihort, we cannot pronounce with tolerable confidence
4 priori what will be the motions in any cafe, or what
difpofitions of the fails will produce the movement we
wifh to perform. The experienced feaman learns by
habit the general effefts of every difpofition of the lails;
and though his knowledge is far from being accurate,
it feluom leads him into any very blundering operation.
Perhaps he feldom makes the beft adjuftment poflible,
but feldomer ttill does he deviate very far from it; and
in the moft general and important problems, fuch as
working to windward, the refult of much experience
and many correftions has fettled a trim of the fails,
which is certainly not far from the truth, but (it muft
be acknowledged) deviates widely and uniformly ftom
N S H I P,
the theories of the mathematician’s clofet. The honeft
tar, therefore, muft be indulged in his joke on the ufe-
lefs labours of the mathematician, who can neither
hand, reef, nor fteer.
After this account of the theoretical performances
in the art of fcamanfhip, and what we have faid in an •
other place on the fmall hopes we entertain of feeing a
perfeft theory of the impulle of fluids, it will not be ex-
pefted that we enter very minutely on the fubjeft in
this place ; nor is it our intention. But. let it be ob-
ferved, that the theory is defeftive in one point only ;7 , r
and although this is a moft important point, and the er- may ^ e
rors in it deftroy the conclufions of the chief propolx- mad,: uf
tions, the reafonings remain in full force, and the modus them.
operandi is precifely fuch as is ftated in the theory. The
principles of the art are therefore to be found irt thefe
treatifes ; but falfe inferences have been drawn, by com¬
puting from erroneous quantities. The rules and tli?
praftice of the computation, however, are ftill beyond
controverfy : Nay, fince the procefs of inveftigation is
legitimate, we may make ule of it in order to difeover
the very circumftance in which we are at prefent mif-
taken ; for by converting the propofition, inftead of
finding the motions by means of the fuppofed forces,
combined with the known mechanifm, we may difeover
the forces by means of this mechanifm and the obferved
motions g
We (hall therefore in this place give a very general Ddign of
view of the movements of a (hip under fail, (bowing this article.'
how they are produced and modified by the aftion of
the wind on her fails, the water on her rudder and on
her bows. We (hall not attempt a precife determina¬
tion of any of thefe movements ; but we (hall fay enough
to enable the curious landfman to underftand how this
mighty machine is managed amidft the fury of the winds
and waves : and, what is more to our wifli, we hope to
enable the uninftrufted hut thinking feaman to genera-
life that knowledge wfiich he pofieffes; to clafs his ideas,
and give them a fort of rational fyftem ; and even to
improve his praftiee, by making him fenfible of the im¬
mediate operation of every thing he does, and in what
manner it contributes to produce the movement which
he has in view.
A (hip may be confidered at prefent as a mafs of in- ^ Cor-
ert matter in free fpace, at liberty to move in every di- tideml ann
reft ion, according to the forces which impel or refift
her ; and when (he is in aftual motion, in the direftion
of her courfe, we may ftill confider her as at reft in ab- ky oppofits
folute fpace, but expofed to the impulfe of a current of forces,
water moving equally fall in the oppofite direftion :
for in both cafes the preffure of the water on her bows
is the fame ; and we know that it is pofiible, and fre¬
quently happens in currents, that the impulfe of the
wind on her fails, and that of the water on her bows,
balance each other fo precifely, that (he not only does ,
not ftir from the place, but alfo remains fteadily in the
fame pofition, with her head direfted to the fame point
of the compafs. This ftate of things is eafily conceived
by any perfon accuftomed to confider mechanical fub-
jefts, and every feaman of experience has obferved it.
It is of importance to confider it in this point of view,
becaufe it gives us the moft familiar notion of the man¬
ner in which thefe forces of the wind and water are fet
in oppofition, nnd made to balaace or »ot to balance
each other by the intervention of the {hip, in the fame
manner as the goods and the weights balance each other
in the fcales by the intervention of a beam or fteel-
^ yard.
thevv^d0 When a fhip proceeds tleadily in her courfe, without
on the fails changing her rate of failing, or varying the direftion of
opposite to her head, we mull in the lirft place conceive the accu-
that of the j^uiated impulfes of the wind on all her fails as precife-
she bows, h equal an^ direfkly oppofite to the impulfe of the wa¬
ter on her bows. In tbe next place, becaufe the fhip
does not change the dife&ion of her keel, {he refembles
the balanced fteelyard, in which the energies of the two
weights, which tend to produce rotations in oppofite
diredlions, and thus to change the pofition of the beam,
mutually balance each other round the fulcrum ; fo the
energies ef the a&ions of the wind on the different fails
balance the energies of the water on the different parts
of the hull.
The feaman has two principal talks to perform. The
firfl is to keep the fhip fteadily in that courfe which
will bring her fartheft on in the line of her intended
voyage. This is frequently very different from that
jt line, and the choice of the befl courfe is fometimes a
Skill of the matter of confiderable difficulty. It is fometimes pof-
feaman dif- £]-,]<. to fhape the courfe precifely along the line of the
ilha^in "his voya£e * an^ yet tbe intelligent feaman knows that he
cauri'ef will arrive fooner, or with greater fafety, at his port,
by taking a different courfe ; becaufe he will gain more
by xncreafing bis fpeed than he lofes by increafing the
diffance. Some principle mutt direft him in the felec-
tion of this courfe. This we mutt attempt to lay be¬
fore the reader.
Having chofen fuch a courfe as he thinks moft ad¬
vantageous, he mutt fet fuch a quantity of fail as the
ftrength of the wind will allow him to carry with fafe¬
ty and effeii, and mutt trim the fails properly, or fo ad-
juft their pofitions to the direction of the wind, that
they may have the greatett poffible tendency to impel
the {hip in the line of her courfe, and to keep her ttea-
dily in that direftion.
His other taflc is to produce any deviations which he
fees proper from the prefent courfe of the {hip ; and to
produce thefe in the moft certain, the fafeft, and the
moft expeditious manner. It is chiefly in this move¬
ment that the mechanical nature of a fhip comes into
view, and it is here that the fuperior addrefs and re-
fource of an expert feaman is to be perceived.
Under the article Sailing fome notice has been
taken of the firft talk of the feaman, and it was there
fhown how a fhip, after having taken up her anchor and
fitted her fails, accelerates her motion, by degrees which
continually diminifh, till the increafing refiitance of the
water becomes precifely equal to the diminiftied'impulfe
of the wind, and then the motion continues uniformly
the fame fo long as the wind continues to blow with the
fame force and in the fame direftion.
It is perfeftly confonant to experience that the im¬
pulfe of fluids is in the duplicate ratio of the relative ve¬
locity. Let it be fuppofed that when water moves one
foot per fecond its perpendicular preffure or impulfe on
a fquare foot is m pounds. Then, if it be moving with
the velocity V eftimated in feet per fecond, its perpen¬
dicular impulfe on a furface S, containing any number
of fquare feet, muft be m S V1.
In like manner, the impulfe of air on the fame fur-
Vol. XVII. Fart, I.
SEAMANSHIP, 201
face may be reprefented by « S V*; and the proportion
of the impulfe of thefe two fluids will be that of m to n.
We may exprefs this by the ratio of y to 1, making
1 It
M. Bouguer’s computations and tables are on the Impulfe of
fuppofition that the impulfe of fea-water moving one ^ water
foot per fecond is 23 ounces on a fquare foot, and thatcomi’uted
the impulfe of the wind is the fame when it blows aton^h^3
the rate of 24 feet per fecond. Thefe meafures are allfquare foot.
French. They by no means agree with the experi¬
ments of others ; and what we have already faid, when
treating of the Resistance of Fluids, is enough to
{how us that nothing like precife meafures can be ex-
petted. It was fhown as the refult of a rational invef-
tigation, and confirmed by the experiments of Buat
and others, that the impulfions and refiftances at the
fame furface, with the fame obliquity of incidence and
the fame velocity of motion, are different according to
the form and fituation of the adjoining parts. Thus
the total refiftance of a thin board is greater than that
of a long prifm, having this board for its front or bow,
&c.
We are greatly at a lofs what to give as abfolute mea¬
fures of thefe impulfions.
1. With relpett to water. The experiments of the
French academy on a prifm two feet broad and deep
and four feet long, indicate a refiftance of 0,973 pounds
avoirdupois to a fquare foot, moving with the velocity
of one foot per fecond at the furface of ftill water.
Mr Boat’s experiments on a fquaie foot wholly im-
merfed in a ftream were as follow :
A fquare foot as a thin plate - j,8i pounds.
Ditto as the front of a box one foot
long - - - 1,42
Ditto as the front of a box three feet
long - - . Ij29
The refiftance of fca-water is about greater.
2. With refpett to air, the varieties are as great.-—
The refiftance of a iquare foot to air moving with the
velocity of one foot per fecond appears from Mr Ro¬
bins’s experiments on 16 fquare inches to be on a
fquare foot - 0,001596 pounds,
Chevalier Borda’s on 16 inches 0,001757
  on gi inches 0,002042
Mr Roufe’s on large furfaces 0,002291
Precife meaiures are not to be expetted, nor are they
neceffary in this inquiry. Here we are chiefly intereft-
ed in their proportions, as they may be varied by their
mode of attion in the different circumftances of obliqui¬
ty and velocity.
t We begin by recurring to the fundamental propofi-
tiqn concerning the impulfe of fluids, viz. that the abfo¬
lute preffure is always in a direttion perperdicular to
the impelled furface, whatever may be the direttion of j,
the ftream of fluid We muft therefore illuftrate theDireftim.
dottrine, by always fuppoiing U fiat furface of {aili,ulfe on
ft retched on a yard, which can be braced about in anythe fl11 .
direftion, and giving this fail fuch a pofition and fuclV’T.^1'
an extent of furface that the impulfe on it may be the the yard,
fame both as to direttion and intenfity with that on *
the real iails. I bus the confideration is greatly Ampli¬
fied. --The direttion of the impulfe is therefore perpen¬
dicular to the yard. Its intenfity depends on the ve-
^ c locity
402
>4
A ftup
compared
*o an ob'
long box,
Makes lee¬
way when
not failing
diredlly be¬
fore the
wind.
SEAMANSHIP.
locity with which the wind meets the fail, and the obli¬
quity of its ftroke. We {hall adopt the con 'ruftions
founded on the common do&rinc, that the impulfe is
as the fquare of the fine of the inclination, becaufe they
are fimple ; whereas, if we were to introduce the values
of the oblique impulfes, fuch as they have been obfer-
ved in the excellent experiments of the Academy of
Paris, the conflrudtions would be complicated in the
extreme, and w'e could hardly draw any confequences
which would be intelligible to any hut expert mathe¬
maticians. The conclufions will be erroneous, not in
kind but in quantity only ; and we (hall point out the
necefiary cor reft ions, fo that the final refults will be
found not very different from real obfervation.
If a (hip were a round cylindrical body like a flat
tub, floating on its bottom, and fitted with a mall and
fail in the centre, fhe would always fail in a direftion
perpendicular to the yard. This is evident. But (lie
is an oblong body, and may be compared to a chef,
whofe length greatly exceeds its breadth. She is fo
fhaped, that a moderate force wall pufii her through
the water with the head or ilern foremofl; ; but it re¬
quires a very great force to pufh her fidewife with the
fame velocity. A fine failing (hip of war will require
about 12 times as much force to pufh her fidewife as
to pu(h her head foremoft. In this refpeft therefore
fhe will very much refemble a chefl whofe length is 12
times its breadth; and whatever be the proportion
of thefe refiftances in different (hips, we may always
fubftitute a box which (hall have the fame reiiftances
headwife and fidewife.
Let EFGPI (fig. i.) be the horizontal feftion of
fuch a box, and AB its middle line, and C its centre.
In whatever direftion this box may chance to move, the
direftion of the whole refinance on its two fides will
pafs through C. For as the whole dream has one incli-
nacion to the fide EF, the equivalent of the equal im¬
pulfes on every part will be in a line perpendicular to
the middle of EF. For the fame reafon, it will be in a
line perpendicular to the middle of FG. Thefe per¬
pendiculars muff crofs in C. Suppofe a mail erefted
at C, and YCy to be a yard hoiffed on it carrying a
fail. Let the yard be firft conceived as braced right
athwart at right angles to the keel, as reprefented by
Y'/. Then, whatever be the direftion of the wind
' abaft this fail, it will impel the veffel in the direftion
CB. But if the fail has the oblique pofition Yyy the
impulfe will be in the direftion CD perpendicular toCY,
and will both pufh the veffel ahead and fidewife : For
the impulfe CD is equivalent to the two impulfes CK
and Cl (the fides of a reftangle of which CD is
the diagonal). The force Cl pufhes the veffel ahead,
and CK pufhes her fidewife. She muff therefore take
fome intermediate direftion a b, fuch that the refiftance
of the water to the plane FG is to its refiftance to the
plane EF as Cl to CK.
The angle CB between the real courfe and the di¬
reftion of the head is called the Leeway ; and in the
courfe of this differtation we (hall exprefs it by the
fymbol x. It evidently depends on the ftiape of the
veffel and on the pofition of the yard. An accurate
knowledge of the quantity of leeway, correfponding to
different circumffances of obliquity of impulfe, extent of
fur face, See. is of the utmoff importance in the praftice
of navigation ; and even an approximation is valuable.
The fubjeft is fo very difficult that this muff content
us for the prefent. ^
Let V be the velocity of the {hip in the direftion How to
C b, and let the furfaces FG and FE be called A' and^ud the
Bh Then the refiftance to the lateral motion
wz V 2 X B' X fine 2, 3 CB, and that to the direft motion eeWi>V
is mV* X A' X fine % <f>CK, or m V* X A' X cof.2^CB.
Therefore thefe refiftances are in the proportion of
B' X fine2, r to A' X cof. 2, x (reprefenting the angle
of leeway £CB by the fymbol x).
Therefore we have Cl : CK, or Cl : ID = A'"
line 2 v
cof.2 X :B'-fine2*, = A': F* = A : B • tan¬
gent 1 x.
Let the angle YCB, to which the yard is braced
up, be called the 1 rim of the fails, and expreffed by
the fymbol b. This is the complement of the angle
DCI. Now Cl : ID zr rad. : tan. DCI, : tan.
DC I, zr i : cotan. b. Therefore we have finally r : co¬
tan. b =z A : B'’ tan. * x, and A'* cotan. b z= B'* tan-
gent2 x, and tan. 2 x =z -g- cot. b. This equation evi¬
dently afeertains the mutual relation between the trim
of the fails and the leeway in every cafe where we can
tell the proportion between the refiftances to the direft
and broadfide motions of the fhip, and where this pro¬
portion does not change by the obliquity of the Courfe.
Thus, fuppofe the yard braced up to an angle of 30?
with the keel. T.hen cotan. 3 ^'0 — 1,732 very nearly.
Suppofe alfo that the refiftance fidewife is 1 2 times
greater than the refiftance headwife. This gives
A'= I and B = 12, Therefore 1,732 = 12 X tan¬
gent2 x, and tangent2 xrz = 0,14434, and tan.
* ~ °>3799i ant* * = 23° 4^'> very nearly two points
of leeway.
This computation,, or rather the equation which gives
room for it, fuppofes the refiftances proportional to the
fquares of the fines of incidence. The experiments ©f
the Academy of Pan's, of which an abftraft is given in
the article Resistance of Fluids, (how that this fup-
pofition is not far from the truth when the an le of in¬
cidence is great. In this prefent cafe the angle of in¬
cidence on the front FG is about 70°, and the experi¬
ments juft now mentioned {how that the real refiftances
exceed the theoretical ones only But the angle
of incidence on EF is only ao3 48'. Experiment
{hows that in this inclination the refiftarce is almoft
quadruple of the theoretical refiftances. Therefore the
lateral refiftance is affumed much too fmall in the pre¬
fent inftance. Therefore a much {mailer leeway will
fuffice for producing a lateral refiftance which will ba¬
lance the lateral impulfe CK, arifing from the obliquity
of the fail, viz. 30". The matter of faft is, that a pret¬
ty good failing {hip, with her fails braced to this angle
at a medium, will not make above five or fix degrees
leeway in fmooth water and eafy weather ; and yet in
this fituation the hull and rigging prefent a very great
furface to the wind, in the moft improper pofitions, fo
as to have a very great effeft in increafing her leeway.
And if we compute the refiftances for this leeway of
fix degrees by the aftual experiments of the French A-
cademy on that angle, we {hall find the refult not far
v from
S E A M A
frrtm the truth ; that is, the direct and lateral refiftances
will be nearly in the proportion of Cl to ID.
It refults from this view of the matter, that the lee¬
way is in general much fmaller than what the ufual theo-
, ryafTtgns.
-Which de- We alfc fee, that according to whatever law the re¬
pends on fiftances change by a change of inclination, the leeway
the trim of rerna;n8 the fame while the trim of the fails is the fame,
fche *ails- The leeway depends only on the direction of the im-
pulfe of the wind; and this depends folely on the pofx
tion of the fails with refped to the keel, whatever may
be the dire&ion of the wind. This is a very important
obfervatien, and will be frequently referred to in the
progrefs of the prefent inveftigation. Note, however,
that we are here confidering only the aftion on the fails,
and on the fame fails We are not confidering the ac¬
tion of the wind on the hull and rigging. This may
be very confiderable ; and it is always in a lee direftion,
and augments the leeway ; and its influence muft be fo
much the more fenfible as it bears a greater proportion
to the impulfe on the fails A Ihip under courfes, or
clofe-reefed topfails and courfes, muft make more lee¬
way than when under all her canvas trimmed to the
fame angle. But to introduce this additional caufe of
deviation here would render the inveftigation too com-
plicated to be of any ufe,
llluftration This do&rine will be confiderably illuftrated by at-
@f this doc- tending to the manner in which a lighter is tracked a-
«nne by iOTJg a or fwings to its anchor in a ftream. The
menu' track rope is made faft to feme ftaple or bolt E on the
deck (fig. 2.)j and is pafied between two of the timber-
heads of the bow at D, and laid hold of at F on Ihore.
The men or cattle walk along the path FG, the rope
keeps extended in thedire&ion DF, and the lighter ar¬
ranges itfelf in an oblique pofition AB, and is thus
dragged along in the dire&ion a b, parallel to the fide
of the canal. Or, if the canal has a current in the op-
pofite dire&ion b a, the lighter may be kept fteady in
its place by the rope DF made faft to a poft at F. In
this cafe, it is always obferved that the lighter fwings
in a polition AB, which is oblique to the ftream a b.
Now the force which retains it in this pofition, and
which precifely balances the aftion of the ilream, is cer¬
tainly exerted in the direftion DF; and the lighter
would be held in the fame manner if the rope were
made faft at C amidfliip, without any dependence on
the timberheads at D ; and it would ftill be held in
the fame polition, if, inftead of the iingle rope CF, it
were riding by two ropes CG and CH, of which CH
is in a direftion right ahead, but oblique to the ftream,
and the other CG is perpendicular to CH or AB.
And, drawing DI and DK perpendicular to AB and
CG, the ftrain on the rope CH is to that on the rope
CG as Cl to CK. The aftion of the rope in thefe
cafes is precifely analogous to that of the faily Y ; and
the obliquity of the keel to the direftion of the mo¬
tion, or to the direftion of the fiream, is analogous to
the leeway. All this muft be evident to any perfon ac-
cuftomed to mechanical difquifitions.
models A moft important ufe may be made of this illuftra-
•ud tion. If an accurate model be made of a Ihip, and if
*• it be placed in a ftream of water, and ridden in this
manner by a rope made faft at any point D of the bow,
it will arrange itfelf in feme determined pofition AB.
There will be a certain obliquity to the ftream, mea*
N S H I P. aoj
fured by the angle ¥> ol; and there will be a ccn£-
fponding obliquity of the rope, meafured by the angle
FCB. Lety CY be perpendicular to CF. Then CY
will be the pofition of the yard, or trim of the fails cor-
refponding to the leeway £CB. Then, if we fhift the
rope to a point of the bow diftant from D by a fmall
quantity, we ftuill obtain a new pofition of the fliip,
both with refpeft to the ftream and the rope ; and in this
way may be obtained the relation between the polition
of the tails and the leeway, independent of all theory,
and fulceptible of great accuracy; and this may be
done with a variety of models fuited to the moft ufual
forms ox fliips. 20
In farther thinking on this fubjeft, we are perfuaded On ftups»
that thefe experiments, inftead of being made on mo¬
dels, m'ay with equal eafe be made on a fliip of any fize.
Let the fhip ride in a ftream at a mooring D (fig. 3.)
by means of a Ihort hawfer BCD from her bow, ha¬
ving a fpring AC on it carried out from her quarter. /
She will fwing to her moorings, till fine ranges herfelf
in a certain polition AB with refpeft to the direftion
a b of the ftream ; and the direftion of the hawfer DC
will point to fome point E of the line of the keel. Now,
it is plain to any perfon acquainted with mechanical dif-
quilitions, that the deviation BE b is precifely the lee¬
way that the fhip will make when the average pofition
of the fails is that of the line GEH perpendicular to
ED ; at leaft this will gi ve the leeway which is produ¬
ced by the fails alone. By heaving on the fpring, the
knot Cmay be brought intoany other pofition we pleafe ;
and for every new polition of the knot the fliip will
take a new pofition with relpeft to the ftream and to
the hawfer. And we perfift in faying, that more in¬
formation will be got by this train of experiments than
from any mathematical theory : for all theories of the
impulfes of fluids muft proceed on phyfical poftulates
with refpeft to the motions of the filaments, which are
exceedingly conjeftural. ar
And it muft now be farther obferved, that the fiib-Th? coni-
ftitution which we have made of an oblong parallelopi- P3!1!”0" °*
ped lor a fliip, although well fuited to give us clear no- an oV’ong
lions of the fubjeft, is of fmall ufe in praftice : for it is body is
next to impoflible (even granting the theory of oblique on'y ure*
impullions) to make this fubftitution. A ihip is of a^atr°ng0iv®
form which is not reducible to equations; and therefore t;nns on
the aftion of the water on her bow or broadiide can the fubjes&j
only be had by a moft laborious and intricate calcula¬
tion for almolt every fquare foot of its i'urface. (See
Bexout's Cours de Mathew. vol. 5. p. 72, &c.) And
this muft be different for every Ihip. But, which is
more unlucky, when we have got a parallelopiped which
will have the fame proportion of direft and lateral re¬
finance for a particular angle of leeway, it will not an-
fwer for another leeway of the fame Ihip ; for when the
leeway changes, the figure aftually expofed to the ac¬
tion of the water changes alfo. When the leeway is
increafed, more of the lee-quarter is afted on by the
water, and a part of the weather-bow is now removed
from its aftion. Another parallelopiped muft therefore
be difeovered, whofe refinances lhall fuit this new pofition
of the keel with refpeft to the real courfe of the Ihip.
We therefore beg leaveto recommend thistrain ol expe¬
riments to the notice of the Association for th e Im¬
provement of Naval Ap.chitecture as a very pro-
mifing method forafeertaining this important-point. And
C c 2 wt*.
204 S E A M A
wt proceed, in the next place, to afcertain the relation
between the velocity of the fliip and that of the wind,
modU:ed as they may be by the trim of the fails and the
ai obliquity of the impulfe.
The rela- Let AB (fig. 4, 5, and 6.) reprefent the horizontal
tween6the fe<^on a 1° place of all the drawing fails, that
velocity of ^s’ t^ie which are really filled, we can always fubfti-
the fit ip tute one fail of equal extent, trimmed to the fame angle
ana wind with the keel. This being fuppofed attached to the
afcertained. yard DCD, let this yard be firft of all at right angles
to the keel, as reprefented in fig. 4. Let the wind
blow in the direction WC, and let CE (in the direction
WC continued) reprefent the velocity V of the wind.
Let CF be the velocity v of the fliip. It mull alfo be
in the diredtion of the fhip’s motion, becaule when the
fail is at right angles to the keel, the abfolute impulfe
on the fail is in the direfti'on of the keel, and there is
no lateral impulfe, and confequently no leeway. Draw
EF, and complete the parallelogram CFE e, producing
eQ through the centre of the yard to iu. Then w C
will be the relative or apparent direction of the wind,
and C e or FE will be its apparent or relative velocity :
For if the line C e be carried along CF, keeping always
parallel to its firft pofition, and if a particle of air move
uniformly along CE (a fixed line in abfolute fpace) in
the fame time, this particle will always be found in that
point of CE where it is interfered at thar inftant by
the moving line C e; fo that if C e were a tube, the
particle of air, which really moves in the line CE, would
always be found in the tube Ce. While CE is the
real diredion of the wind, C e will be the pofition of
the vane at the maft head, which will therefore mark
the apparent direftion of the wind, or its motion rela¬
tive to the moving fhip.
We may conceive this in another way. Suppofe a
cannon-fhot fired in the direction CE at the palling
Ihip, and that it pafles through the maft at C with the
velocity of the wind. It will not pafs through the off-
fide of the fhip at P, in the line CE : for while the fhot
moves from C to P, the point P has gone forward, and
the point p is now in the place where P was when
the fhot paired through the maft. The fhot will there¬
fore pafs through the fhip’s fide in the point />, and a
perfon onboard feeing it pafs through C andp will fay
23 that its motion was in the line C p.
When a Thus it happens, that when a fhip is in motion the
Ihip is in apparent direction of the wind is always ahead of its
apparent 6 lea^ ^^re<^;*on‘ line w C is always found within
direction of t^ie angle WCB. It is eafy to fee from the conftruc-
«he wind tion, that the difference between the real and apparent
different5 clireft'olls °f tlie wiuci 18 &> much the more remarkable
fromthe as the velocity °f the ^ip is greater: For the angle
real direc- WC w or EC e depends on the magnitude of E e or
t-on. CF, in proportion to CE. Perfons not much accufi
tomed to attend to tlrefe matters are apt to think all
attention to this difference to be nothing but affectation
of nicety. They have no notion that the velocity of a
{hip can have any fenfible proportion to that of the
wind. “ Swift as the wind” is a proverbial expref-
fron ; yet the velocity of a fhip always bears a very ien-
fible proportion to that of the wind, and even very fre¬
quently exceeds it. We may form a pretty exaCt no¬
tion of the velocity of the wind by obferving the fha-
dows of the fummer clouds flying along the face of a
countiy, and it may be very well meafured by this me.
N S H I P.
thod. The motion of fnch clouds cannot be very diffi>
rent from that of the air below; and when the preffurg
or the wind on a flat furface, while blowing with a ve¬
locity meafured in this way, is compared with its pref-
fure when its velocity is meafured by more unexcep-
tionable methods, they are found to a^ree with all de-
firable accuracy. Now obfervations of this kind fre¬
quently repeated, fhow that what we call a pleafant
briflc gale blows at tl|e rate of about 10 miles an hour,
or about 15 feet in a fecond, and exerts a preffure of
half a pound on a fquare foot Mr Smeaton has fre¬
quently obferved the fails of a windmill, driven by fuch
a wind, moving fafter, nay much farter,-towards their
extremities, fo that the fail, iuftead of being preffed to
the frames on the arms, was taken aback, and flutter¬
ing on them. Nay, we know that a good fhip, with
all her fails fet and the wind on the beam, will in fuch
a fituation fail above 10 knots an hour in fmooth wa¬
ter. There is an obtervation made by every experienced
feaman, which fhows this difference between the real and
apparent directions of the wind very diftinCUy. When
a fhip that is failing brifkly with the wind on the beam
tacks about, and then fails equally well on the other
tack, the wind always appears to have fhifted and come
more ahead. This is familiar to all feamen. The fea¬
man judges of the direction of the wind by the pofition
of the fhip’s vanes, feuppofe the fhip failing due weft on
the ftarboard tack, with the wind apparently N. N. W.
the vane pointing S, S. E. If the fhip puts about, and
Hands due eaft on the larboard tack, the vane will be
found no longer to point S. S. E. but perhaps S. S.W. the
wind appearing N. N.E. and the fhip muft be nearly clofe-
hauled in order to make an eaft courfe. The wind ap¬
pears to have fhifted four points. If the fhip tacks
again, the wind returns to its old quarter. We have 24
often obferved a greater difference than this. The ce- Obferva.
lebrated aftronomer Dr Bradley, taking the amufement t'on,[’f Dr
ot failing in a pinnace on the river Thames, obferved
this, and was furprifed at it, imagining that the change
of wind was owing to the approaching to or retiring
from the fhore. The boatmen told him that it always
happened at fea, and explained it to him in the beft
manner they were able. The explanation ftruck him,
and fet him a mufing on an aftronomical phenomenon
which he had been puzzled by for feme years, and
which he called the aberration of the fixed
stars. Every ftar changes its place a fmall matter
for half a year, and returns to it at the completion of
the year. He compared the ftream of light from the
ftar to the wind, and the telefcope of the aftronomer to
the fhip’s vane, while the earth was like the fhip, mo-
vingfin oppofite diredions when in the oppofite points
of its orbit. The telefcope muft always be pointed a-
head of the real direction of the ftar, in the fame man¬
ner as the vane is always in a direction ahead of the
wind ; and thus he afcertained the progreflive motion
of light, and diicovered the proportion of its velocity
to the velocity of the earth in its orbit, by obferving
the deviation which was neceffarily given to the tele¬
fcope. Obferving that the light fhifted its direClion
about 40', he concluded its velocity to be about 11,000
times greater than that of the earth ; juft as the intelli¬
gent feaman would conclude from this apparent fhifting
of the wind, that the velocity of the wind is about
triple that of the fhip. This is indeed the beft method
for
SEAMANSHIP.
»5 ,
Velocity of
a fliip
when its
fails are at
right ,
angles to
the keel.
for difcovenng the velocity of the wind. Let the di-
reftion of the vane at the maft-head be very accurately
noticed on both tacks, and let the velocity of the ihip
be alfo accurately meafured. The angle between the
diredlions of the (b ip’s head on thefe different tacks be¬
ing- halved, will give the real direction ot the wind,
which mull be compared with the polition of the vane
in order to determine the angle contained between the
real and apparent directions of the wind or the angle
EC e; or half of the obferved drifting of the wind will
fhow the inclination of its true and apparent directions.
This being found, the proportion of EC to EC (fig. 6.)
is eafily meafured.
We have been very particular on this point, becaufe
fince the mutual actions of bodies depend on their rela¬
tive motions only, we fhould make prodigious miltakes
if we eftimated the aCtion of the wind by its real direc¬
tion and velocity, when they differ fo much from the
relative or apparent.
We now refuhre the inveftigation of the velocity of
the fhip (fig. 4.), having its fail at right angles to the
keel, and the wind blowing in the direction and with
the velocity CE, while the fliip proceeds in the direc¬
tion of the keel with the velocity C F. Produce E c,
which is parallel to BC, till it meet the yard in g, and
draw FG perpendicular to Let a reprefent the
angle WCD, contained between the fail and the real
direction of the wind, and let b be the angle of trim
DCB. CE the Velocity of the wind was expreffed by
V, and CF the velocity of the fhip by v.
The abfolute impulfe on the fail is (by the ufual
theory) proportional to the fquare of the relative velo¬
city, and to the fquare of the fine of the angle of inci¬
dence ; that is, to F E1 X fin.1 w C D. Now the
angle.GFE — w C D, and E G is equal to F E X fin.
G F E ; and E G is equal to E ^—g G. But 1L g —
EC X fin. EC/,' =: V X fin. a ; and ^ G = C F, — “n.
Therefore E G = V X fin. a—v, and the impulfe is
proportional to V X lin. a—v 1 • If S reprefent the fur-
face of the fail, the impulfe, in pounds, will be « S (VX
fin. a—v)*.
Let A be the furface which, when it meets the wa¬
ter perpendicularly with the velocity v, will fuftain the
fame preffure or refiftance which the bows of the fhip
aClually meets with. This impulfe, in pounds, will be
mAv1. Therefore, becaufe we are confidering the
(hip’s motion as in a (fate of uniformity, the two pref-
fures balance each other ; and therefore ml\vz—n S(V
tn
X fin-' a—T?)1, and — Av1 S (V X fin. a—v)1 ;
therefore ^ — \/ AY. v — \/ S XVX fin. a—v a/ s,
and v —
a/ S YvY fin. a V X fin, a V X fin.
-A +\/S
J'
A
+ 1
A
/g + i.
and then the fhip’s velocity is ftn~A
J
n S
+ 1,
Note, that the denominator of this fraCtion is a com¬
mon number for m and n are numbers, and A and B
A .
being quantities of one kind, 'g“ is alfo a number.
It muff alfo be carefully attended to, that S exprefTes
a quantity of fail aCIually receiving wind with the in¬
clination a. It will net always be true, therefore, that
the velocity will increafe as the wind is more abaft, be¬
caufe lome fails will then becalm others. This obferva-
tion is not, however, of great importance ; for it is very
unufual to put a fhip in the fituation confidered hither¬
to ; that is, with the yards fquare, unlefs fhe be right
before the wind.
If we would difcover the relation between the velo¬
city and the quantity of fail in this limple cafe of the
wind right aft, obferve that the equation v =
gives
•A “u-I-t = V, and / m v —
“S~ ^ « s
«s
= v-
,m A , _ —
and —Tv —V
n b
, n S
and —
mA
—; and becaufe
(V-/)1 ,
n and m and A are conllant quantities, S is propor¬
tional to  r.. or the furface of fail is proportional
We fee, in the firft place, that the velocity of the
fhip is (cateris paribus) proportional to the velocity of
the wind, and to the fine of its incidence on the fail
jointly ; for while the furface of the fail S and the
equivalent furiace for the bows remains the fame, v in-
creafes'or diminifhes at the fame rate with V* fin. a —
When the wind is right aflern, the fine of a is unity,
(V—r-)1’
to the fquare of the fhip’s velocity direClly, and to the
fquare of the relative velocity inverfely. Thus, if a fhip
be failing with ^ of the velocity of the wind, and we
would have her fail with of it, we muft quadruple
the fails. This is more eafily feen in another way. The
velocity of the fhip is proportional to the velocity of the
wind ; and therefore the relative velocity is alfo propor¬
tional to that of the wind, and the impulfe of the wind
is as the fquare of the relative velocity. Therefore, in
order to increafe the relative velocity by an increafe of
fail only, we mufl make this increafe of fail in the du-’'
plicate proportion of the increafe of velocity.
Let us, in the next place, confider the motion of a
fhip whofe fails Hand oblique to the keel.
The conilnnftion for this purpofe differs a little from Its velocity
the former, becaufe, when the fails are trimmed to anyth<:
oblique pofition DCB (fig. 5. and 6.), there mult be a
deviation from the direction of the keel, or a leeway keel.
BC£. Call this x. Let CF be the velocity of the fhip.
Draw, as before, E^ perpendicular to the yard, and
F G perpendicular to E^ ; alfo draw FH perpendicu¬
lar to the yard : then, as before, E G, which is in the
fubduplicate ratio of the impulfe on the fail, is equal to
L £ — G^. Now E g is, as before, r= V X fin *, and
G# is equal to F FI, which is = C F X fin. F C FI, or
z= vY fin. (b 4-x). Therefore we have the impulfe —
« S (V’ fin. a—“o* fin. {b -j- -v)}1 •
This expreffion of the impulfe is perfectly fimilar to
that in the former cafe, its only difference confiding in
the fubdu&ive part, which is here v X fin. b-\- x indead
of v. But it expreffes the fame thing as before, viz.
the diminution of the impulfe. The impulfe being rec¬
koned folely in the directicn perpendicular to the fail,
it
U2>6
SEA M A N S H I P.
it is dimimfhed folely by the fail withdrawing itfelf in
that direction from the wind ; and as g E may be confi*
dered as the real impullive motion oi the wind, G E
muft be confrdered as the relative and effe&ive impuliive
motion. The impulfe would have been the fame had
the fhip been at reft, and had the wind met it perpen-
17 dicularly with the velocity G E.
Connec- We mult now fhow the connexion between this im-
fcweenVhe Pu^e an<^ l^ie mot>on the Ihip. The fail, and con-
impirlfe fequently the Ihip, is prefled by the wind in the direc-
anc, motion tion Cl perpendicular to the fail or yard with the force
of the drip, which we have juft now determined. This (in theftate
of uniform motion) muft be equal and oppolite to the
aftion of the water. Draw IL at right angles to the
keel. The impulfe in the direction Cl (which we may
tneafure by CI) is equivalent to the impirlfes C L and
EL iiy the firft the ihip is impelled right forward,
and by the fecond fhe is driven ftdewife. Therefore
we muft have a-leeway, and a lateral as well as a direft
refiftance. We fuppofe the form of the Ihip to be
known, and therefore the proportion is known, or dif-
coverable, between the direct and lateral refiftances cor-
refponding to e very angle x of leeway. Let A be the
furlace whofe perpendicular refiltance is equal to the di-
reft refiftance of the fhip correfponding to . the leeway
sc, that is, whofe reliftance is equal to the refiftance real¬
ly felt by the {hip’s bows in the direftion of the keel
when ftie is failing with this leeway ; and let B in like
manner be the iuriace whofe perpendicular refiftance is
equal to the a&ual refiftance to the fhip's motion in the
' direction LI, perpendicular to the keel. (A7-. B. This
is not equivalent to A' and adapted to the rectangular
box, but to A'- cof. 1 x and B7- fin.1 x.) We have
therefore A: B = CL : LI, and LI= —. Alfo,
A
becaufe Cl — y'ClA-t-LI1, wc have A : A1
= CL : Cl, and Cl = 9Lj^l±J£. The refift.
A
ance in the direction LC is properly meafured by
m A d1, as has been already obferved. Therefore the
refiftance in the direction I C muft be exprefled by m
VA1 + BJ| v1 ; or (making C the furface which is
equal to y'A ^B1, and which will therefore have the
fame perpendicular refiftance to the water having the ve¬
locity v) it may be expreffed by m C v*.
Therefore, becaufe there is an equilibrium between
the impulfe and refiftance, we have «2C-n1=nS (V*
fin.
v’ fin. £ -j- *)1 and — C v1, or y C u1 =
S (V- fin
(V* fin. c
—v’ fin.
v fin.
Therefore v
y- fin. a
and \/ y C v S
v'S’V'fin. a
common number. And becnafe C and S are furfacci,
or quantities of one kind, is alfo a common num¬
ber.
This is the fimpleft expreffion that we can think of
for the velocity acquired by the {hip, though it muft
be acknowledged to be too complex to be of very
prompt ufe. Its complication arifes from the neceflity
of introducing the leeway x. This affeCls the Whole of
the denominator; for the furface C depends on it, be¬
caufe C is =; Ax-t-B'‘, and A and B are analogous
to A7 cof. 1 x and B' fin. 1 x.
But we can deduce fome important confequences fo1Portant
from this theorem. confequta.
While the furfaceS of the fail a&ually filled bythe wind cedlvoin
remains the fame, and the angle DCB, which in future the fore-
we (hall call the (rim of the fails, alfo remains the £0’n£ dieoj
fame, both the leeway x and the fubftituted furface Crem*
remains the fame. The denominator is therefore con-
flant ; and the velocity of the fhip is proportional to
S* V' fin. «; that is, direCtly as the velocity of the
wind, dire&ly as the abfolute inclination of the wind
to the yard, and diredtly as the fquare root ot the fur¬
face of the fails.
We alfo learn from the conftru&ion of the figure that
FG parallel to the yard cuts CE in a given ratio. For
CF is in a conftant ratio to E^-, as has been juft now
demonftrated. And the angle DCF is conftant. ‘'There¬
fore CF “fin. b> or FIT or G^, is proportional to E^y,
and OC to EC, or EC is cut in one proportion, what¬
ever may be the angle ECD, fo long as the angle DCF
is conftant.
We alfo fee that it is very poflTible for the velocity
of the {hip on an oblique courfe to exceed that of
the wind. This will be the cafe when the number
fin.
J 4
T-fin. b-^-x
exceeds unity, or when fin. a is
greater than
y? §
\/C
(j \/ CT- S- fin. b x
Sin. a
= v
, a/C „  
VS'^Tg+fin. b-\-x.
Vq -/g- T-fin. b +
Obferve that the quantity which is the coefficient
-of V in this equation is a common number; for fin. a
is a number, being a decimal fraction of the radius x.
Sin. b T*x is alfo a number, for the fame reafon. And
r m
^mce m and n were uumben of pounds, — or y is a
-+ fin. ^T-x. Now this may eafily
be by fufficiently enlarging S and diminiftiing
It is indeed frequently feen in fine failers with all their
fails fet and not hauled too near the wind.
We remarked above that the angle ofleeway x affefts
the whole denominator of the fra&ion which exprefies
the velocity. Let it be obferved that the angle I CL
is the complement of L C D, or of b. Therefore CL:
L I, or A : B — i ; tan. I C L, = i : cot. b, and B=:A*
cotan. b. Now A is equivalent to A - cof.2 x, and thus
b becomes a funftion of x. C is evidently fo, being
=iv/A2T-B2. Therefore before the value of this frac¬
tion can be obtained, we muft be able to compute, by
' our knowledge of the form of the fhip, the value of A
for every angle x of leeway. This can be done only by
refolving her bows into a great number of elementary
planes, and computing the impulfes on each and adding
them into one film. The computation is of immenfe
labour, as may be feen by one example given by Bou-
guer. When the leeway is but j'mall, not exceeding
ten degrees, the fubftitution of the re6fangular prifin of
one determined form is abundantly exaft for all leeways
contained within this limit j and we {hall foon fee reg¬
ion
207
*9
problem I.
I'o dft !*
mine the
beft po¬
tion of the
fails for
ftandini?
: on a given
courie,
I when the
direction
and ve!oci~
ty of the
wind and
its angle
with the
j courfe are
i given.
S E A M A
ion for being contented with this approximation. We
may now make ufe of the formula expreffing the ve¬
locity for folving the chief problems in this part of the
feaman’s talk.
And fir ft let it be required to determine the beft
pofition of the fail for {landing on a given courfe a b,
when C E the dire&ion and velocity of the wind, and its
angle with the courfe W C F, are given. This problem
has exercifed the talents of the mathematicians ever fmce
the days of Newton. In the article Pneumatics we
gave the folution of one very nearly related to it, name¬
ly, to determine- the polition of the fail which would
produce the greateft impulfe in the direction of the
courfe. The fclution was to place the yard C D in fuch
a pofition that the tangent of the angle PCD may be
one half of the tangent of the angle D C W. This will
indeed be the beft pofition of the fail for beginning the
motion ; but as foon as the fhip begins to move in the
diredlion C F, the effeftive ’mpulfe of the wind is di-
minifhed, and alfo its inclination to the fail. The
angle DC w tliminiihes continually as the fhip accele¬
rates ; for CF is now accompanied by its equal e E,
and by an angle DC ? or WC w. CF increafes, and
the impulfe on the fail diminifhes, till an equilibrium
obtains between the refiftance of the water and the im¬
pulfe of the wind. The impulfe is now meafured by
Cf’Xfin.1 f CD inftead ot CE2 X fin.2 ECD, that
is, by EG2 inftead of Ey2.
This introduction of the relative motion of the wind
senders the aftual folution of the problem extremely
difficult. It is very eafily exprefted geometrically:
Divide the angle ecCF in fuch a manner that the tan¬
gent of DCF may be half of the tangent of DCw, and
the problem may be conitru&ed geometrically as fol¬
lows.
Let WCF (fig 7-} be the angle between the fail
and courfe. Round the centre C defcribe the circle
WDFY; produce WC to QAo that C Q=|W C, and
draw QY parallel to CF cutting the circle in Y; bifeift
the arch WY in D, and draw DC. DC is the proper
pofition of the yard.
Draw the chord WY, cutting CD in V and CF in
T ; diaw the tangent PD cutting CF in S and CY
in R.
It is evident that WY, PR, are both perpendicular
to CD, and are bifeded in V and D; therefore (by
reafon of the parallels QY, CF) 4:3 = QW: CW,
=rYW : TW, c= RP : SP. Therefore PD : PSmraiy,
and PD : DS = 2:1. E. 1). But this divifion
cannot be made to the beft advantage till the fhip has
attained its greateft velocity, and the angle wCF has
been produced.
We muft confider all the three angles, a, b, and w as
variable in the equation which expreffes the value of v,
and we muft make the fluxion of this equation e=o ;
then, by means of the equation B = A- cotan. b, we
muft obtain the value of b and of b in terms of x and x.
With refped to obferve, that if we make the angle
WCF = />, we have P— aJrb-\-x; and/> being a con-
ftant quantity, we have a-j-i.x — 0. Subftituting for
a, b, a, and b, their values in terms of x and x, in the
fluxionary equation =0, we readily obtain x, and then
V and b, which folves the problem.
Let it be required., in the next place, to determine
N S H I P.
the courfe and the trim of the fails moft proper for ply¬
ing to windward. 50
In fig. 6. draw FP perpendicular to WC. CF Is Problem II.
the motion of the fhip ; but it is only by the motion f ? ^eter-
CP that fhe gains to windward. Now CP is = CFX and
cofin. WCF, or v cofin., This muft be ren-trim of the
dered a maximum, as follows. Lib molt
By means of the equation which expreffes the value'T0Per
. J , • n a t • plying to
or v and the equation B—- A* cotan. b, we exterminate windward*
the quantities v and ' ; we then take the fluxion of the
quantity into which the expreffion v cof. (a-\-b-\-x}
is changed by this operation. Making this fluxion ~ 0,
we get the equation which muft folvc the problem.
’1 his equation will contain the two variable quantities
a and x with their fluxions then make the coefficient
of* equal to 0, alfo the coefficient of n equal to-o. This
will give two equations which will determine a and x,
and from this we get b~p—a—x.
Should it be required, in the third place, to find the ProblcmllF-
beft courfe and trim of the fails for getting away from * ? deter-
a given line of coaft CM (fig. 6.), the procefs perfe&ly
refernbles this laft, which is in faft getting away framed tnm 0f
a line of coaft which makes a right angle with the wind, the fads for
Therefore, in place of the angle WCF, we muft fubfti-s-'61”1’!? a*
tute the anple WCM u±= WCF. Cali this angle <>. Wew?> ff0Ia
mult make v’ col. \e t±z a z±z b x) a maximum, i he lllie (J£
analytical procefs is the fame as the former, only e is .oaft.
here a conftant quantity. ^
Thefe are the three principal problems which can be Obferva-
folved by means of the knowledge that we have obtain-120,18 the
ed of the motion of the ffiip when impelled by an ob- P"e^jding
lique fail, and therefore making leeway ; and they may
be confidered as an abftraft of this part of M. Bouguer’s
work. We have only pointed out the procefs for this
folution, and have even omitted fome things taken notice
of by M. Bezout in his very elegant compendium. Our
reafons will appear as we go on. The learned reader
will readily fee the extreme difficulty of the fubjedt, and
the immenfe calculations which are neceffary even in the
fimpleft cafes, and will grant that it is out of the power of
any but an expert analyft to derive any ufe from them f
but the mathematician can calculate tables for the ufe
of the practical feaman. Thus he can calculate the beffc
pofition of the fails for advancing in a courfe 90° from
the wind, and the velocity in that courfe ; then for
85°, 8o°, 7 &c. M. Bouguer has given a table of W- B .u-
this kind ; but to avoid the immenfe difficulty of the J-'uer * ^
procefs, he has adapted it to the apparent diredtion of^
the wind. We have inferted a few of his numbers, fuit-beft p0fi.
ed to fuch cafes as can be of fervice, namely, when all tion of the
the fails draw, or none ftand in the way of others. Co-^h (or ad-
lumn 1 ft is the apparent angle of the wind and courfe, an^courfe,
column 2d is the cortefponding angle of the fails- and*^ C0l‘lte'
keel; and column 3d is the apparent angle of the fails
and wind.
1 2 3
iv CF BCB ™CD
1°3°53' 42° 33' 6i°23'
99 13 40 — 59 iS
94 25 37 3° 56 55
89 28 3i — 54 23
84 23 32 30 51 53
79 06 30 — 49 06
73 39 27 30 46 09,
68 —- 25 — 43 —
2oS
34
Inutility of
thefe chIcu-
lations.
SEAMANSHIP.
In all tlufe numbers we bave tbe tangent of wCD
double of the tangent of DCF.
But this is really doing but little for the feaman.
The apparent direction of the wind is unknown to him
till the {hip is failing with uniform velocity ; and he is
ft ill uninformed as to the leeway. It is, however, of
fervice to him to know, for inftance, that when the angle
of the vanes and yards is 56 degrees, the yard Ihould be
braced up to 37 30', &c.
But here occurs a new difficulty. By the conftruc-
tion of a fquare-rigged {hip it is impoffible to give the
yards that inclination to the keel which the calculation
requires. Few fbips can have their yards braced up to
370 30' ; and yet this is required in order to have an in¬
cidence of 56°, and to hold a courfe 940 25' from the
apparent direftion of the wind, that is, with the wind
apparently 40 25' abaft the beam. A good failing {hip
in this polltion may acquire a velocity even exceeding
-that of the wind. Let us fuppofe it only one half of
this velocity. We fhall find that the angle WCw is in
this cafe about 290, and the fhip is nearly going 123°
from the wind, with the wind almoft perpendicular to
the fail ; therefore this utmoft bracing up of the fails
is only giving them the pofition fuited to a wind broad
on the quarter. It is impoffible therefore to comply
with the demand of the mathematician, and the feaman
muft be contented to employ a lefs favourable difpofi-
tion of his fails in all cafes where his courfe does not
lie at leaft eleven points from the wind.
Let us fee whether this reftriftion, arifing from ne-
ceffity, leaves any thing in our choice, and makes one
courfe preferable to another. We fee that there are a
prodigious number of courfes, and thefe the moft ufual
and the moft important, which we muft hold with one
trim of the fails ; in particular, failing with the wind
on the beam, and all cafes of plying to windward, muft
be performed with this unfavourable trim of the fails.
We are certain that the fmaller v/e make the angle of in¬
cidence, real or apparent, the fmaller will be the veloci¬
ty of the fhip ; but it may happen that we fhall gain
more to windward, or get fooner away from a lee-coaft,
or any objedt of danger, by failing flowly on one courfe
than by failing quickly on another
We have feen that while the trim of the fails remains
the fame, the leeway and the angle of the yard and
courfe remains the fame, and that the velocity of the
{hip is as the fine of the angle of real incidence, that is,
as the fine of the angle of the fail and the real dire&ion
of the wind.
Let the fhip AB (fig. 8.) hold the courfe CF, with
the wind blowing in the dire&ion WC, and having her
yards DCD braced up to the fmalleft angle BCD
which the rigging can admit. Let CF be to CE as
the velocity of the fhip to the velocity of the wind;
join FE and draw C w parallel to EF ; it is evident
that FE is the relative motion of the wind, and wCD
is the relative incidence on the fail. Draw FO parallel
to the yard DC, and defcribe a circle through'the points
COF; then we fay that if the fhip, with the fame
wind and the fame trim of the fame drawing fails, be
made to fail on any other courfe C f, her velocity along
CF is to the velocity along C/as CF is to C/"; or, in
other words, the fhip will employ the fame time in
going; from C to any point of the circumference CFO
Joinf O. Then, becaufe the angles CFO, cf O are on
the fame chord CO, they are equal, and /0 is parallel to
C the new pofition of the yard correfponding to-
the new pofition of the keel a b, making the angle
dCb — DCB. Alfo, by the nature of the circle,
the line CF is to C as the fine of the angle COF to
the fine of the angle CO/, that is (on account of the
parallels CD, OF and C d. Of), as the fine of WCD to
the fine of WC J. But when the trim of the fails remains
the fame, the velocity of the fiiip is as the fine of the
angle of the fail with the direction of the wind ; there¬
fore CF is to C/as the velocity on CF to that on Cf,
and the propofition is demonftrated. ^
Let it now be required to determine the beft courfe To deter,
for avoiding a rock R lying in the direftion CR, or for die t
withdrawing as faft as poffible from a line of coaft PQ. !?e'k coud«
Draw CM through R, or parallel to PQ, and let m be ing aTock,
the middle of the arch CmM. It is plain that m is the
moft remote from CM of any point of the arch Cm M,
and therefore the fhip will recede farther from the coaft
PQJn any given time by holding the courfe C m than
by any other courfe.
This courfe is eafily determined ; For the arch C m M
= 360°— (arch CO-f-arch OM), and the arch CO is
the meafure of twice the angle CFO, or twice the an¬
gle DCB, or twice b-\-x, and the arch OM meafures
twice the angle ECM.
Thus, fuppofe the fharpeft poffible trim of the fails
to be 350, and the obferved angle ECM to be 70° }
thenCO+O Mis70°-j-140? oriio0. This being taken
from 360°, leaves 150°, of which the half M m is 750,
and the angle MC m is 370 30'. This added to ECM
makes EC »z 107° 30', leaving WC to = 720 30', and
the fhip muft hold a courfe making an angle of 720 30'
with the real diredtion of the wind, and WCD will be
37° 3°''
This fuppofes no leeway. But if we know that under
all the fail which the {hip can carry with fafety and ad¬
vantage fhe makes 5 degrees of leeway, the angle DC to
of the fail and courfe, or b + x, is 40°. Then CO -f- OM
= 2200, which being taken from 360° leaves 1400, of
which the half is 70°, = M w, and the angle MC to —
350, and EC m = 105°, and WC to zr 750, and the fhip
muft lie with her head 70° from the wind, making 5
degrees of leeway, and the angle WCD is 350.
The general rule for the pofition of the fhip is, that the
line onjhif'board which bifetts the angle b+x may alfo lifeEt
the angle WCM, or make the angle between the courfe
and the line from which we wifli to withdraw equal to the
angle between the fail and the real diredtion of the wind. ^6
It is plain that this problem includes that of plying to Coroiiarici..
windward. We have only to fuppofe ECM to be 90® ;
then, taking our example in the fame fhip, with the
fame trim and the fame leeway, we have b + «=40c.
This taken from 90^ leaves50°andWCn=: 90—25—67,
and the fhip’s head muft lie 6o° from the wind, and
the yard muft be 25'' from it.
It muft be obferved here, that it is not always eligi¬
ble to feledl the courfe which will remove the fhip faft-
eft from the given line CM ; it may be more prudent
to remove from it more fecurely though more flowly. In
fuch cafes the procedure is very Ample, viz. to fhape
the courfe as near the wind as is poffible.
The reader will alfo eafily fee that the propriety of
thefe pradlices is confined to thofe courfes only where
the pradticable trim of the fails is not fufficiently fharp.
6 Whenever
t
2°9
SEAMANSHIP.
Whenever the courfe ties fo far from the wind that it
is poffible to make the tangent of the apparent angle
of the wind and fail double the tangent of the fail and
courfe, it fhould be done.
The adjuffc. Thefe are the chief praftical confequenccs which can
tnem ofdiejjg deduced from the theory. But we fhould confider
fecU^th ° h°w far this adjiiftmcnt of the fails and courfe can be
ti eery ini performed. And here occur difficulties fo great as to
pradhcable. make it almod imprafticable. We have always fuppofed
the pofition of the furface of the fail to be diftin&ly
obfervable and meafurable ; but this can hardly be
affirmed even with refped to a fail llretched on a yard.
Here we fuppofed the furface of the fail to have the
fame inclination to the keel that the yard has. This is
by no means the cafe ; the fail affumes a concave form, of
which it is almofl impoffible to affign the direftion of
the mean impulfe. We believe that this is always con-
fiderably to leeward of a perpendicular to the yard, ly¬
ing between Cl and CE (fig* 6.). 1 his is of fome ad¬
vantage, being equivalent to a (harper trim. We can¬
not affirm this, however, with any confidence, becaufe it
renders the impulfe on the weather-leech of the fail fo
exceedingly feeble as hardly to have any effed. In
failing clofe to the wind the ffiip is kept f® near that
the weather-leech of the fall is ahnoft ready to receive
the wind edgewife, and to flutter or Oliver. The moll
effedive or drawing fails with a fide-wind, efpecially
when plying to windward, are the ftayfails. We be¬
lieve that it is impoffible to fay, with any thing ap¬
proaching to precifion, what is the poiition of the general
furface of a ftayfail, or to calculate the intenfity and
diredion of the general impulfe ; and we affirm with
confidence that no man can pronounce on thefe points
with any exadnefs. If we can guefs within a third or
a fourth part of the truth, it is all we can pretend to ;
and after all, it is but a guefs. Add to this, the fails
coming in the way of each other, and either becalming
them or fending the wind upon them in a diredion
widely different from that of its free motion. All thefe
points we think beyond our power of calculation, and
therefore that it is in vain to give the feaman mathema¬
tical rules, or'even tables of adjuftment ready calculated ;
fince he can neither produce that medium pofition of
his fails that is required, nor tell what is the pofition
-which he employs.
This is one of the principal reafons why fo little ad¬
vantage has been derived from the very ingenious and
promifing difquifitions of Bouguer and other mathe¬
maticians, and has made us omit the adual folution of
the chief problems, contenting ourfelves with pointing
out the procefs to fuch readers as have a relilh for thefe
analytical operations.
The theory But there is anotl:ier Principal reafon for the fmall
itfelf erro- progrefs which has been made in the theory of feaman-
oeouf, flfip?: This is the errors of the theory itfelf, which fup-
pofes the impulfions of a fluid to be in the duplicate ra¬
tio of the fine of incidence. The molt careful compa-
rifon which has been made between the refults of this
theory and matter of fad is to he feen in the experi¬
ments made by the members of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris, mentioned in the article Resistancr
of Fluids. We fubjoin another abftrad of them in
the following table; where col. iff gives the angle of in¬
cidence ; col. 2d gives the impulfions really obferved ;
col. 3d the impulies, had they followed the duplicate
Vol.XWII. Part I.
ratio of the fines; and col- 4th the mpulfes, il tney were
in the fimple ratio of the fines.
Angle
of
Incid.
90
84
78
72
66
60
54
48
4 2
36
3°
24
18
12
6
Impul-
fion
obferved.
IOOO
989
958
908
845
771
693
615
543
480
440
424
4r4
406
400
Impulfe
as
Sine*.
IOOO
989
957
9°5
835
750
655
552
448
346
250
165
96
43
11
Impulle
as
Sine.
IOOO
995
978
951
914
866
809
743
669
587
500
407
3°9
208
1 °5
Here we fee an enormous difference in the great obli¬
quities. When the angle of incidence is only fix de¬
grees, the obferved impulfe is forty times greater than
the theoretical impulfe ; at 12° it is ten times greater ;
at j 8° it is more than four times greater ; and at 24° it
is almofl; three times greater.
No wonder then that the dedudions from this theory And the de->
are fo ufelefs and fo unlike what we familiarly obferve. dudtions
We took notice of this when we were confidering thetrrm k
leeway of a redangular box, and thus faw a reafon for!t^s’
admitting an incomparably fmaller leeway than what
would refult from the laborious computations neceffary
by the theory. This error in theory has as great an in¬
fluence on the impulfions of air when ading obliquely
on a fail; and the experiments of Mr Robins and of
the Chevalier Borda on the oblique impulfions of air are
perfedly conformable (as far as they go) to thofc of
the academicians on water. The oblique impulfions of
the wind are therefore much more efficacious for pref-
fing the (hip in the diredion of her courfe than the
theory allows us to fuppofe ; and the progrefs of a fhip
plying to windward is much greater, both becaufe the
oblique impulfes of the wind are more effedive, and be¬
caufe the leeway is much fmaller, than we fuppofe.
Were not this the cafe, it would be impoffible for a
fquare-rigged fliip to get to windward. The impulfe
on her fails when clofe-hauled would be fo trifling that
fhe would not have a third part of the velocity which
we fee her acquire! and this trifling velocity would be
wafted in leeway ; for we have feen that the diminution
of the oblique impulfts of the water is accompanied by
an increafe of leeway. But we fee that in the great ob¬
liquities the impulfions continue to be very confiderable,
and that even an incidence of fix degrees gives an impulfe
as great as the theory allows to an incidence of 40.
We may therefore, on all occafions, keep the yards,
more fquare ; and the lofs which we fuftain by the dimi¬
nution of the very oblique impulfe will he more than
compenfated by its more favourable diredion with re¬
fped to the {hip’s keel. Let us take an example of
this. Suppofe the wind about two points before the
beam, making an angle of 68y with the keel. The
theory affigns 430 for the inclination of the wind to
3D d the
210
S ' E A M A N SHIP.
the fall, and 250 for the trim of the fail. The perpen¬
dicular impulfe being fuppofed 1000, the theoretical
impulfe fctr 430 is 465. This reduced in the proportion
of radius to the fine of 25°, gives the impulfe in the di¬
rection of the courfe only 197.
But if we eafe off the lee-braces till the yard makes
an angle ©f <;o0 with the keel, and allows the wind an
incidence of no more than 180, we have the experiment¬
ed impulfe 414, which, when reduced in the proportion
of radius to the fine of 50°, gives an effedtive impulfe
3 ly. In like manner, the trim 36°, with the incidence
120, gives an effethve impulfe 337 ; and the trim 62°,
with the incidence only 6°, gives 353.
Hence it would at firfl fight appear that the angle
DCB of 62° and WCD of 6° would be better for hold¬
ing a courfe within fix points of the wind than any
more oblique pofition of the fails ; but it will only give
a greater initial impulfe. As the fhip accelerates, the
wind apparently comes ahead, and we mult continue to
brace up as the fhip frefhens her way. It is not unufual
.for her to acquire half or two thirds of the velocity of
the wind ; in which cafe the wind comes apparently
ahead more than two points, when the yards muft
be braced up to 350, and this allows an impulfe no
greater than about 70. Now this is very frequently
obferved in good fhips, which in abrifk gale and fmooth
water will go five or fix knots clofe-hauled, the fhip’s
head fix points from the wind, and the fails no more
than juft full, but ready to fliiver by the fmalleft luff.
All this would be impofTihle4by the ufual theory ; and in
this refpedt thefe experiments of the French academy
give a fine illuflration of the feaman's practice. They
account for what we fhould otherwife be much puzzled
to explain ; and the great progrefs which is made by
a fhip clofe-hauled being perfectly agreeable to what
we fhould expedt from the law of oblique impulsion
deducible from thefe fo often mentioned experiments,
while it is totally incompatible with the common theory,
fhould make us abandon the theory without hefitation,
and ftrenuoufly fct about the eftablifhment of another,
founded entirely on experiments. For this puipofe the
*ntr.ts pro- experiments fhould be made on the oblique impulfions
jier for efia- gf a;r on as great a fcale as poffible, and in as great a
©thef15” ^ variety circurnftances, as to furnifh a feries of im¬
pulfions for all angles of obliquity. We have but four
or five experiments on this fubjedf, viz. two by Mr
Robins and two or three by the Chevalier Borda. Ha¬
ving thus gotten a feries of impulfions, it is very practi¬
cable to raife on this foundation a practical inflitute, and
to give a table of the velocities of a fhip fuited to every
angle of inclination and of trim ; for nothing is more
certain than the refolution of the impulfe perpendicular
to the fail into a force in the direction of the keel, and
a lateral force.
We arealfo difpofedto think that experiments might
he made on a model very nicely rigged with fails, and
trimmed in every different degree, which would point
out the mean direction of the impulfe on the fails, and
the comparative force of thefe impulfes in different di¬
rections of the wind. The method would be very fi-
milar to that for examining'the impulfe of the water on
the hull. If this can alfo be afeertained experimental¬
ly, the intelligent reader will eafily fee that the whole
motion of a fhip under fail may be determined for every
cafe. Tables may then be conitruCted by calculation.
or by graphical operations, which will give the velo.
cities of a fhip in every different courfe, and corrcfpon-
ding to every trim of fail. And let it be here obferved,
that the trim of the fail is not to be eftimated in de¬
grees of inclination of the yards ; becaufe, as we have
already remarked, we cannot obferve nor adjuli the la¬
teen fails in this way. But, in making the experiments
for afeertaining the impulfe, the exaft pofition of the
tacks and fheets of the fails are to be noted ; and this
combination of adjuftments is to pafs by the name of a
certain trim. Thus that trim of all the fails may be
called 40, whofe direCHon is experimentally found eaui-
valent to a flat furface trimmed^o the obliquity 40°.
Having done this, we may conffruCt a figure for
each trim fimilar to fig. 8. where, inftead of a circle,
we fhall have a curve COM'F, whofe chords CF',
c/', &c. are proportional to the velocities in thefe cour-
fes; and by means of this curve we can find the poinf
m', which is mod remote from any line CM from which
we wifh to withdraw: and thus we may folve all the
principal problems of the art.
We hope that it will not be accounted prefumption
in us to expeft more improvement from a theory
founded on judicious experiments only, than from a
theory of the impulfe of fluids, which is found fo in-
confifteut with obfervation, and of whofe fallacy all its
authors, from Newton to D’Alembert, entertained
ftrong fufpicions. Again, we beg leave to recommend 41
this view «f the fubjeff to the attention of the Society Recom.
for the Improvement of Naval Architecture.t0
Should thefe patriotic gentlemen entertain a favourable^
opinion of the plan, and honour us with their corre-provement
ipondence, we will cheerfully impart to them our no-oi Naval
tions of the way in which both thefe trains of experi-Arc^nee"
ments may be profecuted with fuccefs, and refults ob-tUie’
tained in which we may confide; and we content our-
felves at prefent with offering to the public thefe hints,
which are not the fpeculations of a man of mere fcience,
but of one who, with a competent knowledge of the
laws of mechanical nature, has the experience of feveral
years fervice in the royal navy, where the art of work¬
ing of fhips was a favourite objeft of his fcientific at¬
tention. '
With thefe obfervations we conclude our difeuflion Means em-
of the firft part of the feaman’s talk, and now proceedi’10/61110
to confider the means that are employed to prevent oHr Aent yr
1 j jr DroaHce flP«
to produce any deviations from the uniform re&ilineal viation*
courfe which has been fele&ed. from a
Here the ihip is to be confidered as a body in freeCoUr^9c!
fpace, convertible round her centre of inertia. For
whatever may be the point round which fhe turns, this
motion may always be confidered as compounded of a
rotation round an axis palling through her centre of
gravity or inertia. She is impelled by the wind and by
the water acting on many furfaces differently inclined
to each other, and the impulfe on each is perpendicular
to the furface. In order therefore that fhe may con¬
tinue fleadily in one courfe, it is not only neceffaiy that
the impelling forces, eftimated in their mean dire<ftion„
be equal and oopofite to the refilling forces eftimated
in their mean dire&ion.; but alfo that thefe two direc¬
tions may pafs through one point, otherwife file will be
affefled as a log of wood is when pufhed in oppofite
directions by two forces, which are equal indeed, but
are applied to different parte of the log,. A fhip mult
8 be
s
E
A M A
ke confidered as a lever, a£ted on in different parts by-
forces in different direftions, and the whole balancing
each other round that point or axis where the equiva¬
lent of all the refiling forces paffes. This may be con-
iidered as a point fupported by this reiifting force, and
as a fort of fulcrum : therefore, in order that the fhip
may maintain her polition, the energies or momenta oi
all the impelling forces round this point mult balance
each other.
Impuifes When a ihip fails right afore the wind, with her
on a fliip yards fquare, it is evident that the impuifes on each fide
lailingright Df t;iie £eel are equal, as alfo their mechanical momenta
^ndViffe- round anY ax‘s P?-fling perpendicularly through the
^nt from keel. So are the actions of the water on her bows,
thofe on But when Ihe fails on an oblique courfe, with her yards
her when braced up on either fide, fhe fuftains a preff'ure in the
ji 'uef °k* direction Cl (%. 5.) perpendicular to the fad. Ihis,
^ ky giving her a lateral preffure LI, as well as a preffure
CL ahead, caufes her to make leeway, and to move in
a line C b inclined to CB. By this means the balance
of aftion on the two bows is dellroyed ; the general im-
pulfe on the lee-bow is increafed ; and that on the wea¬
ther-bow is diminiihed. The combined impulfe is there¬
fore no longer in the dircdlion BC, but (in the Hate of
uniform motion) in the direflion IC.
Suppofe that in an inftant the whole fails are annihi¬
lated and the impelling preffure Cl, which precifely ba¬
lanced the refilling preffure on the bows, removed, i he
Ihip tends, by her inertia, to proceed in the direction
C b. This tendency produces a continuation of the re-
fiftance in the oppofite direttion IC, which is not di-
redlly oppofed to the tendency of the Ihip in the direc¬
tion Cb ; therefore the lliip’s head would immediately
come up to the wind. The experienced feaman will re-
colleft fomething like this when the fails are fuddenly
lowered when coming to anchor. It does not hap¬
pen folely from the obliquity of the a£lion on the bows :
It would happen to the parallelepiped of fig. 2. which
was fuftaining a lateral impullion B- fin.2 x, and a direct
impulfion A’ cof.2 x. Thefe are continued lor a mo¬
ment after the annihilation of the fail; but being no
longer oppofed by a force in the diredlkm CO, but by
a force in the diredlion C$, the force B'fin.z x mull
prevail, and the body is not only retarded in its motion,
but its head turns towards the wind. But this effedl
of the leeway is greatly increafed by the curved form
of the lliip’s bows. This occafions the centre ot effort
of all the impullions of the water on the lee fide of the
{hip to be very far forward, and this fo much the more
remarkably as Ihe is lharper afore. It is in general not
much abaft the foremaft. Now the centre of the (hip’s
tendency to continue her motion is the fame with her
centre of gravity, and this is generally but a little be¬
fore the mainmaft. She is therefore in the fame con-
ditjon nearly as if Ihe were pufhed at the mainmalt in
a diredlion parallel to C b, and at the foremail by a
force parallel to IC. The evident confequence of this
is a tendency to come up to the wind, i his is inde¬
pendent of all fituation of the fails, provided only that
4 j they have been trimmed obliquely.
Griping. This tendency of the (hip’s head to windward is call¬
ed griping in the feaman’s language, and is greatefl
in (hips which are iharp forward, as we have faid al¬
ready. This circumftance is ealily underllood. What-
cver is the direction of the fhip’s motion, the abfolute
N S H I P.
impulfe on that part of the bow immediately contigu¬
ous to B is perpendicular to that very part of the fur-
face. The more acute, therefore, that the angle of the
bow is, the more will the impulfe on that part be per¬
pendicular to the keel, and the greater will be its ener¬
gy to turn the head to windward.
Thus we are enabled to underfland or to fee the pro- Propiietyof
priety of the difpofition of the fails of a Ihip. We fee the diipofi-
her crowded with foils forward, and even many foils ex-^n ^
tended far before her bow, fuch as the fpritfail, the’fl s;_°
bowfprit topfail, the fore-topmaft llayfail, the jib, and
flying jib. The fails abaft are comparatively fnialler.
The foils on the mizenmalt are much fmaller than thofe
on the foremalt. All the llayfoils hoilted on the main-
mall may be confidered as headfoils, becaufe their cen¬
tres of effort are coniiderably before the centre of gra¬
vity of the Ihip ; and notwithftanding this difpofition,
it generally requii es a fmall action of the rudder to
counteraA the windward tendency of the lee-bow. This
is confidered as a good quality when moderate; be¬
caufe it enables the feaman to throw the foils aback, and
Hop the (hip’s way in a moment, if Ihe be in danger
from any thing ahead ; and the (hip which does not
carry a little of a weather helm, is always a dull
foiler. ,
In order to judge fomewhat more accurately of the A<a£n of
adlion of the water and fails, luppofe the fhip AB tjje water
(fig. 9.) to have its foils on the mizenmall D, the and the
mainmall E, and foremaft F, braced up or trimmedtaiis-
alike, and that the three lines D i, E e, F/, perpendi¬
cular to the foils, are in the proportion of the impuifes
on the foils. The Ihip is driven ahead and to leeward,
and moves in the path aQ,b. 1 his path is fo inclined
to the line of the keel that the medium diredlion of the
refiftance of the water is parallel to the diretlion of the
impulfe. A line Cl may be drawn parallel to the lines
D i, E e, F/, and equal to their futn : and it may be
drawn from fuch a point C, that the adlions on all the
parts of the hull between C and B may balance the
momenta of all the adlions on the hull between C and A. 47
This point may juftly be called the centre of ejforty or Centre of
the centre of rejijlance. We cannot determine this point effort
for want of a proper theory of the reliltance of fluids.
Nay, although experiments like thofe of the Parifia'n
academy (hould give us the moll perfedl knowledge of
the in ten fit y of the oblique impuifes on a fquare foot,
we (hould hardly be benefited by them; for the action of
the water on a fquare foot of the hull at p, (or inltance,
is fo modified by the intervention of the ftream of wa¬
ter which has (tr uck the hull about B, and glided along
the bow B o/>, that the preffure on p is totally different
from what it would have been were it a fquare foot ot
furface detached from the reft, and prefented in the
fame pofition to the water moving in the diredlion b C.
For it is found, that the refiftances given to planes join¬
ed fo as to form a wedge, or to curved furfaces, are
widely different from the accumulated refiftances, calcu¬
lated (or their feparate parts, agreeably to the experi¬
ments of the academy on (ingle furfaces. We there¬
fore do not attempt to afeertain the point C by theory;
but it may be accurately determined by the experiments
which we have fo llrongly recommended ; and we offer 4g
this as an additional inducement for profecuting them. To he de=.
Draw through C a line perpendicular to Cl, that is, termiued
parallel to the foils ; and let the lines of impulfe of the b>r exP*na
i D d 2 threeraents*
212
S E A M A
three fails cut it in the points /, i, and m. This line
i m may be confidered as a lever, moveable round C,
and adted on at the points i, k, and tv, by three forces.
'1 he rotatory momentum of the fails on the mizenmaft
is D i X * C ; that of the fails on the mainmafl is
E e X C ; and the momentum of the fails on the fore-
maft is F/X tn C. The tv/o firft tend to prefs forward
49 the arm C r, and then to turn the fhip’s head towards
E-quili- the wind The adtion of the fails on the foremaft tends
ferved 1^" t0 Pu^ t^e arm ^ m P°rwar(l» and produce a contrary
tfn * ofition rotat;‘on- If the flip undjjr thefe three fails keeps ftea-
©f the fails, dily in her courfe, without the aid of the rudder, we
muft have D«X/C-f-EfXiC = F/ Xm C. This
is very pofiible, and is often feen in a Ihip under her
mizen topfail, main-topfail, and fore-toplad, all parallel
to one another, and their furfaces duly proportioned by
reefing. If more fails are fet, we muft always have a
limilar equilibrium. A certain number of them will
have their efforts diredled from the larboard arm of the
lever im lying to leeward of Cl, and a certain number
will have their efforts diredted from the ftarboard arm
lying to windward of Cl. The lum of the produdls of
each of the firft fet, by their diftances from C, muft be
equal to the fum of the fimilar produdls of the other
fet. As this equilibrium is all that is neceffary for pre-
ferving the fhip’s pofition, and the ceffation of it is im¬
mediately followed by a converfion ; and as thefe ftates
of the fhip may be had by means of the three fquare
fails only, when their furfaces are properly proportion¬
ed—it is plain that every movement may be executed and
explained by their means. This will greatly Amplify our
future difcuffions. We fhall therefore fuppofe in future
that there are only the three topfails fet, and that their
furfaces are fo adjufted by reefing, that their adfions
exadlly balance each other round that point C of the
middle line AB, where the a&ions of the water on the
different parts of her botttom in like manner balance
each other. This point C may be differently fituated
in the fhip according to the leeway fire makes, depend¬
ing on the trim of the fails ; and therefore although a
certain proportion of the three furfaces may balance
each other in one ftate of leeway, they may happen not
to do fo in another ftate. But the equilibrium is evi¬
dently attainable in every cafe, and we therefore fhall al-
co ways fuppofe it.
Conte- . It muft now be obferved, that when this equilibrium
quence of is deftroyed, as, for example, by turning the edge of the
ing it7 niizen topfail to the wind, which the feamen callJhiver-
ing the mizen-topfail, and which may be confidered as-
equivalent to the removing the mizen-topfail entirely, it
does not follow that the fhip will round the point C,
this point remaining fixed. The fhip muft be confi¬
dered as a free body, ftill a&ed on by a number of
forces, which no longer balance each other; and fhe
muft therefore begin to turn round a fpontaneous axis
of converfion, which muft be determined in the way fet
forth in the article Rotation. It is of importance to
point out in general where this axis is fituated. There¬
fore let G (fig. io.) be the centre of gravity of the
fhip. Draw the line q Gv parallel to the yards, cut¬
ting D ^ in q, E e in r, Cl in /, and F/ in v. While
the three fails are fet, the line q v may be confidered as
a lever afted on by four forces, viz. D d, impelling the
lever forward perpendicularly in the point q ; E e, im¬
pelling it forward in the point r ; F/, impelling it for-
N S H I P.
ward in the point v ; and Cl, impelling it backward
in the point t. Thefe forces balance each other both
in refpeeft of progreffive motion and of rotatory energy;
for Cl was taken equal to the fum of D J, E e, and F
fo that no acceleration or retardation of the fhip’s pro*
grefs in her courfe is fuppofed.
But by taking away the mizen-topfail, both the equi¬
libriums are deftroyed. A part D d of the accelerating
force is taken away ; and yet the fhip, by her inertia or
inherent force, tends, for a moment, to proceed in the
direction C p with her former velocity ; and by this ten¬
dency exerts for a moment the fame preffure Cl on the
water, and fuftains the fame refiftance IC. She muft
therefore be retarded in her motion by the excefs of the
refiftance IC over the remaining impelling forces E e
and F/, that is, by a force equal and oppofite to D d.
She will therefore be retarded in the fame manner as if
the mizen-topfail were ftill fet, and a force equal and
oppofite to its adion were applied to G the centre of
gravity, and fhe would foon acquire a fmaller velocity,
which would again bring all things into equilibrium j
and fire would ftand on in the fame courfe, without
changing either her leeway or the pofition of her
head.
But the equilibrium of the lever is alfo deftroyed.
It is now adted on by three forces only, viz. E e and
F/, impelling it forward'in the points r and v, and 1C
impelling it backward in the point /. Makerv\ro~
E -r-f F/: F/, and make op parallel to Cl and equal
to E e-j-F/. Then we know, from the common prin¬
ciples of mechanics, that the force op acting at 0 wiil
have the fame momentum or energy to turn the lever
round any point whatever as the two forces E e and F f
applied at r and v ; and now the lever is afted on by
two forces, viz. IC, urging it backwards in the paint
/, and op urging it forwards in the point o. It muft
therefore turn round like a floating log, which gets two
blows in oppofite dire&ions. If we now make IC—op
'• op ~ t o 11 x, or IC — opi IC ~ t o : o x, and apply
to the point x a force equal to IC—op in the direction
IC; we know, by the common principles of mechanics,
that this foice IC—will produce the fame rotation
round any point as the two forces IC and op applied
in their proper dire&ions at t and o. Let us examine
the fituation of the poim v.
The force IC—op is evidently = D r/, and opts
= Et-}-F/. Therefore o t u x =z D d: op. But be-
canfe, when all the fails were filled, there was an equi¬
librium round C, and therefore round t, and becaufe
the force op a&ing at o is equivalent to E e and F/
afting at r and v, we muft ftill have the equilibrium ;
and therefore we have the momentum G dXqt z=. op
X o t. Therefore o t: t q = G d: o p, and tq—tx.
Therefore the point x is the fame with the point q.
Therefore, when we driver the mizen-topfail, the ro- R A1
tation of the fhip is the fame as if the fhip were at reft,^
and a foice equal and oppofite to the adtion of the mr-mizen-top-
zen-topfail were applied at y or at D, or at any pointlai1-
in the line D y. * »
This might have been fhown in another and fhorter
way. Suppofe all fails filled, the fhip is in equilibrio.
This will be difturbed by applying to D a force oppo¬
fite to Dr/; and if the force be alfo equal to D d, it is
evident, that thefe two forces deftroy each other, and
that this application of the force d D is equivalent to
the
S E A M A
the taking away of the mizen-topfail. But wechofe to
pjve the whole mechanical inveiligation; beeaufe it
p;ave us an opportunity of pointing out to the reader,
j'n a cafe of very eafy comprehenfion, the precife man¬
ner in which the fhip is afted on by the different fails
and by the water, and what fhare each of them lias in
the motion ultimately produced. We fhall not repeat
this manner of procedure in other cafes, becaufe a little
refle&ion on the part of the reader will now enable him
to trace the modus operands through all its Iteps.
We now fee that, in refpeft both of progreffive mo¬
tion and of converfion, the ffip is affedted by ihivering
the fail D, in the fame manner as if a force equal and
oppofite toDd were applied at D, or at any point in
the line D d. We muft now have recourfe to the prin¬
ciples eftablifhed under the article Rotation.
Let p reprefent a particle of matter, r its radius vec¬
tor, or its diftance p G from an axis palling through
the centre of gravity G, and let M reprefent the whole
quantity of matter of the (hip. Then its momentum
of inertia is =J'p'rl (fee Rotation, n° 18.) The
fhip, impelled in the point D by a force in the direc¬
tion d~D, will begin to turn round a fpontaneous verti¬
cal axis, paffing through a point S of the line q G,
which is drawn through the centre of gravity G, per¬
pendicular to the direftion d D of the external force,
and the diltance GS of this axis from the centre of gra¬
vity is = ^   (fee Rotation, n° 06.), and it is
* M-Gy V .
taken on the oppofite fide of G from y, that is, S and
q are on oppofite fides of G.
Let us exprefs the external force by the fymbol F.
It is equivalent to a certain number of pounds, being the
pref^ire of the wind moving with the velocity V and
inclination a on the furface of the fail D ; and may
therefore be computed cither by the theoretical or ex¬
perimental law of oblique impulfes. Having obtained
this, we can afeertain the angular velocity of the rota¬
tion and the abfolute velocity of any given point of the
ihip by means of the theorems eftablilhed in the article
Rotation.
A&ion of ®ut before we proceed to this inveftigation, we {hall
the rudder confider the aftion of the rudder, which operates pre-
cifely in the fame manner. Let the (hip AB (fig. i i.)
have her rudder in the pofition AD, the helm being
hard a-lfarboard, while the Ihip failing on the {lar¬
board tack, and making leeway, keeps on the courfe
a b. The lee furface of the rudder meets the water
obliquely. The very foot of the rudder meets it in the
mreftion DE parallel to a b. The parts farther up
meet it with various obliquities, and with various velo¬
cities, as it glides round the bottom of the Ihip and
falls into the wake. It is abfolutely impoffible to cal¬
culate the accumulated impulfe. We fhall not be far
miftaken in the deflerffion of each contiguous filament,
as it quits the bottom and glides along the rudder ;
but we neither know the velocity of thefe filaments, nor
the defleftion and velocity of the filaments gliding
without them. We therefore imagine that all compu¬
tations on this fubjerff are in vain. But it is enough
for our purpofe that we know the direftion of the ab¬
folute preffure which they exert on its furface. It is
in the direftion D d, perpendicular to that furface. We
alfo may be confident that this preffure is very confider-
N S H I P. 213
able, in proportion to the a&ion of the water on the
fhip’s bows, or of the wind on the fails ; and we may
fuppofe it to be nearly in the proportion of the fquare
of the velocity of the fhip in her courfe ; but we can¬
not affirm it to be accurately in that proportion, for
reafons that will readily occur to one who confidersthe
way in which the water falls in behind the ffiip. ^
It is obferved, however, that a fine failer always Cfreattft in
fteers well, and that all movements by means of thea ®nc
rudder are performed with great rapidity when the
velocity of the fhip is great. We fhall fee by and by,
that the fpced with which the fhip performs the angu¬
lar movements is in the proportion of her progreffive
velocity : For we fhall fee that the fquares of the times
of performing the evolution are as the impulfes inverfe-
ly, which are as the fquares of the velocities. There is
perhaps no force which aids on a fhip that can be
more accurately determined by experiment than this.
Let the fhip ride in a flream or tideway whofe velocity
is accurately meafured ; and let her ride from two moor¬
ings, fo that her bow may be a fixed point. Let a
fmall tow-line be laid out from her flern or quarter at
right angles to the keel, and connedted with fome ap¬
paratus fitted up on fhore or on board another fhip, by
which the (train on it may be accurately meafured; a
per ton converfant with mechanics will fee many ways
in which this can be done. Perhaps the following may How to deo
be as good as any : Let the end of the tow-line be fixed termine it,
to fome point as high out of the water as the point of
the Ihip from which it is given out, and let this be very
high. Let a block with a hook be on the rope, and
a confiderable weight hung on this hook. Things be¬
ing thus prepared, put down the helm to a certain angle,-
fo as to eaufe the fhip to fheer off from the point to
which the far end of the tow-line is attached. This will
ftretch the rope, and raiie the weight out of the water..
Now heave upon the rope, to bring the fhip back again
to her former pofition, with her keel in the direction of
the flream. When this pofition is attained, note care¬
fully the form of the rope, that is, the angle which its
two parts make with the horizon. Call this angle a.
Every perfon acquainted with thefe fubjetls knows that
the horizontal ftrain is equal to half the weight multi¬
plied by the cotangent of a, or that 2 is to the co¬
tangent of a as the weight to the horizontal llrain.
Now it is this flrain which balances and therefore mea-
fures the aftion of the rudder, or D e in fig. 11. There¬
fore, to have the abfolute impulfe D d, we mufl increafe
JD e in the proportion of radius to the fecant of the
angle b which the rudder makes with the keel. In a
great fhip failing fix miles in an hour, the impulfe on
the rudder inclined 30° to the keel is not lefs than
3000 pounds. The furface of the rudder of fuch a
fhip contains near 80 fquare feet. It is not, however,
very neceffary to know this abfolute impulfe D d, be¬
caufe it is its part D e alone which meafures the energy
of the rudder in producing a converfion. Such expe¬
riments, made with various pofitions of the rudder, will
give its energies correfponding to thefe pofitions, and
will fettle that long dilputed point which is the befl
pofition for turning a fhip. On the hypothefis that
the impulfions of fluids are in the duplicate ratio of the
fines of incidence, there can be no doubt that it fhould
make an angle of 540 44' with the keel. But the form
of a large fhip will not admit of this, becaufe a tiller of
a length fufficient for managing the rudder in failing
with
214
S E A M A
with great velocity has not room to deviate above 30°
from the direftion of the keel ; and in this pofition of
the rudder the mean obliquity of the filaments of wa¬
ter to its 1 iii-fece cannot exceed 40° or 45'0. A greater
angle would not be of much fervice, for it is never
for want of a proper obliquity that the rudder fails of
5? producing a converfion.
Why a/hip A fhip mifi’es ftays in rough weather for want of a
noifo dar.fiiffieient progreflive velocity, and becaufe her bows are
beat off by the waves : and there is feldom any diffi¬
culty in wearing the /hip, if fire has any progreffive
motion. It Ls, however, always definable to give the
rudder as much influence as poffible. Its furface (hould
be enlarged (efpecially below) as much as can be done
confidently with its flrength and with the power of the
llecrfmen to manage it ; and it /hould be put in the
jnoft favourable fituation for the water to get at it with
great velocity ; and it fliould be placed as far from the
axis of the fliip’s motion as poffible. Thefe points are
obtained by making the ffiern-poft very upright, as has
always been done in the French dockyards. The Bri-
tifh firips have a much greater rake ; but our builders are
gradually adopting the French forms, experience ha¬
ving taught us that their /hips, when in our poffieflion,
are much more obedient to the helm than our own.—
In order to alcertain the motion produced by the ac¬
tion of the rudder, draw from the centre of gravity a
line G 7 perpendicular to Dr/ (Dr/ being drawn thro’
the centre of effort of the rudder). Then, as in the
•confideration of the action of the fails, we may conceive
the line 7 G as a lever connefted with the fliip, and im¬
pelled by- a force D J acting perpendicularly at 7. The
confequence of this will be, an incipient converfion of
the fhip about a vertical axis paffing through fome
point S in the line 7 G, lying on the other fide of G
from 7; and we have, as in the former cafe, GS =
,5 M;G?-
The adion 'l'*1118 t^ie aftion and effects of the fails and of the
of the rud-rudder are perfedtly fimilar, and are to be confidcred in
derfimiiar the fame manner. We fee that the aftion of the rud-
thetfaiL°f ^cr’ though of a fmall furface in comparifon of the fails,
and very mu^ be very great : For the impulfe of water is many
great. hundred times greater than that of the wind ; and the
arm 7 G of the lever, by which it afts, is incomparably
greater than that by which any of the iinpulfions on the
fails produces its effedt; accordingly the fliip yields
much more rapidly to its adtion than fhe does to the la¬
teral impulfe of a fail.
Obferve here, that if G were a fixed or fupported
axis, it would be the fame thing whether the abfolute
force D J of the rudder adls in the direction D 1/, or
its tranfverfe part D e adls in the diredlion D e, both
would produce the fame rotation ; but it is not fo in a
free body. The force D d both tends to retard the
fhip’s motion and to produce a rotation : It retards it
as much as if the fame force D d had been immediately
applied to the centre. And thus the real motion of the
fhip is compounded of a motion of the centre in a di-
redfion parallel to D d, and of a motion round the
centre. Thefe two conftitute the motion round S.
Emplo el ^ie effe&s of the adtion of the rudder are both
as an txam-more remarkable and fomewhat more fimple than thofe
pie of the of the fails, we /hall employ them as an example ot the
motions of mechanifm of the motions of converfion in general; and
85 we mull content ourfelves in a work like this with
N S H I P.
what is very general, we fhall iimplify the inveftigatfflrt
by attending only to the motion of converiron. We
can get an accurate notion of the whole motion, if want¬
ed for any purpofe, by combining the progreffive or
retrograde motion parallel to D d with the motion of
rotation which we are about to determine.
In this cafe, then, we cbferve, in thefirll place, that the
D h ’ 7G;
angular velocity (fee Rotation, n° 22.) J'
and, as was fliown in that article, this velocity of rota¬
tion increafes in the proportion of the time of the forces
uniform attion, and the rotation would be uniformly ac¬
celerated if the forces did really adl uniformly. This,
however, cannot be the cafe, becaufe,* by the /hip’s
change of pofition and change of progreffive velocity,
the diredtion and intenfity of the impelling force is con¬
tinually changing. But if two /hips are performing
fimilar evolutions, it is obvious that the changes of force
are fimilar in fimilar parts of the evolution. Therefore
the confideration of the momentary evolution is fufficient
for enabling us to compare the motions of (hips adluated
by fimilar forces, which is all we have in view at prefent.
The velocity v, generated in any time t by the con¬
tinuance of an invariable momentary acceleration (which
is all that we mean by faying that it is produced by the
adtion of a conftant accelerating force), is as the acce¬
leration and the time jointly. Now what v/e call the
angular velocity is nothing but this momentary accele^
ration. Therefore the velocity v generated in the time
F • 7 G
/ is —
y>
The exprefiion of the angular velocity is alfo the ex-Angular
preffion of the velocity of a point lituated at the di-velocity,
ftance 1 from the axis G. #
Let z be the fpace or arch of revolution deferibed in
the time t by this point, whofe di/lance from G is
FyG .
=r 1. Then z z= v t = /• „ * and takinr
fluent z =
F *7 G
the
ft"
This arch meafures the whole
angle of rotation accomphfhed in the time t. Thefe
are therefore as the fquares of the times from the begin¬
ning of the rotation.
Thofe evolutions are equal which are meafured by
equal arches. Thus two motions of 45 degrees each
are equal. Therefore becaufe z is the fame in both,
F • 7 G
the quantity / a is a con/tant quantity, and t2 is
I1"
reciprocally proportional to
G
ft
and t is proportional to
or is proportional
V'
y>
That
to
FWG v'F • 7 G
is to fay, the times of the fimilar evolutions of two
/hips are as the fquare root of the momentum of iner¬
tia diredlly, and as the fquare root of the momentum of
the rudder or fail inverfely. This will enable us to
make the comparifon ealily. Let us fuppofe the /hips
perfedtly fimilar in form and rigging, and to differ only
in length L and / ,/r-R- is to // r 2 as L 5 to / i.
For'
S E A M A
For the fimilar particles P and p contain quantities of
matter which are as the cubes of their lineal dimenfions,
that is, as L’ to And becaufe the particles are fi-
milarly fituated, Pv 1 is to r 2 as L2 to /*. Therefore
P • R a :/> * r"1 ~ Ls:/s. Now F is to /" as L2 to /\
For the furfaces of the fimilar ruddeis or fails are as
the fquares of their lineal dimenfions, that is, as L2 to
/ \ And, laftly, G y is to^y as L to /, and therefore
T ’ G q g q — L5 Therefore we have T2:
^ J F ‘ K • fP'rl= K : fr=^Ll:/% and T:
V'Gq f'gq L 1
to * = L:/*
Ti'ruts of fi- Therefore the times of performing fimilar evolutions
milar evo- with limilar fhips are proportional to the lengths of the
boons with when both are failing equally faft ; and fince the
fimilar * • n j . r 
fimilar
flips,
evolutions are fimilar, and the forces vary fimilarly in
their different parts, what is here demonfirated of the
fmallefl incipient evolutions is true of the whole. They
therefore not only defcribe equal angles of revolution,
but alfo fimilar curves.
A fmal^fhip, therefore, works in lefs time and in
lefs room than a great fhip, and this in the proportion
of its length. This is a great advantage in all cafes,
particularly in wearing, in order to fail on the other
tack clofe-hauled. In this cafe fhe will always be to
windward and ahead of the large fhip, when both are
got on the other tack. It would appear at firft light
that the large fhip will have the advantage in tacking.
Indeed the large fhip is farther to windward when again
trimmed on the other tack than the fmall fhip when fhe
is juft trimmed on the other tack. But this happened be¬
fore the large fhip had completed her evolution, and the
fmall fhip, in the mean time, has been going forward
on the other tack, and going to windward. She will
therefore be before the large Clip’s beam, and perhaps
as far to windward.
We have feen that the velocity of rotation is propor¬
tional, ceteris paribus, to F X G y. F means the ab-
folute impulfe on the rudder or fail, and is always per¬
pendicular to its furface. This abfolute impulfe on a
fail depends on the obliquity of the wind to its furface.
The ufual theory fays, that it is as the fquare of the
fine of incidence : but we find this not true. We muft
content ourfelves with exprefling it by fome as yet un¬
known funttion <? of the angle of incidence a, and call it
r a ; and if S be the furface of the fail, and V the veloci¬
ty of the wind, the abfolute impulfe is n V2 S X p <7.
This a£ts (in the cafe of the mizen-topfail, fig. to.)
by the lever q G, which is equal to DG X cof. D Gy,
and DG y is equal to the angle of the yard and keel ;
which angle we formerly called b. Therefore its en-
ergy in producing a rotation is n V1 S X ? a X DG X
cof. b. Leaving out the conftant quantities n, V2, S,
and D G, its energy is proportional to <r> a X cof. b. In
order, therefore, that any fail may have the greateft
power t» produce a rotation round G, it muft be fo
trimmed that ? a X cof. b may be a maximum. Thus,
if we would trim the fails on the foremaft, fo as to pay
the fhip off from the wind right ahead with the greateft
cffeft, and if we take the experiments of the French
academicians as proper meafures of the oblique impuFes
of the wind on the fail, we will brace up the yard t® an
angle of 48 degrees with the keel. The impulfe corre-
fponding to 48° is 615, and the cofine of 48° is 669.
Thefe give a product of 411435. we 'tJIRce the_fail
n s h 1 p.
to 54.44, the angle affigned by the theory, the effedtive
impulfe is 405274. If we make the angle 450, the im-
pulfe is 408774. It appears then that 48’ is preferable
to either of the others. But the difference is inconli-
derable, as in all cafes of maximum a fmall deviation
from the belt pofition is not very detrimental. But the
difference between the theory and this experimental
meafure will be very great when the impulfes of the
wind are of neceflity very oblique. Thus, in tacking
fliip, as foon as the headfails are taken aback, they
ferve to aid the evolution, as is evident: But if we were
now to adopt the maxim inculcated by the theory, we
fhould immediately round in the weather-braces, fo as
to increafe the impulfe on the fail, becaufe it is then
very fmall ; and although we by this means make yard
more fquare, and therefore diminifh the rotatory mo¬
mentum of this impulfe, yet the impulfe is more increafed 60
(by the theory) than its vertical lever is diminiftied.— Ankepoinp
Let us examine this a little more particularly, becaufe
it is reckoned one of the niceft points of feamanfhip to ma 1 ^
aid the fhip’s coming round by means of the headfails ;
and experienced feamen differ in their pradlice in this
manceuvre. Suppofe the yard braced up to 4®% which
is as much as can be ufually done, and that the fail fhi-
vers (the bowlines are ufually let g® when the Helm is
put down), the fail immediately takes aback, and in
a moment we may fuppofe an incidence of 6 degrees.
The impulle_ correfponding to this is 400 (by experi¬
ment), and the cofine of 40° is 766. This gives 306400
for the effective impulfe- To proceed according to the
theory, we fhould brace the yard to 70y, which would
give the wind (now 34e on the weather-bow) an inci¬
dence of nearly 36°, and the fail an inclination of 20°
to the intended motion, which is perpendicular to the
keel. For the tangent of 20y is about 4 of the tangent
of 36°. Let us now fee what effective impulfe the ex¬
perimental law of oblique impulfions will give for this
adjuftment of the fails. The experimental impulfe for
36° is 480 ; the cofine of 70° is 342 ; the produft is
164160, not much exceeding the half of the former.
Nay, the impulfe for calculated by the theory,
would have been only 346, and the effective impulfe
only 118332. And it muft be farther obferved, that this
theoretical adjuftment would tend greatly to check the
evolution, and in moft cafes would entirely mar it, by
checking the fhip’s-motion ahead, and confequently the
action of the rudder, which is the moft powerful agent
in the evolution ; for here would be a great impulfe di¬
rected almoft aftern.
We were juftifiable, therefore, in faying, in the be¬
ginning of this article, that a feaman would frequently
find himielf baffled if he were to work a fhip according
to the rules deduced from M. Bouguer’s work ; and we
fee by this inftance of what importance it is to have the
oblique impulfions of fluids alcertained experimentally
The practice of the moft experienced feaman is direCtly
the oppofite to this theoretical maxim, and its fuccefs
greatly confirm's the ufefulnefs of thefe experiments of
the academicians fo often praifed by us.
We return again to the general confideration of the
"F f’’
rotatory motion. We found the velocity v = ^
it is therefore proportional, cseteris paribus, to q G.
We have feen in what manner q G depends on the pofi¬
tion
2l(j
SEA M A N
Cl
H I P.
tion and fituatlon of the fail or rudder when the point
G is fixed. But it alfo depends on the pofitioh of G.
With refpefl to the action of the rudder, it is evident
that it is fo much the more powerful as it is more re¬
mote from G. The diftance from G may be increafed
enher by moving the rudder farther aft or G farther
forward And as it is of the utmoll importance that a
fhip anfwer her helm with the greateit promptitude,
thofe circumftances have been attended to which diitin-
guifhed fine fleering (hips from fuch as had not this
quality ; and it is in a great meafure to be afcribed to
this, that, in the gradual improvement of naval architec¬
ture, the centre of gravity has been placed far forward.
Perhaps the notion of a centre of gravity did not come
into the thoughts of the rude builders in early times; but
they obferved that thofe boats andfhips fleered befl which
had their extreme breadth before the middle point, and
confequently the bows not fo acute as the flern- This is
fo contrary to what one would expedl, that it attrafted
attention more forcibly ; and, being fomewhat myfleri-
ous, it might prompt to attempts of improvement, by
exceeding in this fingular maxim. We •believe that it
has been carried as far as is compatible with other ef-
fential requifites in a fhip.
Of im* or- ^e^eve tl*at this is the chief circumflance in
tanceto'de what is called the trim of a fhip; and it were greatly
termine the to be wifhed that the befl place for the centre of gravi-
beft p ace ty could be accurately afcertained. A praClice pre¬
fer a dups va;is which is the oppofite of what we are now ad-
gravity. vancing. It is ufual to load a fhip fo that her keel is
1 ' not horizontal, but lower abaft. This is found to im¬
prove her fleerage. The rcafon of this is obvious. It
increafes the adling furface of the rudder, and allows
the water to come at it with much greater freedom and
regularity ; and it generally diminifhes the griping of
the fhip forward, by removing a part of the bows out
of the water. It has not always this efferit ; for the
form of the harping aloft is frequently fuch, that the
tendency to gripe is diminifhed by immerfing more of
the bow in the water.
But waving thefe circumflances, and attending only
to the rotatory energy of the rudder, we fee that it is
of advantage to carry the centre of gravity forward.
The fame advantage is gained to the aftion of the after
fails. But, on the other hand, the arition of the head
fails is diminifhed by it; and we may call every fail a
headfail whofe centre of gravity is before the centre of
gravity of the fhip ; that is, all the fails hoifted on the
bowfprxt and foremaft, and the ftayfails hoilled on the
mainmaft ; for the centre of gravity is feidom far be¬
fore the mainmalt.
Suppofe that when the rudder is put into the pofi-
tion AD (fig. ii.), the centre of gravity could be
fbifted to g, fo as to increafc y G, and that this is done
without increaiing the fum of the produdls /»r2. It is
•obvious that the velocity of converfion will be increafed
in the proportion of y G to y This is very poflible,
by bringing to that fide of the fhip parts of her loading
which were fituated at a diflance from G on the other
fide. Nay, we can make this change in fuch a manner
that J'P r* cven l36 tl1311 ifc was before, by ta¬
king care that every thing which we fhift fhall be nearer
to g than it was formerly to G. Suppofe it all placed in
one fpot w?, and that m is the quantity of matter fo fhift-
<;d, while M is the quantity of matter in the whole fhip.
It is only neceflary that m -g Gl (hall be lefs than the
fum of the produfts p r* correfponding to the matter
which has been fhifted. Now, although the matter
which is ealily moveable is generally veryfmall in com-
parifon to the whole matter of the fhip, and therefore
can make but a fmall change in the place of the centre
o' gravity, it may frequently be brought from places fo
remote, that it may occafion a very fenfible diminution
of the quantity fp r*, which exprefles the whole mo¬
mentum of inertia. ^
This explains a prattice of the feamen in finall wher-^
ries or fkiffs, who in putting about are accuftomed to of feamen
place themfelves to leeward of the mail. They even >n Pu ting
find that they can aid the quick motions of thefe light a?°.ut ,ex‘
boats by the way in which they rell on their two feet, ^ ame
fometimes leaning all on one foot, and fometimes on the
other. And we have often feen this evolution very fen-
fibly accelerated in a fhip of war, by the crew running
fuddenly, as the helm is put down, to the lee-bovv. And
we have heard it afierted by very expert feamen, that
after all attempts to wear fhip (after lying-to in a ilorm)
have failed, they have fucceeded by the crew colledling
themfelves near the weather fore-fhrouds the moment
the helm was put down. It muft be agreeable to the
refledling feaman to fee this pradlice fupported by un¬
doubted mechanical principles.
It will appear paradoxical to fay that the evolution ^ ^0j
may be accelerated even by an addition of matter to the tion accele-
fliip ; and though it is only a piece of curiofity, our rated b> *d«
readers may wiih to be made fenfible of it. Let m bec,itlonal
the addition, placed in fome point m lying beyond G matters
from q. Let S be the fpontaneous centre of converfion
before the addition. Let v be the velocity of rotation
round g, that is, the velocity of a point whofe diflance
from is I, and let r be the radius veftor, or diilance of
a particle from^. We have (Rotation, n° 22.)
F • qg
  . But we know (Rotation, n° 23.)
/p P1 tn" mg1
that fp f =j p r* + VI
G g1 • Therefore v =
Let us determine G g
J'p r2TM ’ G^-H” ' ™ gx'
and m g and qg.
Let m G be called z. Then, by the nature of the
centre of gravity, M-Hn : M z=G m i g m~z :g m, and
M , , _ mM* ,
~ and rn’gr —
g m z=. — 
A M+ m
like manner, M
G g%-
M
M-f-m
L Now m M* -f-
M-fw
M M-4-w. Therefore M’ Gg'* m‘gm'1‘
Mm
=   —-—z , — xjr z1. Let « be =
M + m1 M + m
then MG^1 -f- tn ’gm1 — M«zJ. Alfo Gg
M i
~ n 2, being zz: —z. Let’ 9 G be called c : then
* M+n ^
qg = c -t- n z. Alfo let SG be called e.
We have now for the exprdlion of the velocity v —
F (c+«z) p c-4-«z 
jrp rz + M n z*’ °r ^ YlXJpr*
M 4-
7 Rotation,
217
SEAMANSHIP.
fp rx
(Rotation, rr-goV —ce. Therefore, finally, v~
M
Had there been no addition of matter
hi t £-}-/!&i
made, we Ihould have had v =z ---X —It remains to
M c e
{how, that z may be fo taken that A may be lefs than
64
T!ie rota¬
tion per¬
formed
round a
fpotitanc-
©us axis.
-—*   Now, if rbe to z as r e to 21, that is, if z
c e-\-n z
be taken equal to e, the two fra&ions will be equal.
But if z be lei's than e, that is, if the additional matter
is placed anywhere between S and G, the complex frac-
c
tion will be greater than the fra&ion —, and the velo¬
city of rotation will be increafed There is a particular
diliance which will make it the greateft polfible, name¬
ly", when z is made c* n c e~~c), as will
eafily be found by treating the fradfion " , with
z, conhdered as the variable quantity, for a maximum.
In what we have been faying on this fubjedt, we have
conlidered the rotation only in as much as it is per¬
formed round the centre of gravity, although in every
moment it is really performed round a ipontaneous axis
lying beyond that centre. This was done becaufe it af¬
forded an eafy inveftigation, and any angular motion
round the centre of gravity is equal to the angular
motion^ound any other point. Therefore the extent
and the time of the evolution are accurately defined.—
From obferving that the energy of the force F is pro¬
portional to q G, an inattentive reader will be apt to
conceive the centre of gravity as the centre of motion,
and the rotation as taking place becaufe the momenta of
the fails and rudder, on the oppohte fides of the centre
of gravity, do not balance each other. But we mult
always keep in mind that this is not the caufe of the ro¬
tation. The caufe is the want of equilibrium round
the point C (fig. 10.), where the adtions of the water
balance each other. During the evolution, which con-
iifts of a rotation combined with a progreffive motion,
this point C is continually fluffing, and the unbalanced
momenta which continue the rotation always refpedf the
momentary iituation of the point C. It is neverthelefs
always true that the energy of a force F is proportional
(catcris paribus) to q G, and the rotation is always
made in the fame diredfion as if the point G were real-
iv the centre of converfion. Therefore the mainfail aefs
always (when oblique) by pufhing the item away from
the wind, although it fhould fometimes adt on a point
of the vertical lever through C, which is a-head of C.
Thefe obiervations on the effects of the fails and
rudder in producing a converfion, are fufficient for ena¬
bling us to explain any cafe of their action which may
occur. We have not confidered the effedts which they
tend to produce by inclining the fnip round a horizon¬
tal axis, viz. the motions of rolling and pitching. See
Rolling and Pitching. To treat this iubjedf pro¬
perly would lead us into the whole dodtrine of the equi¬
librium of floating bodies, and it would rather lead to
maxims of conffrudfion than to maxims of manoeuvre.
M. Bonguer’s Traite uu Nav re and Euler’s Scientia
^Vavalis are excellent performances on this fubjedt,
Vol. XVII. Part I.
and we are not here obliged to have recourfe to any er¬
roneous theory.
It is eafy to fee that the lateral preffure both of the
wind on the fails and of the water on the rudder tends
to incline the flup to one fide. The fails alfo tend to
prefs the (hip’s bows into the water, and, if fhe were 6s
kept from advancing, would prei's them down conlider- Different
ably. But by the fhip's motion, and the prominent
form of her bows, the refiftance of the water to the ter on ^
fore part of the (hip produces a force which is direddedilup and
upwards. The fails alfo have a fmall tendency to raife w'nd on
the fhip, for they conftitute a furiace which in general jtilc D,a
feparates from the plumb-line below. This is remark--
ably the cafe in the flay fails, particularly the jib and
fore-topmaff ftayfail. And this helps greatly to foften
the plunges of the fhip’s bows into the head leas. The
upward preffure alfo of the water on her bows, which
we juft now mentioned, has a great effedb in oppofing
the immerfion of the bows which the fails produce by
adding on the long levers furnifhed by the mails. M.
Bouguer gives the name of point velique to the point V
(fig. 12.) of the maft, where it is cut by the line CV,
which marks the mean place and diredfion of the whole
impulfe of the water on the bows. And he obferves, that
if the mean direddion of all the addions of the wind
on the fails be. made to pafs alfo through this point,
there will be a perfedd equilibrium, and the fhip will
have no tendency to plunge into the water or to rife
out of it ; for the whole addion of the water on the
bows, in the direddion CV, is equivalent to, and mav
be refolved into the adtion CE, by which the progrel-
live motion is refilled, and the vertical addion CD, b\
which the fhip is raiftd above the water. The force
CE muft be oppofed by an equal force VD, exerted by
the wind on the fails, and the force CD is oppofed bv
the weight of the fhip. If the mean effort of the falls
paffes above the point V, the {hip’s bows will be preffed
into the water ; and if it pafs below V, her Idem will
be preffed down. But, by the union of thefe forces,
fhe will rife and fall with the fea, keeping always in a
parallel pofition. We apprehend that it is of very little
moment to attend to the fituation of this point. Ex¬
cept when the fhip is tight afore the wind, it is a thou-
fand chances to one that the line CV of mean reiiftance
dees not pafs through any maft ; and the fadd is, that
the fhip cannot be in a ftate of uniform motion on any
other condition but the perjedd union of the line of
mean addion of the fails, and the line of mean adding of
the refiftance. But its place fhifts by every change of
leeway or of trim ; and it is impoffible to keep thefe
lines in one conflant point of interfedlion for a moment,
on account of the iuceffant changes of the furface or the
water on which (lie floats. M. Bouguer’s obiervutions
on this point are, however, very ingenious and original.
We conclude this differtation, by deferibing fome of
the chief movements or evolutions. What w'e have
faid hitherto is intended for the inflruddion of the art ill, faibei. *
by making him fenfible of the mechanical procedure.
The defeription is vat her meant for the amulement of
the laudlman, enabling him to underiland operations
that are famibar to the feaman. The latter will per¬
haps fmile at the aukw'ard account given of his bufinels
by one who cannot hand, reef, nor fleer.
To tack Shi'.
The fhip muft firft of all be kept full, that is, with
E e a
siS
S E A M A
a very fenfible angle of incidence on the fails, and by
no means hugging the wind. For as this evolution is
chiefly performed by the rudder, it is neceflary to give
the {hip a good velocity. When the fhip is obferved
to luff up of herfelf, that moment is to be catched for
beginning the evolution, becaufe {he will by her inhe¬
rent force continue this motion. The helm is then put
down. When the officer calls out Helm’s a lee, the
fore-flieet, fore-top bowline, jib, and flag fail fleets for¬
ward are let go. The jib is frequently hauled down.
Thus the obllacles to the {hip’s head coming up to the
wind by the adlion of the rudder are removed. If the
mainfail is fet, it is not unufual to clue up the weather
fide, which may be conlidered as a headfail, becaufe it
is before the centre of gravity. The mizen mull
be hauled out, and even the fail braced to windward.
Its power in paying off the {tern from the wind con-
fpires with the aftion of the rudder. It is really an
aerial rudder. The fails are immediately taken aback.
In this ftate the effeft of the mizen-topfail would be
to obftrubt the movement, by preffing the Hern the con¬
trary way to what it did before. It is therefore either
immediately braced about {harp on the other tack, or
lowered. Bracing it about evidently tends to pay
round the ftern from the wind, and thus affift in bring¬
ing the head up to the wind. But in this pofition it
checks the progreffive motion of the flip, on which the
evolution chiefly depends. For a rapid evolution, there¬
fore, it is as well to lower the mizen-topfail. Mean¬
time, the headfails are all aback, and the aftion of the
wind on them tends greatly to pay the (hip round. To
increafe this effect, it is not unufual to haul the fore-top
bowline again. The fails on the mammaft are now
almoft becalmed ; and therefore when the wind is right
ahead, or a little before, the mainfail is hauled round
and braced up fharp on the other tack with all expedi¬
tion. The ftayfail fleets are now fhifted over to their
places for the other tack. The flip is now entirely un¬
der the power of the headfails and of the rudder, and
their ablions confpire to promote the eonverfion. The
flip has acquired an angular motion, and will preferve
it, fo that now the evolution is fecured, and fie falls off
apace from the wind on the other tack. The farther
abtion of the rudder is therefore unneceffary, and would
even be prejudicial, by caufmg the flip to fall*- off too
much from the wind before the fails can be fhifted and
trimmed for failing on the other tack. It is therefore
proper to right the helm when the wind is right ahead,
that is, to bring the rudder into the divedlion of the
keel. The flip continues her converlion by her inhe¬
rent force and the adlion of the headfails.
When the flip has fallen off about four points from
the wind, the headfails are hauled round, and trimmed
fharp on the other tack with all expedition ; and al¬
though this operation was begun with the wind four
points on the bow, it will be fix before the fails are
braced up, and therefore the headfails will immediately
fill. The after-fails have filled already, while the head-
fails were inactive, and therefore immediately check the
farther falling off from the wind. All fails now draw,
for the ftayfail fleets have been fhifted over while they
were becalmed or {baking in the wind. The flip now
gathers way, and will obey the fmalleil motion of the
helm to bring her clofe to the wind.
We have here fuppofed, that during all this opera¬
tion the flip preferves her ptogreffive motion. She
n s h i p.
muft therefore have deferibed a curve line, advancing,
all the while to windward. Fig. 13. is a reprefenta-*
tion of this evolution when it is performed in the com¬
pleted manner. The flip flanding an the courfe E at
with the wind blowing in the diredtion WF, has her
helm put hard a-lee when flie is in the pofition A. She
immediately deviates from her courfe, and deferibing a
curve, comes to the pofition B, with the wind blowing
in the direction WF of the yards, and the fquare-fails
now fiiver. The mizen-topfail is here reprefented
braced fiiarp on the other tack, by which its tendency
to aid the angular motion (while it checks the progref¬
five motion) is diftindtly feen. The main and fore¬
fails are now fiivering, and immediately after are taken
aback. The effe<?t of this on the headfails is difiindt-
ly feen to be favourable to the converfion, by puffing
the point F in the diredtion F i ; but for the fame rea-
fon it continues to retard the progreffive motion.
When the flip has attained to the pofition C, the main-
fail is hauled round and trimmed for the other tack,-
The impulfe in the diredtion F i ftill aids the converfion
and retards the progreffive motion. When the {hip has
attained a pofition between C and D, fuch that the
main and mizen topfail yards are in the diredlion of the
wind, there is nothing to counteradl the force of the
headfails to pay the flip’s head off from the wind.
Nay, during the progrefs of the flip to this interme¬
diate pofition, if any wind gets at the main or mizen
topfails, it adts on their anterior furfaces, and impels
the after parts of the {hip away from the curve abed,
and thus aids the revolution. We have therefore faid,
that when once the fails are taken fully aback, and
particularly when the wind is brought right ahead, it
is fcarce poffible for the evolution to fail; as foon there¬
fore as the main topfail (trimmed for the other tack)
fliivers, we are certain that the headfails will be filled
by the time they are hauled round and trimmed. The
flayfails are filled before this, becaufe their fleets have
been fiifted, and they ftand much fiarper than the.
fquare-fails ; and thus every thing tends to check the.
falling off from the wind on the other tack, and this
no iooner than it fliould be done. The flip imme¬
diately gathers way, and holds on in her new courfe
d G.
But it frequently happens, that in this converfion
the {hip lofes her whole progreffive motion. This
fometimes happens while the fails are fiivering before
they are taken fully aback. It is evident, that in this-
cafe there is little hopes of fuccefs, for the flip now lies
like a log, and neither fails nor rudder have any action.
The flip drives to leeward like a log, and the water ail¬
ing on the lee-fide of the rudder checks a little the dri¬
ving of the Hern. The head therefore falls off again,,
and by and by the fails fill, and the fiiip continues on
her former tack. This is called missing stays, and
it is generally owing to the flip’s having too little ve¬
locity at the beginning of the evolution. Hence the
propriety of keeping the fails well filled for fome little
time before. Rough weather, too, by raifing a wave
which beats violently on the weather-bow, frequently^
checks the firft luffing of the flip, and beats her off
again.
If the flip lofes all her motion after the headfails-
have been fully taken aback, and before we have
brought the wind right ahead, the evolution becomes
uncertain, but by no means defperate ; for the a&ioa
of
S E A M A
.of the wind on the Iieadfails will prefently give her
'ftern-way. Suppofe this to happen when the Ihip is
in the pofition C. Bring the helm over hard to wind¬
ward, lo that the rudder (hall have the pofition repre¬
sented by the fmail dotted line of. It is evident, that
the refiftance of the water to the ftern-way of the rud¬
der adts in a favourable direction, pufhing the Item out¬
wards. In the mean time, the adtion of the wind on
the headfails pulhes the head in the oppofite direction.
Thefe adtions confpire therefore in promoting the evo¬
lution ; and if the wind is right ahead, it cannot fail,
but may even be completed fpeedily, becaufe the fliip
gathers ftern-way, and the adtion of the rudder becomes
very powerful ; and as foon as the wind comes on the
formerly lee-bow, the adtion of the water on the now
lee-quarter will greatly accelerate the converfion. When
the wind therefore has once been brought nearly right
ahead, there is no rifle of being baffled.
But ftiould the {hip have loft all her head-way con-
fiderably before this, the evolution is very uncertain :
for the adtion of the water on the rudder may not be
nearly equal to its contrary adtion on the lee-quarter ;
in which cafe, the adtion of the wind on the head fails
may not be fufficient to make up the difference. When
this is obferved, when the fti.ip goes aftern without
changing her pofition, we muft immediately throw the
headfails completely aback, and put the helm down
-again, which will pay off the {hip’s head from the wind
enough to enable us to fill the fails again on the fame
tack, to try our fortune again ; or we muft boxhauu
the {hip, in the manner to be deferibed by and by.
Such is the ordinary procefs of tacking fliip ; a pro-
cefs in which all the different modes oi action of the
rudder and fails are employed. To execute this evolu¬
tion in the moft expeditious manner, and fo as to gain
as much on the wind as poftible, is conftdered as the
teft of an expert feaman. We have deferibed the pre-
cefs which is beft calculated for enfuring the movement.
But if the (hip be iailing very brifldy in fmooth water,
fo that there jg no danger of miffing ftays, we may gain
more to windward confiderably by keeping fall the
fore-top bowline and the jib and ftay-fail fheets till the
fquare-fails are all {hivering : For thefe fails, continuing
to draw with confiderable force, and balancing each
other tolerably fore and aft, keep up the {hip’s velocity
very much, and thus maintain the power of the rudder.
If we now let all fly when the fquare-fails are {hivering,
the iliip may be confidered as without fails, but expofed
to the action of the water on the lee-bow ; from which
-arifes a ftrong preflure of the bow to windward, which
-confpires with the action of the rudder to aid the con-
verfion. It evidently leaves all that tendency of the
bow to windward which arifes from leeway, and even
what was counteracted by the formerly unbalanced
aftion of thefe head-ftayfails. This method lengthens
the whole time of the evolution, but it advances the
ffiip to windward. Obferve, too, that keeping faft
the fore-top bowline till the fail Olivers, and then let¬
ting it go, infures the taking aback of that fail, and
thus inftantly produces an aCtion that is favourable to
the evolution.
The moft. expert feamen, however, differ among
themfelves with refpeCt to thefe two methods, and the
ftrft is the moft generally praCtifed in the Britifh navy,
becaufe the leait liable to fail. The forces which op-
N S H I P.
pofe the converfion are fooner removed, and the pro¬
duction of a favourable aCtion by the backing of the
fore-topiail is alfo fooner obtained, by letting go the
fore-top bowline at the firft.
Having entered fo minutely into the defeription and
rationale of this evolution, we have fufficiently turned
the reader’s attention to the different aCtions which co¬
operate in producing the motions of converlxon. We
ftiall therefore be very brief in our defeription of the
other evolutions.
To wear Ship,
When the feaman fees that his {hip will not go a
bout head to wind, but will mifs flays, he muft change
his tack the other way ; that is, by turning her head
away from the wind, going a little way before the wind,
and then hauling the wind on the other tack. This
is called wearing or veering fliip. It is moft necef-
fary in ftormy weather with little fail, or in very Faint
breezes, or in a difabled {hip.
The procefs is exceedingly fimple; and the mere nar¬
ration of the procedure is fufficient for {bowing the
propriety of every part of it.
Watch for the moment of the fliip’s falling off, and
then haul up the mamfail and mizen, and fhiver the
mizen-topfail, and put the helm a-weather. When the
(hip falls off fenfibly (and not before), let go the bow¬
lines. Eafe away the fore-ftieet, raife the fore-tack, and
gather aft the weather fore-ffieet, as the lee-lheet is ea-
led away. Round in the weather-braces of the fore
and main mails, and keep the yards nearly bifeding the
angle of the wind and keel, fo that when the {hip is
btjore the wind the yarns may be fquare. It may even
be ot advantage to round in the weather-braces of the
main-topfail more than thofe of the headfails; for the
mainmatt is abaft the centre of gravity. All this
while the mizen-topfail muft be kept ftiivering, by
rounding in the weather-braces as the (hip pays off
from the wind. Then the main-topfail will be braced
up for the other tack by the time that we have brought
the wind on the weather-quarter. After this it will
be full, and will aid the evolution. When the wind
is right aft, Drift the jib and ftay-fail {beets. The evo-
lution now goes on with great rapidity ; therefore brifle-
ly haul on board the fore and main tacks, and haul out
the mizen, and fet the mizen-ftayfail as foon as they will
take the wind the right way. We muft now check
the great rapidity with which the {hip comes to the
wind on the otner tack, by lighting the helm before
we bring the wind on the beam ; and all muft be trim¬
med {harp fore and aft by this time, that the headfails
may take and check the coming-to. All being trim¬
med, Hand on dole by the wind.
We cannot help loiing a great deal of ground in
this movement. Therefore, though it be very fimple,
it requires much attention and rapid execution to do
it with as little lofs of ground as poffible. One is apt
to imagine at firft that it w'ould be better to keep the
headfails braced up on the former tack, or at leaft not
to round in the weather-braces fo much as is here di-
re&ed. 'SS lien the fiiip is right afore the wand, we
ftiould exped affiftance from the obliquity of the head-
fails ; but the rudder being the principal agent in the
evolution, it is found that more is gained by increafiticv
the itiip s velocity, than by a fmaller impulfe on the
E e 2 . hcad-
210
220
\
S E A M A 1
hiadfails more favourably diretted. Experienced fea-
men differ, however, in their practice in refpe£t of this
particular.
To loxhaul a Ship.
This is a procefs performed only in critical fitua-
tions, as when a rock, a flrip, or feme danger, is fud-
dcnly feen right ahead, or when a dup miffes Hays. It
requires the moil rapid execution.
The {hip being clofe-hauled on a wind, haul up tire
mainfail and mizen, and driver the topfails, and put the
helm hard a-lee altogether. Raife the fore tack, let
go the head bowlines, and brace about the headfails
{harp on the other tack. 'The diip will quickly lofe
her way, get flern-way, and then fall oft, by the joint
a&ion of the headtails and of the inverted rudder.
When die has fallen off eight points, brace the after¬
fails fquave, which have hitherto been kept drivering.
This will at firlt increafe the power of the rudder, by
iucreafing the {tern-way, and at the fame time it makes
no opposition to the converfion which is going on. The
continuation of her circular motion will preftntly caufe
them to take the wind on their after furfaces. This will
check the ftern-way, ftop it, and give the drip a little
head-way. Now drift the helm, fo that the rudder may
again aft in conjunftion with the headfails in paying
her off from the wind. This is the critical part of the
evolution, becaufe the drip has little or no way through
the water, and will frequently remain long in this po¬
rtion. But as there are no counterafting forces, the
{hip continues to fall off. Then the weather-braces of
the after-fails may be gently rounded in, fo that the
wind afting on their hinder furfaces may botltpufh the
{hip a little ahead and her ftern laterally in conjunc¬
tion with tire rudder. Thus the wind is brought upon
the quarter, and the headfails driver. By this time the
fhip has acquired fome headway. A continuation ot
the rotation would now fill the headfails, and their ac¬
tion would be contrary to the intended evolution.
They are therefore immediately braced the other way,
nearly fquare, and the evolution is now completed in
the fame manner with wearing drip.
Some fcamen brace all the fails aback the moment
that tire helm is put hard a-lee, but the after-fails no
more aback than juft to fquare the yards. . 1 his quick¬
ly gives the drip dern-way, and brings the rudder into
action in its inverted direftion ; and they think that the
evolution is accelerated by this method.
There is another problem of feamandrip deferving of
our attention, which cannot properly be called an evo¬
lution. This is lying-to. This is done in general by
laying fome fails aback, fo as to ftop the head-way pro-
duced by others. But there is a conliderable addreis
iieceffary for doing this in filch a way that the drip
draft lie eaftly, and under command, ready to proceed in
her courfe, and eafily brought under weigh.
To bring-to with the fore or main-topfail to the mad:,
brace that fail drarp aback, haul out the mizen, and
clap the helm hard a-lee.
Suppofe the fore topfail to be aback ; the other fails
{hoot the drip ahead, and the lee-helm makes the drip
come up to the wind, which1 makes it come more
perpendicularly on the fail which is aback. Then its
impulfe foon exceeds thofe on the other fails, which are
now diivering, or almcft ihivering. The drip ftands ftill
r s h i P.
awhile, and then falls off, fo as to fill the after-fails,
which again {hoot her ahead, and the procefs is thus
repeated. A {hip lying-to in this way gees a good
deal ahead and alio to leeward. If the main-topfail be
aback, the {hip {hoots ahead, and comes up till the di-
min;died impulfe of the drawing fails in the direftion of
the keel is balanced by the increafed impulfe on the
main-topfail. .She lies a long while in this pofttion,
driving dowly to leeward ; and fne at laft falls off by
the beating of the water on her weather-bow. She falls
off but little, and foon comes up again.
Thus a drip lying to is not like a mere log, but has
a certain motion which keeps her under command. To
get under weigh again, we mull watch the time of fall¬
ing off; and when this is juft about to finidr, brace
about brifkly, and fill the fail which was aback. To
aid this operation, the jib and fore-topmaft ftayfail may
be hoifted, and the mizen brailed up : or, when the in¬
tended courfe is before the wind or large, back the fore-
tppfail {harp, driver the main and mizen topfail, brail
up the mizen, and hoift the jib and fore-topmaft ftay-
fails altogether.
In a ftorm with a contrary wind, or on a lee {bore, a
drip is obliged to lie-to under a very low fail. Some fail
is abfolutely neceffary, in order to keep the drip fteadi-
ly down, otherwife dre would kick about like a cork,
and roll fo deep as to {train and work herfelf to pieces.
Different {hips behave belt under different fails. In a
very violent gale, the three lower ftayfails are in gene¬
ral well adapted for keeping her deady, and diltribu-
ting the {train. This mode feems alfo well adapted for
wearing, which may be done by hauling down the mi-
zen-ftayfail. Under whatever fail the fhip is brought-
to in a dorm, it is always with a fitted fail, and ne¬
ver with one laid aback. The helm is lafhed down
hard a-lee ; therefore the drip {hoots ahead, and comes
up till the fea on her weather-bow beats her off again.
Getting under weigh is generally difficult ; becaufe the
fhip and rigging are lofty abafty and hinder her from fall¬
ing off readily when the helm is put hard a-weather.
We muft watch the falling off, and affift the diip by
fome final! headfail. Sometimes the crew get up on
the weather fore-fhrouds in a crowd, and thus prefent a
furface to the wind.
These examples of the three chief evolutions will en¬
able tbofe who are not feamen to underftand the p-o-
priety of the different dtps, and alio to underftand the
other evolutions as they are deferibed by praftical au¬
thors. We are not acquainted with any performance
in our language where the whole are contidered in a
connefted and fyftematic manner. There is a book on
this fubjeft in French, called Le Mc/nauvrier, by M.
Bourde de Ville-Huet, which is in great reputation in
France. A trandation into Englifh was publilhed fome
years ago, laid to be the performance of the Chevalier
de Saufeuil a French officer. But this appears to be a
bookfeller’s puff; for it is undoubtedly thq work of
fome perfon who did not underftand either the French
language, or the fubjeft, or the mathematical principles
which are employed in the fcientiftc part. The blun-
dars are not Inch as could poffibly be made by a French¬
man not verfant in the Englifh language, but natural
for an Englifhman ignorant of French. No French
gentleman or officer would have tranflated a work of
K
_
D
\/ *
-4T
\ 1
r
\ /•» T
\ •.
7
P<\ \ ^
. r" 
\\/
'£1’^<:' - • ■C
V^p f—
:>cv
' •'... ^ ... 'frr, Q
'\
 sz. -x;
/'
!> /
 /
D
221
SEAMANSHIP.
tills kind (•which he profefles to think fo highly of) to of M. Bouguer, and the ccuvfe which may be taken
ferve the rivals and foes of his country. But indeed to remove them, while we preferve much valuable know-
it can do no great harm in this way ; for the fcientific ledge which they contain, we may perhaps excite fome
part of it is abfolutely unintelligible for want of fcience perfons to apply to this fubjeft, who, by a combination
fn the tranflator ; and the praftical part is full of blun- of what is juft in M. Bouguer’s theory, with an expe-
ders for want of knowledge of the French language. rimental doiftrine of the impuli'es of fluids, may produce
We offer this account of the fuhjedt with all proper a treatife of feamanfhip which will not be confined to
Tefpea and diffidence. We do not profefs to teach : the libraries' of mathematicians, but become a manua*
but by pointing out the defe&s of the celebrated works for feamen by profelfion.
SEA
Seamen. SEAMEN, fuch perfons as ferve the king or others
at fea by navigation and fighting fhips &c. See Ma-
RiriMS State.
Seamen fighting, quarrelling, or making any difturb-
ance, may be punifhtd by the commiffioners of the navy
with fine and imprifonment. Regiltered feamen are ex¬
empted from ferving in any parifh, office, &c. and are
allowed bounty-money befide their pay. By the law of
merchants, the feamen of a veflel are accountable to the
matter or commander, the mafter to the owners, and
the owners to the merchants, for damage fuftained ei¬
ther by negligence or ctherwife. Where a feaman is
hired fdr a voyage, and he deferts before it is ended,
he fhall lofe his wages ; and in cafe a fliip be loft in a
ftorm, the feamen lofe their wages, as well as the own¬
ers their freight.
Means of Preferring the Health of Seamen. See Me-
bicine, n° 351.
In addition to what has been fnid on this fubjeft in
the place referred to, we fhall fubjoin fome valuable ob-
fervations which we have met with in the fixth vo¬
lume of the Memoirs of the Royal Society of Medicine
at Palis for the years f784 and 1785.
In 1783, the marfhal de Caftries, intending to make
feme changes in the regulations of the navy, particu¬
larly with regard to diet, propofed to the fociety the
two following queftions : 1. “ What are the molt whole-
fome aliments for feamen, confidering the impofiibility
of procuring them frefh meat ? And what kinds of fait
meat, or fifh, of pulfe, and of drink, are moft proper for
them, and in wliat quantity, not omitting to inquire
into the regimens in ufe arnongft other maritime nations
for wAat may be adopted by us, and into what expe¬
rience has evinced the utility of, from the accounts of
the moft celebrated navigators ?” 2. “ A number of
patients labouring under different difeafes being aflem-
bled in naval hofpitals, and different conftitutions af-
fc&ed by the fame difeafe requiring difference of diet,
what general dietetic rules for an hofpital would be beft
adapted to every exigence, dividing the patients into
three claffes ; the firft in which liquids alone are proper,
the fccond in which we begin to give folids in frnall
quantities, and the ftate of convalefcence in which a
fuller diet is neceffary i”, A committee was appointed
to draw up an anfwer to thefe, who invettigated the
fubjeft very minutely. The refult of their labours is
there given at large. The obfervations moft worthy of
notice are, that the feurvy of the Englifh feamen, who
live chiefly on falt meat, is a putrid difeafe ; whilft that
of the Dutch, who ufe farinaceous vegetables and dried
pulfe in large quantities, has more of an hydropical
tendency. A mixture of both, even at the fame meal,
SEA
is recommended. This is fupported by philofophical Seamen,
reafoning, and the example of Captain Cook, who was Seapoy^y ^
partly indebted to this mixed regimen for the preferva- y
tion of his crew. Salt fifh flrould never be ufed : fait
beef grows hard, and after boiling its fibrous parts only
remain, which are more calculated to load the ftomach
than recruit the flrength. Salt bacon may be kept at
fea 18 months; it does not lofe its moift and nutri-
mental parts, and unites better with pulfe, but flrould
not he ufed when rancid. Live animals kept on board
fhips tend to produce difeafes amongft the crew. Rice
fhould be ufed largely. Our puddings are had food:
the flour would he much better made into bread, which
might be done at fea with no great trouble. Sour krout
fhould be ufed freely. Muftard, vinegar, fugar, melaf-
fes, and honey, are good antifeorbutres, Of drinks,
wine is the heft: wort, fpruce-heer, or the Ruffian qvas,
are good fubftitutes. Spirits are only to be ufed in cold
climates, and in fmall quantity. The greater part of
the excellent memoir in anfwer to the fecond queftion,
perfectly coincides with M. Duhamel du Monceaux’s
“ Means of Preferring the Health of Seamen,” and
M. Poiflbnnier des Perrieres’s treatifes “ On the Dii-
eafes of Seamen,” and “ On the advantages of changing
the Diet of Seamen,” and his “ Examination of Pringle’s
DiiTertation.”
SriAPOYS, or Sepoys, natives of Indoftan ferving
in a military capacity under the European powers, and
difciplined after the European manner.
The Seapoys of the Englifh Eaft India ccunpany
compcfe perhaps the moft numerous, regular, and bell
difciplined body of black troops in the world. They
are raifed from among the natives of the country, and
confift of Moors or Mahometans, Raja-poots, Hindoos,
Pariars, hefides many intermediate cafts peculiar to
themfelves; the whole modelled in all coirefponding
particulars, and difeipiined in every refpect as the army
of Great Britain.
The military eftablifhments of Bengal, Madras, and
Bombay, have each their refpetftive numbers, that of
Bengal exceeding the reft. The Seapoys are formed
into complete, uniform, and regular battalions, as our
marqhing regiments at home, being intended to repre-
fent and anfwer fully to every purpofe in India to the
like troops in Europe. A battalion confifts of 700
men, of complete tft'eftive ftrength. In each there are
eight companies, including two flank ones or grena¬
diers. They are refpedtively commanded by their own
black and European officers ; to each company there
is attached a fubaltern, who takes the command, under
whom are two native commiffioned officers, bearing the
rank of fubidar and jimindar ; of eight fubakerns, fix
are
>
SEA [222] SEA
Sepoys, are lieutenants, the other enfigns: ex cl a five is a fiaff,
of adjutant and furgeon. The black non-commiffioned
.officers anfwer to our ferjeants and corporals, and are
called havildars and naigues. There is alfo to each
corps an Englilh fcrjeant-raajor, drill and ftore feijeant.;
.to each battalion is a band of drums and fifes, and to
each a pair of colours, A captain commands the
whole.
Their jackets, which are made entirely after the Eu¬
ropean fafhion, are of a red colour with yellow facings
(as worn by all the infantry of the company on the
Coromandel coalt). The remaining part of their at¬
tire refembles more the country or Indian habit, and
confifts of a dark blue turban, broad and round at
top, defcending deep to the bottom, the fides of which,
of a concave form, are eroded by a white band, running
in front, faftened under a rofe above. As an under
garment, they have a jacket of linen, A dark blue
falh girding, to anfwer the turban, goes round their
•middle. On the thighs they have ffiort drawers, faf-
tened by a fcolloped band. Their legs are bare, which
renders them more ready for action or fervice. Their
arms are a firelock and bayonet; their accoutrements
or crofs belts black leather, with pouches the fame.
A battalion drawn out cannot but ftrike the fpetta-
tors with a lively and fanciful military impreffion, as
they unite in their exterior traits refpe&ively Indian
.and European.
They are brought to the utmoft exaftnefs of difei-
pline ; go through their evolutions and manoeuvres with
u regularity and precifion equal to, and not furpaffed by,
European troops. In aft ion they are brave and Heady,
and have been known to Hand where Europeans have
given way.
Their difcipHne puts them on a footing with Euro¬
pean troops, with whom they are always ready to aft
in concert.
Their utility and fervices are evident: they fecure to
the company the internal good order and prefervation
of their territorial diftnfts, which, though poffible to
be enforced with a ftrong hand by Europeans, requires
numbers, and can only be conduftefi with that cafe and
addrefs peculiar to the native forces of the country.
They are conlidered with refpeft in the eyes of the
other natives, though they fufficiently, and with a good
grace, feel and aflert their own confequence. In large
garrifons, where the duty is great, as Madras, Pondi¬
cherry^ Trichinopoly, Vellore, &c. two or three batta¬
lions might be prefent together, exclufive of Europeans.
If lent fingly up the country, they are liable to be de¬
tached, fometimes by one or more companies being lent
to a ftation dependent on the chief garrifon or head¬
quarters, otherwife they are difperfed through the di-
ftrifts, four or five together, with a non-commiffioned
officer (this is a part of the fervice which is called going
on command), on hills, or in villages, to prefer ve order,
convey intelligence, and affift the tafildar, renter, or
cutwali of the place, in cafes ot emergency. They al¬
fo enforce the police, and prevent in fuch cafes the coun¬
try from being infefted with thieves, which otherwife
have combined, forming a banditti, to rob paffengers
and plunder cattle, of which there are fo many inftances
upon record. As for fuch Britifh officers in the com¬
pany’s fervice as are attached to battalions, they are
pbliged to follow the fortunes and deilinations of their
men, with their refpeftive corps, leading a life often Seapoys,
replete with adventures of a peculiar nature. An in- Search-
dividual in fuch cafes is frequently fecluded from thofe wartant«.
ot his own colour when up the country, or detached
upon command, where in a frontier garrifon or hill fort
in the interior parts of India none but natives are to be
found. Here he might live as he pleafes, being perfect¬
ly abfolute within his jimfdicHon. Such ftations being
lucrative, with management may produce great for¬
tunes. Neither is the condition hard to a perfon conver-
fant in the language of the country, or that of the Sea-
poys called Moors (which moft officers in the compa¬
ny’s fervice acquire); .otherwife the lofa of foeiety is
not recompenfed by other advantages, as you forget
your own language, grow melancholy, and pafs your
days without comfort.
The peace eftablifhment at Madras confifts of 30 Sea-
poy battalions, but in time of war is augmented as 00
cafion requires ; or frequently each corps is ftrengthen-
fd by the addition of two companies, which are redu¬
ced again in time of peace, the officers remaining fuper-
numeraries in the fervice. In garrifon they are quar¬
tered in barracks: they live agreeably to the ufage of
the country, fieep on the ground on a mat or thin car¬
pet. In their perfons they are cleanly, but appear to
beft advantage in their uniform. Oft' duty they go as
.the other natives in poor circumftances, and have only “
a cloth round their middle and over their {boulders. As
to the different calls, the Moormen or MufFulmen affert
pre-eminence, as coming into the country by conqueft.
In their perfons they are rather robuft, and in their
tempers vindidlive. Their religion and drefs is diftinft
from the Hindoos, who are mild and paffive in their
temper, faithful, Heady, and good foldiers. The Pa»
riars are inferior to the others, live under different cir-
cumftances, dwell in huts, and affociate not on equal
terms with the reft 5 they do all menial offices, are fer-
vants to Europeans, and think themfelves happy when
by them employed, though they are equally good Sea-
poys.
Having thus treated of the company’s Seapoys, we
ffiail obferve that they are kindly attentive to their offi¬
cers when often in circumftances requiring their affiit-
ance; are guilty of few vices 5 and have a itrong at¬
tachment for thofe who have commanded them. That
acute hiftorian Dr Robertfon has remarked, as a proof
that the ingenuity of man has recourfe in fimilar fitua-
tions to the fame expedients that the European powers
have, in forming the eftablifhment of thefe native troops,
adopted the fame maxims, and, probably without know¬
ing it, have modelled their battalions of Seapoys upon
the fame principles as Alexander the Great did lua
phalanx of Perfians,
SEARGH-warrant, in law, a kind of general war¬
rant iffued by jullices of peace or magiftratea of towns
for fearching all fufpe&ed places for Helen goods. la
Scotland this was often done formerly; and in forae
Engliffi law-books there are precedents requiring the
conftable to fearch all fuch fufpe&ed places as he and -
the party complaining fhall think convenient; but fuch
practice is condemned by JLord Hale, Mr Hawkins, and
the beft authorities both among the Engliffi and Scotch
lawyers. However, in cafe of a complaint, and oath
made of goods ftolen, and that the party fufpe&s that
thofe goods are in a particular houfe, and ffiowa the
cauie
s
k
J
5
l
SEA
C 223 3
S E B
Aifeley 01
topical
i feafes.
caufe of fuch fufpicion, the juftice may grant a warrant
to fearch not only that houfe but other fufpe&ed pla¬
ces ; and to attach the goods, and the party in whofe
cuftody they are found, and bring them before him or
fome other juftice, to give an account how he came by
them, and to abide fuch order as to law fhall appertain;
which wan-ant (hould be direfted to the conllable or
other public officer, who may enter a fufpedted houfe
and make fearch.
SEARCHER, an officer in the cuftoms, whofe bu-
finefs it is to fearch and examine fhips outward bound,
if they have any prohibited goods on board, &c. (12
Car. II.) There are alfo fearchers of leather,- &c. See
Alnager.
Searcher, in ordnance, is an iron focket with
branches, from four to eight in number, a little bent
outwards, with fmall points at their ends ; to this fock¬
et is fixed a wooden handle, from eight to twelve feet
long, of about an inch and a quarter diameter. After
the gun has been fired, this fearcher is introduced into
it, and turned round, in order to difcover the cavities
within. The diftances of thefe cavities, if any be
found, are then marked on the outfide with chalk,
when another fearcher that has only one point, about
which a mixture of wax and tallow is put, is introdu¬
ced to take the impreffion of the holes; and if there be
any hole, a quarter of an inch deep, or of any confider-
able length, the gun is rejedled as unferviceable.
SEARCLOTH, or Cerecloth, infurgery, a form
of external remedy fomewhat harder than an unguent,
yet fofter than an emplafter, though it is frequently
ufed both for the one and the other. The cerecloth is
always fuppofed to have wax in its compofition, which
diltinguifhes and even denominates it. In effedl, when
a liniment or unguent has wax enough in it, it does not
differ from a cerecloth.
SEASIN, in a (hip, the name of a rope by which
the boat rides by the (hip’s fide when in harbour, &e.
SEASONING, the firit illnefs to which perfons
habituated to colder climates are fubjeft on their arrival
in the Well Indies. This feafoning, unlefs they live
very temperately, or are in a proper habit of body (tho’
fome people are unmolefted for many months), feldom
fuffers them to remain long before it makes its appear¬
ance in fome mode or other ; particularly if at firft
they expofe themfelves in a fhower of rain, or too long
in the fun, or in the night-air ; or when the body is
much heated, if they drink large draughts of cold li¬
enors, or bathe in cold water; or ufe much exercife ;
or commit excefs in drinking wine or fpirits ; or by
heating the body and inflaming the blood; or by fub-
jefting themfelves to any caufe that may fuddenly check
perfpiration, which at firft is generally exceffive.
Same people, from a favourable ftate of body, have
no feafoning. Thin people, and very young people,
are moft likely to efcape it. Women generally do from
their temperance, and perhaps their menftruation con¬
tributes to their fecurity ; indeed hot climates are fa¬
vourable to the delicacy of their habits, and fuitable to
their modes of life. Some efcape by great regularity
of living ; fome, by the breaking out of the rafti, called
the prickly heat; fome by a great degree of perfpira¬
tion ; and fome by obferving a cooling regimen. The
dilorders are various that conftitute this feafoning of
new-comers as they are called ; depending on age, eon- Seafoning:
ftitution, and habit of body. But all feafoning difeafes St
are of the inflammatory kind; and yield to antiphlo- tjjn
giftic treatment proportioned to their violence. When ——y-W
all precaution to guard againft ficknefs has failed, and
prudence proved abortive to new-comers, they will have
this comfort at leaft for their pains, that their diforders
will feldom be fevere or expenfive, and will generally
have a fpeedy termination ; and that their feafoning, as
it is emphatically called, will be removed by bleeding,
a dofe of falts, reft, and a cooling regimen.
Seasoning of Timber. See Timber.
SEASONS, in cofmography, certain portions or
quarters of the year, diltinguilhed by the figns which'
the fun then enters, or by the meridian altitudes of the
fun ; confequent on which are different temperatures
of the air, different works in tillage, &c. See Wea¬
ther.
The year Is divided into four feafons, fpring, fum-
mer, autumn, and winter. The beginnings and endings’
of each whereof, fee under its proper article. It is to
be obferved, the feafons anciently began differently
from what they now do : witnefs the old verfes,
Dat Clemens hyemern ; dal Petrus ver cathedratus ;
JEJluat Urbanus ; autumnal Bartholomceus.
SEAT, in the manege, is the pofture or fituation of
a horfeman upon the faddle.
SEATON, a fmall fifhing town on the fouth coaft
of Devon, between Lyme and Sidmouth. Riidon fays'
** our learned antiquarians would have it to be that
Maridunum whereof Antonine fpake, placed between
Dunnovaria and Ifca ; for Maridunum in Britifti is the'
fame with Seaton in Englifh, ‘ a town upon a hill by
the fea-fide.” This place is memorable for the Daniih
princes landing there in the year 937.
SEBACIC acid, the acid procured from fat. To-
obtain it, let fome fuet be melted in a fkillet over the
fire, along with fome quicklime in fine powder, and
conftantly ftirred, raffing the fire towards the end of
the operation, and taking care to avoid the vapours,
which are very offenlive. By this procefs the febacic
acid unites with the lime into a febat of lime, which
is difficultly foluble in water ; it is, however, feparated
from the fatty matters with which it is mixed by folu*
tion in a large quantity of boiling water. From this
the neutral lalt is feparated by evaporation; and, to*
render it pure, is calcined, rediffolved, and again cry-
ftallized. After this we pour on a proper quantity of
fulphuric acid, and the febacic acid paffes over by di--
ftillation. See Fat, and CHEMisTRV'/flJex.
StSEBASTIAN, a handfome, populous, and ftrong
town of Spain, in the province of Guipufcoa, with a
good and well frequented harbour. It is feated at the
foot of a mountain ; and the harbour fecured by two
moles, and a narrow entrance for the ftrips; The town'
is furrounded with a double wall, and to the fea-fide is •
fortified with baftions and half moons. The ftreets are
long, broad, and ftraight, and paved with white fiag.-
ftones. At the top of the mountain is a citadel, with
a garrifon well furniftred with cannon. fhe town car--
ries on a confiderable trade, the great eft part of which
confifts of iron and fteel, which fome reckon to be the
bell in Europe. They alfo deal in wool, which comes
I* frocsi
Secale.
SEC [
Sebaftiano fr0m Old Caftile. W. Long. r. 59. N. Lat. 43. 23.—
The capital of Braiil in South America is likewife call¬
ed Sebnftian.
SEB ASTIANO, called Del Plomho, from an office
in the lead mines given him by Pope Clement VII.
was an eminent Venetian painter, born in 14^5- He
was firft a dilciple of old Giovanni Bellino ; continued
his lludies under Giorgione ; and having attained an
excellent manner of colouring, went to Rome, where
he infmuated himftlf into the favour of Michael Ange¬
lo. Pie has the name of being the firft who invented
the art of preparing plafter-walls for oil-painting ; but
was fo flow and lazy in his work, that other hands were
often employed to finiflr what he began. He died in
*547-
SEBESTEN, in botany. See Cordia.
SEBUvET, a fed among the ancient Samaritans,
whom St Epiphanius accufes of changing the time ex-
prefled in the law, for the celebration of the great an¬
nual feafts of the Jews,
SEBURAI, Seburaji, a name which the Jews give
to fuch of their rabbins or do&ors as lived and taught
fome time after the finifliing of the Talmud.
SECACUL, in the materia medica of the a>ncients,
a name given by Avicenna, Serapion, and others, to a
root which was like ginger, and was brought from the
Eaft Indies, and ufed as a provocative to venery. The
interpreters of their works have rendered this word
iringo ; and hence fome have fuppofed that our eryngium
or eryngo was the root meant by it : but this does not
appear to be the cafe on a ftridl inquiry, and there is
fome reafon to believe that the famous root, at this time
■ called ginfeng, was what they meant.
SECALE, Rye, in botany: A genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ; and in
die natural method ranking under the 4th order, Gra¬
mi na. The calyx is a glume of two leaves, which are
oppoiite.to one another, eredl, linear, pointed, and lefs
than the corolla. The corolla confifts of two valves,
the exterior of which ends in a beard. There are four
fpecies, the wllofum, orientale, creticum, and cereale. The
villafum, or wood rye-grafs, is diftinguilhed by a calyx
with wedge-fhaped feales, and by the fringe of the glume
being wooly. The glumes of the orient ale are fhaggy,
and the feales of the calyx fhaped like an awl. The
glumes of the creticum are fringed on the outfide. The
cereale, or common rye, has glumes with rough fringes.
It is a native of the ifland of Candia, was introduced
into England many ages ago, and is the only fpecies
of rye cultivated in this kingdom. There are, however,
two varieties, the winter and fpring rye.
The winter rye, which is larger in the grain than the
fpring rye, is fown in autumn at the fame time with
wheat, and fometimes mixed with it; but as the rye
ripens fooner than the wheat, this method muft be very
exceptionable. The fpring rye is fown along with the
oats, and ufually ripens as foon as the winter rye ; but
the grain produced is lighter, and it is therefore fel-
dom fown except where the autumnal crop has failed.
Rye is commonly fown on poor, dry, limeftone, or
22+1 SEC
— fandy foils, where wheat will not thrive. By continu¬
ing to fow it on fuch a foil for two or three years, it '
will at length ripen a month earlier than that which
has been railed for years on ftrong cold ground.
Rye is commonly ufed lor bread either alone or mix¬
ed with wheat. This mixture is called mjln, and was
formerly a very common crop in lome parts of Britain.
Mr Marfhall tells us, that the farmers in Yorkfliire be¬
lieve that this mixed crop is never affefted by mildew,
and that a fmall quantity of rye fown among wheat will
prevent this deftruflive difeafe. Rye is much ufed for
bread in fome parts of Sweden and Norway by the
poor people. About a century ago rye-bread was alfo
much ufed in England ; but being made of a black
kind of rye, it was of the fame colour, clammy, very
detergent, aud confequently not fo nourifliing as wheat.
Rye is fubjedt to a diieafe which the French call er¬
got, and the Englifh horned rye; which fometimes hap-
pens when a very hot fummer fucceeds a rainy fpring.
According to Tiffot, horned rye is fuch as luffers an
irregular vegetation in the middle fubftance between
the grain and the leaf, producing an excrefcence of a
brownifh colour, about an inch and a half lon>, and
two-tenths of an inch broad. Bread made of this kind
o+ rye has a naufeous acrid tafte, and produces fpafmo-
die and gangrenous diforders. In 1596, an epidemic
difeafe prevailed in Lleffe, which the phyficians aferibed
to bread made of horned rye. Some, we are told,
were feized with an epilepfy, and thefe leldom ever re¬
covered ; others became lunatic, and continued ftupid
the reft of their lives : thofe who apparently recovered
had annual returns of their diforder in January and Fe¬
bruary ; and the difeafe was laid to be contagious at
lead; in a certain degree. The fails which we have
now mentioned are taken from a work of Tiffot, which
was never printed. The fame difeafe was occafioned
by the ufe of this bread in feveral parts of the conti¬
nent in the years A48, 1675, 1702, 1716, 1722, and
1736 ; and has been very minutely deferibed by Hoff¬
man, A. O. Goelicke, Vater Burghart, and J. A.
Srink.
In the year 1709, one fourth part of all the rye
railed in the province of Salonia in France was horn¬
ed, and the furgeon to the hofpital of Orleans had no
lefs than 500 patients under his care that were ditlem-
pered by eating it : They were called ergots, from er¬
got (a), the French name for horned rye ; they confid¬
ed chiefly of men and boys, the number of women and
girls being very fmall. The firft fymptom was a kind
of druukenneis, then the local diforder began in the
toes, and thence extended fometimes to the thigh,
and the trunk itfelf, even after amputation, which is a
good argument againft that operation before the gan¬
grene is ftopped.
In the year 1 710, the celebrated Fontenelle deferibes
a cafe in the Hiftory of the Academy of Sciences of
France, which exadlly relembles that of the poor fa¬
mily at Wattifham. A pcafant at Blois, who had eaten
homed rye in bread, was feized with a mortification,
which firft caufed all the toes of one foot to fall off,
then
Seoalc,
(a) Ergot is French for a cock’s fpur, and horned rye was called ergot from the refemblance of its excrefcence
to that part.
SEC [225] SEC
IkcM, then tk toes of the other, afterwards the remainder of Thefe proceedings were ratified by the parliament S«e<W*
Sea lers the feet and, laftly, it eat off the flefti of both his legs which met in 1640. The law of patronage was in fall '
‘   and thi -hs, leaving the bones bare. force for feveral years after this period ; yet great care
Horned rye is not only hurtful to man, but to other was taken that no raimlter fhould be obtruded on the
animals; it has been known to deftroy even the^ fbes Chriftian people contrary to their inclinations ; and in
that fettled upon it; fheep, dogs, deer, geefe, ducks, 1649 k was abolifhed as an oppremve grievance,
fwine, and poultry, that were fed with it for experi- The Reftoration of Charles II. m 1660 changed the
ment, died miferably, fome convulfed, others mortified face of affairs in the church of Scotland. AH that the
and ulcerated. general affembly had done from 1638 to 1 650 was ren-
SECAN f\ in geometry, a line that cuts another or dered null and void, their covenants were pronounced
divides it into parts. The fecant of a circle is a line to be unlawful, epifcopaey was reftored, and the king
drawn from the circumference on one fide to a point was declared to be the fupreme head of the church in
without the circumference on the other ; and it is de- all caufes civil and ecclefiaftical. During this period the
monftrated by geometers, that of feveral fecants drawn Prelbyterians were fubjefted to fines and imprifonment,
to the fame point, that is the longeft which paffes thro’ while numbers of them were publicly executed for their
the centre of the circle. The portions, however, of adherence to their political and religious tenets,
thefe feveral fecants that are without the circle are k> I he Revolution in 1688 gave a different turn to the
much the greater as they recede from the centre, and affairs of the church. The firft parliament which met
the leaf! external portion is of that fecant which paffes after that event, abalifhed prelacy and the king s fupre-
through it. macY in ecclefiaftical affairs. They ratified the Weft-
Secant, in trigonometry, denotes aright line drawn minfter Confefiion of baith, together with the Prelby-
from the centre of a circle, which, cutting the circum- terian form of church-government and ditcipline,. as
ference, proceeds till it meets with a tangent to the agreeable to the word of Ood, and mofl conducive to
lame circle. See Geometry, n° 24—28. the advancement of true piety and godlinefs, and the
Line of Secants, one of thofe lines or ficales which eftabliftiment of peace and tranquillity within theie
are ufually put upon febbors. How fuch a fcale is form- realms. ’ I hat fame, parliament abohlhed patronage,
ed will be feen by a bare infpedtion of fig. 53* Eia^ and lodged the ele bion of minifterg in the hands of
CCXV. ; for C 10, C 2G, C 30, &c. drawn from the heritors and elders, with the confent of the congrega-
centre C to the line of tangents BE, being the real fe- tion. .
cants of the arches Bio, B 20, B 3c, it is obvious In the reign of Q. Anne the true Proteftant religion
that by marking off the diftances Bio, B 20, B 30, was ratified and eftablifhed, together with the Prefby-
upen any other line, we make that line a fcale of ie- terian form of church-government and chfciphne ; and
cants> the unalterable continuance of both w-as declared to be
Scceders. SECEDERS, a numerous body of Prelbyterians in an effential condition of the union of the two kingdoms
Scotland, who have withdrawn from the communion of in all time coming. In 171 2 the law refpeCting pa-
the eftablifhed church. As they take up their ground tronage was revived, in refentment, it has been laid, of
upon the eftablifhment of religion from 1638 to 1650, that warm attachment which the church of Scotland
which they hold to be the purelt period of the Scottifh difeovered to the family of Hanover ; but the feverity
church, we fhall introduce our account of them by a of that law was greatly mitigated by .the fii ft parlia-
fhort teview of ecclefiaftical hiftory from that period to ment of George 1. flat. 50. by which it is enacted, that
the era of their feceffion. With our ufual candour and if the prefentee do not fignify his acceptance, the pre¬
impartiality we mean to give a fair ftatement of thofe fentation fhali become void and null in law. I lie
events with which, as they fay, their feceffion is connect- church, however, did not avail herfelf of this ftatute ;
f cP ' and an event which happened not many years afterwards
James I. having for fome time previous to his death gave rife to the fetejfion. . *
entertained a wiffi to form the church of Scotland as In 1732 more tfian 40 minifters prefented.an addrefs Origin of
much as pofiible upon the model of that in England, to the general affembly, fpecifying in a variety of in-
his fon Charles, with the afiifhnce of archbifhop Laud, fiances what they confidered to be great defections from
endeavoured to carry the defign into execution, by efta- the eftablifhed conftitution of the church, and craving
blifhino canons for ecclefiaftical difeipline, and introdu- a redrefs of thefe grievances. A petition to the fame
cing a liturgy into the public fervice of the church.— effect, fubferibed by feveral hundreds of elders and pri-
Numbers of the clergy and laky of all ranks took the vate Chriftians, was offered at the fame time ; but the
alarm at what they confidered to be a bold and dan- affembly refufed a hearing to both, and enafted, that
gerous innovation ; and after frequent applications to the eleCtion of minifters to vacant charges, where an ac-
the throne, they at lait obtained the royal proclamation cepted prefentation did not take place, fhould be com-
for a free parliament and general affembly'. The aflem- petent onlyr to a conjunft meeting of elders and heri-
bly met in 1638, and began their labours with a repeal tors, being Proteftants. To this act many objeCiions
of all the arks of the fix preceding parliaments, which were made by numbers of minifters and private Chri-
had favoured the defigns of James. rl hey condemned Ilians. they afferted that moie than 3^ one in
the liturgy', together with every' branch of the hierar- every' parifh were not pofieffed of landed property, and
chy. They cited all the Scottifh bifhops to their bar ; were on that account deprived of what they deemed
and after having excommunicated nine of them, and de- their natural right to choole their own pallors.. It was
pofed five from their epifcooal office, they reftored alfo faid, that this aft was extremely prejudicial to the
kirk-feffions, prefbyteries, and fynods provincial as well honour and intereft of the church, as wed as to the edi-
as national. See Presbyterians. fication of the people ; and in fine, that it was oireftly
Vol. XVII. Parti. Ff contrary
Speeders,
They op-
pofe the
meafure?
the gener;
affcmbly;
F r which
their mini-
iter's are
cenfured,
SEC [2
contrary to the appointment of Jefus Chrift, and the
praftice of the apoftles, when they filled up the firft
vacancy in the apoftolic college, and appointed the elec¬
tion of deacons and elders in the primitive church.—
Many of thofe alfo who were thought to be the heft
friends of the church, expreffed their fears that this
act would have a tendency to overturn the ecclefiafti-
cal conilitution which was eftablifhed at the Revolu¬
tion.
Mr Ebenezer Erlkine minifter at Stirling diftin-
ofguilhed himfelf by a hold and determined opoofition to
x\ the meafures of the affembly in 1732. Being at that
time moderator of the fynod of Perth and Stirling, he
opened the meeting at Perth with a fermon from Pfalm
cxviii. 22. “ The ftone which the builders rejedled is
become the head ftone of the corner.” In the courfe
of his fermon he remonftrated with no fmall degree of
freedom againft the a<?c of the preceding affembly with
regard to the kttlement of minifters, and alleged that
it was contrary to the word of God and the eftablilh-
ed conftitntion of the church. A formal complaint
was lodged againft him for uttering feveral offenfive ex-
preflions in his fermon before the fynod. Many of
the members declared that they heard him utter no¬
thing but found and feafonable do&rine ; but his accu-
fers inlifting on their complaint, obtained an appoint¬
ment of a committee of fynod to collect what were
called the offenfive expreffions, and to lay them before
the next diet in writing. This was done accordingly ;
and Mr Erfkine gave in his anfwers to every article of
the complaint. After three days warm reafoning on
this affair, the fynod by a majority of fix found him
cenhirable ; againft which fentence he protefted, and
. appealed to the next general affembly. When the af-
fembly met in May 1733, it affirmed the fentence of
the iynod, and appointed Mr Erlkine to be rebuked
and admonilhed from the chair. ETpon which he pro¬
tefted, that, as the affembly had found him cenfurable,
and had rebuked him for doing what he conceived to
be agreeable to the word of God and the ftandards of
the church, he ftiould be at liberty to preach the fame
truths, and to teftify againft the fame or ftmilar evils, on
every proper occafion. To this proteft Meffrs Wil-
1km Wilfon minifter at Perth, Alexander Moncrief
minifter at Abernethy, and James Either minifter at
Kinclaven, gave in a written adherence, under the form
of inftrument; and thefe four withdrew, intending to
return to their refpedlive charges, and adl agreeably to
their proteft whenever they Ihould have an opportuni¬
ty. Had the affair refted here, there never would have
been a feceffion ; but the affembly refolving to carry
on the procefs, cited them by their officer to compear
next day. They obeyed the citation ; and a committee
was appointed to retire with them, m order to perfuade
them to withdraw their proteft. The committee ha¬
ving reported that they ftill adhered to their proteft,
the affembly ordered them to appear before the com-
iniffion in Auguft following and retraft their proteft ;
and if they Ihould not comply and teftify their forrow
for their conduft, the commiffion was empowered to
fufpend them from the exercife of their miniftryr, with
certification that if they Ihould aft contrary to faid fen-
tence, the commiffion Ihould proceed to an higher cen-
iure.
The commiffion met in Auguft accordinglyj and the
25 ]
SEC
four minifter? ftill adhering to their proteft, were fuf- Sececlen.
pended from the exercife of their office, and cited to —v 
the next meeting of the commiffion in November fol- 5
lowing. From this fentence feveral minifters and elders, "urFei!,?erf
members of the commiffion, diffented. The commif-'S,'^**
fion met in November, and the fufpended minifters l.eu office,
compeared. AddrdTes, reprefentations, and letters from
feveral fynods and prefoyteries, relative to the buiinefs
now before the commiffion, were received and read.
Phe fynods of Dumfries, Murray, Rofs, Angus and
Mearns, Perth and Stirling, craved that the commif¬
fion would delay proceeding to an higher cenfure. The
fynods of Galloway and Fife, as alfo the prefbytery of
Dornoch, addreffed the commiffion for lenity, tendernefs,
and forbearance, towaids the fufpended minifters; and
the prefbytery of Aberdeen reprefented, that, in their
judgment^ the fentence of fufpenlion infli&ed on the
fortfaid minifters was too high, and tliat it was a ftretch
of eccleliaftical authority. Many members of the com¬
miffion reaioned in the fame manner, and alleged that
the aft and fentence of Eft affembly did not oblige
them to proceed to an higher cenfure at this meet¬
ing of the commiffion. The queftion, however, was
put, Proceed to an higher cenfure, or not ? and the
votes being numbered, were found equal on both fides:
upon which Mr John Goldie the moderator gave his
calling vote to proceed to an higher cenfure ; which
Hands in their minutes in thefe words : I he comnui-
fion did and hereby do loofe the relation of Mr Ebene¬
zer . Erfkine minifter at Stirling, Mr William Wilfon
minuter at Perth, Mr Alexander Moncnef tninifter at
Abernethy, and Mr James Fifher minifter at Kinclaven,
to. their refpe&ive charges, and declare them no longer Omrived
minifters of this church; and do hereby prohibit all mi-of their
nilters of this church to employ them, or any of them, hvmgs,
in any miniflerial fundlion. And the commiffion do
deciare the churches of the find minifters vacant from
and after the date of this fentence.”
This fentence being intimated to them, they proteft¬
ed, ffiat their minifterial office and relation to their re-
fpective charges fhould be held as valid as if no inch
fentence had paffed; and that they were now obliged to
make ^feuffion from the prevailing party in the ecckfia-
ftical courts; and that it fhall be lawful and warrantable
for them to preach the gofpel, and difcharge every
branch of the paftoral office, according to the word of
God and the eilablifhed principles of the church of
Scotland. Mr Ralph Erfkine minifter at Dunfermline^
Mr .Thomas Mair minifter at Grwel, Mr John M‘Laren
minifter at Edinburgh, Mr John Currie minifter at
Kinglaffie, hdr James Wardlaw nnnifter at Dunfermline,
and Mr Thomas Nairn minifter at Abbotfhal, protefted
againft the fentence of the commiffion, and that it
fhould be lawful for them to complain of it to any fub-
fequent general affembly of the church.
The. feceffion properly commenced at this date. And
accordingly the eje&ed minifters declared in their pro¬
teft that, they were laid under the difagreeable neceffity
of feceding, not from the principles and conftitution of
the church of Scotland, to which, they faid, they fted-
faftly adhered, but from the prefent church-courts,
which had thrown them out from minifterial communion.
The affembly, however, which met in May 1734 did fo
far modify the above fentence, that they empowered
the fynod of Perth and Stirling to receive the ejedted
miiiifters
SEC
[ 227 ]
SEC
Secedcrs. minifters into the communion of the church, and reftore
w—v—' them to their refpeCtive charges ; but with this exprefs
dire&ion, “ that the faid fynod ftiould not take upon
them to judge of the legality or formality of the former
procedure of the church judicatories in relation to this
affair, or either approve or cenfure the fame.” As this
appointment neither condemned the adt of the prece¬
ding affembly nor the conduft of the commiffion, the
feceding miniffers confidered it to be rather an ad of
grace than of juftice, and therefore they faid they could
not return to the church-courts upon this ground ; and
they publilhed to the world the reafons of their refufal,
and the terms upon which they were willing to return
to the communion of the eftablilhed church. They now
eredted themfelves into an ecclefiaftical court, which they
called the AJfeciated Prejbytery, and preached occafionally
to numbers of the peoplewhojoinedthem indifferent parts
of the country. They alfo publilhed what they called an
A3, Declaration, and Tejlimony, to the dodtrine, worlhip,
government, and difcipline of the church of Scotland,
and againli feveral inftances, as they faid, of deiedlion
from thefe, both. in former and in the prelent times.
Some time after this feveral minifters of the eftablilhed
church joined them, and the Affociated Prelbytery
now confifted of eight minifters. But the general af¬
fembly which met in 1738 finding that the number of
Seceders was much increafed, ordered the eight mini¬
fters to be ferved with a libel, and to be cited to the
next meeting of the affembly in 1739. They now ap¬
peared at the bar as a conftituted prefbytery, and ha¬
ving formally declined the affembly’s authority, they
immediately withdrew. The affembly which met next
year depofed them from the office of the miniftry ;
which, however, they continued to exercife in their
refpedfive congregations, who ftill adhered to them,
and eredted meeting-houfes, where they preached till
their death. Mr James Filher, the laft furvivor of them,
was, by an unanimous call in 1741, tranflated fiom
Kinclaven to Glafgow, where he continued in the exer~
cife ®f his miniftry among a numerous congregation,
refpedted by all ranks in that large city, and died in
1775 much regretted by his people and friends. In
1745 the feceding minifters were become fo numerous,
that they were eredted into three different prefbyteries,
under one fynod, when a very unprofitable difpute divi¬
ded them into two parties.
The burgefs oath in fome of .the royal boroughs of
Scotland contains the following claufe : “ I profefs
and allow with my heart the true religion prefently
profeffed within this realm, and authorifed by the laws
5 thereof. I will abide at and defend the fame to my
They di- ]jfe’3 entg renouncing the Jvomilh religion called Pa-
tfietnfelvtTM!’d” Meflrs Ebenezer and Ralph Erlkine, James
afe-ue the Fiflier, and. others, affirmed that this claufe was no way
ftyrai-v of contrary to the principles upon which the feceffion was
the buigefs formed, and that therefore every Seceder might lawfully
fwear it. Meffrs Alexander Moncrief, Thomas Mair,
Adam Gib, and others, contended on the other hand
And de.
graded.
that the fwearing of the above claufe was a virtual re- Seceders.
nunciation of their teftimony. And this controverfy w as ^ 1
fb keenly agitated, that they fplit into two different
parties, and now meet in different fynods. T hofe of
them who aflert the lawfulnefs of fwearing the burgef*
oath are called Burghers, and the other party who con¬
demn it are called Antiburgher Seceders. Each party
claiming to itfelf the lawful conftitution of the AJfociate
Synod, the Antiburghers, after feveral previous fteps,
excommunicated the Burghers on the ground of their
fin and of their contumacy in it. This rupture took 9
place in 1 747, fince which period no attempts to effeft a And form
reunion have been fuccefsful. They remain under the feparate
jurifdidfion of different fynods, and hold feparate com-
munion, although much of their former hoftility has
been laid afide. The Antiburghers confider the Burgh¬
ers as too lax and not fufficiently ftedfaft to their tef¬
timony. The Burghers on the other hand contend
that the Antiburghers are too rigid, in that they have
introduced new terms of communion into the fociety.
The Antiburghers having adopted ideas with regard to
what they call covenanting, which the Burghers never
approved (a), have been in ufe of renewing in their
feveral congregations the Scottifh Covenant, by cauling
their people formally fwear to maintain it. In other
refpetts the differences between the two parties are not
material. The Antiburghers are moft numerous on
the north of the Tay, and the Burghers on the iouth
of it. IO
What follows in this article is a further account of Hiftory of
thofe who are commonly called the Burgher Seceders.
Thefe have a greater number of people in their com-1" L
munion than the Antiburghers, and for fome years
paft they have greatly increafed in the fouthern and
weftern diftritts of Scotland. As there were among
them from the commencement of their fecelfion fevcral
Undents who had been educated at one or other of the
univerfities, they appointed one of their minifters to give
le&ures in theology, and train up candidates for the
miniftry. Meffrs William Wilfon minifter at Perth
and Alexander Moncrief minifter at Abernethy were
their profeffors of theology before their fepaiation from
the Antiburghers.
Since that period Mr Ebenezer Erikine minifter at
Stirling, Mr James Fiftier minifter at Glafgow, Mr
John Swanfton tninifter at Kinrofs, and Mr John Brown
minifter at Haddington, have fucceeded each other in
this office. At prefent (1794) Mr George Lawfon
minifter at Selkirk is their profeffor of theology, and
there are between thirty and forty ftudents.who at¬
tend his le&ures annually. The number of their mi-'
nifters is about an hundred, and each of their congrega¬
tions contain from two hundred and fifty to three
thoufand perfons ; and there are among them at prefent
more than twenty vacant charges. Where a congrega¬
tion is very numerous, as in Stirling, Dunfermline, and
Perth, it is iormed into a collegiate charge, and provi¬
ded with two minifters. JThey are eredted into fix dif-
F f 2 ferent
(a) This is the account which the Burghers give of their own notions refpe&ing the covenant. One of the
moft enlightened of their opponents, however, affure us that they acknowledge covenanting to be a moral duty,
and that the folemn vows of our anceftors are obligatory. But fince the breach in the fynod they have never
engaged in this work ; giving, as their reafon, that this is not the proper feafon.
SEC [22
Seeders, f^rcnt prt'fbyteties, united in one general fynod, which
commonly meets at Edinburgh in May and Septem¬
ber (b). They have alfo a fynod in Ireland compofed
ot three or four different prefbyteries. They are legally
tolerated in Ireland ; and government fome years ago
granted E.500 per annum, and of late an additional
L. soc, which, when divided among them, affords to
each minifter about L. 20 over and above the ttipend
which he receives from his hearers. Thefehave befides
a prelbytery in Nova Scotia j and fome years ago, it is
laid, that the Burgher and the Antiburgher minilters re¬
ading in the United States formed a coalition and
joined in a general fynod, which they call the Synod of
New 7 ork and Pennfylvama. They all preach the doc¬
trines contained in the Weftminfter Confeffion of Faith
and Catechifms, as they believe thefe to be founded on
the facred leriptures. They catechife their hearers
publicly, and vilk them from houfe to houfe once every
year. They will not give the Lord’s flipper to thole
who are ignorant of the principles of the gofpel, nor to
fuch as are icandalous and immoral in their lives.
They condemn private baptifm, nor will they admit
thofe who are grofsly ignorant and profane to be fpon-
fors for their children. Believing that the people have
a natural right to choofe their own pallors, the fettle-
ment of their minilters always proceeds upon a popu¬
lar election ; and the candidate who is elected by the
majority is ordained among them. Convinced that the
charge of fouls is a truft of the greateft importance,
they carefully watch over the morals of their Undents,
and diredl them to fuch a courfe ot reading and itudy
as they judge moft proper to qualify them" for the pro¬
fitable dilcharge of the paftoral duties. At the ordina¬
tion of their minifters they ufe a formula of the fame
kind with that of the eflablilhed church, which-their
rninifters are bound to fubferibe when called to it; and
if any of them teach dodlrines contrary to the feriptures
or the Weltminfter Confeffion ot Faith, they arefure of
being thrown out of their communion. By this means
uniformity of fentiment is preferved among them ; r.or
has any of their minifters, excepting one, been profecuted
for error in dodtrine fmee the commencement of their
feceffion.
Their1 rules . Relieve that the holy feriptures are the foie
ef faith, criterion of truth, and the only rule to diredt mankind
to glorify and enjoy God, the chief and eternal good ;
and that “ the Supreme Judge, by which all controver-
fies of religion are to be determined, and all the decrees
©f councils, opinions of ancient writers, dodlrines of
men and private fpirits, are to be examined, and in
wffiofe fentence we are to reft, can be no other but the
Holy Spirit fpeaking in the feriptures.” They are
fully perfuaded, however, that the ftandards of public
authority in the church of Scotland exhibit a juft and
1 SEC
coniiltent view of the meaning and delign of the holy Set,deny
criptures with regard to doctrine, worfliip, government,  J
and difeipline ; and they in lo far differ from the diffent-
ers in England, in that they hold thefe ftandards to be
not only articles of peace and a teft of orthodoxy, but
as a bond of union and fellowfliip. They confider a
fimple declaration of adherence to the feriptures as too
equivocal a proof of unity in fentiment, becaute Arians,
Socimans, and Armiuians, make fuch a confeffion of
their faith, while they retain fentiments which they
(t he Seceders) apprehend are fubverfive of the great doc¬
trines of the^ gofpel. They believe that Jefus Chrift
is the only King and Head of the Church, which is
his body ; that it is his foie prerogative to enacl laws
for the government, of his kingdom, which is not of this
world ; and that the church s not poffeffed of a legifla-
tive, but only of an executive power, to be exercifed hi
explaining and applying to their proper objedls and ends
thofe laws which Chrift hath publiffied in the feriptures.
Thofe dodrines which they teach relative to faith and
pradice aie exhibited at great length in an explana¬
tion of tne Weftminfter Affembly’s Shorter Catechilm,
by way of queftiwn and anfwer, in two volumes, com¬
pofed chiefly by^ Mr James Fiffier late of Glafgovr, and
publiffied by delire of their fynod.
Tor thefe fifty years paft, the grounds of their fecef¬
fion, they allege, have been greatly enlarged by the pu¬
blic adminiftrations of the eftablifhed church, and par¬
ticularly by the uniform execution ot the law refpeding
patronage,^which, they fay, has obliged many thoufands
of private Chriftians to withdraw from the parifli-
churches and join their fociety.
It is certain, however, that their number has rapidly
increaled ot late, efpecially in the large cities of the
kingdom, ft hey have three different congregations in
Edinburgh, two in Glafgow, and two in London, be-
fides feveral others in the north of England. In moft
of their congregations they celebrate the Lord’s fupper .
twice in the year, and they catechife their young people
concerning their knowledge of the principles of religion
previoufly to their admiffion to that facrament. When
any of them fall into the fin of fornication or adultery’-,
the fcandal is regularly purged according to the form
of procefs in the eftabliihed church ; and thole of the
delinquents who do not lubrait to adequate cenfure are
publicly declared to be fugitives from difeipline, and
are expelled the fbciety. ’Bhey never accept a him of
money as a commutation for the offence. They con¬
demn all clandeftine and irregular marriages, nor will
they marry any perfons unlefs they have been pro¬
claimed in the parilh church on two different Lord’s
days at leaft.
When they feparated from the eftablifhed church, And pffiti,
they remained firm in their attachment to the Hate ; andrai ponci-
they Pk*”
Ib) ihe conftitutian of the Antiburgher church differs very little from that of the Burghers. 'The fupreme
comt among them is defigned / he General AJfociate Synod, having under its jurifdidftion three provincial lynods
cot and and one in Ireland. In the former country there are eleven prefbyteries ; in the latter, four, ff’hey
-rave a ew congregations in England, and a prefbytery in connexion with them in North. America. The
uu.n cr o minifters belonging to the general fynod is a hundred and thirty-feven ; and in Scotland there arc
inneteen vacancies, ft hey, as well as the Burgher Seceders, have a profeffor of theology, wliofe iettures every
can 1 ate or t ie office of a preacher is obliged to attend, we have been told, for no lefs than five or fix feffions £
curdy thckffiou xnuft be of ffiort duration
SEC [ 2;
golfer*, they were not many years formed into a diftinft fociety,
g,cbi«nn when they txpelled from their communion a Mr Thomas
  Nairn miniiftr at Kirkcaldy, who had tauyht doftiines
inimical to the civil government of the nation.^ In 1745
there was not one of their number who joined the then
pretender to the Britifh crown. T. hey are if ill of the
fame fentiments ; and in their public aflemblies they al¬
ways pray for our fovereign King George, with the
royal family, and for all who are in authority under
them They are fo far from wifhing the overthrow of
the prefent civd government, that when the nation was
lately in danger of being thrown into a fermentation by
the circulation of inflammatory and feditious writings,
they warmly recommended peace and order in fociety
(c). No legal difqualifications, os in the cafe of the
diffenters in England, exclude them from any place of
public truif in the municipal government of the country ;
and fome of them are frequently in the magiftracy of
the royal boroughs. They are not, _ however, legally
tolerated, but are iupported by the mildneis of admini-
ftration and the liberal fpirit of the times. . Avowing
their adherence to the dodrines contained in the pu¬
blic flandards of the church of Scotland, together with
the prefbyterian form of government, from which they
never intended to fecede, they deny that they are either
fchifmatics or fedaries, as they have been frequently
called ; and when they withdrew from the ecclefiaftical
courts, they did not, they fay, conllitute a church of
their own, different from the national church, but pro-
fefs to be a part of that church, endeavouring to hold
by her reformed principles, in oppofition to thofe devi¬
ations from them which they have fpecified in their
and Ttjimcny. Moft of them live in habits of
friendfhip and intimacy with their brethren of the efta-
blifhment, and they piofefs an affedionate regard for
all thofe of every denomination who love Jefus Chiift
Thermo. *n fincerity and truth. In the late re-exhibition of
deration, their teftimony, they have declared to the world, that,
were the grounds of their fecefiion happily removed,
they would account it one of the mofl fingular felicities
of their time to return with pleafure to the communion
of the eflablifhed church.
SECHIUM, in botany : A genus of the fyngenefia
order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 34th order,
Cucurbitacea. The male calyx is quinquedentate and
monophyllous ; the corolla monopetalous ; the five fila¬
ments are united in an ered tube. In the female
flower the piftillum is cylindrical and ered ; the Itig-
ma large, peltated, and refleded ; the pericarp!um large,
oval, unequal, fiefhy, and unilocular, containing one feed,
which isfmooth, comprefled, and flelhy. Of tlus there
is only one fpecies, viz. the Edu/is, or Chocho vine.—
This is cultivated and grows very luxuriantly ig many
places in Jamaica. The vines run and fpread very
much. rl he fruit is boiled, and ferved up at table by
9 1 SEC
way of greens; and the root of the old vine is fomc- SeeberdorA.
what like a yam (Dhforea), and on being boiled or
roalted tailes farinaceous and wholefome. r
SEC KENDO RE (Guy Lewis de), a very learned*
German, deicended from an ancient and noble family,
was born at Aurach in Franconia in 1626. He was
a good linguift, learned in law, hiftory, and divinity ^
and is faid to have been a tolerable painter and engra¬
ver. He was honourably employed by leveral of the
German princes ; and died counfellor of ftate to Fre¬
deric III. eledtor of Brandenburg, and chancellor of
the univerfity of Halle, in 1692. He wrote many
books, particularly “ A hiitory and defence of the
Lutheran religion,” 2 vols folio, Frankfort,. 1602, in
Latin.
SECKER (Thomas), a learned and refpeftable pre¬
late of the church of England, was born, in. 1693, at a
village called Sibtborp, in the vale of Belvoir, Notting-
hamlhire. His father was a Proteftant difienter, a pi¬
ous, virtuous, and fenfible man ; who having a final!
paternal fortune, followed no profefiion. His mother
was the daughter ot Mr George Brough, a fubftantial
gentleman farmer of Shelton in the fame county. He.
received his education at feveral pr ivate fchools and aca¬
demies in the country, being obliged, by various acci¬
dents, to change his mailers frequently.
Notwithilanding this difadvantage, he had at the age
of 19 not only made a confiderable progrefs in Greek
and Latin, and read the bell writers in both languages,,
but had acquired a knowledge of French,. Hebrew,
Chaldee, and Syriac ; had learned geography, logic, al¬
gebra, geometry, conic fedlions, and gone through a
couri'e oi leclures on Jewifh antiquities and other points,,
preparatory to the critical iludy of the Bible. He had
been deltined by his father for orders among the Dif-
fenters. With this view, during the latter years of his.
education, his itudieswere chiefly turued towards divinity,
in which he had made fuch quick advances, that by the
time he was 23 he had carefully read over a great part
of the Scriptures, particularly the New Teft,ament, in
the original, and the belt comments upon it ; Eufe-
bius’s Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, The Apoilolical Fathers,
Whifton’s Primitive Chriftianity, and the principal wri¬
ters for and againft Minifterial and Lay Conformity  
But though the refult of thei'e inquiries was a well-
grounded belief of the Chriftian revelation, yret not be¬
ing at that time able to decide on fome abftrufe fpecu-
lative doctrines, nor to determine abfolutely what com¬
munion he (liould embrace; he reiolved, like a wife and
honeft man, to purfuc fome profeflion, which fliould
leave him at liberty to weigh thofe things more ma¬
turely in his thoughts, and not oblige him to declare or
teach publicly opinions which were not yet thoroughly
fettled in his own mind.
In 1716, therefore, he applied himfelf to the ftudy of
phyfic, and after gaining all the medical knowledge he
could.
(c) All this is faid of the Burgher Seceders; but we hope it is equally true of thofe who are ftyled Anti¬
burghers. There are indeed fome claufes in the Covenant which they fwear to maintain, that feem not, at rirtl
view, very friendly to civil fubordination ; but let not thofe who entertain any apprehenfion on this account,
forget that one of the moft ufeful defences of the Britifh conftitution, occafioned by the late fadlious fpirit of
democratic innovation, came from the pen of Dr Young the Antiburgher min^fter at Hawick. See Toung’t
SEC
Seeker.
could, by reading the ufual preparatory books, and at¬
tending the belt iedtures during that and the following
winter in London, in order to improve himfelf farther,
in January 1718-19 he went to Paris. There he lod¬
ged in the fame houfe with the famous anntomilt Mr
W inflow, whofe le&ures he attended, as he did thofe of
the materia mediea, chemiftry, and botany, at the king’s
gardens. The operations of furgery he faw at the Ho¬
tel Dieu, and attended alfo for fome time M. Gregoire,
the accoucheur, but without any defign oi ever prac-
tifing that or any other branch of furgery. Here he
became acquainted with Mr Martin Benfon, afterwards
bifhop of Gloucefter, one of the moft agreeable and vir¬
tuous men of Ins time ; with whom he quickly became
much connected, and not many years after was united
to him by the ftri&eft bonds of affinity as well as affec¬
tion.
During the whole of Mr Seeker’s continuance at Pa¬
ris, he kept up a conftant correfpondence with Mr Jo-
feph Butler, afterwards bifhop of Durham, with whom
he became acquainted at the academy of one Mr Jones,
kept firft at Gloucefter, and afterward at Tewkfbury.
Mr Butler having been appointed preacher at the Rolls
on the recommendation of Dr Clarke and Mr Edward
lalbot, fon to bifhop Talbot, he now took occafton to
mention his friend Mr Seeker, without Seeker’s know-
ledge, to Mr X albot, who promifed, in cafe he chofe to
take oiders m the church of England, to engage the
Infhop his fatner to provide for him. This was com¬
municated to Mr Seeker in a letter from Mr Butler
about the beginning of May 1720. He had not at
that time come to any refolution of quitting the ftudy
of phyfic ; but he began to forefee many obftacles to
Iris purfuing that profeffion ; and having never difeonti-
nued his application to theology, his former difficulties
both with regard to conformity and fpme other doubt¬
ful points had gradually leffened, as his judgment be¬
came ft ranger, and his reading and knowdedge more
extenfive. It appears alfo from two of his letters ftill
in being, written from Paris to a friend in England,
(both of them prior to the date of Mr Butler’s above-
mentioned), that he was greatly diffatisfied with the di-
vifions and difturbances which at that particular period
prevailed among the Diffenters.
In this ft ate of mind Mr Butler’s unexpelled propo-
ftd found him ; which he was therefore very well difpo-
LI. lO take into conhderation ; and after deliberating
on the fubject of fuch a change for upv/ards of two
months, he refolved at length to embrace the offer, and
foi^tuat purpofe quitted France about the begiuuin * of
Auguft 1720. * b
^ On bis arrival in England, he was introduced to Mr
I albot, with whom ne cultivated a clofe acquaintance ;
but it wras unfortunately of very fhort duration ; for in
the month of December that gentleman died of the
fmall-pox. This was a great fhock to all his friends,
who had juftly conceived the higheft expeftations of
• but Specially to an amiable lady wdiom he had
[ 230 ]
SEC
recommended him, together with Mr Benfon and Mr
Butler, to his father’s notice. Thus did that excellent
young man (for he was but 29 when he died), by his
nice difeernment of charallers, and his confiderate iraod
nature, provide moft effedually, in a few folemn mo¬
ments, for the welfare of that church from which he
himfelf was fo prematurely fnatched away ; and at the
fame time raifed up, when he leaft thought of it, the
trueft friend and protellor to his wife and unborn
daughter; who afterwards found in Mr Seeker ail that
tender care and affiftance which they could have hoped
for from the neareft relation.
It being judged neceffary by Mr Seeker’s friends that
lately married, and who was very near finking under fo
fudden and grievous a ftroke. 'Mr Seeker, betide flia-
nng largely in the common grief, had peculiar reafon
to lament an accident that feemed to put an end to all
his hopes ; but he had taken his refolution, and he
determined to perfevere. It was fome encouragement
to him to find that Mr Talbot had, on his death-bed,
he fhould have a degree at Oxford ; and having been
informed, that if he ftiould previoufly take the degree of
Doftor in Phyfic at Leyden, it would probably help
him in obtaining the other, he went over and took-his
degiee there in March 1721 : and, as part of his exer-
cife for it, he compofed and printed a differtation de
Medtcina Statica, which is ftill extant, and is thought by
the gentlemen of that profeffion to be a fenfible and
learned performance.
In April the fame year, he entered himfelf a o-entle-
man commoner of Exeter college, Oxford ; after which
he obtained the degree of Bachelor of Arts, in confe-
quence of the chancellor’s recommendatory letter to the
convocation.
He now fpent a confiderable part of his time in Lon¬
don, where he quickly gained the efteem of fome of the
antl lnffcnfou3 menof thofe days, particularly
or Di Clarke, reltorofSt James’s, and the celebrated dean
Berkeley, arterwards bifhop of Cloyne, with whom he
every day became more delighted, and more clofely con-
netted. He paid frequent vifits of gratitude and friend*
imp to Mrs Talbot, widow of Mr Edward Talbot, by
whom flie had a daughter five months after his deceafe.
With her lived Mrs Catharine Benfon, filter to bifhop
Benfon, whom in many refpeAs fhe greatly refembled
She had been for fevhal years Mrs^Talbk’s ""fepal
rao.e companion, and was of unfpeakable fervice to her
at the time of her hufband’s death, by exerting all her
courage, activity, and good fenfe (of which fhe poffef-
ied a large fhare), to fupport her friend under fo great
an afflilhon, and by afterwards attending her iickly in¬
fant with the utmoft care and tendernefs", to which, un-
cer Providence, was owing the prefervation of a very
valuable life.
liifiiop Talbot being in 1721 appointed to the fee
or Durham, Mr Seeker was in 1722 ordained deacon
by him in St James’s church, and prieft not long after
in the fame place, vs here he preached his firft fermon
March 28. 1723. The biff op’s domeftic chaplain at
that time was Dr Rundle, a man of warm fancy and
'fT bihnant converfation, but apt fometimes to be car¬
ried by the vivacity of his wit into indifereet and ludi¬
crous expreffions, which created him enemies, and, on
one occahon, produced difagreeable coniequences.—
With him Mr Seeker was foon after affociated in the
bifhop s family, and both taken down by his lordfhip to
Durham in July 1723. r
In the following year the bifhop gave Mr Seeker the
rectory of Houghton-le-Spring. This preferment put¬
ting it in his power to fix himfelf in the world, in a
manner agreeable to his inclinations, he foon after made,
a propofal of marriage to Mrs Benfon j which being ac¬
cepted,.
Seeker,
t
SEC [2
■ Seeker, cepted, they were married hy:bifhop Talbot in 1725.
u-v—" At the earnefl requeft of both, Mrs Talbot and her
daughter contented to live with them, and the two fa¬
milies from that time became one.
About this time bilhop Talbot alfo gave preferments
to Mr Butler and Mr Benfon, whofe rife and progrefs
in the church is here interwoven with the hiftory of
Mr Seeker. In the winter of 1725-6, Mr Butler firft.
publifhed his incomparable fermons ; on which, as Dr
Beilby Porteous and Dr Stinton inform us, Mr Seeker
took pains to vender the ftyle more familiar, and the
author’s meaning more obvious : yet they were at lad
by many called obfeure. Mr Seeker gave his friend
the fame adiftance in that noble work the Analogy of
Religion, Sec-
He now gave up all the time he pofiibly could to his
rehdence at Houghton, applying himfelf with alacrity
to all the duties of a country clergyman, and fupport-
ing that ufeful and refpeCtable charatter throughout
with the drifted propriety. He omitted nothing which
lie thought would he of ule to the fouls and bodies of
the people entrufled to his care. He brought down
his converfation and his fermons to the level of their
underdandings ; he vifited them in private, he catechi-
fed the young and ignorant, he received his country
neighbours and tenants very kindly and hofpitably, and
was of great fervice to the poorer fort or them by his Ik ill
in phylic, which was the only ufe he ever made of it.
Though this place was in a very remote part of the
world, yet the folitude of it perfeftly fuited his dudi-
ous difpofvtion, and the income arifmg from it bounded
his ambition. Here h£ would have been content to live
and die ; here, as he has often been heard to declare, he
fpent fome of the happied hours of his life ; and it was
no thought or choice of his own that removed him to
an higher and more public fphere; but Mrs Seeker’s
health, which now began to be very bad, and was
thought to be injured by the dampnels of the iiuiation,
obliged him to think of exchanging it for a more heal-
thy one. Accordingly, an exchange was made through
the friendly interpofvtion of Mr Benfon (who generouf-
ly facrificed his own intered on this occafion, by relin-
quifhing a prebend of his own to ferve his friend) with
Dr Finney, prebendary of Durham, and reftor of Ry-
ton ; and Mr Seeker was indituted to Ryton and the
prebend June 3. 1727. For the two following years
he lived chiefly at Durham, going every week to offi¬
ciate at Ryton, and {pending there two or three months
together in the fummer.
In July 1732 he was appointed chaplain to the king;
for which favour he was indebted to Dr Sherlock,'who
having heard him preach at Bath, had conceived the
highed opinion of his abilities, and thought them well
worthy of being brought forward into public notice.
From that time an intimacy commenced between them,
and he received from that great prelate many folid proofs
of edeem and friendftup,
His month of waiting at St James’s happened to be
Augud, and on Sunday the 27th of that month he
preached before the queen, the king being then abroad.
A few days after, her majedy tent for him into her clo-
fet, and held a long and gracious converfation with him;
in the couvfe of which he took an opportunity of men¬
tioning to her his friend Mr Butler. He alfo, not long
after this, on Mr Talbot’s being made lord chancellor,
|i 1 SEC
found means to have Mr Butler effeftually recommend- Seeker,
ed to him for his chaplain. The queen alfo appointed ^
him clerk of her clofet; from whence he rote, as his ta¬
lents became more known, to thofe high dignities which
he afterwards attained.
Mr Seeker now began to have a public charafter,
and dood high in the edimation of thofe who were al¬
lowed to be the bed judges of merit: he had already
given proofs of abilities that plainly indicated the emi¬
nence to which he mud one day rite, as a preacher and
a divine ; and it was not long before an opportunity of¬
fered of placing him in an advantageous point of view.
Dr Tyrrwhit, who fucceeded Dr Clarke as reftor of
St James’s in 1729, found that preaching in fo large a
church endangered his health. Bifhop G-ibfon, there¬
fore, his father-in-law, propofed to the crown that he
fhould be made refidentiary of St Paul’s, and that Mr
Seeker fliould fucceed him in the reftory. This ar¬
rangement was fo acceptable to thofe in power, that it
took place without any difficulty. Mr Seeker was in-
dituted reftev the >18th of May 173 3 ; and in the be¬
ginning of July went to Oxford to take his degree of
Doftor of Laws, not being of fufficient danding for
that of divinity. On this occaiion it was that he
preached his celebrated Aft Sermon, on the advantage*
and duties of academical education, which was univer-
fally allowed to be a maderpiece of found reafoning
and juft compofition : it was printed at the defire of the
heads of houfes, and quickly pafted through feveral edi¬
tions. It is now to be found in the fecond colleftion'
of Occafional Sermons, publifhed by himfelf in 1766.
It was thought that the reputation he acquired by
this fermon, contributed not a little toward that pro¬
motion which very foon followed its publication. For
in December 1734* he received a very unexpefted no¬
tice from bifhop Gibfon, that the king had fixed on
him to be bifhop of Bridol. Dr Benfon was about the
fame time appointed to the fee of Glouceder, as was
Dr Fleming to that of Carlifle ; and the three new bi-
fhops were all confecrated together in Lambeth Chapel,
Jan. 19. 1734-5, ^ie confecration-fermon beincr preach¬
ed by Dr Thomas, afterwards bifhop of Wincheder.
The honours to which Dr Seeker was thus raifed in
the prime of life did not in the lead abate his diligence
and attention to bufsnefs; for which, indeed, there was
now more occafion than ever. His learned biographers,
Mcflrs Porteous and Stinton, now relate the manner in
which he fet about the vifitation of his diocefe, and the
ceremony of confirmation, which he performed in a
great number of places; he alfo preached in feveral
churches, fometimes twice a-day. The affairs of his
parifh of St James’s being likewife in great diforder, he
took extraordinary pains to regulate and adjufl every
thing, particularly the management of the poor; and thus
became of fignal fervice to his parifhioners, even in a
temporal view. But, fay our authors, “ it was their
fpiritual welfare which engaged, as it ought to do, his
chief attention. As far as the circumdances of the
times, and the populoufnefs of that part of the metro¬
polis allowed, he omitted not even thofe private admo¬
nitions and perfonal applications which are often attend¬
ed with the happied effefts. He aliowed out of his
own income a falary for reading early and late prayers,
which had formerly been paid out of the offertory mo¬
ney. He held a confirmation, once every year, and ex-
3 amined
SEC- [2
amined the candidates feveral weeks^eforc in the vedry,
and gave them religious tracfts, which he alfo diftributed
at other times very liberally to thofe that needed them.
He drew up, for the ufe of Iris parifhioners, that admi¬
rable courfe of Leisures on the Church Catechifm which
hath been lately publifhed, and not only read them once
■every week on the ufual days, but alfo every Sunday
■evening, either at the church or one of the chapels be¬
longing to it.”
The fermons which at the fame time, we are told, he
fet himfelf to compofe, “ were truly excellent and origi¬
nal. His faculties were now in their full vigour, and
he had an audience to fpeak before that rendered the
utmoft exertion of them neceffary. He did not, how¬
ever, feck to gratify the higher part, by amufing them
with refined fpeculations, or ingenious eflays, unintelli¬
gible to tire lower part, and unprofitable to both ; but
he laid before them all, with equal freedom and plain-
nefs, the great Chrittian duties belonging to their re-
ipe&ive ftations, and reproved the follies and vices of
*very rank among them, without dillin&ion or pallia¬
tion. He ftudied human nature thoroughly in all its
various forms, and knew what fort of arguments would
have moll weight with each clafs of men. He brought
the fubjedl home to their bofoms, and did not feem to
be merely faying ufeful things in their prefence, but ad-
■drefiing himfell perfonally to every one of them. Few
ever poflefled, in a higher degree, the rare talent of
touching on the moll delicate fubje&s with the niceft
propriety and decoram, of faying the moll familiar
things without being low, the plaindl without being
feeble, the bolded without giving offence. He could
defeend w-ith fitch fingular eafe and felicity into the mi¬
nuted concerns of common life, could lay open with
fo much addrefs the various workings, artifices, and eva-
iions of the human mind, that his audience often
thought their owm particular cafes alluded to, and heard
with furprife their private fentiments and feelings, their
ways of reafoning and principles of a&ing, exaftly
dated and deferibed* His preaching was, at the fame
time, highly rational, and truly evangelical. He ex¬
plained wfith perfpicuity, he afferted wfith dignity, the
peculiar charadlerillic do£lrines of the gofpel. He in¬
culcated the utility, the necefiity of them, not merely as
fpeculative truths, but as ?.£lud indruments of moral
goodntfs, tending to purify the hearts and regulate the
lives of men ; and thus, by God’s gr?cious appointment,
as.well as by the infeparable connexion between true
faith and right practice, leading them to falvation.
_ “ Thele important truths he taught with the autho¬
rity, the tendernefs, the familiarity, of a parent indruCt-
ing his children. Though he neither poffeffed nor af¬
fected the artificial eloquence of an orator who wants
to am ufe or to miflead, yet he had that of an honed
man who wants to convince, oi a Chriitian preacher
who wants to reform and to fave thofe that hear him.
Solid argument, manly fenfe, ufeful directions, fiiort,
nervous, driking fentences, awakening quedions, fre¬
quent and pertinent applications of fefipture ; all thefe
following each other in quick fuccefiion, and coming
•evidently.from the fpeaker’s heart, enforced by his elo¬
cution, his figure, his aClion, and above all by the cor-
reiponding fanflity of his example, damped conviction
«n the minds of his hearers, and fent them home with
Knprefiions not eafy to be effaced. It will readily be
32 ] SEC
imagined that with thefe powers he quickly became one
of the mod admired and popular preachers of his time.”
In 1737 he lucceeded te the fee of Oxford, on the
promotion of I3r Potter to that of Canterbury, then
vacant by the death of Archbifliop Wake.
. In the fpring of 1 748, Mrs Seeker died of the gout
in her domach. She was a woman of great fenfe^and
merit, but of a weak and fickly conditution. The bi-
diop’s affeClion and tendernefs for her was fuited to Jus
character. In 1750, he was indalled dean of St Paul’s,
for which he gave in exchange the reCtory of St James’s
and his prebend of Durham. “ It was no wonder (fay
our authors) that, after prefiding over fo extenfive and
populous a parilh for upwards of 17 years, he (hould
willingly confent to be releafed from a burden which be¬
gan now to. grow too great for his drength. When he
preached his farewel fermon, the whole audience melted
into tears : he was followed with the prayers and good
wifhes of thofe whom every honed man would be moft
ambitious to pleafe ; and there are numbers dill living
who retain a drong and grateful remembrance of his in-
ceflant and tender folicitude for their welfare. Having
now more leilure both-to profecute his own dudies and
to encouiage thofe of others, he gave Dr Church con-
fideiable alfidance in his hirjl and Second Vindication of
the Miraculous Powers, See. againd Dr Middleton, and
he was of equal life to him in his Amdyfis of Lord Bo-
Ungbroke's Works. About the fame time began the late
Archdeacon Sharp s controverfv with the followers of
Mr Hutchinfon, which was carried on to the end of
the year 1755.” Bifhop Seeker, we are told, read over
all Dr Sharp’s papers, amounting to three volumes 8vo,
and corrected and improved them throughout. But the
ea!e which this late change of lituation gave him was
foon didurbed by a heavy and unexpeCled llroke, the
lofs of his three friends, Bifhops Butler, Benfcn, and
Berkeley, who were all cut off within the fpace of one
year.
Our authors next give an account of the part which
Dr Seeker bore, in the Houfe of Lords, in refpeft to
the famous repeal of the Jew bill; for which the duke
of Newcadle moved, and was Seconded by the Bilhop,
in a fpeech which, we are told, was remarkably well re¬
ceived. At length his didinguifhed merit prevailed
over all the political obdacles to his advancement, and
placed him, without any efforts or application of his
own, in that important dation which he had fhown him¬
felf lo well qualified to adorn. On the death of arch-
bilhop Hutton, he was promoted to the fee of Canter¬
bury, and was confirmed at Bow-church, April 7 j.
1758 ; on which occafion our authors obferve, that in
accepting this high and burdenfome dation. Dr Seeker
aCted on that principle which influenced him through
life ; that he facrificed his own eafe and comfort to con-
fiderations of public utility ; that the mere fecular ad¬
vantages of grandeur were objefts below his ambition ;
and were, as he knew and felt, but poor compenfations
for the anxiety and difficulties attending them*. He had
never once through his whole life allied preferment for
himfelf, nor Ihown any unbecoming eagernefs for it; and
the ufe he made of his newly acquired dignity very
clearly fliowed, that rank, and wealth, and power, had
in no other light any charms for him, than as they en¬
larged the fphere of his active and induftrieus bene¬
volence.
4
He
SEC [ 233 ] SEC
Seeker. He fought out and encouraged men of real genius
—-v—■' gr extenfive knowledge ; he expended 300 l. in arran¬
ging and improving the manufeript library at Lambeth ;
and obferving with concern, that the library of printed
books in that palace had received no additions fince the
time of Archbifhop Tennifon, he made it his bufinefs
to colled books in all languages from moft parts of Eu¬
rope at a very great expence, with a view of lupplying
that chafm ; which he accordingly did, by leaving them
to the library at his death, and thereby rendered that
colledion one of the noblclt and moft ufelul in the
kingdom.
All defigns and inftitutions which tended to advance
good morals and true religion, he patronized with zeal
and generofity : he contributed largely to the mainte¬
nance of fchools for the poor ; to rebuilding or repair¬
ing parfonage houfes and places of worftup ; and gave
no lefs than 6001. towards ereding a chapel in the pa-
ri(h of Lambeth. To the fociety for promoting Chrif-
tian knowledge he was a liberal benefador ; and to that
for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts, of which
he was the prefident, he paid much attention ; was con-
ftant at all the meetings of its members, even fometimes
when his health would but ill permit, and fuperintended
their deliberations with confummate prudence and tem-
per.
Whenever any publications came to his knowledge
that were manifeftly calculated to corrupt good morals,
or fubvert the foundations of Chriftianity, he did his
utmoft to ftop the circulation of them ; yet the wretch¬
ed authors themfdves he was fo far from wifhing to treat
with any undue rigour, that he has more than once ex¬
tended his bounty to them in diftrefs. And when their
writings could not properly be fuppreffed (as was too
often the cafe) by lawful authority, he engaged men of
abilities to anfwer them, and rewarded them for their
trouble. His attention was everywhere. Even the
falfehoods and mifreprefentation of writers in the newf-
papers, on religious or ecclefiaftical fubjefts, he general¬
ly took care to have contradi&ed ; and when they feem-
ed likely to injure, in any material degree, the caufe of
virtue and religion, or the reputation of eminent and
worthy men, he would fometimes take the trouble of
anfwering them himfelf. One inftance of this kind,
which does him honour, and deferves mention, was his
defence of Biihop Butler, who, in a pamphlet publifh-
cd in 1767, was accufed of having died aPapift. The
condudt which he obferved towards the feveral divilions
and denominations of Chriftians in this kingdom was
fuch as {bowed his way of thinking to be truly liberal
and catholic. The dangerous fpirit of popery, indeed,
he thought ftiould always be kept under proper legal
reftraints, on account of its natural oppofition not only
to the religious but the civil rights of mankind. He
therefore obferved its movements with care, and exhort¬
ed his clergy to do the fame, efpecially thofe who were
fituated in the midft of Roman Catholic families ;
againft whofe influence they were charged to be upon
their guard, and were fumifhed with proper books or
Vol. XVII. Parti.
inftrudtions for that purpofe. He took all fit opportu- Seeker.
nities of combating the errors of the church of Rome —-v—*
in his own writings (a) ; and the beft anfwers that were
publiflied to fome of the late bold apologies for popery
were written at his inftance, and under his diredlion.
With the Diffenters his Grace was lincerely defirous
of cultivating a good underftanding. He coniidered
them, in general, as a confcientious and valuable clafs
of men. With fome of the moft eminent of them.
Watts, Doddridge, Leland, Chandler, Lardner, he
maintained an intercourfe of friendlhip or civility. By
the moft candid and confiderate part of them he was
highly reverenced and efteemed ; and to fuch among .
them as needed help he {bowed no lefs kindirefs and li¬
berality than to thofe of his own communion.
Nor was his concern for the Proteftant caufe confined
to his own country. He was well known as the great
patron and proteftor of it in various parts of Europe ;
from whence he had frequent applications for affiltance,
which never failed of being favourably received. To
feveral foreign Proteftauts he allowed penfions, to others
he gave occafional relief, and to fome of their univerli-
ties was an annual benefaftor.
In public affairs, his Grace adted the part of an honeft
citizen, and a worthy member of the Britifh legiflature.
From his firft entrance into the Houle of Peers, his
parliamentary conduft was uniformly upright and noble.
He kept equally clear from the extremes of fadtious pe¬
tulance and fervile dependence ; never wantonly thwart¬
ing adminiftration from motives of party zeal or private
pique, or perional attachment, or a paffion for popula¬
rity ; nor yet going every length with every minifter
from views of intereff or ambition. He admired and
loved the conftitution of his country, and wifhed lo
preferve it unaltered and unimpaired. So long as a due
regard to this was maintained, he thought it his duty to
fupport the meafures of government; but whenever they
were evidently inconliftent with the public welfare, he
oppofed them with freedom and firmnefs. Yet his op-
poiition was always tempered with the utmuft ridelity,
refpedt, and decency, to the excellent prince upon the
throne ; and the moft candid allowances for the una¬
voidable errors and infirmities even of the very beft mi-
niiters, and the peculiarly difficult fituation of thofe who
govern a free and high-fpirited people. He feldom
fpoke in parliament, except where the interefts of re¬
ligion and virtue feemed to require it ; but whenever
he did, he fpoke with propriety and ftrength, and was
heard with attention and deference. Though he never
attached himfelf blindly to any fet of men, yet his chief
political conne&ions were with the late Duke of New-
caftle and Lord Chancellor Hardwicke. To ihefe he
principally owed his advancement; and he had the good
fortune to live long enough to {how his gratitude to
them or their defendants. .
During more than ten yeai-s that Dr Seeker enjoyed
the fee of Canterbury, he refided conftantly at his
archiepifcopal houfe at Lambeth. A few months be¬
fore his death, the dreadful pains he felt had compelled
G g him
(a) See particularly his fermons on the rebellion in 1745 ; on the Proteftant working fchools in Ireland ; on
the 5th of November; and a great number of occafional paffages to the fame purpofe, in various parts of his
k&ures, fermons, and other works.
Seeker.
SEC [ 234 J SEC
hlin to think of trying the Bath waters ; but that de¬
li gn was (topped by the fatal accident which put an end
to his life.
H is Grace had been for many years fubjeft to the
gout, which, in the latter part of his life, returned with
more frequency and violence, and did not go off- in a
regular manner, but left the parts affefted for a long
time very weak, and was fucceeded by pains in different
parts of the body. About a year and a half before he
died, after a fit of the gout, he was attacked with a
pain in the arm, near the fhoulder, which having conti¬
nued about 12 months, a limilar pain feized the upper
and outer part of the oppofite thigh, and the arm foon
became ealier. This was much more grievous than the
former, as it quickly difabled him from walking, and
kept him in almoft continual torment, except when he
was in a reclining pofnion. During this time he had
two or three fits of the gout ; but neither the gout nor
the medicines alleviated thefe pains, which, with the
want of exercife, brought him into a general bad habit
of body.
On Saturday July 30. 1768, he was feized, as he
fat at dinner, with a ficknefs at his ftomach. He re¬
covered before night ; but the next evening, while his
phyficians were attending, and his fervants railing him
on his couch, he fuddenly cried out that his thigh-bone
was broken. The (hock was fo violent, that the fervants
perceived the couch to fhake under him, and the pain
fo acute and unexpefted, that it overcame the firnmefs
lie fo remarkably pofTefTed. He lay for fome time in
great agonies ; but when the furgeons arrived, and dif-
covered with certainty that the bone was broken, he
was perfectly refigned, and never afterwards afked a
q veil ion about the event. A fever foon enfued. On
Tuefday he became lethargic, and continued fo till
about five o’clock on Wednefday afternoon, when he
expired with great calmnefs, in the 75th year of his
age.
On examination, the thigh-bone was found to be ca¬
rious about four inches in length, and at nearly the
fame diilance from its head. The difeafe took its rife
from the internal part of the bone, and had fo entirely
deftroyed its fubilance, that nothing remained at the
part where it was broken but a portion of its outward
integument; and even this had many perforations, one
of which was large enough to admit two fingers, and
was filled with a fungous fubflance arifing from within
the bone. rl here was no appearance of matter about
the caries, and the furrounding parts were in a found
Hate. It was apparent that the torture which he un¬
derwent during the gradual corrofion of this bone muft
have been inexpreffibly great. Out of tendernefs to his
family he feldom made any complaints to them, but to
his phyficians he frequently declared his pains were fo
excruciating, that unlefs fome relief could be procured
he thought it would be impoffible for human nature to
fupport them long. Yet he bore them for upwards of
fix months with aflonifhing patience and fortitude ; fat
up generally the greater part of the day, admitted his
particular friends to fee him, mixed with his family at
the ufual hours, fometimes with his ufual cheerfulnefs ;
and, except fome very flight defedls of memory, retain-
td all his faculties and fenfes in their full vigour till
within a few days of his death. He was buried, pur-
fuant t© his own directions; in a covered paflage, lead¬
ing from a private door of the palace to the north door
of Lambeth church ; and he forbade any monument or
epitaph to be placed over him.
By his will he appointed the Rev. Dr Daniel Bur¬
ton, canon of Chrift-church, and Mrs Catherine Tab
hot, already mentioned in the courfe of thefe memoirs,
>his executors; and left 13,000!. in truft to the Drs
Porteous and Stinton, his chaplains; to pay the interell
thereof to Mrs Talbot and her daughter during their
joint lives, or the life of the furvivor; and after the
deceafe of both thofe ladies, 11,0001. of the faid
1 3,000 1. are to be transferred to charitable purpofes ;
amongfl which are iocoI. to the Society for the Pro¬
pagation of the Gofpel, and 1000 1. to the fame fociety
for a bifhop or bifhops in the king’s dominions in
America.
The following defeription is given of his perfon : He
was tall and comely; in the early part of his life (len¬
der, and rather confumptive; but as he advanced in
years his conftitution gained (Length, and his iize in-
creafed, yet never to a degree of corpulency that was
difproportionate or troublefome.
I he dignity of his form correfponded with the great-
nefs of his mind, and infpired at all times refpeft and
awe ; but peculiarly fo when he was engaged in any of
the more folemn funaions of religion, into which he
entered with ftich devout earneftnefs and warmth, with
fo juft a confcioufnefs of the place he was in, and the
bufmefs he was about, as feemed to raii'e him above him-
felf, and added new life and fpirit to the natural grace-
fulnefs of his appearance.
His countenance was open, ingenuous, and expreflive
of every thing right. It varied eafily with his fpirits
and his feelings, fo as to be a faithful interpreter of his
mind, which was incapable of the lead diffimulation. It
could (peak dejeftion, and, on occafion, anger, very
ftrongly ; but when it meant to (how pleafme or appro-
bation, it foftened into a mofl gracious fmile, and difi-
fufed over all his features the mofl benevolent and re¬
viving complacency that can be imagined.
SECOMIiE, in natural hiflory, the name of a ge¬
nus of foffils of the clafs of feptariae ; the characters of
which are, That they are bodies of a dufky hue ; di¬
vided, by fepta or partitions of a fparry matter, into
feveral more or lefs regular portions ; of a moderately
firm texture ; not giving fire with fleel; but ferment¬
ing with acid menflrua, and eafily calcining. The
feptarias of this genus are of all others the mofl com¬
mon, and are what have been known by the little ex-
prtffive or miftaken names of the waxen vein, or Indus
Helmontii. We have many fpeefes of thefe bodies
common among us. Of the whitifh or brownifh, we
have thirteen ; of the yellowifh five ; and of the ferru¬
ginous ones four.
SECOND, in geometry, chronology, &c. the 60th
part of a prime or minute, whether of a degree 01 of
an hour.
Second, in mufic, one of the mufical intervals ; be¬
ing only the difference between any found and the next
nearefl found, whether above or below it.
Second Major, in mufre. See Interval.
Second Minor, in mufkr. See Interval.
Second Sight, in Erfe called Taifch, is a mode of
feeing fuperadded to that which nature generally be¬
llows, rhis gift or faculty, which is neither voluntary
Seeker
nor
SEC [ 235 ] SEC
Second, nor eonflant, is in general rather troublefome than agree*
■■ v able to the poffeflbrs of it, who are chiefly found among
the inhabitants of the Highlands of Scotland, thofe of
the Weftern Illes, of the Ifle of Man, and of Ireland.
It is an impreflion made either by the mind upon the
eye, or by the eye upon the mind, by which things di-
llant or future are perceived, and foen as if they were
prefent. A man on a journey far from home fails from
liis horfe ; another, who is perhaps at work about the
houfe, fees him bleeding on the ground, commonly with
a landfcape of the place where the accident befals him.
Another leer, driving home his cattle, or wandering in
idlenefs, or mufmg in the funfhine, is fuddenly furprifed
by the appearance of a bridal ceremony, or funeral pro-
ceffion, and counts the mourners or attendants, of
whom, if he knows them, he relates the names ; if he
knows them not, he can deferibe the drefles. Things
diltant are feen at the inftant when they happen.
Of things future, Johnfon fays that he knows no rule
pretended to for determining the time between the fight
and the event; but we are informed by Mr Grofe, that
in general the time of accomplilhment bears fome rela¬
tion to the time of the day in which the impreflions are
received. Thus vifions feen early in the morning (which
feldom happens) will be much fooner accomplifhed than
thofe appearing at noon ; and thofe feen at noon will
take place in a much Ihorter time than thofe happening
at night; fometimes the accomplifhment of the lait does
not fall out within a year or more.
Thefe vifions are not confined to folemn or important
events ; nor is it true, as is commonly reported, that to
the fecond fight nothing is prefented but phantoms of
evil. The future vifit of a mountebank, or piper; a
plentiful draught of fifh ; the arrival of common travel¬
lers ; or, if pofiible, ftill more trifling matters than thefe,
—are forefeen by the feers. A gentleman told Dr John-
fon, that when he had once gone far from his own illand
one of his labouring fervants predi&ed his return, and
deferibed the livery of his attendant, which he had never
worn at home ; and which had been, without any pre¬
vious defign, occaiionally given him.
As many men eminent for fcience and literature
have admitted the reality of this apparently ufelefs gift,
we (hall, without interpofing our own opinion, give the
reflexions of two of the firli charafters of the age upon
it, and leave our readers to form their own judgment.
By Dr Beattie of Aberdeen it is thus accounted for.
The Highlands of Scotland are a piXurefque but a
melancholy country. Long traXs of mountainous de-
fert, covered with dark heath, and often obfeured by
milty weather; narrow valleys, thinly inhabited, and
bounded by precipices refounding with the fall of tor¬
rents ; a foil fo rugged, and a climate fo dreary, as in
many parts to admit neither the amufements of paf-
turage nor the labours of agriculture ; the mournlul
dafhing of waves along the friths and lakes that inter-
feX the country ; the portentous noifes which every
change of the wind and every increafed diminution of
the wraters is apt to raife in a lonely region full of Second,
echoes and rocks and caverns; the grotefque and ^ "
gbaftly appearance of fuch a landfcape by the light of
the moon : objeXs like thefe diffufe a gloom over the
fancy, which may be compatible enough with occafion-
al and focial merriment, but cannot fail to tinXure the
thoughts of a native in the hour of filence and iolitude.
If thefe people, notwithftanding their reformation in
religion, and more frequent intercourfe with ftrangers,
do ftill retain many of their old fuperftitions, we need
not doubt but in former times they muft have been much
more enflaved to the horrors of imagination, when befet
with the bugbears of Popery and Paganifm. Moll of
their fuperftitions arc of a melancholy call. That of
fecond fights by which fome are ftill fuppofed to be haunt-,
ed, is confidered by themfelves as a misfortune, on ac¬
count of the many dreadful images it is far’d to obtrude
upon the fancy. It is faid that fome of the Alpine re¬
gions do likewife lay claim to a fort of fecond fight.
Nor is it wonderful, that perfons of a lively imagination,
immured in deep folitude, and furrounded with the fttt-
pendous feenery of clouds, precipices, and torrents,
fhould dream (even when they think themfelves awake)
of thofe few ftriking ideas with which their lonely lives
are diverfified: of corpfes, funeral proceffions, and other
fubjeXs of terror; or of marriages, and the arrival of
ftrangers, and fuch like matters of more agreeable curt-
ofity.
Let it be obferved alfo, that the ancient Highlan¬
ders of Scotland had hardly any other way of fupport-
ing themfelves than by hunting, iiftring, or war; pro-
feffions that are continually expofed to fatal accidents.
And hence, no doubt, additional horrors would often
haunt their foiitude, and a deeper gloom overihadow
the imagination even of the hardieft native.
A fufficient evidence can hardly be found for the re¬
ality of the fecondfght, or at leaft of what is commonly
underftood by that term. A treatife on the fubjeX
was publifhed in the year 1762, in which many tales
were told of perfons whom the author believed to have
been favoured, or haunted, with thefe illuminations j
but moft of the tales were trifling and ridiculous : and
the whole work betrayed, on the part of the compiler,
fuch extreme credulity, as could not fail to prejudice
many readers againft his fyftem.
That any of thefe vifionaries are apt to be fwayed
in their declarations by finifter views, we will not fay ;
but this may be faid with confidence, that none but xg-
norant people pretend to be gifted in this way. And
in them it may be nothing more, perhaps, than Ihort
fits of fudden deep or drowfinefs, attended with lively
dreams, and arifing from fome bodily diforder, the ef-
feX of idlenefs, low fpirits, or a gloomy imagination.
For it is admitted, even by the moft credulous High¬
landers, that as knowledge and induftry are propaga¬
ted in their country, the fecond fight dilappears in pro¬
portion ; and nobody ever laid claim to the faculty who
was much employed in the intercourfe of focial life (a).
G g 2 Nor
(a) This, however, is denied by Johnfon, who affirms that the tflanders of all degrees, whether of rank or
underftanding, univerfally admit it except the minifters, who, according to him, rejeX it, in confequence of a fy¬
ftem, againft conviXion. He affirms, too, that in 1773 there was in the Hebrides a fecond-fighted gentleman,
who complained of the terrors to which he was expofedc
SEC [ *36 3 SEC
Second. Nor is it at all extraordinary, that one fhould have the
appearance of bein^ awake, and fhould even think one’s
felf fo, during thofe fits of dofing ; that they fhould
come on fuddenly, and while one is engaged in fome
bufinefs. The fame thing happens to perfons much
fatigued, or long kept awake, who frequently fall afleep
for a moment, or for a long fpace, while they are Hand¬
ing, or walking, or riding on horfeback. Add but a
lively dream to this Humber, and (which is the frequent
effedl of difeafe) take away the confcioufnefs of having
been afleep, and a fuperftitious man may eafily miflake
his dream for a waking vifion; which, however, is foon
forgotten when no fubfequent occurrence recals it to
his memory; but whicn, if it fhall be thought to re-
femble any future event, exalts the poor dreamer into a
Highland prophet. This conceit makes him more re-
clufe and more melancholy than ever ; and fo feeds his
difeafe, and multiplies his viiions: which, if they are not
diffipated by bufinefs or lociety, may continue to haunt
him as long as he lives ; and which, in their progrefs
through the neighbourhood, receive lome new tindiures
of the marvellous from every mouth that promotes their
circulation. As to the prophetical nature of this fe-
cond fight, it cannot be admitted at all. That the De¬
ity fhould work a miracle in order to give intimation
of the frivolous things that thefe tales are made up of,
the arrival of a ftranger, the nailing of a coffin, or the
colour of a fuit of clothes ; and that thefe intimations
ffiould be given for no end, and to thofe perfons only
who are idle and folitary, who fpeak Gaelic, or who live
among mountains and deferts—is like nothing in nature
or providence that we are acquainted with ; and muft
therefore, unlefs it were confirmed by fatisfaftory proof
(which is not the cafe), be rejedfed as abfurd and in¬
credible.
Thefe viiions, fuch as they are, may reafonably
enough be aferibed to a diftempered fancy. And that
in them, as well as in our ordinary dreams, certain ap¬
pearances fhould, on fome rare occalions, refemble cer¬
tain events, is to be expedted from the laws of chance ;
and feems to have in it nothing more marvellous or fu-
pernatural, than that the parrot, who deals out his feur-
rilities at random, fhould i'ometimes happen to falute the
paflenger by his right appellation.
To the confidence of thele objedlions Dr Johnfon re¬
plies, that by prefuming to determine what is fit, and
what is beneficial, they prefuppofe more knowledge of
the univerfal fyftem than man has attained ; and there¬
fore depend upon principles too complicated and exten-
five for our comprehenfion ; and that there can be no
fecurity in the confequence when the premifes are not
underftood; that the fecond fight is only wonderful be-
caufe it is rare, for, conlidered in itfelt, it involves no
more difficulty than dreams, or perhaps than the regu¬
lar exercife of the cogitative faculty; that a general opi¬
nion of communicative impulfes, or vifionary reprefenta-
tions, has prevailed in all ages and all nations; that par¬
ticular inftances have been given with fuch evidence, as
neither Bacon nor Bayle has been able to refill; that
Bidden nnpreffions, which the event has verified, have
been felt by more than own or publifh them; that the
fecond fight of the Hebrides implies only the local fre¬
quency of a power, which is nowhere totally unknown;
and that where we are unable to decide by antecedent
teafon. we mull be content to yield to the force of tef-
timony. By pretcnfion to fecond fight, no profit Second
ever fought or gained. It is an involuntary affetlion, H
in which neither hope nor fear are known to have any Secretai7»
part. . fhofe who profefs to feel it do not boall of it *" ^
as a privilege, nor are confidered by others as advanta-
geoufly diibnguifhed. They have no temptation to
feign, and their hearers have no motive to encourage
the impofture.
Second Terms, in algebra, thofe where the unknown
quantity has a degree of power lefs than it has in the
term where it is raifed to the highelt. The art of
throwing thefe fecond terms out of an equation, that
is, of forming a new equation where they have no place,
is one of the moll ingenious and ufeful inventions in all
algebra.
SECONDARY, in general, fomething that adls as
fecond or in fubordination to another.
Secondary, or Secundary, an officer who adls as fe¬
cond or next to the chief officer. Such are the fecond-
aries of the courts of king’s bench and common pleas ;
the fecondaries of the compters, who are next the fhe-
riffs of London in each of the two compters ; two fe¬
condaries of the pipe; fecondaries to the remembrancers.
See.
Secondary Circles of the Ecliptic are circles of longi¬
tude of the liars ; or circles which, paffing through the
poles of the ecliptic, are at right angles to the ecliptic.
See Circles of Latitude.
Secondary Qualities of Bodies. See Metaphysics,
n° 153-
SECONDAT. See Montesquieu.
SECRETARIES bird, the falco ferpentarius and
fagittarius of Linnaeus, but claffed by Latham under
the genus Vultur ; which fee.
SECRETARY, an officer who, by his mailer’s
orders, writes letters, difpatches, and other inflmments,
which he renders authentic by his fignet. Of thele
there are feveral kinds ; as, i. Secretaries of Hate,
who are officers that have under their management and
diredlion the moll important affairs of the kingdom,
and are obliged conllantly to attend on the king : they
receive and difpatch whatever comes to their hands, ei¬
ther from the crown, the church, the army, private
grants, pardons, difpenfations, &c. as likewife petitions
to the fovereign, which, when read, are returned to
them ; all which they difpatch according to the king’s
diredlion. They have authority to commit perfons for
treafon, and other offences againll the Hate, as confer-
vators of the peace at common law, oras juHices of the
peace throughout the kingdom. They are members of
the privy-council, which is feldom or never held with¬
out one of them being prefent. As to the bufinefs and
corftfpondence in all parts of this kingdom, it is mana¬
ged by either of the fecretaries without any diHindtion;
but with refpedl to foreign affairs, the bufinefs is divi¬
ded into two provinces or departments, the fouthern
and the northern, comprehending all the kingdoms and
flates that have any intercourie with Great Britain ;
each fecretary receiving all letters and addreffes from,
and making all difpatches to, the feveral princes and
flates comprehended in his province. Ireland and the
Plantations are under the diredlion of the elder fecreta¬
ry, who has the fouthern province, which alfo compre¬
hends France, Italy, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, and
Turkey; the northern province includes the Low Coun-
, . tries>
SEC
Swretion tries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Muf-
li covy. Each of the fecretaries has an apartment in all
Seto. the royal houfes, both for their own accommodation
and their officers ; they have alfo a table at the king’s
charge, or cite board-wages. The two fecretaries for
Britain have each two under fecretaries, and one chief
clerk ; with an uncertain number of other clerks and
tranflators, all wholly depending on them. To the fe¬
cretaries of Hate belong the cuftody of that feal properly
called the fignet^ and the dire&ion of two other offices,
one called the paper-office^ and the other the Jtgnet office.
In addition to thefe, there is at prefent (179') a fecre-
tary for the war department, whole office mull be tem¬
porary. 2. Secretary of an embaffy, a perfon attending an
ambaffador, for w riting difpatches relating to the nego-
ciation. There is a great difference between the fecreta-
ry of an embaffy and the ambaffador’s fecretary; the
laft being a dameftic or menial of the ambaffador, and
the firft a fervant or minifter of the prince. 3. The fe¬
cretary of war, an officer of the war-office, who has two
chief clerks under him, the laft of which is the lesreta-
ry’s meffenger. There are alfo fecretaries in moll of
the other offices.
SEC RETION, in the animal ceconomy. See Ph y-
siology, fedl. VI.
SECT, a colleftive term, comprehending all Inch as
follow the do&rines and opinions of fome famous divine,
philofopher, &c.
SECTION, in general, denotes a part of a divided
thing, or the diviiion itfelf. Such, particularly, are
the fubdivifions of a chapter ; called alfo paragraphs
and articles : the mark of a fe&ion is §.
Section, in geometry, denotes a fide or furface of
a body or figure cut off by another; or the place where
lines, planes, &c. cut each other.
SECTOR, in geometry, is a part of a circle com¬
prehended between two radii and the arch ; or it is a
mixed triangle, formed by two radii and the arch of a
s circle.
Sector Sector, is alfo a mathematical inftrument, of great
life in finding the proportion between quantities of the
fame kind: as between lines and lines, furfaces and fur-
faces, &c. whence the French call it the compafs of pro¬
portion. ^"The great advantage of the feftor above the
common fcales,"&c. is, that it is made fo as to fit all ra¬
dii and all fcales. By the lines of chords, fines, &c.
on the feftor, we have lines of chords, fines, &c. to any
radius betwixt the length and breadth of the feftor when
open.
The real inventor of this valuable inftrument is Un¬
known ; yet of fo much merit has the invention appeared,
that it was claimed by Galileo, and difputed by nations.
The feftor is founded on the fourth propofition of
the fixth book of Euclid; where it is demonftrated,
that fimilar triangles have their homologous fides pro¬
portional. An idea of the theory of its conftru&ion
may be conceived thus. Let the lines AB, AC (Plate
CCCCXLVIII. fig. 5.) reprefent the legs of the fejftor;
and AD, AE, two equal fe&ions from the centre : if,
now the points CB and DE be connefted, the lines CB
and DE will be parallel; therefore the triangles ADE,
SEC
ACB will be fimilar; and confequently the fides AD, Sedfor,
DE, AB, and BC, proportional; that is, as AD :
DE : : AB : BC : whence, if AD be the half, third, or
fourth part of AB ; DE will be a half, third, or fourth
part of CB : and the fame holds of all the reft. If,
therefore, AD be the chord, fine, or tangent, of any
number of degrees to the radius AB ; DE will be the
fame to the radius BC. 1
Defcription of the Sefior. The inftrument confifts ofDefcribed,
two rulers or legs, of brafs or ivory, or any other mat¬
ter, reprefenting the radii, moveable round an axis or
joint, the middle of which expreffes the centre ; whence
are drawn on the faces of the rulers feveral fcales, which
may be diftinguifhed into fingle and double.
The double fcales, or lines graduated upon the faces
of the inftrument, and which are to be ufed as feftoral
lines, proceed from the centre; and are, 1. Two fcales
of equal parts, one on each leg, marked lin. or l. each
of thefe fcales, from the great extenfivenefs of its ufe,
is called the line of lines. 2. Two lines of chords mark¬
ed cho. or c. 3. Two lines of fecants marked sec.
or s. A line of polygons marked pol. Upon the
other face the fe£toral lines are, 1. Two lines of fines
marked sin. or s. 2. Two lines of tangents marked
tan. or t. 3. Between the line of tangents and fines
there is another line of tangents to a leffer radius, to
fupply the defeft of the former, and extending from 450
to 750, marked/.
Each pair of thefe lines (except the line of poly¬
gons) is io adjufted as to make equal angles at the
centre ; and confequently at whatever diftance the fee-
tor be opened, the angles will be always refpe&ively
equal. That is, the diftance between 10 and 10 on
the line of lines, will be equal to 60 and 60 on the line
of chords, 90 and 90 ©n the line of fines, and 45 and
45 on the line of tangents.
Befides the fecloral fcales, there are others on each
face, placed parallel to the outward edges, and ufed as
thofe of the common plane feale. 1. Thefe are aline of
inches. 2. A line of latitudes. 3. A line of htmrs.
4. A line of inclination of meridians. 5. A line of
chords. Three logarithmic icales, namely, one of num¬
bers, one of fines, and one of tangents ; thefe are ufed
when the fedlor is fully opened, the kgs forming one
line (a). _ 3
The value of the divifions on moft of the lines are To read
determined by the figures adjacent to them ; thefe pro-5mi, efti-
ceed by tens, which conftitute the divifions of the firft
order, and are numbered accordingly; but the value of^1^*”1*
the divifions on the line of lines, that are diftinguiftiedinj iine#,
by figures, is entirely arbitrary, and may reprefent any
value that is given to them ; hence the figures 1, 2, 3,
4, See. may denote either 10, 20, 30, 40, or 100, 200,
300, 4c o, and fo on.
7"he line of lines is divided into ten equal parts, num¬
bered 1, 2, 3, to 10 ; thefe may be called div'fions of
the fifi order ; each of thefe are again fubdivided into 10
other equal parts, which may be called divifions of the /e-
cond order ; each of thefe is divided into two equal parts,
forming divijions of the third order. The divifions on
all the fcales are contained between four parallel lines ;
thofe
[ 237 3
(a) The lines are placed in different orders on different fe&ors, but they may eafily be found by thefe general
directions.
S E C
Sztior,
J iDivifion of
a given line
f ty the line
ef equal
4»artB.
$
TTo mea »
f fure the pe
^Firtieter of
* polygon
6
Subtrac¬
tion.
TjjfuUiplica-
tKofe of the third order extend to the moft diftant ,
thofe of the third to the lealt j thofe of the fecond to
the intermediate parallel.
When the whole line of Hnes reprefents too, the di-
viiions of the firft order, or thofe to which the figures
are annexed, reprefent tens ; thofe of the fecond order
units ; thole of the third order the halves of thefe unit*.
It the whole line reprefent ten, then the diviflons of
the tirft order are units ; thofe of the fecond tenths j the
thirds twentieths.
In the line of tangents, the divifions to which the
numbers are affixed, are the degrees expreffed by thofe
numbers. Every fifth degree is denoted by a line fome-
what longer than the reft ; between every number and
each fifth degree, there are four divifions, longer than
the intermediate adjacent ones, thefe are whole de¬
grees ; the (hotter ones, or thofe of the third order, are
30 minutes.
. From the centre, to 60 degrees, the line of fines is
divided like the line of tangents, from 60 to 70; it is
divided only to every degree, from 70 to 80, to every
two degrees, from 80 to 90 ; the divifion muft be efti-
mated by the eye.
The divifions on the line of chords are to be eftima-
ted in the fame manner as the tangents.
'I he leffer line of tangents is graduated every two
degrees, from 45 to 50; but from 50 to <50 to every
degree ; from 60 to the end, to half degrees.
I he line of fecants from o to 10 is to be eftimated
by tne eye ; from 20 to yo, it is divided to every two
degrees ; from 50 to 60, to every degree} from 60 to
the end, to every half degree.
Ufe of the L ine of Equal Parts on the Sector. 1. To
divide a given line into ahy number of equal parts,
fuppofe feven. lake the given line in yoUr compaffes }
and letting one foot in a divifion of equal parts, that
may be divided by feven, for example 70, whofe fe-
venth part is 10, open the feftor till the other point
fall exactly on 70, in the fame line on the other leg.
In this difpofitioxl, applying one point of the compaffcs
to 10 in the fame line ; Ihut them till the other fall in
l o in the fame line on the other leg, and this opening
will be the feventh part of the given line. Note, if
the line to be divided be too long to be applied to the
legs of the fedor, divide only one half or one fourth
by feven, and the double or quadruple thereof will be
the feventh part of the whole.
2. Io mealure the lines of the petimeter of a poly-
• gon, one of which contains a given number of equal
parts. Take the given line in your compaffes, and fet
it parallel, upon the line of equal parts, to the num¬
ber on each leg expreffing its length. The fedor re¬
maining thus, fet off the length of each of the other
lines parallel to the former, and the number each of
them (alls on will exprefs Its length.
3. A right line being given, and the number of
parts it contains, fuppofe 120, to take from it a Ihorter
line, containing any number of the fame parts, fuppofe
25* Take the given line in your compaffes, open the
feCtor till the two feet fall on 120 on each leg 5 then
will the diftance between 25 on one leg, and the lame
number on the other, give the line required.
4- 10 multiply by the line of equal parts on the
ketor. Take the lateral diftanee from the centre of the
[ 238 ]
S E C
line to the given multiph'cator; open the fedor till Sc&or.
you fit that lateral diftance to the parallel of 1 and 1,  —*
or 10 and 10, and keep the fedor in that difpofition ;
then take in the compaffes the parallel diftance of the
multiplicand, which diftance, meafured laterally on the
fame line* will give the produd required. Thus, fup¬
pofe it were required to find the produd of 8 multi¬
plied by 4 : take the lateral diftance from the centre
of the line to 4 in your compaffes, i. e. place one foot
of the compaffes in the beginning of the divifions, and
extend the other along the line to 4* Open the fee-
tor till you fit this lateral diftance to the parallel of i
and r, or 10 and 10. Then take the parallel diftance
of 8, the multiplicand; i. e. extend the compaffes from
8, in this line, on one leg, to 8 in the fame line on the
other; and that extent, meafured laterally, will give the
produd required. ^ g
5. To divide by the line of equal parts on the fec-D:vifion *•
tor. Extend the compaffes laterally from the begin-general‘
ning of the line to 1, and open the fedor till you fit
that extent to the parallel of the divifor; then take
the parallel diftance of the dividend, which extent, rnea-
fured in a lateral diredion, will give the quotient re¬
quired. Thus, fuppofe it was required to divide 36
ky 4 > extend the compaffes laterally, the beginning of
the line to /, and fit to that extent the parallel of 4,
the divifor; then extend the compaffes parallel, from
36 on one leg to 36 on the other, and that extent, mea¬
fured laterally, will give 9, the quotient required. 9
6. Proportion by the line of equal parts. Make the Prt>Porfi°9»
lateral diftance of the fecond term the parallel diftance of
the firft term, the parallel diftance of the third term is
the fourth proportional. Example. To find a fourth
proportional to 8, 4, and 6, take the lateral diftance of
4, and make it the parallel diftance of 8 ; then the pa¬
rallel diftance of 6, extended from the centre, lhall reach
to the fourth proportional 3.
In the fame manner, a third proportional is found to
two numbers. Finis, to find a third proportional to
8 and 4, the fedlor remaining as in the former example,
the parallel diftance of 4, extended from the centre,
lhall reach to the third proportional 2. In all thefe
cafes, if the number to be made a parallel diftance be
too great for the fedor, lome aliquot part of it is to be
taken, and the anfwer is to be multiplied by the num¬
ber by which the firft number was divided. . *©
Ufe of the Line of Chords on the Sector. 1. To open
the letter fo as the two lines of chords may make an*" °r
angle or number of degrees, fuppofe 40. Take the di¬
ftance from the joint to 40, the number of the degrees
propofed, on the line of chords ; open the fettot till the
diftance from 60 to 60, on each leg, be equal to the
given diftance of 40 j then will the two lines on the fee-
tor form an angle of 40 degrees, as was required.
2. The fettor being opened, to find the degrees of
its aperture. Take the extent from 60 to 60, and lay
it oft on the line of chords from the centre } the num¬
ber whereon it terminates will fhow the degrees, &c.
Required.
3. To lay off any number of degrees upon the cir¬
cumference of a circle. Open the fettor till the di¬
ftance between 60 and 60 be equal to the radius of the
given circle ; then take the parallel extent of the chord
of the number of degrees on each leg of the fettor, and
5 lay
SEC
[ *39 1
SEC
fcftor.
II
Une of
polygons.
il
Sire*, tan¬
gents, at d
(ecants.
lay it off on the circumference of the given circle.—
Hence any regular polygon may be cafily ir.fcribed in a
given circle.
Ufe of the Line of Polygons on the Sector. 1. ! o in-
fcribe a regular polygon in a given circle, lake the
femidiameter of the given circle in the compafles, and
adjutt it to the number 6, on the line of polygons, on
each leg of the feftor : then, the feftor remaining thus
opened, t.-.ke the diftance of the two equal numbers,
expreffing the number of Tides the polygon is to have ;
e. gr. the diffance from 5 to J for a pentagon, from 7
to 7 for a heptagon, &c. Thefe diftances carried
about the circumference of the circle, will divide it into
fo many equal parts.
2. To deicribe a regular polygon, e. gr. a penta*
gon, on a given right line. Take the length of the
line in the compafles, and apply it to the extent of
the number 5, 5, on the lines of polygons. The fec-
tor thus opened, upon the fame lines take the extent
from 6 to 6 ; this will be the lemidiameter of the circle
the polygon is to be inferibed in. It then, with this
diftance, from the ends of the given line, you deferibe
two arches of a circle, their interfe&ion will, be the
centre of the circle.
3. On a right line, to deferibe an ifoceles triangle,
having the angles at the bale double that at the ver¬
tex. Open the feftor, till the ends of the given line
fall on i o and 10 on each leg ; then lake the diftance
from 6 to 6. ’[’his will be the length of the two equal
fides of the triangle.
U/e of the Lines of Sines, Tangents, and Secants, on the
Sec-tok. By the fcveral lines difpofed on the fedfor,
we have fcalcs to feveral radii; fo that having a
length or radius given, not exceeding the length or the
feAor when opened, we find the chord, fine, &c.
thereto : e. gr. Suppofe the chord, fine, or tangent,
of 10 degrees, to a radius of 3 inches required; make
3 inches the aperture, between 60 and 6c, on the lines
of chords of the two legs; then will the fame extent
reach from 45 to 45 on the line of tangents, and from
9<d to 90 on the line of the fines on the other fide ; fo
that to whatever radius the line of choids is fet, to the
fame are all the others fet. In this difpofition, there-
fure, if the aperture between 10 and 10, on the lines
of chords, be taken with the compaftes, it will give
the chord of 10 degrees. If the aperture of to and 10
be in like manner taken on the lines of lines, it will
be the fine of 1 o degrees. Laftly, if the aperture of I o
and 10 be in like manner taken on the lines of tan¬
gents, it gives the tangent of 10 degrees.
If the chord, or tangent, of 70 degrees were re¬
quired ; for the chord, the aperture of halt the arch,
viz. 35, mull be taken, as before ; which diftance, re¬
peated twice, gives the chord of 70 degrees. To find
the tangent of 70 degrees to the fame radius, the fmall
line of tangents muft be ufed, the other only reaching
1045 : making, therefore, 3 inches the aperture between
45 and 45 on the fmall line ; the extent between no
and 70 degrees on the fame, will be the tangent of 70
degrees to 3 inches radius.
To find the fecant of an arch, make the given radius
the aperture between o and o on the lines of fecants :
then will the aperture of 10 and 10, or 70 and 70, on
faid lines, give the tangent of io11 or 70°.
If the converfe of any of thefe things were required,
that is, if the radius be required, to which a given
line is the fine, tangent, or fecant, it is but making
the given line, if a chord, the aperture on the line of
chords, between 10 and jo, and then the fedor will
Hand at the radius required ; that is, the aperture be¬
tween 60 and 60 on the laid line is the radius. If
the given line’were a fine, tangent, or fecant, it is but
making it the aperture of the given number of de¬
grees 1 then will the diftance of 90 and 90 on the fines,
©f 45 ant! 45 on the tangents, of o and o on the fe-
cants, be the radius.
/ijlronomkai Sector. See j4stronomic.il Se3or.
Dia/ing Sector. See Dialing.
SECULAR, that which relates to affairs of the pre-
fent wmrld, in which fenfe the word Hands oppofed to
fpiritual, ecclejuiftical: thus we fay fecular power, &c.
Secut-ar, is more peculiarly ufed for a perfon who
lives at liberty in the world, not Ihut up in a mona-
ftery, nor bound by vows, or fubjeded to the particu¬
lar rules of any religious community ; in which fenfe
it Hands oppofed to regular. The Romilh clergy arc
divided into fecular and regular, of which the latter are
bound by monaftic rules, the former not.
Secular Games, in antiquity, folemn games held
among the Romans once in an age. Thefe games laft-
ed three days and as many nights ; during wdrich time
facrifices were perfonned, theatrical fhews exhibited,
with combats, fports, &c. in the circus. The occafion
of thefe games, according to Valerius Maximus, was to
Hop the progrefs of a plague. Valerius Publicola was
the firft who celebrated them at Rome in the year of
the city 245. The folemnity wras as follows : The
whole world w^as invited by a herald to a featl which
they had never feen already, nor ever ftiould fee again.
Some days before the games began, the quindeceniviri
in the Capitol and the Palatine temple, dillributed to
the people purifying compofitions, of various kinds, as
flambeaus, fulpluir, &c. From hence the populace
paft'ed to Diana’s temple on the Aventine mount, with -
wheat, barley, and oats, as an offering. After this,
wfoole nights were fpent in devotion to the Deftinies-
When the time of the games was fully come, the people
affembkd in the Campus Martius, and facrificed to Ju¬
piter, Juno, Apollo, Latona, Diana, the Parcse, Ceres,
Pluto, and Proferpine. On the firft night of the feaft
the emperor, with the quindecemviri, caufed three altars
to be erefted on thebanks of the Tiber, which they fprink-
led with the blood of three lambs, and then proceeded
to regular facrilice. A fpace was next marked out for
a theatre, which wras illuminated with innumerable
flambeaus and fires. Here they fung hymns, and cele¬
brated all kinds of fports. On the day after, having
oft’ered vidlims at the Capitol, they went to the Campus
Martius, and celebrated fports to the honour of Apollo
and Diana. Thefe lafted till next day, when the noble
matrons, at the hour appointed by the oracle, went to
the Capitol to fing hymns to Jupiter. On the third day,
w’hich concluded the folemnity, twenty-feven boys, and
as many girls, fung in the temple of Palatine Apo’lo
hymns and verfes in Greek and Latin, to recommend
the city to the protedlion of thole deities whom they
deiigned particularly to honour by their facrihees.
The inimitable Carmen Seculare of Horace was com-
pofed for this lall day, in the Secular Games, held by
Auguftus. m
It
SeiSlnr,
Secular.
Secular
SEC
Secundus,
It has been much deputed whether thefe games were
held every hundred, or every hundred and ten years.
Valerius Anting, Varro, and Livy, are quoted in fup-
port of the former opinion : In favour of the latter
may be produced the quindecemviral regifters, the edifts
of Auguftus, and the words of Horace in the Secular
poem,
Catus undenos decks per annos.
L was a general belief, that the girls who bore a
part in the fong fhould be ioonelt married; and that
the children who did not dance and iing at the coming
of Apollo, ihould die unmarried, and at an early period
of life.
Secular Poem, a poem fung or rehearfed at the fe-
cular games; of which kind we have a very fine piece
among the works of Horace, being a fapphic ode at the
end of his epodes.
SECULARIZA1 ION, the aft of converting a
regular perfon, place, or benefice, into a fecular one.
A Imofl all the cathedral churches were anciently regu¬
lar, that is, the canons were to be religious; but they
have been fince fecularized. For the iecularization of
a regular church, there is required the authority of the
pope, that of the prince, the bifhop of the place, the
patron, and even the confent of the pople. Religious
that want to be releafed from their vow, obtain briefs
of fecularization from the pope.
SECUNDINES, in anatomy, the feveral coats
or membranes wherein the foetus is wrapped up in the
mother s womb; as the chorion and amnios, with the
placenta, &c.
SECUNLUS (Joannes Nicolaius), an elegant writer
of Latin poetry, was born at the Hague in the year
I5I i* His defeent was from an ancient and honour¬
able family in the Netherlands; and his father Nicola-
us Everardus, who was born in the neighbourhood of
Middleburg, feems to have been high in the favour of
the emperor Charles V. as he was employed by that
monarch in feveral ftations of confiderable importance.
We find him firll a member of the grand parliament
or council of Mechelen, afterwards prefident of the
Rates of Holland and Zealand at the Hague, and laft-
ly holding a iimilar office at Mechelen, where he died,
Auguft 5. 1532, aged 70.
Thefe various employments did not occupy the whole
Everaidus s time, h otwithftanding the multiplicity
of his bufinefs, he found leifure to cultivate letters with
great fuccefs, and even to aft as preceptor to his own
children, who were five fons and three daughters.
Ti hey all took the name of Nicolaii from their father;
but on what account our author was called Secundus is
not known. It could not be from the order of his
birth, f@r he was the young eft fon. Perhaps the name
was not given him till he became eminent ; and then,
according to the faffiion of the age, it might have its
nte from fome pun, fuch as his being Poetarum nemini Se-
cundus. Poetry, however, was by no means the pro-
feluon which his father wifired him to follow. He in¬
tended him for the law, and when he could no longer
diieft his ftudies himfelf, placed him under the care of
Jaco.,us Valeardus. This man is faid to have been every
way well qualified to difeharge the important truft
^ IC w ^ committed to him ; and he certainly gained
the affeftion of his pupil, who, in one of his poems,
C 240 I
SEC
mentions the death of Valeardus with every appearance Secundui
of unfeigned forrow. Another tutor was foon provi-  v—
ded ; but it does not appear that Secundus devoted
much of his time to legal purfuits. Poetry and the
lifter arts of painting and fculpture had engaged his mind
at a very early period ; and the imagination, on which
thefe have laid hold, can with difficulty fubmit to the
dry ftudy of mufty civilians. Secundus is faid to have
written verfes when but ten years old ; and from the
vaft quantity which he left behind him, we have reafon
to conclude that fuch writing was his principal employ¬
ment. He found time, however, to carve figures of
all his own family, of his miftreffes, of the emperor
Charles V. of feveral eminent perfonages of thofe times,
and of many of his intimate friends; and in the laft
edition of his works publifhed by Scirverius at Leyden,
* 63 [> there is a print of one of his miftreffes with this
infeription round it; Vatis amatoris Julia sculpta
MANU.
Secundus having nearly attained the age of twenty
one, and being determined, as it would feem, to comply
as far as poffible with the wiffies of his father, quitted
Mechelen, and went to France, where at Bourges, a city
in the Orkanois, he ftudied the civil law under the cele¬
brated Andreas Alciatus. Alciatus was one of the moft
learned civilians of that age ; but what undoubtedly
endeared him much more to our author was his general
acquaintance with polite literature, and more particular¬
ly his tafte in poetry. Having ftudied a year under
this eminent profeffor, and taken his degrees, Secundus
returned to Mechelen, where he remained only a very
few months. In 1533 he went into Spain with warm
recommendations to the count of Naflau and other per-
fons of high rank ; and foon afterwards became fecre-
tary to the cardinal archbiffiop of Toledo in a depart¬
ment of bufinefs which required no other qualifications
than what he poffeffed in a very eminent degree, a faci¬
lity in writing with elegance the Latin language. It
was during his refidence with this cardinal that he wrote
his Bafia, a feries of wanton poems, of which the fifth,
feventh, and ninth carmina of Catullus feem to have given
the hint. Secundus was not, however, a fervile imitator
of Catullus. His expreffions feem to be borrowed ra¬
ther from Tibullus and Propertius ; and in the warmth
of his deferiptions he furpafles every thing that has been
written on fimilar fubjefts by Catullus, Tibullus, Proper*
tius, C. Callus, Ovid, or Horace.
In he accompanied the emperor Charles V. to
the fiege of Tunis, but gained no laurels as a foldier.
The hardffiips which were endured at that memorable
fiege were but little fuited to the foft difpofition of a
votary of Venus and the mufes ; and upon an enterprife
which might have furnifhed ample matter for an epic
poem, it is remarkable that Secundus wrote nothing
which has been deemed worthy of prefervation. Ha¬
ving returned from his martial expedition, he was fent
by the cardinal to Rome to congratulate the pope
upon the fuccefs of the emperor’s arms ; but was taken
fo ill on the road, that he was not able to complete his
journey. He was advifed to feek, without a moment’s
delay, the benefit of his native air ; and that happily
recovered him. 1
Having now quitted the fervice of the archbifhop
of Toledo, Secundus was employed in the fame office of
fecretary by the biffiop of U trecht j and fo much had
6 he
S E I
ef all fupertor and cafual fcmc«i tlut are incident
thereto; and felfm of a lefTee for years, is fufficient
for hint in reverfion.
Livery of Seisin, m law, an effential ceremony in
the conveyance of landed property; beinjr no other
than the pure feodal invefl|iture, or delivery of corpo¬
ral pofTeffion of the land or tenement. This was held
abiolutely neeeffary to complete the donation ; Nam
fmdam fine inveflitura nulh modo canjl tui potuit,» and
an eftate was then only perfeft when, as Fleta exprefles
jt in our law, Jit juris et feijinee conjunciio. See Feof*
WENT.
Inveflitures, in their original rife, were probably in¬
tended to demonftrate in conquered countries the aftuai
pofiefTion of the lord \ and that he did not grant a bare
litigious right, which the foldier was ill qualified to
profecute, but a peaceable and firm pofieffion. And,
at a time when writing was feldom practifed, a mere
oral gift, at a diftance from the foot that was given,
was not likely to be either long or accurately retained
in the memory of byftanders, who were very little inte-
refled in the grant. Afterwards they were retained as
0 public and notorious ail, that the country might take
notice of and teflify the transfer of the eftate; and that
fnch as claimed title by other means might know againft
whom to bring their aftions.
Tn all well-governed nations, fome notoriety of this
kind has been ever held requifite, in order to acquire
and afeertain the property of lands. In the Roman
law, plenum dominium was not faid to fubfift unlefs where
a man had both the right and the corporal pojf-jjton }
which poftefTion could not be acquired without both an
a&ual intention to poftefs, and an a&ual feifin, or entry
into the premifles, or part of them in the name of the
whole. And even in ecdefiaftical promotions, where
the freehold pafles to the perfon promoted, corporal
poffeffion is required at this day to veil the property
completely in the new’ proprietor; who, according to
the diftindion of the canonifts, acquires the jus ad rem,
or inchoate and imperfed right, by nomination and in-
ftitution ; but not the jus in re, or complete and full
right, unlefs by corporal polfeflion. Therefore in dig¬
nities poffdfion is given by inftalment; in redories and
vicarages by indidion; without which no temporal rights
accrue to the minifter, though every eccleilaftical power
is veiled in him by inftitution. So alfo even in defeents
of lands, by our law, w’hich are call on the heir by ad
of the law itfelf, the heir has not plenum dominium, or
full and complete ownerfhip, till he has made an aduai
corporal entry into the lands: for if he dies before entry
made, his heir (hall not be entitled to take the pofieffion,
but the heir of the perfon who was laft adually feifed.
It is not therefore only a mere right to enter, but the
aduai entry, that makes a man complete owner; fo as
to tranfmit the inheritance to his own heirs; non jus,
Jed feiftna, facit Jlipiiem
Yet the corporal tradition of lands being fometimes
inconvenient, a fymbolical delivery of poftelfion was in
many cafes anciently allowed; by transferring fome-
thing near at hand, in the prefence of credible wit-
neflea, which by agreement Ihould ferve to reprefent
the very thing defigned to be conveyed ; and an occu-
Jjancy of this fign or fymbdl was permitted as equiva-
ent to occupancy of the land itfelf. Among the Jews
we find the evidence of a purchafe thus defined in the
Vot. XVII. Fart L
S E I
book of Ruth ; Now this was the manner m former
time in Ifrael, concerning redeeming and concerning
changing, for to confirm all things: a man plucked off
his Ihoe, and gave it to his neighbour ; and this was a
tellimony in Ifrael.” Among the ancient Goths and
Swedes, contracts for the tale of lands were made in
the prefence of witnefles, who extended the cloak of
the buyer, while the feller call a clod of the land into
it, in order to give pofieffion ; and a Half or wand was
alfo delivered from the vender to the vendee, which
palled through the hands of the witnefles. With our
Saxon anceftors the delivery of a turf was a necefiary
folemnity to eftablilh the conveyance of lands. And,
to this day, the conveyance of our copyhold eftates is
ufually made from the feller to the lord or his Iteward
by delivery of a rod or verge, and then from the lord to
the purchafer by re-delivery of the fame in the prefence
of a jury of tenants.
Conveyances in writing were the laft and moft re¬
fined improvement. The mere delivery of pofieffion,
cither actual or fymbolical, depending on the ocular
teftimony and remembrance of the witnefies, was liable
to be forgotten or mifreprelented, and became frequent¬
ly incapable of proof. Befides, the new occafions and
neceflities introduced by the advancement or commerce,
required means to bedeviled of charging and incumber¬
ing eftates, and of making them liable to a multitude of
conditions and minute delignations, for the purpotes of
raffing money, without an abfolute fale of the land ;
and iometimes the like proceedings were found uieful
in order to make a decent and competent provifion for
the numerous branches or a family, and for other do-
meftic views. None of whic i could be effected by a
mere, fimple, corporal transfer of the foil from one man
to another, which was principally calculated for convey¬
ing an abfolute unlimited dominion. Written deeds
were therefore introduced, in order to fpecify and per¬
petuate the peculiar purpofes of the party who convey¬
ed j yet ftill, for a very long feries of years, they were
never made ufe of, but in company with the more an¬
cient and notorious method of transfer by delivery of
corporal poffeffion.
Livery ef feiiin, by the common law, is neceffary to
be made upon every grant of an eftate of freehold in he¬
reditaments corporeal, whether of inheritance 01 for life
only. In hereditaments incorporeal it is impoffible to
be made; for they are not the obje£l of the (enfes: and
in leafes for years, or other chattel interefts, it is not
neceffary. In leafes for years indeed an actual entry is
neceffary, to veil the eftate in the leffee: for a bare leafe
gives him only a right to enter, which is called his inte-
rell in the term, or interejfe termini: and when he enters
in purfuance of that right, he is then, and not before,
in poffdfion of his term, and complete tenant for years.
This entry by the tenant himfelf ferves the purpofe of
notoriety, as well as livery of feifin from the granter
could have done; which it would have been improper
to have given in this cafe, becaufe that folemnity is ap¬
propriated to the conveyance of a freehold. And this
is one reafon why freeholds cannot be made to com¬
mence in Juturo, becaufe they cannot (at the common
law) be made but by livery of leilin ; which livery, be¬
ing an adlual manual tradition of the land, mull take
effe6t in preefenti, or not at all.
Livery of feifin is either in deed or in law.
I » Livery
[ 3
0eifin,
SET [ 250 1 S E L
teiiin, Livery in deed is thus performed. The feoffor, leffor,
‘H'izg' or his attorney, together with the feoffee, leflee, or his
attorney, (for this may as effectually be done by de¬
puty or attorney as by the principals themfelves in
perfon), come to the land or to the houfe $ and there,
in the prefence ®f witneffes, declare the contents of
the feoffment or leafe on which livery is to be made.
And then the feoffor, if it be of land, doth deliver to
the feoffee, all other perfons being out of the ground,
a clod or turf, or a twig or bough there growing,
with words to this effeft: “ I deliver thefe to you in
the name of feifin of all the lands and tenements con¬
tained in this deed.” But, if it be of a houfe, the
feoffor mufl take the ring or latch of the door, the
houfe being quite empty, and deliver it to the feoffee
in the fame form ; and then the feoffee mud enter
alone, and {hut the door, and then open it, and let
in the others. If the conveyance or feoffment be of
divers lands, lying fcattered in one and the fame coun¬
ty, then in the feoffor’s poffeffion, livery of feifin of
any parcel, in the name of the reft, fufficeth for all ;
but if they be in feveral counties, there muft be as
many liveries as there are counties. For, if the title to
thefe lands comes to be difputed, there muft be as
many trials as there are counties, and the jury of one
county are no judges of the notoriety of a faft in ano¬
ther. Lefides, anciently, this feiun was obliged to be
delivered coram paribus de •uitineto, before the peers or
freeholders of the neighbourhood, who attefted fueh
delivery in the body or on the back of the deed ; ac¬
cording to the rule of the feodal law, Pares debent in-
terejfe inveililurce feudi, et non alii : for which this 'reafon
ss exprefsly given ; becaufe the peers or vaffals of the
lord, being bound by their oath of fealty, will take care
that no fraud be committed to his prejudice, which
■hangers might be apt to connive at. And though af¬
terwards the ocular atteftation of the pares was held
unnectffary, and livery might be made before any cre¬
dible witneffes, yet the trial, in cafe it was difputed,
(like that of all other atteftations), was flill referved to
the pares or jury of the county. Alfo, if the lands be
out on leafe, though ail lie in the fame county, there
rauft be as many liveries as t'here are tenants : becaufe no
livery can be made in this cafe, but by the confent of
the particular tenant ; and the confent of one will not
bind the reft. And in all thefe cafes it is prudent, and
ufual, to endorfe the livery of feifin on the back of the
deed, fpecifying the manner, place, and time of making
it ; together with the names of the witneffes. And thus
mwch for livery in deed.
Livery in ta<w is where the fame is not made on
the land, but injight oj it only ; the feoffor faying to
the feoffee, “ I give you yonder land, enter and take
poffeffion.” Here, if the feoffee enters during the life
of the feoffor, it is a good livery, but not otherwife ;
U’defs he dares not enter through fear of his life or bo¬
dily harm ; and then his continual claim, made yearly
in due form of law', as near as poffible to the lands, wall
ioffice without an entry. This livery in law cannot,
however, be given or received by attorney, but only by
the parties thcmfelves.
_ SEIZE, in the fea-language, is to make faft or
bind, particularly to fallen tv/o ropes together with
rope-yarn. The feizing of a boat is a rope tied to a
rmg or little chain iu the fore-fhip of the boat, by which
jnesns it is faflened to the fide of the fhip.
SEIZURE, in commerce, an arrefl of fome mer- Seizure
chandife, moveable, or other matter, either in confe- It
quence of fome law or of fome exprefs order of the Selden’
fovereign. Contraband goods, thofe fraudulently en- ir""
tered, or landed without entering at all, or at wrong
places, are fubjedl to feizure. In feiztires among us, one
half goes to the informer, and the other half t© the king*
S EL AGO, in botany : A genus of the angiofpermia
order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 48th order,
Aggregate*. _ The calyx is quinquefid : the tube of the
corolla capillary, with the limb nearly equal, and a
fingle feed. There are 22 fpecies. '
SELDEN (John), called by Grotius the glory of
England, was born at Salvington in Suffex in 1584.
He was educated at the frce-fchool at Clftchefki ;
whence he was fent to Hart-Hall in the univerfity of
Oxford, where he ftaid four years. In 161?, he enter¬
ed him [elf in Clifford’s Inn, "in order to ftudy the law ;
and about two years after removed to the Inner Tem¬
ple, where he loon acquired great reputation by his
learning. He had already publifhed fevei al of his works;
and this year wrote verfes in Latin, Greek, and Eng-
lifh, upon Mr William Browne’s Britannia’s Paftorals.
In 1614, he publifhed his Titles of Honour; and in
1616, his Notes on Sir John Fortefcue’s book Dc Lau-
dibus Legum Anglia. In 1618, he publifhed his Hiftory
ot I ytnes ; which gave great offence to the clergy, and
was animadverted upon by feveral writers ; and for that
book he was called before the high commiffion court,
and obliged to make a public acknowledgment of his
forrow for having publifhed it. In 1621, being fent for
by the parliament, though he was not then a’member
of that houfe, and giving his opinion very ftrongly in
favour of their privileges in oppofition to the court, he
was committed to the cuftody of the ffieriff of Lou¬
don, but was fet at liberty after five weeks confinement.
In 162 3, he was chofen burgefs for Lancafter; but,
amidft all the divifions of the nation, kept himfelf nou-
tei, profecutmg his ftudies with fueh application,
that though he was the next year chofen reader of
Lyon’s Inn, he refufed to perform that office. In 1625,
he was chofen burgefs for Great Bedwin in Wiltfhire,
to ferve in the firft parliament of king Charles I. in
which he declared himfelf warmly againft the duke of
Buckingham ; and on his Grace’s being impeached by
the Houle of Commons, was appointed one of the ma¬
nagers of the articles againft him. In 1627 E-n(^ 1628,
he oppofed the court party with great vigour. The
parliament being prorogued to January 20. (629, Mr
Selden retired to the earl of Kent’s houfe at Wreft, in
Bedfordfhire, where he finifhed his Marmora Arunde-
liana. The parliament being met, he, among others,
again diftinguifhed himfelf by his zeal againft the court;
when the king diffolving the parliament, ©rdered feveral
of the members to be brought before the King’s-Bencit,
bar, and committed to the Tower. Amono- thefe was
Mr Selden, who infifting on the benefit of the laws, and
refilling to make his lubmiffion, was removed to the
King’s Bench prifon. Being here in danger of his life
on account of the plague then raging in Southwark, he
petitioned the lord high treafurer, at the end of Trini¬
ty-term, to intercede with his Majefty that he might be
removed to the Gate-Houfe, Weftminfler, which was
granted : but iu Michaelmas term following, the judges
objecting to the lord treasurer’s warrant, by winch he
Fad
S E L [251] S E L
Scldtn, K?.d been removed to the Gate-houfe, an order was made
Selenites. for conveying him back to the King’s Bench, whence
1“—he was releaied in the latter end of the fame year; but
fifteen years after, the parliament ordered him 5000 1.
for the Ioffes he had fuftained on this occafion. He was
afterwards committed, with feveral other gentlemen, for
difptrfmg a libel; but the author, who was abroad, being
difcovered, they were at length fet at liberty. In 1634,
a difpute arifing between the Englifh and Dutch con¬
cerning the herring-ftfhery on the Britifh coaff, he was
prevailed upon by archbifhop Laud to draw up his
Mare Claufum, in anfwer to Grotius’s Mare lAberum :
which greatly recommended him to the favour of the
court. In 1 64c, he was chofen member for the uni-
verfity of Oxford ; when he again oppofed the court,
though he might, by complying, have raifed himfclf to
very coniiderable polls. In 1643, he was appointed
one of the lay-members to fit in the affembly of divines
at Weffminfter, and was the fame year appointed keeper
of the records in the Tower. Whilft he attended his
duty in the affembly, a warm debate arofe refpedting
the diftance of Jericho from Jerufalem. The party
which contended for the ffiorteft diftance, urged, as a
proof of their opinion being well founded, that fifties
were carried from the one city to the other, and fold in
the market. Their adverfarics w7ere ready to yield to
the force of this ccnclulive argument, when Stlden,
who defpifed both parties, as well as the frivoloufnefs of
their difpute, exclaimed, “ Perhaps the fifties were fak¬
ed!” This unexpected remark left the victory doubt¬
ful, and renewed the debate ; and our author, wftio was
fick of fuch trifling, foon found employment more fuit-
ed to his genius; for, in 1645, helvas made one of the
cemmiffioners of the admiralty. The fame year he
was unanimoufly de&ed mailer of Trinity-college,
Cambridge ; but declined accepting. He died in 1654 ;
and was interred in the Temple-church, where a monu¬
ment is eredted to his memory. Dr Wilkes obferves,
that he was a man of uncommon gravity and greatnefs
of foul, averfe to flattery, liberal to fcholars, charitable
to the poor ; and though he had great latitude in his
principles with regard to ecclefiaftical powder, yet he
had a fincere regard tor the church of England. He
wrote many learned v/orks befides thofe already men¬
tioned ; the principal of which are, 1. De Jure Natu-
rali iff Gentium juxta Difciplinam Hebrcrorum. 2. De
Nuptih & Divorciis. 3. De Anno Civili veterum Hebree-
orum. 4. De Aummis. 5. De Diis Syris. 6* Uxor
Htbraica. 7. Juni Anglotrum Fades altera, &c. All his
Works were printed together in 1726, in 3 vols folio.
SELENlTES,in natural hiftory, the name of a large
clafs of foffils, the characters of v/hich are thefe: they
are bodies compoied of {lender and fcarce vifible fila¬
ments, arranged into fine, even, and thin flakes ; and
thofe difpofed into regular figures, in the feveral diffe¬
rent genera, approaching to a rhomboide, orhexangular
column, or a redtangled parallelogram ; fiflile, like the
talcs, but they not only lie in a horizontal, but alfo in a
perpendicular direction : they are flexile in a fmall de¬
gree, but not at all elaftic ; they do not ferment with
acid minftrua, but readily calcine in the fire. Of this
clafs there are feven orders of bodies, and under thole
ten genera. The felenitre of the firft order are thofe
compofed of horizontal plates, and approaching to a
rhomboidal form : of the ftcond are thoie compoied of
horizontal plates, arranged into a columnar and angular
form : of the third are thofe whofe filaments are fcarce Selenite*
viiibly arranged into plates, but which, in the whole g ^ ^
maffes, appear rather of a ifriated than of a tubulated 'r-
ftruCiure : of the fourth are thofe which are flat, but of
no determinately angular figure : of the fifth are thofe
formed of plates, perpendicularly arranged : of the fixth
are thofe formed of congeries of plates, arranged into
the figure of a ftar ; and of the feventh are thole of a
complex and indeterminate figure.
Of the firft of thefe orders there are three genera.
leptodecarhombes. 2. d hepachodecarhombes. 3.The
tetradecafhombes. Of the fecond order there are alio three
genera. I. The ifchnambluces. 2. The ifambluces. 3. The
oxucite. Of the third order there is only one known ge¬
nus, the inamblucia. Of the fourth order there is alfo only
one known genus, the fanidia. Of the fifth order there
is alfo only one known genus, the cathetolipes. Of the
fixth order, there are two genera. 1. The lepajlra.—
2. The trichejlra. Of the feventh order there is only
one genus, t\\c fymplexia.
The ftrudture of the felenitse of all the genera of the
firft order is exaftly alike ; they are all compofed of 'a
great number of broad flakes or plates, in a great mea-
fure externally refembling the flakes of the foliaceous
talcs: thefe are of the length and breadth of the whole
mafs ; the top and bottom being each only one fuch
plate, and thofe between them, in like manner, each
complete and Angle; and the body may always be eafily
and evenly fplit, according to the diredfion of thefe
flakes. ’1 hefe differ, however, extremely from the
talcs, for they are each compofed of a number of paral¬
lel threads or filaments, which are ufually dilpofed pa-
rallelly to the fides of the body, though fometimes pa-
rallelly to its. ends. In many of the fpecies they are
alfo divided by parallel lines, placed at a confiderable
diftance from each other, and the plates in fplitting of¬
ten break at thefe lines ; add to this, that they are not
elaftic, and that they readily calcine. The ftructure
of thofe of the fecond order is the fame w ith that of the
firft ; but that in many of the fpecnntns of them the
filaments of which the plates are compofed run in two
dire&ions, and meet in an obtufe angle ; and in the
middle there is generally feen in this cafe a ftraight line
running the wdiole length of the column and fmail par¬
cels of clay infinuating themfelves into this crack, repre¬
fen t in it the figure ot an ear of grafs fo naturally, as to
have deceived many into a belief that there was really
an ear of grafs there. The other orders confifting only
of Angle genera, the ftrudlure of each is explained under
the generical name.
Selenites, in chemiftry, called alfo gypfum fpntcfum,
a fpecies of gypfum or plafter of Paris. See Gzp-
sum.
SELENOGRAPHY, a branch of cofmography,
which deferibes the moon and all the parts and appear¬
ances thereof, as geography does thofe of the earth.
See Moon.
SELLUCIA, (anc. geogr.), furnamed BalyIonia,
becaufe fituated on its confines, at the confluence of-the
Euphrates and Tigris. Ptolemy places it in Mefopo-
tamia. It is called alfo Seleuda ad ‘ligrim, (Polybius,
Strabo, Ifidorus, Characenus) ; wafhed on the fouth
by the Euphrates, on the eaftby the Tigris, (Tiieophy-
ladtus; ; generally agreed to have been built or enlarged
by Seleucus Nicahor, maker of the eaft after Alexan¬
der ; by means of which Babylon came to be deferted.
I i 2 It
Self.
S E L [ 25a
Scleuelda {g faJJ to have been originally called Cache, (Ammian,
Eutropius) ; though others, as Arrian, diftinguifh it,
as a village, from Selucia t and, according to Zofimus,
the aneient name of Selucia was Zochajia. Now called
Bagdad. E. Long. 44. 21. N. Lat. 33. 10. There
were many ether cities of the fame name, all built by
Sciences Nicanor.
SELEUCIDJE, in chronology. Era of the Se-
leucidse, or the Syro-Macedonian era, is a computa¬
tion of time, commencing from the eftablilhment of the
Seleucidae, a race of Greek kings, who reigned as fuc*
ceflbrs of Alexander the Great in Syria, as the Ptole¬
mies did in Egypt. This era we find exprefled in the
books of the Maccabees, and on a great number of
Greek medals ftruck by the cities of Syria, &c. The
Rabbins call it the era of contraSs, and the Arabs
therik di/karnain, that is, the “ era of the two horns.,,
According to the bell accounts, the firft year of this
era falls in the year 31 i B. C. being 12 years after
Alexander’s death.
SELEUCUS (Nicanor), one of the chief generals
under Alexander the Great, and, after his death,
founder of the race of princes called Seleuadee. He is
equally celebrated as a renowned warrior, and as the fa¬
ther of his people ; yet his virtues could not protect
him from the fatal ambition of Ceraunus, one of his
courtiers, by whom he was aflaffinated 280 B. C.
SELE-Heal, the Prunella Vulgaris of Lin¬
naeus. The Item is ereft, and about eight or ten inches
high. The leaves grow on foot-ftalks, are ovato-oblong,
llightly indented, and fomewhat hairy. The bradfeie
are heart fhaped, oppofite, and fringed. The flowers
are white or purplifh, grow in denfe fpikes, and are ter¬
minal. This plant is perennial, grows wild in meadows
and pafture grounds, and flowers in June and July.
This herb is recommended as a mild reftringent and
vulnerary in fpittings of blood, and other hemorrhagies
and fluxes ; and in gargarifmsagainft aphthae and inflam¬
mations of the fauces. Its virtues do not appear to be
very great ; to the tafle it difeovers a very flight auflerity
or bitterifhnefs, which is more fenfible in the flowery tops
than in the leaves, though the latter are generally diredt-
ed for medicinal ufe.
SELF-Command, is that Heady equanimity which
enables a man in every fituation to exert his reafonir.g
faculty with coolnefs, and to do v/hat the prefent cir-
cumftances require. It depends much upon the natural
temperament of the body, and much upon the moral cul¬
tivation of the. mind. He who enjoys good health,
and has braced his frame by exercife, has always a
greater command of himfelf than a man of equal mental
powers, who has fuffered hia conflitution to become re¬
laxed by indolence ; and he who has from his early
youth been accuftomed to make his pafiions fubmit to
his reafon, muft, in any fudden emergency, be more
capable of adfing properly than he who has tamely
yielded to his paffion. Hence it is that reclufe and
literary men, when forced into the- buftle of public life,
are incapable of adting w'here prompthefs is requifite.;
and that men who have once or twice yielded to a fenfe
of impending danger feldom acquire afterwards that
command of themfelves which may be neceffary to ex¬
tricate them from fubfequent dangers. In one of the
earliefl battles fought by the late king of Pruflia, the fo-
'Kreign was among the firft men who quitted the field;
jLeivis's
Mattria
^fledica.
] S E L
had he behaved In the fame manner a fecond and a third Self,
time, he would never have become that hero whofe ac- Y—
tions aftonifhed Europe. A celebrated engineer among •
ourfelves, who was well known to the writer of this
Ihort article, had little feienee, and was a ftranger to
the principles of his owm art; but being pofieffed of a
firm and vigorous frame, and having been accufiomed
to firuggle with dangers and difficulties, he had fuch a
conllant command of himfelf, as enabled him to employ
with great coolnefs every needfary refource in the day
of battle.
But it is not only in battle, and in the face of imme¬
diate danger, that felf-command is neceflary to enable a
man to a£t with propriety. There is no fituation in life
W'here difficulties, greater or lefs, are not to be encoun¬
tered ; and he who would pafs through life with com¬
fort to himfelf, and with utility to the public, muft en¬
deavour to keep his paffions in conftant fubjeftion to his
reafon. No man can enjoy without inquietude what he
cannot lofe without pain ; and no man w ho is overwhelm¬
ed with .delpondency under any fudden misfortune caa
exert the talents neceflary to retrieve his circumftances.
We ought, therefore, by every means to endeavour to
obtain a conftant command of ourlelves ; and nowhere
fhall we find better leffons for this purpofe than in an¬
cient Lacedemon. There certain occupations were ap.
pointed for each fex, for every hour, and for every fea-
fon of life. In a life always ad|ive, the paffions have
no opportunity to deceive, feduce, or corrupt ; and the
nervous fyttem acquires a firmnefs which makes it a fit
inftrument to a vigorous mind.
SELE-Defence implies not only the prefervation of
one’s life, but alfo the proteftion of his property, be-
caufe without property life cannot be preferved in a ci¬
vilized nation. The extent of property eflential to life
is indeed fmall, and this confideration may enable us to
decide a queftion which fome moralifts have made intri¬
cate. By what means, it has been aiked, may a man
protea his property ? May he kill the perfon who at¬
tacks it, if he cannot otherwife repel the attack ?
That a man, in the ftate of nature, may kill the per¬
fon who makes an attack on his life, if he cannot other-
W’lfe repel the attack, is a truth which has never been
controvertedand he may do the fame in civil fociety?,
if his danger be fo imminent that it cannot be exerted
by the interpofition of the prote&ion provided for indi- -
viduals by the ftate. In all poffible fituations, except',
the three following, whatever is abfolutely necefiary to
the prefervacion of life may be lawfully perrormed, for
the law of felf-prefervation is the firft and moil facred
of thofe laws which are impreffed upon every mind by.
the author of nature.
The three excepted fituations are thofe of a foldier
in the. day of battle, of a criminal about to fuffer by the
laws of his country, and of a man called upon to re¬
nounce his religion. The foldier hazards his life in the
molt honourable of all caufes, and cannot betray his
truft, or play the coward, without incurring a high de¬
gree of moial turpitude. He knows that the very pro-
feffion in which he is engaged neceflarily fubje&s him
to danger and he voluntarily incurred that danger for
the good of Iris country, which, with great propriety,,
annexes to his profeffion peculiar privileges and muclii
glory. The criminal under fentence ot death cannot,
witheut adding .to his guilt, refill the execution of that
fenteucey
S E L
[ 253 1
S E L
Self, fentenee j for the power of infliaing piinifhment is ef-
fential to fociety, and fociety is the ordinance of God,
(fee Society). The man who is called upon to re¬
nounce his religion ought to fubmit to the cruelleft
death rather than comply with that requeft, fince reli¬
gion is his only fecurity for future and permanent hap-
pinefs. But in every other fituation, that which is ab-
folutely neceffary to the prefervation of life is undoubt¬
edly lawful. Hence it is, that a perfon finking in wa¬
ter is never thought to be guilty of any crime, though
he drag his neighbour after him by his endeavours to
fave himfelf; and hence, too, a man in danger of perifh-
ing by fhipwreck may drive another from a plank which
cannot carry them both, for fince one of two lives muft
be loft, no law, human or divine, calls upon either of
them to prefer his neighbour’s life to his own.
But though the rights of felf-defence authorife us
to repel every attack made upon our life, and in cafes
©f extremity to fave ourfelves at the expence of the life
of our innocent neighbour, it is not fo evident that, rather
than give to an unjuft demand a few {hillings or pounds,
we may lawfully deprive a fellow creature ol life, and the
public of a citizen A few pounds loft may be eaiily re¬
gained; but life when loft can never be recovered. If thefe
pounds, indeed, be the whole of a man’s property; if they
include his clothes, his food, and the houfe where he (bel¬
ters his head—there cannot be a doubt but that, rather
than part with them, he may lawfully kill the aggrefibr,
for no man can exift without {belter, food, and raiment.
But it is feldom that an attempt is made, or is indeed
pra&icable, to rob a man at once of all that he polTeffes.
The queftion then of any importance is, May a man put
a robber to death rather than part with a Imall part of
his property ? Mr Paley doubts whether he could inno¬
cently do fo in a ftate of nature, “ becaufe it cannot be
could not fubfifl; but in a ftate of nature every man
muft be the defender of his own property, which in "
that ftate muft neceffarily be fmall: and if he be not al¬
lowed to defend it by every mean in his power, he will
not long be able to proted it at all. By giving hint
fuch liberty, a few individuals may, indeed, occafionally
lofe their lives and limbs for the prefervation of a very
fmall portion of private property ; but we believe that
the fum of human happinefs will be more augmented by
cutting off fucb worthlefs wretches than by expofrn^
property to perpetual depredation ; and there!ore, if
general utility be the criterion of moral good, we muff
be of opinion that a man may in every cafe lawfully kill
a robber rather than comply with his unjuft demand.
But if a man may without guilt preferve his proper¬
ty by the death of the aggreffor, when it cannot be prd-
ferved by any other means, much more may a woman
have recourfe to the laft extremity to protedt her chaff'
tity from forcible violation. This, indeed, is admitted
by Mr Paley himfelf, and will be controverted by no
man who refle&s on the importance of the female cha-
ra&er, and the probable confequences of the fmalleft
deviation from the eftablilhed laws of female honour.-
See Seduction.
SELF-Kncwledge, the knowledge of one’s own cha-
radter, abilities, opinions, virtues, and vices. This has
always been conlidered as a difficult though important
acquifition. It is difficult, becaufe it is difagreeable to
inveliigate our errors, our faults, and vices ; becaufe w£
are apt to be partial to ourfelves, even when we have
done wrong ; and becaufe time and habitual attention
are requifite to enable us to dilcover our real chaiadfer.
But thefe difficulties are more than counterbalanced by
the advantages of felf-knowledge.
By knowing the extent of our abilities, we {hall ne»
Self.
contended to be for the augmentation of human happi- v^r rafhly engage in enterprifes where^ our meffedhial •
nefs, that one man ftiould lofe his life or limb, rather
than another a pennyworth of his property.” He al¬
lows, that in civil fociety the life of the aggreffor may
be always taken aw^ay by the perfon aggrieved, or meant
to be aggrieved, when the crime attempted is fuch as
would fubjedt its perpetrator to death by the laws of his
country.
It is not often that wre feel ourfelves difpofed to dif¬
fer in opinion from this moft valuable and intelligent
writer; but on the prefent occafton we cannot help
thinkini'; that he does not reafon with his ufual preci-
fion. To us he even feems to lofe fight of his own prin¬
ciples. No kgiflature can have a right to take away
life in civil fociety, but in fuch cafes as individuals have
the fame right in a ftate of nature. If therefore a man,
in the ftate of nature, have not a right to protedl Iris
property by killing the aggreffor, when it cannot be
otherwnfe protedled, it appears to us ielf-evident that no
legiflatrire can have a right to inflidt the punifirment of
death upon fuch offences ; but if the laws inflidling
death upon the crime of robbery be morally evil, it is
certain that an individual cannot be innocent when he
prevents robbery by the death of the robber, merely
becaufe he know s that the laws of his country have de¬
creed that puniftrment againft thefe convidled of that
crime. But we think that the protedlion of property
by the death of the aggreffor may be completely vindi¬
cated upon more general principles. It is neceffary, in
every ftate, that property be protected, or mankind
exertions may be produdlive of harm : by inveftigating
our opinions, w^e may difeover thofe which have no
foundation, and thofe alfo which lead us infenfibly into
vice. By examining our virtues and vices, we ftralB
learn what principles ought to be ftrengthened, and
what habits ought to be removed.
Man is a rational and intelligent being, capable of
great improvement, and liable to great vices. If he adts
without examining his principles, he may be hurried
by blind paifion into crimes. If he afpjres at noble and'
valuable acquifitions, he muft adt upon a plan, with de--
liberation and fore-thought; for he is not like a vege¬
table, which attains perfedlion by the influence of ex¬
ternal caufes: he has powers within himfelf which muffJ
be exerted, and exerted with judgment, in order to at¬
tain the perfedlion of his natUie. To enable him to>
employ thefe powers aright, he muft know, hr ft, what'
is his duty ; and, feoondly, he muft often review his-*
principles and condudt, tlrat he may difeover whether
he is performing his duty, or in what circumilances he-
has failed. When he fnds that he has fallen into er--
ror and vice, he wifi naturally inquire what caufes have
produced this effedl, that he may avoid the-fame! for the
time to come. This is the method by which every re¬
formation in religion and feience has been produced,,
and the method by which the ans have been improved. ■
Before Lord Bacon introduced the new way of phiid-
fophizing, he muft £rft have conftdered wherein true
philofophy. confuted j fecondly, he muff have inquired
in
■Self.
5 E L
not felfi/h. The fclfifh man
S E L [ 254 1
in what refpeds the ancient method of philofophizing felf; but every man
was falfe or ufelefs : and after determining thefe two grafps at all immediate advantages, regardlefs of the con-
points, he was qualified to deicribe the way by which Sequences which his condud mrfy have upon his neigh-
the Oudy^of philofophy could be fuccefsfuily purfued hour. Self-love only prompts him who is aduated by
Self.
without deviating into hypothecs and error. Luther
found out the errors of the church of Rome by compa¬
ring their dodrines with the Scriptures. But had this
comparifon never been made, the relormation could ne¬
ver have taken place. Without felf-knowledge, or
without that knowledge of our charader which is de¬
rived from a comparifon of our principles and eondud
with a perfed ftandard of morality, we can never form
plans and refolutions, or make any exertion to abandon
the vicious habits which wre havecontraded,and ftrength-
en thofe virtuous principles in which we are deficient.
As much may be learned from the errors of thofe
who have been in fimilar fituations wu'th ourfelves ; fo
many ufeful cautions may be obtained from our owm
errors; and he that wnll remember thefe, will ftldom be
twice guilty of the fame vice.
It was evidently the intention of Providence that
man fhould be guided chiefly by experience. It is by
the obfervations which we make on what we fee paf-
fing around us, or from wdiat we fuffer in our own per-
fon, that we form maxims for the condud of life. 'J he
more minutely therefore we attend to our principles,
and the more maxims we form, wre fhail be the better
fitted to attain moral perfedion.
With refped to our underflanding, to mark the
errors which we have fallen into, either by its natural
defeds or by negligence, is alfo of great importance ;
for the greatefl genius and moil profound fcholar are
liable to thefe errors, and often commit them as well as
the weak and illiterate. But by obferving them, and
tracing them to their-caufes, they at length acquire an
habitual accuracy. It is true, that men of feeble minds
can never by knowing their own defeds exalt themfelves
to the rank of genius; but fuch knowledge will enable
them to improve their underftandings, and fo to appre¬
ciate their own powers, as feldom to attempt what is
beyond their ftrength. They may thus become ufeful
members of fuciety; and though they will not probably
be admired for their abilities, they will yet efcape the ri¬
dicule which is poured upon vanity.
It is difficult to lay down precife rules for the acqui-
fition of this felf-knowledge, becaufe almolt everv man
is blinded by a fallacy peculiar to himfelf. But when
one has got nd of that partiality which arifes from felf-
love, he may eafily form a juft eftimate of his moral im¬
provements, by comparing the general courfe of his con¬
dud with the ftandard of his duty ; and if he has any
doubt of the extent of his intelledual attainments, he will
moll readily difeover the truth by comparing them with
the attainments of others who have been moft fuccefs-
ful in the fame purfuits. Should vanity arife in his
mind from fuch a comparifon, let him then compare the
extent of his knowledge with what is yet to be known,
and he will then be in little danger of thinking of him¬
felf more highly than he ought to think. See Preju¬
dice ;>nd Sf.lf-Partiality.
StZF-Love, is that inftindive principle which impels
every animal, rational and irrational, to preferve its life
and promote its own happinels. It is very generally con¬
founded with ftlfifhnefs ; but we think that the one pro-
penfity is diftind xrom the other. Every man loves him-
it to procure to himfelf the greateft poffible fum of hap-
pinels during the wdiole of his exiftence. In this pur-
fuit the rational feli-lover will often forego a prefent
enjoyment to obtain a greater and more permanent one
in revertion ; and he will as often iubmit to a prefent
pain to avoid a greater hereafter. Self-love, as diftin-
guifhed from felfifhnds, always comprehends the whole
of a man’s exiftence, and in'that extended fenfe of the
phrafe, we hefitate not to fay that every man is a felf-
lover ; for, with eternity in his view, it is furely not
poffible for the moft dihnterefttd of the human race not
to prefer himfelf to all other men, if their future ancl
everlafting interefts could come into competition. This
indeed they never can do ; for though the introdudion
of evil into the w'ofld, and the different ranks which it
makes neceffary in fociety, put it in the power of a man
to raife himfelf, in the prefent date, by the depreffion
of his neighbour, or by the pradice of injuftice, yet in
the purfuit of a prize which is to be gained only by fo-
bernefs, righteoufnefs, and piety, there can be no rival-
ffiip among the different competitors. The fuccefs of
one is no injury to another ; and therefore, in this fenfe
of the phrafe, feif-love is not only lawful, but abfolutely
unavoidable. It has been a queftion in morals, whe¬
ther it be not likewife the incentive to every adion,
however virtuous or apparently difinterefted?
Thofe who maintain the affirmative fide of this que¬
ftion fay, that the profped of immediate pleafure, or
the dread of immediate pain, is the only apparent mo¬
tive to adion in the minds of infants, and indeed of all
who look not before them, and infer the future from
the pall. I hey own, that when a boy has had fome
experience, and is capable of making companions, he
will often decline an immediate enjoyment which he has
formerly found produdive of future evil more than
equivalent to all its good ; but in doing fo they think,
and they think juftly, that he is ftill aduated by the
principle of fell-love, purfuing the greateft good of
which he knows himfelf to be capable. After experi¬
encing that truth, equity, and benevolence in all his
dealings is the readieft, and indeed the only certain, me¬
thod ot fecuring to himfelf the kindnefs and good offi¬
ces of his fellow-creatures, and much more when he has
learned that they will recommend him to the Supreme
Being, upon whom depends his exiftence and all his
enjoyments, they admit that he will pradice truth,
equity, and benevolence; but Hill, from the fame prin¬
ciple, purfuing his own ultimate happinefs as the ob-
jed which he has always in view. The profped of this
great objed will make him feel an exquifite pleafure in
the performance of the adions w-hich he conceives as
neceffary to its attainment, till at Lft, without attend¬
ing in each inftance to their confequences, he will, by the
great affociating principle which has been explained
elfewhere (fee Metaphysics, part iff, chap. 1.) feel
a refined enjoyment in the adions themfelves, and per¬
form them, as occafions offer, without deliberation or
refledion. Such, they think, is the origin of benevo¬
lence itielf, and indeed of every virtue.
Thofe who take the other fide of the queftion, can
hardly deny that felf-love thus modified may prompt to
S E L r 255 ] , s ^ L
Self. -virtuous and apparently difinterefted conduft ; but they certainly inftin&s of difrerent kinds ; but an inftin&ivc
 think it degrading the'dignity of man to fuppofe him partiality is a contradi&ion in terms. Partiality is ^
actuated folely by motives which can be traced back to founded on a comparifon between two or more obje&s;
a defire of his own happinefs. They obferve, that the but genuine inftin&s form rio comparifons. See In-
Author of our nature has not left the prefervation of the stinct. No man can be faid to be partial to the late
individual, or the continuance of the fpecies, to the de- Dr Jchnfon, merely for thinking highly of his intellec-
duftions of our reafon, computing the lum of happinefs tuai powers; nor was the Doctor partial to himielf, thor
which the a&ions neceffary to thefe ends produce to he thought in this. refpedt with the generality of his
ourfelves : on the contrary, He has taken care of both, countrymen ; but if, upon a comparifon with Milton,
by the furer impulfe of inftin& planted in us for thefe he was deemed the greater poet of the two, fuch a
very purpofes. And is it conceivable, fay they, that He judgment will be allowed to be partial, whether formed
would leave the care of our fellow-creatures a matter by himfelf or by any of-his admirers. _ We apprehend,
of indifference, till each man fhould be able to difeover however, that the procefs of its formation was the fame
- or be taught that by loving his neighbour, and doing
him all the good in his power, he would be moft effec¬
tually promoting his own happinefs ? It is difhonouring
viitue, they continue, to make it proceed in any in-
ftance from a profpcct of happinefs, 01 a dread of mi-
fery ; and they appeal from theory to fatt, as exhibi¬
ted in the conduit of favage tribes, who deliberate
little on the confequences of their aitions.
Th ir antagonifts reply, that the conduit of favage
tribes is to be conhdered as that of children in civilized
nations, regulated entirely by the examples which they
have before them; that their aitions cannot be the
offspring of innate inftinits, otherwife favage virtues
would, under limilar circumftanees, everywhere be the
fame, which is contrary to fait ; that virtue proceeds
from an interefted motive on either fuppofition ; and
that the motive which the inftin&ive ichtme holds up
is the moft felfifh of the two. The other theory fup-
pofes, that the governing motive is the hope 0$ future
happinefs and the dread of future mifery ; the inftinc-
tivc fcheme fupply a prefent motive in the felf-compla¬
cency arifing in the heart from a confcioufnefs of right
conduit. The former is a rational motive, the latter
has. nothing more to do with reafon than the enjoyment
arifing from eating or dvinkiag, or from the inter-
courfe between the fexts. But we mean not to purfue
the fubjeft farther, as we have faid enough on it in the
articles Benevolence, Instinct, Passion, and Phi¬
lanthropy. We (hall therefore conclude with obfer-
ving, that there is certainly a virtuous as well as a vici¬
ous ft If love, and that “ true felf-love and focial are the
fame.”
Sh'i.v-Murder. See Suicide.
§ el f-Partiality, is a phrafe employed by fame philo-
* Lord fephers '* to exprefs that weaknefs of human nature
Koines’s through which men overvalue themfelves when compa-
d1* cf red with others. It is diftinguilhed from general par-
;; ‘n ws' tiality, by thofe who make ufe of the expreffion, be-
caufe it is thought that a man is led to over-rate his
own accomplifhments, either by a particular inftindf, or
by a procefs of intellect different from that by which
he over-rates the accompliftments of his friends or chil¬
dren. The former kind of partiality is wholly fclfifh ;
the latter partakes much of benevolence.
This diftin&ion may perhaps be deemed plaufible by
thofe who conf.der the human mind as little more than
a bundle of inftin&s ; but it muit appear perfectly' ridi¬
culous to fuch as refoive the greater part of apparent
inftinfts into early and deep-rooted affociations of ideas.
If the partialities which moft men have to their friends,
tktir families, and themfelves, be infthnftive, they are
in every mind by which it was held.
The origin of felf-partiality is not difficult to be
found ; and our partialities to our friends may be tra¬
ced to a fimilar fource. By the conftitution of our na¬
ture we are impelled to ffiun pain and to purfue plea-
fure ; but renaorfe, the fevereft of all pains, is the never-
failing confequence of vicious condudt. Remorfe arifes
from the dread of that punifhment which we believe will
in a future flate be inflidled on vice unrepented of in
this ; and therefore every vicious perfon endeavours by
all poffible means to banifh that dread from his own'
mind. One way of effedting this is to compare his
own life with the lives of others ; for he fancies that if
numbers be as wicked as himfelf, the benevolent Lord
of all tilings will not involve them in one common
ruin. Hence, by magnifying to himfelf the tempta¬
tions wdiich led him aftray, and dimimfhing the injuries
which his condudf has done in the world, and by adopt¬
ing a courfe diametrically the revetfe, w-hen eftimating
the morality or immorality ot the condudt of his neigh¬
bours, he foon conies to believe that he is at lead not
more wicked than they. Thus is felf-partiality formed
in the mind, and quickly blinds him wrho is under its in¬
fluence fo completely', as to hide from him the very
faults which he fees and blames in others. Hence the
coward thinks himfelf only cautious, the mifer frugal.
Partiality is formed in the very fame manner to natural
or acquired accomplifhments, whether mental or corpo¬
real. Thefe always procure refpedt to him who is pof-
fefled of them ; and as refpedt is accompanied with ma¬
ny advantages, every man withes to obtain it for him¬
felf. If he fail in his attempts, he confoles himfelf with
the perfuafton that it is at leait due to his merits, and
that it is only withheld by the envy of the public.
He compares the particular branch of faience or bodily
accomplifhment in which he hitnfelf moft excels, with
thofe which have conferred fplendor on his rival; and
eaiily finds that his own excellencies are of the highefl
order, and entitled to the gi eateft ftiare of public efteem.
Plence the polite fcholar defpifes the mathematician ;
the reader of Ariftotle and Plato all the modern difeo-
veries in phyfieal and moral fcience ; and the mere ex-
perimentalift holds in the moft fovereign contempt a cri¬
tical knowledge of the ancient languages. The pupil
of the ancients denies the merits of the moderns, whilft
the mere modern allows nothing to the ancients ; and
thus each becomes partial to his own acquiftions, and
of courfe to himfelf, for having been at the trouble to
make them.
Partiality to our friends and families is generated in«
the very fame way. Whenever we acquire fuc-h an af«
2- feel ion
'-'T^IRnF
s E I. [ ] ' S EL
_ Selim fe^llon for them aa to confider their happineta as a4-
Seiliir'- ^’n!’ to our own (^ee Passion), we magnify their ex-
^,"a‘" ‘ . cellencies, and diminifh their defetls, for the fame rea.
fon, and by the fame procefs, that we magnify and di>
■minifh our own. Ail partialities, however, are preju¬
dices, and prejudices of the wor!t kind. They ought
therefore to be guarded againil with the utrrjoft care,
by the fame means which we have elfewhere recom¬
mended (fee Prejudice and Metaphysics, n° 98,) ;
and he who is partial to his own virtue or his own
knowledge, will do well to compare the former, not
with the condud of his neighbour, but with the cxprefa
nile of his duty ; and to confider the latter as no Far¬
ther valuable than as it contributes to the fum of hu¬
man happinefs.
SELIM I. emperor of the Turks, was the fecond
fon of Bajazet II. He made war upon his father, and
though defeated in 1511, he at lait dethroned him and
took him prifoner, and immediately difpatched him by
poifon, together with his elder brother Achmet, and
his younger Korkud, an amiable and enlightened prince.
Having eltablifhed his throne by thefe crimes, he march¬
ed againft Campfon-Gaury fovereign of Egypt, gained
a great vidory at Aleppo, and flew their general. But
though the fultan perifhed in that battle, the Mame-
luks determined to oppofe the emperor. Selim enter¬
ing their country at the.head of his army, defeated the
Egyptians in two battles, and ordered Toumonbai, the
new eleded fultan, who had fallen into his hands, to be
hung on a gibbet. He then took Cairo and Alexandria,
and in a fhort time reduced all Egypt to fubjedion.
Thus ended the dominion of the Mameluks in Egypt,
which had continued for more than 260 years, He
confirmed the ancient privileges of the Venetians in
Egypt and Syria, by which they carried on their com¬
merce with India, and formed a league with them to
deftroy the power of the Portuguefe in that country.
(See India, n° 37). Selim had before this gained a
great vidory over the Perfians, and dripped them of
Tauris and Keman. He was preparing to attack
Chriftendom when he was feized with an ulcerous fore
in the back. Thinking that the' air of Adrianople
would retlore his health, he ordered himfelf to be con-
duded thither ; but he died at Clari in Thrace on his
road to that city, in the year 1520, in the very fpot
where he had poifoned his father. He reigned 8 years,
and lived 54. He was a prince of great courage, fo-
briety, and liberality; he was fond of hiftory, and wrote
fome verfes. But thefe good qualities were obfeured
by the moft abominable crimes that ever difgraced hu¬
man nature : he made his way to the throne by fhed-
ding the blood of his father, and fecured it by murder¬
ing his brothers and eight nephew^, and every baihaw
who had been faithful to his duty,
SELINUM, in botany: A genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 45th order.
Umbel tat a. The fruit is oval, oblong, comprefled, plane,
and ftriated in the middle 1 the involucrum is reflexed ;
the petals cordate and equal. There are feven fpecies,
the fylveftre, pahiltre, cullriacum, carvifolia, chabraei,
feguieri, momueri.
SELKIRK (Alexander), whofe adventures gave
rife to a well known hittorical romance, was born at
Largo, in the county of Fife, about the year 1676,
iiiai was bred a feaman. He went from England, in
it the capacity of failing-mailer of a (ball veffel S Thfe,
called the Cinque-Ports GaVey, Charles Pickering captain,
burthen about go tons, with 16 guns and 63 men ; and
in September the fame year failed From Corke, in com¬
pany with another ihip of 26 guns and 120 men, called
the St George, commanded by that famous navigator
William Dumpier, intending to cruize on the Spaniards
in the South Sea. On the coall of Brazil, Pickering
died, and was fuceeeded in his command by his lieute¬
nant Thomas Stradling, They proceeded on their
voyage round Cape Horn to the* ifland of Juan Fer¬
nandes, whence they were driven by the appearance
of two French (hips of 36 guns each, and left five of
Stradling’s men there on fliore, who were taken off by
the French. Hence they failed to the conil of Ameri¬
ca, where Dampier and Stradling quarrelled, and fepa-
rated by agreement, an the 19th of May 1704. In •
September Following, Stradling came again to the ifland
of Juan Fernandes, where Selkirk and his captain had
a difference, which, with the circumftance of the {hip’s
being very leaky, and in bad condition, induced him to
determine on flaying there alone ; but when his com¬
panions were about to depart, his refolution was lhaken,
and he defired to be taken on board again. The captain,
however, refufed to admit him, and he was obliged t»
remain, having nothing but his clothes, bedding, a gun,
and a fmali quantity of powder and ball; a hatchet,
knife, and kettle; his books, and mathematical and
nautical inftruments. He kept up his fpirita tolerably
till he favv the veilel put off, when (as he afterwards
related) his heart yearned within him, and melted at
parting with his comrades and all human fociety at once.
i( — Yet believe me, Areas,
Such is the rooteS love we bear mankind,
All ruffians as they were, I never heard
A found fo difmal as their parting oars.”
Thomjw’s /Igamemnw,
Thus left foie monarch of the ifland, with plenty of
the necefiaries of life, he found himfelf in a fituation
hardly iupportahle. He had fifh, goat’s flelh, turnips
and other vegetables; yet he grew deje£!ed, languid,
and melancholy, to fuch a degree as to he foarce able
to refrain from doing violence to himfelf. Eighteen
months palled before he could, by reafoning, reading
his bible, and ftudy, be thoroughly reconciled to his
condition. At length he grew happy, employing him-
felF in decorating his huts, chafing the goats, wham-ha
equalled in fpeed, and fcarcely es^er failed of catching.
He alfo tamed -young kids, laming them to prevent
their becoming wild ; and he kept a guard of tame cats
about him, to defend him when afleep from the rats,
who were very troublefome. When his clothes were
worn out, he made others of goats (kins, but could not
fucceed in making Ihoes, with the ufe q! which, how¬
ever, habit, in time, enabl^J him to difpenfe. His only
liquor was water. He computed that he had caught
1000 goats during his abode in the ifland 5 of which
he had let go 500, after marking them by flitting their
ears. Commodore Anion’s people, who were there
about 30 years after, found the firft goat which they
fhot upon landing, was thus marked, and as it appeared
to be very old, concluded that it had been under the
power of Selkirk, But it appears by captain Carteret’s
account of his voyage in the Swallow (loop, that other
perfons praitifed this mode oi marking, as he found a
1 goat
SCREW.
Plate CCCCXLV1II.
xn.
X?c3. N° 4.
Maclmie for Freslienixig
SEA WATER.
J. ■
1
Recurulus
II
Sccutorcs.
I
SEC [241] SET)
he hitherto diftinguiflted himfelf hy the clafilcal elegance
of his compofitions, that he was foon called upon to fill
the important poll of private Latin fecretary to the em¬
peror, who was then in Italy. This was the moft ho¬
nourable office to which our author was ever appointed ;
but before he could enter upon it death put a flop to his
career of glory. Having arrived at Saint Amand in the
dillrift of 'Tournay, in order to meet, upon bufinefs,
with the biffiop of Utrecht, he was on the 8t.h of Oido-
ber 1536 cut off by a violent fever, in the very flower of
his age, not having quite completed his twenty-fifth
year. He was interred in the church of the Benediftines,
of which his patron, the biffiop, was abbot or pro-abbot ;
and his near relations erefted to his memory a marble
monument, with a plain Latin infcription.
1 he works of Secundus have gone through feveral
editions, of which the beft and molt copious is that of
Scriverius already mentioned. It confifts of Julia, Eleg.
Lib. I. ; Amores, Eleg. Lib. 2.; AD Diversos E/eg.
Lib. 3. ; Basia, ftyled by the editor incomparabi/is et
divinus prorjus liber; Epigrammata; On arum liber
unus ; Epistolarum liber unus E/egiaca ; Epistola-
rum liber alter, heroico carmine fcriptus ; Funerum liber
unus; Sylvae et Carminum fragmenta ; Poemata
nonnul/a fratrum ; Itineraria Secundi tria. See. ;
Epistol/e totidem, Joluta oratione. Of thefe works it
would be fuperfluous in us to give any charadder after
the ample teltimonies prefixed to them of Lelius Greg.
Gyraldus, the elder Sca/iger, Theodore Be%a, and others
equally celebrated in the republic of letters, who all
fpeak of them with rapture. A French critic, indeed,
after having affirmed that the genius of Secundus never
produced any thing which was not excellent in its kind,
adds, with too much truth, Mais fa mufe ejl un peu trap
lafeive. For this fault our author makes the following
apology in an epigram addreffed to the grammarians ;
Carmina cur fpargam cundtis lafeiva libellis,
Queritis ? Infulfos arceo grammaticos.
Fortia magnanimi canerem fi Caefan’s arma,
Fa&ave Divorum religiofa virum :
Qnot miter exciperemque notas, patererque lituras ?
. Quot fierem teneris fupplicium pueris ?
At nunc uda mihi distant cum Basia carmen,
Pruriet et verfu mentula multa meo ;
Me leget innuptte juvenis placiturus amics,
Et placitura nova blanda puella viro :
Et quemeunque juvat lepidorum de grege vatum
Otia feftivis ludere deliciis.
Lufibus et laetis procul hinc abfillite, s^:vi
Grammatici, injuftas et cohibite manus.
Ne puer, ah malleis caefus lacrymanfque leporis ;
Duram forte meis ossibus optet humum.
SECURIDACA, a plant belonging to the clafs of
diadelphia, and to the order of oftandria. The calyx
has three leaves, which are fmall, deciduous, and colour¬
ed. The coroDa is papilionaceous. The vex ilium, con-
fdting of two petals, is oblong, ftraight, and conjoined
to the carina at the bafe. The carina is of the fame
length with the alae. The legumen is ovated, unilocu¬
lar, monofpermous, and ending in a ligulatcd ala.
There are two fpecies, the erecia and vo/ubilis. The
erefta has an upright ftem: the volubilis or fcandens is
a climbing plant, and is a native of the Weft Indies.
SECUTORES, a fpecies of gladiators among the
You XVII. Parti.
Romans, whofe arms were a helmet, a ffiield, and a
fword or a leaden bullet. They were armed in this man¬
ner, becaule they had to contend with the retiarii, who
were dreffied in a ffiort tunic, bore a three-pointed lance
in their left hand, and a net in their right. The reti-
arius attempted to caft his net over the head of the fe-
cutor; and if he fucceeded, he drew' it together and flew
him with his trident: but if he miffed his aim, he im¬
mediately betook himfelf to flight till he could find a
fecond opportunity of intangling his adverfary with Ilf's
net. He was purfued by the fecutor, who endeavoured
to difpatch him in his flight.
Secutores was alfo a name given to fuch gladiators
who took the place of thofe killed in the combat, or
who engaged the conqueror. This poll was ufually
taken by lot.
SEDAN is a town of Champagne in France, in E.
Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 49. 46. This is the capital of
a principality of the fame name, fituated on the Maefe,
fix miles from Bouillon, and fifteen from Charleville.
Its fituation on the frontiers of the territory of Liege,
Namur, and Limburg, formerly rendered it one of the
keys of the kingdom. It is extremely well fortified, and
defended by a ftrong citadel. The caftle is fituated on a
rock, furrounded with large towers and ftrong walls :
here you fee a moft beautiful magazine of ancient ar ms.
The governor’s palace is oppofite the caflle. From
the ramparts you have a moft agreeable profpe6t of the
Maefe and the neighbouring country. Though the
town is but fmall, yet it is full of tradefmen, as tanners,
weavers, dyers, See. the manufadture of fine cloth
in this city employing a great number of hands. The
principality of Sedan formerly belonged to the duke of
Bouillon, who was obliged in the beginning of the laft
century to refign it to the crown.
SEDAN-chair is a covered vehicle for carrying a
fingle perfon, fufpended by two poles, and borne by two
men, hence denominated chairmen. They were firft intro¬
duced in London in 1634, when Sir Sanders Duncomb
obtained the foie privilege to ufe, let, and hire a number
of the faid covered chairs for fourteen years.
SEDITION, among civilians, is ufed for a fa&ious
commotion -of the people, or an affiembly of a number
of citizens without lawful authority, tending to difturb
the peace and order of the fociety. This offence is of
different kinds : lome feditions more immediately threat¬
ening the fupreme power, and the fubverfion of the
prefent conilitution of the ffate ; others tending only
towards the redrefs of private grievances. Among the
Romans, therefore, it was varioufly pumffied, according
as its end and tendency threatened greater mifehief.
See hb. i. Cod. de Sediiiofs, and Mat. de Critnin. lib. ii.
n. 5. de Lx fa Majefate. In the puniffiment, the authors
and ringleaders were jullly diftinguiflied from thofe who,
with lefs wicked intention, joined and made part of the
multitude.
The fame diftin&ion holds in the law of England
and in that of Scotland. Some kinds of fedition in
England amount to high treafon, and come within the
ft at. 25 Edw. III. as levying war againft the king.
And feveral feditions are mentioned in the Scotch a&s
of parliament as treafonable. Bayne's Grim. I,aw of
Scotland, p. 33, 34. The law of Scotland makes riot¬
ous and tumultuous affemblies a fpecies of fedition.
But the law there, as well as in England, i$ now chiefly
H h regulated
Sedan,
Sedition.
SET) [ 24* ] S E D
SeiLtives reflated by the riot aft, made i Geo. T. only it is to be her, he created Mifs Sedley countefs of Dorehefter. SH*
Sedley. ob^erve£j» that tJie ProPer officers in Scotland, to make This honour, fo far from pleafing, greatly fhocked Sir 9. T
L. the proclamation thereby enacted,'are (heriffs, ftewards, Charles. However libertine he himfelf had been, yet 3e,l!U*‘®n'
and bailies of regalities, or their deputies ; rnagiftrates he could not bear the thoughts of his dauohter’s dif-
of royal boroughs, and all other inferior judges and honour ; and with regard to her exaltation, he only
magiitrates; high and petty conftables, or other officers confidered it as rendering her more confpicuoufly in-
of the peace, in any county, ftewartry, city, or town, famous. Pie therefore conceived a hatred for the kinp-*
And in that part of the bland, the punifhment of the and from this, as well as other motives, readily joined
offence is any thing fliort of death which the judges, to difpoffefs him of the throne. A witty faying of
in their diferetion, may appoint. Sedley’s, on this occalion, is recorded. « I hate in-
SEDATIVLS, in medicine, a general name for gratitude, (faid Sir Charles) ; and therefore, as the
fuch medicines as weaken the powers of nature, fuch as king has made my daughter a countefs, I will endeavour
blood-letting, cooling Cits, purgatives, _ to make his daughter a queen meaning the princefs
SE DEFENDENDO, in law, a plea ufed for him Mary, married to the prince of Orange, who difpoflefled
that is charged with the death of another, by alleging James of the throne at the revolution. He lived to the
that he was under a neceffity of doing what he did in beginning of queen Anne’s reign ; and his works were
bis own defence : as that the other affaulted him in fuch printed in 2 vols Bvo, 1710.
a manner, that if he had not done what he did, he muft
have been in hazard of his own life. See Homicide
and Murder.
SEDIMP2NT, the fettlement or dregs pf any thing,
or that grofs heavy pa-.t of a fluid body which finks to
the bottom of the veffel when at reft.
SEDLEY f Sir Charles), an Englifh poet and wit,
the fon of Sir John Sedley of Aylesford in Kent, was
born about the year 1639. At the reitoration he came
to London to join the general jubilee ; and commen¬
ced wit, courtier, poet, and gallant He was fo much
admired, that he became a kind of oracle among the
poets; which made king Charles tell him, that Na¬
ture had given him a patent to be A polio’s viceroy.
The productions of his pen were fome plays, and feveral
delicately tender amorous poems, in which the foftnefs
of the verfes was fo exquifite, as to be called by the
duke of Buckingham Sed/ey’s witchcraft. “ i here
were no marks of genius or true poetry to be deferied,
(fay the authors of the Biagraphia Britannic a} ; the
art wholly confifted in raiflng loofe thoughts and lewd
defnes, without giving any alarm; and fo the poifon
worked gently and irrefiftibly. Our author, we may
be fure, did not efcape the infeCtion of his own art, or
rather was firft tainted himfelf before he fpread the in¬
fection to others ’’--A very ingenious writer of the pre-
fent day, however, fpeaks much more favourably of Sir
Charles Sedley’s writings. “ He feudied human na¬
ture ; and was uiftinguifhed for the art of making him-
felf agreeable, particularly to the ladies ; for the verfes
of Lord Rochefter, beginning with, Sedley has that pre¬
vailing gentle art, See. fo often quoted, allude not to his
-writings, but to his perfonal addrefs.” [Longhorn’s
EJfujions, &c.]—But while he thus grew in reputation
for wit and in favour with the king, he grew poor and
debauched : his eftate was impaired, and his morals were
corrupted. One of his frolics, hov/ever, being followed
by an indiftment and a heavy fine, Sir Cl arles took a
more ferious turn, applied himfelf to bufinefs, and be¬
came a member of parliament, in which he was a fre¬
quent fpeaker. We find him in the Houfe of Com¬
mons in the reign of James II. whofe attempts upon
the conftitution he vigoroufly withftood; and he was
very a Clive in bringing on the revolution. This was
thought more extraordinary, as he had received favours
from James. But that prince had taken a fancy to Sir
Charles’s daughter (though it feems ihe was not very
kandfome), and, in confequence of his intrigues with
SEDR, or Sedre, the high-prieft of the fed of Ali
among the lYrfians. The fedre is appointed by the
emperor ot Perlia, who ufually confers the dignity on
his nearefl. relation. The jurifdiCtion of the fedre ex¬
tends over all efleCls deftined for pious purpofes, over
all moiques,^ hofpitais, colleges, feoulchres, and mo-
naileries. He difpofes ot all ecclefiaitical employments,
and nominates all the fuperiors of religious houfes. His
decifions in matters of religion are received as fo many
infallible oracles ; he judges of all criminal matters in
his own houfe without appeal. His authority is ba¬
lanced by that of the mudfitehid, or firlt theologue of
the empire.
SEDUCTION, is the aft of tempting and drawing
afide from the right path, and comprehends every en¬
deavour to corrupt any individual of the human race.
This is the import of the word in its largell and moll gene¬
ral fenfe ; but it is commonly employed to exprefs the aCt
of tempting a virtuous woman to part with her chaftity.
The fsducer of female innocence praClifes the fame
ftratagems of fraud to get pofleffion of a woman’s per-
fon, that the /windier employs to get pofleffion of his
neighbour’s goods or money ; yet the law of honour,
which pretends to abhor deceit, and which impels its vo¬
taries to murder every man who prefumes, however juft-
ly, to fuipeCl them of fraud, or to queftion their vera¬
city, applauds the addrefs of a fuccefsful intrigue, tho5
it be well known that the feducer could not have ob¬
tained his end without fwearing to the truth of a thou-
fand falfehoods, and calling upon God to witnefs pro-
mifes which he never meant to fulfil.
The law of honour is indeed a very capricious rule,
which accommodates itfelf to the pleafures and conve¬
niences of higher life ; but the law of the land, which
is enafted for the equal protedlion of high and low',
may be fuppofed to view the guilt of fedudlion with a
more impartial eye. Yet for this offence, even the laws
of this kingdom have provided no other puniffiment
than a pecuniary fatisfaclion to the injured family j
which, in England, can be obtained only by one of the
quainteft fi&ions in the wmrld, by the father’s bringing
his aftion againft the feducer for the lofs of his daugh¬
ter’s fervice during her pregnancy and nurturing. See
Paley’s Moral Pbilo/ophy, Book III. Partiii. Chap. 3.
The moralift, however, who eftimates the merit or
demerit of aftions, not by laws of human appointment,
but by their general confequences as eftablrfhed by the
laws of nature, mull confider the feducer as a criminal
s
ED [ 243 1 S E D
In every civilized country, and in pofe her nature as to erobrue her hands in the blood of
' ' ^ ” her imploring iniant.
Sedu<51:on, of the deeped guilt. _
W---V many countries where civilisation has iTiade but iinail
progrefs, the virtue of women is collected as it were in¬
to a"{ingle point, which they are to guard above all
things, as that on which their happinefs and reputation
wholly deoend. At rirft light this may appear a capri¬
cious regulation ; but a moment’s reflection will con¬
vince us of the contraiy. In the married date io much
confidence is neceffarily repofed in the fidelity of wo¬
men to the beds of their hufbands, and evils io great
tefult from the violation of that fidelity, that whatever
contributes in any degree to its prefervation, mult be
agreeable to him who, in eftablilhing the laws of na¬
ture, intended them to be fubfervient to the real happi¬
nefs of all his creatures. But nothing contributes io
much to preferve the fidelity of wives to their huibands,
as the imprefling upon the minds of women the higheft
veneration for the virtue of chaftity. She who, when
unmarried, has been accultomed to grant favours to dif¬
ferent men, will not find it eafy, if indeed poffible, to
refill afterwards the allurements or variety. It is there¬
fore a wife inftitution, and agreeable to the will of Him
who made us, to train up women fo as that they n ay
look upon the lofs of their chaftity as the molt ^(grace¬
ful of all crimes ; as that which finks them in the order
of iocietyr, and robs them ot all their value. In this
light virtuous women actually look upon the lols oi
chaftity. The importance of that virtue has been fo
deeplv impreffed upon their minds, and is fo clofely af-
fociated with the principle ot honoui, that they cannot
think but with abhorrence upon the very deed by which
it is loft. He therefore who by fraud and talfehood
perfuades the unfufpefting girl to deviate in one inftance
from the honour of the fex, weakens in a great degree
her moral principle ; and if he reconcile her to a repe¬
tition of her crime, he deftroys that principle entirely,
as Ihe has been taught to confider all other virtues as
inferior to that of chaftity. Hence :t is that the hearts
of proftitutes are generally fteeled againft the miferies
of their fellow-creatures ; that they lend their aid to
the feducer in his praftices upon other girls ; that they
lie and fwear and fteal without compun&ion ; and
that too many of them hefitate not to commit murdet
if it can ferve any felfiftt purpofe of their own.
The lofs of virtue, though the greateft that man or
woman can fuftain, is not the only injury which thw le-
ducer brings upon the girl whom he deee.ves. Hiv.
cannot at once reconcile herfelt to proftitution, or even
to the lofs of charafter ; and while a fenie of ftiame re¬
mains in her mind, the mifery which file fuffers muft be
exqaifite. She knows that (he has forfeited what in
the female character is moft valued by both lexes ; and
fhe mult be under the perpetual dread of a drfeovery.
She cannot even con de in the honour of her fe iucer,
who may reveal her lecret in a fit of diunkennels, and
thus rob her of her tame as well as of her virtue ; and
while file is in this ftate of anxious uncertainty, the
agony ot her mind mull be iniupportable. J hat it is
fo in fact, the many inftances of child murder by unmar¬
ried women of every rank leave us no room to doubt.
The affection ot a mother to her new-born child is one
of the moft unequivocal andftrongeft initinfts in human
nature (fee Instinct) ; and nothing fhort ot the ex¬
tremity of diitrefs could prompt any one fo far to op-
Even this deed of horror feldom prevents a detec¬
tion of the mother’s frailty, which is ind.ed commonly
difeovered, thoughnoch.il has been the cor.lequence
of her intrigue. He who can feduce is b fe enough 10
betray ; and no woman can part with her honour, and
retain any well grounded hope that her amou* (haU be
kept lecret. The villain to whom (he furrendereo will
glory in his viftory, it it was with difficulty obtained ;
and if fhe r'urrendered at diferetion, her own behaviour
will reveal her fecret. Her reputation is then irretrie¬
vably loft, and no future circumfpedtion will be of the
fmalleil avail to recover it. Sire will be fnunned by the
virtuous part of her own fex, and treated as a mere in-
ftrument of pleafure by the other. In fuch circum-
ftances (he cannot expeH to be married with advantage.
She may perhaps be able to captivate the heart or a
heedleis youth, and prevail upon him to unite his fate
to her’s before the delirium of his pafiion ftiall give him
time for reflection ; fhe may be addreffed by a man who
is a ftranger to her ftory, and married while he has no
fufpieion of her fecret; or fhe may be folrcited by one
of a ftation inferior to her own, who, though acquaint¬
ed with every th ng that has befallen her, can batter the
delicacy of wedded love for fome pecuniary advantage ;
but from none ot thefe marriages can fhe look foi hap¬
pinefs. The delirium which prompted the firft will
foon vanifh, and leave the hufbaiid to the biUerneU of
his own reflections, which can hardly fail to produce
cruelty to the wife. Of the fecret, to which, in the
fecond cafe, the lover was a ftranger, the hufband will
foon make a difcovery, or at lealt find 100m for hai-
bouring ftreng fufpicions; and fufpicions of having been
deceived in appoint io delicate have hitherto been uni¬
formly the parents of mifery. In the third cafe, the
man married her merely tor money, of which having
got the poffefiion, he has no farther inducement to t.Cut
her with rei'ped. Such are fome of the confequences
of fedu&ion, even when the perton feduced has the good
fortune to get alter wards a hufband j but this is a for¬
tune which few in her circumftanees can reafonably ex*
pca. By far the greater part of thofe who have been
defrauded of their virtue by the arts of the ieducei fink
deeper and deeper into guilt, till they become at laft
common proftitutes. The public is then deprived oi
their fervice as wives and parents ; and inftead of con¬
tributing to the population of the ftate, and to the fum.
of domeftic felicity, thefe outcafts of fociety become fe-
ducers in their turn, corrupting the morals of every
young man whofe appetites they can inflame, and of
every young woman whom they can entice to their own
practices.
All this complication of evil is produced at firft by
arts, which, if employed to deprive a man of his pro¬
perty, would Tubjccl the offender to the execration of
his fellow-fubjeds, and to an ignominious death : but
while the forger of a bill is purfued with reientlefs ri¬
gour by the minifters of juftice, and the fwindler load¬
ed with urtiverfal reproach, the man who by fraud and
forgery has enticed an innocent girl to gratify bis de¬
fires at the expence of her virtue, and thus introduced
her into a path which muft infallibly lead to her own
ruin, as well as to repeated injuries to the public at
H h 2 large.
S E D [ 244
Sfdu&ion. large, i* not defpifed by his own fex, and is too often 19
Sedum ^ careffed even by the virtuous part of the other. Yet
the lofs of property may be eaiily repaired ; the lofs of
honour is irreparable ! It is vain to plead in alleviation
of this guilt, that women fhould be on their guard
againfi the arts of the feducer. Moll unquellionably
they Ihould ; but arts have been ufed which hardly any
degree of caution would have been fufficient to coun-
teradt. _ It may as well be faid that the trader Ihould
be on his guard againlt the arts of the forger, and ac¬
cept of no bill without previoufiy confulting him in
whofe name it is written. Cafes, indeed, occur in
trade, in which this caution would be impoflible ; but
he mull be little acquainted with the workings of the
human heart, who does not know that fituations like-
wife occur in life, in which it is equally impofilble for a
E D
The following fpecies Sedum.
girl of virtue and tendernefs to refill the arts of the man
who has completly gained her affedlions.
The mentioning of this circumilance leads us to conli-
der another fpecies of feduaion, which, though not fo
highly criminal as the former, is yet far removed from
innocence ; we mean the praaice which is too prevalent
among young men of fortune of employing every art
in their power to gain the hearts of heedlefs girls whom
they refolve neither to marry nor to rob of their ho¬
nour. . Should a man adhere to the latter part of this
refolution, which is more than common fortitude can
always promife for itfelf, the injury which he does to
the objea of his amufement is yet very great, as he raifes
hopes of the moll fanguine kind merely to difappoint
them, and diverts her affe&ions perhaps for ever from
fuch men as, had they been fixed on one of them,
might have rendered her completely happy. Difap-
pointments of this kind have fometimes been fatal to
the unhappy girl ; and even when they have neither de¬
prived her of life, nor difordered her reafon, they have
often kept her wholly from marriage, which, whatever
it be to a man, is that from which every woman ex-
perfls her chief happinefs. We cannot therefore con-
] S
Villofum ; 20. Atratum.
are the moll remarkable.
1. The telephium, common orpine, or live-long, hath
a perennial root, compofed of many knobbed tubercles,
fending up creel, round, fucculent llalks, branching half
a yard or two feet high, garnilhed with oblong, plane,
ferrated, fucculent leaves, and the llalks terminated by
a leafy corymlms of flowers, of different colours in the
varieties. This fpecies is an inhabitant of woods and
dry places in England, &c. but has been long a reli-
dent of gardens for variety and medical ufe. 2. The
anacampieros, or decumbent evergreen Italian orpine,
hath a fibrous perennial root, decumbent or trailing
llalks, vvedge-lhaped entire leaves, and the llalks
terminated by a corymbus of purple flowers. 3. The
rupeltre, rock fedum, or Hone-crop of St Vincent’s rock,
hath llender, trailing, purple ftalks; lliort, thick, awl-
fhaped, fucculent, glaucous leaves in chillers, quinquefa-
rioufly imbricated round the ftalks, and the ftalks ter¬
minated by roundilh cymofe bunches, of bright yellow
flowers. It grows naturally on St Vincent’s rock near
Briftol, and other rocky places in Europe. 4. The
aizoon, or Siberian yellow orpine, hath a tuberculate,
fibrous, perennial root; many upright, round, fucculent,
ftalks, a foot high ; lanceolated, plane, ferrated, thick-
ilh leaves; and the llalks terminated by a clofe-litting
cymofe duller of bright yellow flowers. 5. The re-
flexum, reflexed fmall yellow fedum, or prick-madam,
hath a flender fibrous perennial root; fmall trailing fuc¬
culent llalks, garnilhed with thick, awl-lhaped, fuccu¬
lent leaves fparfedly, the lower ones recurved, and the
ftalks terminated by reflexed fpikes of bright yellow
flowers. It grows naturally on old walls and buildings
111 England, &c. 6. *1 he acre, acrid fedum, common
ftone-crop of the wall, or wall-pepper, hath fmall fibry
roots, veiy flender fucculent ftalks four or five inches
high, very fmall, fuboval, gibbous, ered, alternate leaves,
clofe together, and the llalks terminated by trifid-cy¬
mofe bunches of imall yellow flowers. This fort grows
”1 .i.x- - , , 7  ''W1‘ iuuic uuncncs 01 imau yeuow nowers. I his iort prows
W*! h’* ,artlcIe more ProPerIy than with warning our abundantly on rocks, old walls, and tops of buildings
wh ^ ftC fcrb.nc> to.Slvc UP their hearts hallily to men almoft everywhere, which often appear covered with the
whole llation m life is much Imrher than thoir /Wirn •   -  _ rpsi f t a .
whofe llation in life is much higher than their own ,
and we beg leave to alfure every one of them, that the
man who folicits the lall favour under the moll folemn
promife of a fubfequent marriage, is a bale feducer, who
prefers a momentary gratification of his own to her
honour and happinefs through life, and has no intention
to fulfil his promife. Or, if he^ Ihould by any means
be compelled to fulfil it, jhe may depend upon much ill
treatment in return for her premature compliance with
his bafe defircs.
SEDUM, orpine, in botany : A genus of the pen-
tagynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 13th or¬
der, Succu/enta. The calyx is quinquefid ; the corolla
is pentapetalous, pointed, and fpreading; there are five
nectariferous fquamae or feales at the bafe of the ger-
men. The capfules are five.
The fpecies are 20 in number. 1. The Verticilla-
tUn'’ 2\ l elephium ; 3. Anacampferos ; 4. Aizoon ;
5. rfybndum ; 6. Populifolium ; 7. Stellatum ; 8. Ce-
paea; 9. Libanoticum; 10. Dafyphyllum ; 11. Re-
^XUAIik 12‘ Rupcftre ; I3.Lineare; 14. Hifpanicum;
JJ. Album; 16. Acre; 17. Sexangulare; ib. Annuum;
flowers in fummer. 7. The fexangulare, or fexangular
ftone-crop, hath a fibry perennial root ; thick, ikort,
fucculent ftalks; fmall, fuboval, gibbous, eredl leaves
clofe together, arranged fix ways imbricatim, and the
ftalks terminated by bunches of yellow flowers. It
grows on rocky and other dry places in England, &c.
8. The album, or white ftone-crop, hath fibry perennial
roots ; trailing flender ftalks, fix or eight inches long ;
oblong, obtufe, feifile, fpreading leaves; and the ftalks-
terminated by branchy cytnofe bunches of white flowers.
This grows on old walls, rocks, and buildings, in Eng¬
land, &c. 9. The hifpanicum, or Spanifli fedum, hath
fibrous perennial roots, crowned with clufters of taper,
acute, fucculent leaves; flender fucculent ftalks, four
or five inches high, garnifhed alfo with taper leaves, and
terminated by downy cymofe clufters of white flowers.
All thefe fpecies of fedum are hardy herbaceous fuc¬
culent perennials, durable in root, but m.oftly annual in
ftalk, &c. which, riling in fpring, flower in June, July,
and Auguft, in different forts; the flowers coniilling
nniverfally of five fpreading petals, generally crowning
the ftalks numeroufly in corymbofe and cymofe bunches
and fpikes, appearing tolerably confpicuous, and are
fuc-
SEE [245
jfucceeded by plenty of feeds in autumn, by which they
may be propagated, alfo abundantly by parting the
roots, and by Hips or cuttings of the ftalks in fummer;
in all of which methods they readily grow and fpread
very fall into tutted bunches : being all of fucculent
growth, they confequently delight moil in dry foils, or
in any dry rubbifhy earth.
Ufes. As flowering plants, they are moftly employ¬
ed to embellifh rock-wwk, ruins, and the like places,
planting either the roots or cuttings of the {hoots m
a little mud or any moiil foil at fiilf, placing it in the
crevices, where they wall foon root and fix themlelves,
and fpread about very agreeably, kor economical pur-
pofes, the reflexum and rupeftre are cultivated in Hol¬
land and Germany, to mix with lettuce in fallads. The
wall-pepper is fo acrid, that it blitters the {kin when ap-
plied externally. Taken Inwardly, it excites vomiting.
In fcorbutic cafes and quartan agues, it is faid to be an
excellent medicine under proper management. Goats
eat it; cows, horfes, ttieep, and fwine, refufe it.
SEED, in phyfiology, a fubftance prepared by na¬
ture for the reprodu&ion and confervation of the fpecies
both in animals and plants. See Botany, feft. iv.
p. 435.; and Physiology, fe&. xii.
vSEEDLINGS, among gardeners, denote fuch roots
of gilliflowers, &c. as come from feed fown. Alfo
the young tender {hoots of any plants that aie newly
fown.
SEEDY, in the brandy trade, a term ufed by the
dealers to denote a fault that is found in feveral parcels
of French brandy, wflrich renders them unfaleable. The
French fuppofe that thefe brandies obtain the flavour
which they exprefs by this name, from weeds that grow
among the vines from whence the wine of which this
brandy is prefled uras made.
SEEING, the perceiving of external objefts by
means of the eye. For an account of the organs of
fight, and the nature of viiion, fee Anatomy, fedl. vi.
and Optics, page 292, et feq.
SEEKS, a religious feft fettled at Patna, and lo
called from a word contained in one of the command¬
ments of their founder, which signifies learn Ihov. In
books giving an account of oriental lefts and oriental
cuftoms, we ttnd mention made both of Seeks and S'tks ,■
and we are ttrongly inclined to think that the fame
tribe is meant to be denominated by both words. If
fo, different authors write very differently of their prin¬
ciples and manners. We have already related what w'e
then knew of the Seiks under the article Hindoos,
p. 530 ; but in the Afiatic Refearches, Mr Wilkins
gives a much more amiable account of the Seeks> which
we lay before our readers with pleafure.
The Seeks are a feft diftinguiflred both from the
Mufl’ulmans and the worfhippers of Brahma ; and, from
our author’s account of them, mutt be an amiable peo¬
ple. He afked leave to enter into their chapel : i hey
faid it was a place of w'orftrip, open to all men, but in¬
timated that he mutt take off his fhoes. On c mply-
jng with this ceremony, he was politely condufted into
the hall, and feated upon a carpet in the midft of the
affembly. The whole building forms a iquare of about
40 feet. The hall is in the centre, divided from four
other apartments by wooden arches, upon pillars of the
fame materials. The walls above the arches were hung
with European looking-glaiks in gilt frames,, and with
]
SEE
piaures. On the left hand, as one enters, is the chan-
cel, which is furnilhcd with an altar covered with cloth
of gold, raifed a little above the ground in a declining
pofition. About it were fcveral flower-pots and rofe-
water bottles, and three urns to receive the donations
of the charitable. On a low delk, near the altar, flood
a great book, of folio fize, from which fome portions
are daily read in the divine fervice. When notice was
given that it was noon, the congregation arranged them,
felves upon the carpet on each fide of the hall. 1 he
great book and defk were brought from the altar, ami
placed at the oppolite extremity. An old filver-haired
man kneeled down before the defk, with his face to¬
wards the altar, and by him fat a man with a drum,
and two or three with cymbals. The book was now
opened, and the old man began to chant to the time ot
the inftruments, and at the concluhon of every verfe
moft of the congregation joined chorus in a refponfe,
with countenances exhibiting great marks of joy. I heir
tones were not harfli; the time was quick ; and Mr V\ il-
kins learned that the fubjeft was a hymn in praife of the
unity',omniprefence, and omnipotence ot the Deity. I he
hymn concluded, the whole company got up and prefent-
with joined hands, towaids the altai m the
attitude of prayer. The prayer was a fort of litany
pronounced by a young man in a loud, and .dittinft
voice ; the people joining, at certain periods, in a ge¬
neral refponfe. This prayer was followed by a fliort
bleffing from the old man, and an invitation to the af¬
fembly to partake of a friendly feaft. A {hare was of¬
fered to Mr Wilkins, who was too polite to refufe it.
It was a kind of fweetmeat eompofed of fugar and
flower mixed up with clarified butter. They were next
ferved with a few iugar plums} and thus ended the
feaft and ceremony.
In the courfe of converfation Mr Wilkins learned that
the founder of this feft was Naneek Sah, who lived about
400 years ago } who left behind him a book, compofed
by himfelf in verfe, containing the doftrines he had e-
ftablifhed ; that this book teaches, that there is but one
God, filling all fpace, and pervading all matter ; and
that there will be a day of retribution, when virtue will
be rewatded, and vice punifhed. (Our author forgot
to afle in what manner.) It forbids murder, theft, and
fuch other deeds as are by the majority of mankind
elleemed crimes, and inculcates the praftice of all the
virtues ; but, particularly, a univerfal philanthropy and
hofpitality to ftrangers and travellers. It not only
commands univerfal toleration, but forbids dilputes with
thofe of another peifuafion. If any one fliow a fincere
inclination to be admitted among them, any five or
more Seeks being affembled in any place, even on the
highway, they fend to the firft fhop where fweetmeats
are fold, and procure a very fmall quantity of a parti¬
cular kind called batafd (Mr Wilkins does not tell us of
what it is compofed), which having diluted in pure wa¬
ter, they fprinkle fome of it on the body and eyes of
the profelyte, whilft one of the bell inftrufted repeats to
him the chief canons of their faith, and exafts from him
a folemn promife to abide by them the reft of his life.
They offered to admit Mr Wilkins into their focrety ;
but he declined the honour, contenting himfelf with
their alphabet, which they told him to guard as the
apple of his eye, as it was a facred charafter. Mr WiF
kins finds it but little different from the Dewanagari.
Seeks.
S E G
tue aqueduft, winch the fiocular fituatlon of the citv Seeovia.
renders neceffary.^ As it is built upon two hills, and
the valley by which they are feparated, and extends
conliderably in every diredion, it was difficult for a
Holftein, and in Wagria ; wilh a'caliiV¥andr„g "oVa
coding of lin.eiW.Jarg* qua„,i,ies lean.ed/in the neigTof r^l'if/.hia'a^Zd, ^
oegeberg The language itfelf is a mixture of Perfian, Arabic, and
Segovia, ^lianlcrit, grafted upon the provincial dialed of Pun-
y—jah, which is a kind of Hindowee, or, as we commonly
call it, Moors.
SLGEBERG, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
. olftein, and in Wagria; with a caltle ftanding on a
high mountain, confiding of limeftone, large quantities
of which are carried to Hamburg and Lubeck. It be¬
longs to Denmark, and is feated on the river Treve, in
E. Long. io. 9. N. Lat. 54. o.
^ SEGEDIN, a flrong town of Lower Hungary, in
tne county ot Czongrad, with a caltle. Lhe Imperia-
juits took it from the lurks in 1686. It is feated at
the confluence of the rivers Teffe and Mafroch, in E.
Long. 20 3 N. Lat. 46. 28.
SEGMENT of a Circle, in geometry, is that part
t 246 ]
S K G
ivinhurnt't
is one of the moil aftonilhing and the bell preferved of
the Roman works. In the opinion of Mr Swinburne, ^v,nt>u,
who lurveyed it in 1776, and who feems to have given
a very accurate account of the curiofities of Segovia, iC; '"^
is fnperior in elegance of proportion to the Pont du^"*
Gard at Nifmes. It is fo perfedly well preferved,
that it does not feem leaky in any part. From the firft
low arches to the refervoir in the town, its length is
24°o Spanilh feet; its greateil height (in the Plaza
^ and " ardl °f A-bejo at ^the* foot ofThe walbfis
compoled ot a double row of arches, built of laro-e fquare
SF-GNA, a city of Croatia, belonging to the houfe
of Auftria, and feated on the coaft of the Gulph of
Venice. It was formerly a place of llrength and great
impoitance ; but it has fuffered many calamities, and
its inhabitants at prelent do not amount to 70'oc. In
the beginning of this century it fent 50 merchant
Ihips to lea; but the inconveniency of its lituation and
badnefs of its harbour, in which the fea is never calm,
chlcouraged navigation, and Segna has now very few
ihips belonging to it. Among the cuftoms of the Seg-
nans, Mr Fortis mentions one relative to the dead,
which for its Angularity may be worthy of notice.
forth’* _ _ “ All the relations and friends of the family go to
xllVhe corPfe> wa7 of taking leave, before burial
Each of them uncovers the lace, over which a hand¬
kerchief is ipread, more or lefs rich according to the
family ; having killed the dead-perfon, every one throws
another handkerchief over the* ‘ace ; all which remain
to tire heirs, and fometimes there are 20, 30, and more
at this ceremony. Some throw all thefe handkerchiefs
into the grave with the corpfe ; and this, in former
Imres, was the general cullonr j but then they were
rich. Ihis feems to have been brought into ufe as a
fubftitute for the ancient vrf lachrimatoriu” E. Long.
-i5. 21. N. Lat. 45. 22.
SEGNI, an ancient town of Italy, in the Campag-
ira of Rome, with a biflrop’s fee, and the title of duchy.
It is faid that organs were firll invented here. It is
feated on a mountain. E. Long. 13. 1 5. N. Lat. 41. 50.
SEGORBE, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Valencia, with the title of a duchy, and a bidrop’s fee.
It is feated on the fide of a hill, between the moun¬
tains, in a foil very fertile in corn and wine, and where
there are quarries of fine marble. It was taken from
the Moors in 1245 > and the Romans thought it worth
their while to carry fome of the marble to Rome. W.
Lon?, o. 3. N. Lat. 39. 48.
SEGOVIA, an ancient city of Spain, of great power
in the time of the Caefars, is budt upon two hills near
the banks of the Arayda in Old Caftile. W. Long. 3.
48. N. Lat. 4.1. o. It is Hill a bilhop’s fee, and is di-
ftmgniflred for fome venerable remains* of antiquity. In
the year 1525 the city contained 50:0 families, but
now they do not furpafs 200c, a fcanty population for
25 panflres; yet, befides 21 churches and a cathedral,
there are 21 convents.
Ihe firll objed in Segovia that attiads the eye is
Rones without mortar, and over them a hollow wall of
coarler materials for the channel of the water, covered
with large oblong flags. Of the lower range of arcades,
which are 15 Ret wide by 65 high, there are 42. The
upper arches are 119 in number, their height 27 Spa-
mfh feet, their breadth feventeen, the traniverfal thick-
neis, or depth of the piers, eight feet.
Thf .cathedral is a mixture of the Gothic and Moor- Travel, in
rlh aiclntedure. 1 he inficle is very fpacious and of ma- Spain h tb*
jdlic fimplicity. The windows are well difpofed, and de
the great altar has been lately decorated with the fineft our£oa>lnt’
Gienadian marble. But it is to be regretted, that in
this, cathedral, as well as in moll others of Spain, the
choir is placed in the middle of the nave. The church
is nearly upon the model of the great church of Sala¬
manca, but it is not fo highly finilhed.
. Thc alcazar,, or ancient palace of the Moors, Rands
in one of the fineft pofitions poffible, on a rock riling
above the open country. A very pretty river wafhes
the foot of the precipice, and the city lies admirably
well on each fide on the brow of the hill; the declivity
is woody, and the banks charmingly rural; the fnowy
mountains and daik forefts of Saint Ilddonzo compofe
an awful back ground to the pi&ure. Towards the
town there is a large court before the great outward
tower, which, as the pi Ron of Gil Bias, is fo well de-
fenbed by Le .Sage, that the fubjed requires no farther
explanation. f he reft of the buildings form an antique
palace, which has feldom been inhabited by any but pri-
ioners fince the reign of Ferdinand and Ifabella, who
were much attached to this fituation. f here are fpme
magnificent halls in it, with much gilding in the ceil¬
ings, in a femi-barbarous taile. A li the kings of Spain
are feated in Rate along the cornice ot the great iaioon;
but it is doubtful whether they are like the princes
whofe names they bear; if that refemblance, however, be
wanting, they have no other merit to claim. The
royal apartments are now occupied by a college of
young, gentlemen cadets, educated at the king’s ex¬
pence in all the fciences requilrte :or torminsr an engi¬
neer. The grand-maller of the ordnance refrdes at Se¬
govia, which is the head eflablifhment of the Spanilh
artillery. r
The mint is below the alcazar, a large building, the
moR ancient place of coinage in the kingdom The
machines for melting. Ramping, and Hiding the coin,
are worked by water: but there is reaion to believe
that
SET
r 447 i
S E J
^o-wnfend's
rfoitrniy
tbr ugh
Sjhiin.
thnt g«vlHe has at prefent more bufmefa, as beiag near,
er the f arce of riches, the port of Cadiz, where the
ingots of America are landed.
°The unev'nnefs of the crown of the hill gives a wild
look to this city. Moft of the ftreets are crooked and
dirty, the houfes wooden and very wretched ; nor do
the inhabitants appear much the richer for their cloth
manufa&ory. Indeed, it is pot in a very flourifhing
condition, but what cloth they make is very/me.
The country about Segovia has the reputation of be¬
ing the bed for rearing the kind of deep that produ¬
ces beautiful Spanifh wool; but as tfiofe flocks wan¬
der over many other parts of the kingdom, Segovia feems
to have no exclnfive title to this reputation. Segovia
(fays Mr Townfend, whofe valuable travels will be
read with much pleafure) was once famous for its cloth
made on the king’s account; but other nations have
fmce become rivals in this branch, and the manufafture
in this city has been gradually declining. When the
km,T o-ave it up to a private company, he left about
20cob in trade ; but now he is no longer a partner in
the bufinefs. In the year 1612 were made here
25,500 pieces of cloth, which confumed 4-)-,625 quin¬
tals of wool, employed 34.189 perfons; but at prefent
they make only about pieces. The principal im-
perfeftions of this cloth are, that the thread is not even,
and that much greafe remains in it when it is delivered
to the dyer ; in'confequence of which the colour is apt
to tail. Yet, independently of imperfe&ions, fo many
are the difadvantages under which the manufacture la¬
bours, that foreigners can afford to pay 3 1. for the ar-
roba of fine wool, for which the Spaniard gives no more
than 20 {hillings, and after all his charges can command
the market even in the ports of Spain.
Segovia (New), a town of North America, in New
Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala; feated on the
river Yare, on the confines of the province of Hondu¬
ras. W. Long. 84. 30. N. Lat 13. 25.
Segovia, a town of America, in Terra Firma, and
in the province of Venezuela, feated on a river, near a
very high mountain, where there are mines of gold. W.
Long. 65. 30. N. Lat. 8. 20. . . _
Segovia, a town of Afia, in the ifland of Manila,
and one of the largeft of the. Philippines, feated at the
north end of the ifiand, 2 40 miles north of Manila, and
fubjed to Spain. E. Long. 120. 59. N. Lat. 18.
36.
SEGUE A NT, is the herald’s word for a griffin
when drawn in a leaping pofture and difplaying his
wings as if ready to fly.
SEGUE, in the Italian mufic, is often found before
aria, alleluja, amen, See. to thow that thofe portions or
other bead, is drawn in an efcutcheon fitting Hke a rat Sejanm,^
with his fore-feet ftraight.
SEJANUS (JElius), a native of Vulfinum in Tuf-
cany, who dillinguifhed himfelf in the court of Tiberi¬
us. His father’s name was Seius Strabo ; a Roman
knight, commander of the pretorian guards. His mo¬
ther was defeended from the Junian family. Sejanus
firtt gained the favours of Gains Cad'ar, the grandfon of
Auguitus, but afterwards be attached himfelf to the in-
tereft and the views of Tiberius, who then fat on the
imperial throne. The emperor, who was naturally of
a fufpicious temper, was free and open with Sejanus,
and while he diilrufted others, he communicated his % ,
greateft fecrets to this fawning favourite. Sejanus im-
proved this confidence ; and when he had found that he
poffeffed the efteem of Tiberius, he next endeavoured
to become the favourite of the foldiers, and the darling
of the fen ate. As commander of the pretorian guards
he was the fecond man in Rome, and in that important
office he made ufe of inlinuutions and every mean arti¬
fice to make himfelf beloved and revered. His affability
and condefcenfion gained him the hearts of the common
foldiers, and, by appointing his own favourites and ad¬
herents to places of truft and honour, all the officers and
centurions of the army became devoted to his interefL
The v’ews of Sejanus in this were well known ; yet, to*
advance with more fuccefs, he attempted to gain the af¬
fection of the fenators. In this he met with no oppo-
fition. A man who has the difpofal of places of ho¬
nour and dignity, and who has the command of the pub¬
lic money, cannot but be the favourite of thofe who are
in need of his affiffance. It is even faid, that Sejanus-
gained to his views all the wives of the fenators, by a
private and moft fecret promife of marriage to each op
them, whenever he had made himfelf independent and
fovereign of Rome. Yet, however fuccefsful with the
beft and nobleft families in the empire, Sejanus had to
combat numbers in the houfe of the emperor; butthefe
feeming »bftacles were foon removed. All the children
and grandchildren of Tiberius were facrificed to the
ambition of the favourite under various pretences; and
Drufus the fon of the emperor, by linking Sejanus,
made his deitruClion fare and inevitable. Livia, the
wife of Drufus, was gained by Sejanus; and, though
the mother of many children, the was prevailed upon to
affift her adulterer in the murder of her hutband, and
(lie confented to marry him when Drufus was dead. No
fooner was Drufus poifoned, than Sejanus openly decla¬
red his with to marry Livia. This was ftrongly oppo-
fed by Tiberius; and the emperor, by recommending
Gernianicus to the fenators for his fucceffor, rendered
Sejanus bold and determined. He was more urgent in
parts are to be fung immediately after the laft note of his demands ; and when he could not gain the confent of
that part over which it is writ; but if thefe words Ji
placeti or ad libitum, are joined therewith, it fignifies,
that thefe portions may be fung or not at pleafure.
SEGUIERIA, in botany; a plant belonging to
the clafs of polyandria, and the order of monogynia.
The calyx is pentaphyllous; the phylla are oblong,
concave, coloured, and permanent; there is no corolla.
The capfule is oblong and monofpermous, the large ala
terminating in fmall lateral alas. There is only one fpe-
cies, the americana.
SEJANT, a term ufed in heraldry, when a lion, or
the emperor, he perfuaded him to retire to folitude from
the noife of Rome and the troubles of the government,
Tiberius, naturally fond of eafe and luxury, yielded to
his reprefentations and retired to Campania, leaving Se¬
janus at the head of the empire. This was highly gra¬
tifying to the favourite, but he was not without a ma¬
tter. Prudence and moderation might have made him
what he wiflred to be; but having offended the emperor
beyond forgivenefs, he refolvcd to retrieve his lofs, and
by one vigorous effort to decide the fate of the empire.
He called together his friends and followers; he paid
court
Murphy'
'’1 acitust
Uook v.
S E J f
Sejant* court to fuch as feemcd diflaffeded ; lie held foith re
wards and promifes; and, having increafed the number
of his partifans, formed a bold confpiracy, refolved by
any means to feize the fovereign power.
A powerful league was formed with altonifhing rapi¬
dity, and great numbers of all defcriptions, fenators as
well as military men, entered into the plot. Among
fhele, Satrius Secundus was the confidential friend and
prime agent of the mini Iter. Whatever was this man’s
motive, whether fear, or views of intereft, or ingratitude
(for no principle of honour can be imputed to him), he
refolved to betray the fecret to Tiberius. For tins pur-
pofe he addrelled himfelf to Antonia, the daughter of
Anthony the triumvir, the widow of Drufus, and the
mother of Germanicus. When this illuftrious woman,
who was honoured by the court and revered by the
people, heard the particulars, fire fent difpatches to the
emperor by one of her Haves. Tiberius was aftonifhed,
but not difmayed. The danger prefifed ; his habitual
flownefs was out of feafon ; the time called for vigour
And decifive meafures. He fent Macro to Rome, with
a fpecial commiflion to take upon him the command of
the praetorian guards. He added full inflruftions for
his conduct in all emergencies. Early m the morning
on the i ^th, before tire kalends of November, a report
was fpread, that letters had arrived at Rome, in which
the emperor ftgnified his intention to afibciate Sejanus
with himfclf in the tribunitian power. The fenate was
fummoned to meet is the temple of Apollo, near the
imperial palace. Sejanns attended without delay. A
party of the praetorians followed him. Macro met him
in the veftibule of the temple. He approached the mi-
nifter with all demonftrations of profound refpedf, and
taking him afide, “ Be not furprifed (he faid) that you
have no letter from the prince : it is his pleafure to de¬
clare you his colleague in the tribirnitian power ; but
he thinks that a matter of fo much importance flrould be
communicated to the fathers by the voice of the confuls.
I am going to deliver the emperor’s orders.” Sejanus,
elated with joy, and fiufhed with his new dignity, enter¬
ed the fenate-houfe ; Macro followed him. As foon as
the confuls arrived, he delivered the letter from Tiberi¬
us, and immediately went forth to the praetorian guards.
He informed them, that by order of the prince, a large
donative was to be diftributed among the foldiers. He
added, that, by a new commiffion, he himfelf was
appointed their commanding officer ; and, if they
followed him to the camp, they would there re¬
ceive the promifed bounty. The lure was not thrown
out in vain: the praetorian guards quitted their fta-
tion. Laco, who Hood near at hand, immediately fur-
rounded the fenate-houfe with a body of the city-co.
horts.
The letter to the confuls was confufed, obfeure, and
tedious, only glancing at Sejanus, till at laft the lan¬
guage of inventive left no room for doubt. Sejanus
kept his feat like a man benumbed, fenfelefs and ftupid
with aftonifliment. His friends, who a little before
congratulated him on his new dignity, deferted him on
every fide. He was commanded by, the conful to rife
248 ] S E I
rending the air with fhouts, and pouring forth a torrent Seignior
of abufe and fcurrilous language. The pWfoner endea-
voured to hide his face; but the mob delighted to fee Seifm-
remorle and fhame and guilt and harror in every fea- v n"J
ture of his diffracted countenance. They reviled him
for his afts of cruelty ; they laughed at his wild ambi¬
tion ; they tore down his images, and dafhed his ftatues
to pieces. He'was doomed by 'Jfiber!us to fuffer death
on that very day ; but, as he had a powerful faction m
the fenate, it was not thought advifabie, for the mere
formality of a regular condemnation, to hazard a de¬
bate. . Private orders were given to Macro to difpatch
him without delay ; but the conful, feeing the difpofi-
tions of the people, and the calm neutrality of the prae-
torian guards, judged it bell to re-affemble the fathers.
'I hey met in the temple of Concord. With one voice
Sejanus was condemned to die, and the fentence was
executed without delay. He was firangled in the pri-
fon. His body was dragged to the Gemoniie, and, af¬
ter every fpecies of infult from the populace, at the end
of three days was thrown into the Tiber. Such was
the tragic end of that ambitious favourite. He fell a
terrible example to all, who, in any age or country,
may hereafter endeavour by their vices t« rife above
their fellow-citizens.
SEIGNIOR, is, in its general fignffication, the fame
with lord; but is particularly ufed for the lord of the fee
as of a manor, as feigneur among the feudifls is he who
grants a fee or benefit out of the land to another; and
the reafon is, becaufe having granted away the ufe and
profit of the land, the property or dominion he ftill re¬
tains in himfelf.
_ SEIGNIORAGE, is a royalty or prerogative of the
king, whereby he claims an allowance of gold and filver
bought in the mafs to be exchanged for coin. As feig-
morage, out of every pound weight of gold, the king
had for his coin 5 s. of which he paid to the mailer of
the mint fometimes 1 s. and fometimes r s. 6 d. Upon
every pound weight of filver, the feigniorage anfwered
to the king in the time of Edward lil. was 18 penny¬
weights, which then amounted to about 1 s. out of which
he fometimes paid 8 d. at others 9 d. to the mailer. In
the reign of king Elenry V. the king’s feigniorage of
every pound of filver was 15 d. &c.
SEIGNIORY, is borrowed from the French feig-
neurie,' i. c. dominatus^ imperium, principatus ; and figni-
fies with us a manor or lordlhip, feigniory de/okemans.
Seigniory in grofs, feems to be the title of him who is
not lord by means of any manor, but immediately in his
own perfon ; as. tenure in capite, whereby one holds of
the king as of his crown, is feigniory in grofs.
SEIKS. See Hindostan, p. 530.
SEISIN, in law, fignifies pofleffion. In this fenfe
we fay, premier fei/in, for the firll polfeffion, &c.
Seilin is divided into that in deed or in fad, and that
in law. A feifin in deed is where a pofieffion is aftually
taken : but a feifin in law is, where lands defeend, and
the party has not entered thereon ; or in other words*
it is where a perfon has a right to lands, &c. and is by
wrong dilfeifed of them. A feifin in law is held to be
and follow him, and being loaded with irons, was con- fufficient to avow on $ though to the brimririp- of an »f
ffii&ed to pnfon. His downfal filler! the r-o,, r-r... • ’ , . 1 . ° ,.an .
ciufted to prifon. His downfal filled the city with ex
iltation. I he populace, who worihipped him in the
hour of profperity, rejoiced to fee the fad catailrophe
- o whis.fx ne was now reduced. 1 hey followed in crowds.
fize, adlual feifin is.required; and where feilin is alleged,
the perfon pleading it mull fliow of what eftate he is
feifed, &c.
Seifm of a fjperior fervice is deemed to be a feifm
7 of
S E L
RcVrV. goat with his cars thus flit on the neighbouring iflaud
■“‘■'V’'*-' oL Mas a-fuera, where Selkiik never was. He made
companions of his tame goats and cats, often dancing
and iinging with them. Though he conflantly per¬
formed his devotions at ftated hours, and read aloud ;
yet, when he was taken off the ifland, his language,
from difufe of converfation, was become fcarcely intelli¬
gible. In this folitude he continued four years and
four months ; during which time only two incidents
happened which he thought worth relating, the occur¬
rences of every day being in his circumftances nearly
fimilar. 'The one was, that, purfiling a goat eagerly,
he caught it juft on the edge of a precipice, which was
covered with bufhes, fo that he did not perceive it, and
he fell over to the bottom, where he lay (according to
captain Roger’s account) 24 hours fenfelefs ; but, as he
related to Sir R. Steele, he computed, by the alteration
of the moon, that he had lain three days. When he
came to himielf, he found the goat lying under him dead.
It was with great difficulty that lie could crawl to his
habitation, whence he was unable to ftir for ten days,
and did not recover of his bruifes fora long time. The
other event was the arrival of a fhip, which he at fir ft
fuppofed to be French : and fuch is the natural love of
focicty in the human mind, that he was eager to aban¬
don his folitary felicity, and lurrender himielf to them,
although enemies; but upon their landing, approach¬
ing them, he found them to be Spaniards, of whom he
had too great a dread to truft himfelf in their hands.
They were by this time fo near that it required all
his agility to efcape, which he cffe&ed by climbing in¬
to a thick tree, beisg fliot at feveral times as he ran off.
Fortunately the Spaniards did not difcover him, though
they ftayed feme time under the tree where he was hid,
and killed fome goats juft by. In this folitude Selkirk
remained until the 2d of February 1709, when he faw
two fhips come into the bay, and knew them to be
Fnglifh. He immediately lighted a fire as a fignal ;
and on their coming on fliorey found they were the
Duke captain Rogers, and the Duchefs captain Court¬
ney, two privateers from Biiftol. He gave them tfle
belt entertainment he could afford ; and, as they had
been a long time at fea without frefh provifions, the
goats which he caught were highly acceptable. His
habitation confifting of two huts, one to fleep in, the
other todrefs his food in, was fo obfeurely fituated, and
fo difficult of accefs, that only one of the fhip’s officers
would accompany him to it. Dampier, who was pilot
on board the Duke, and knew Selkirk very well, told
captain Rogers, that, when on board the Cinque-Ports,
he was the be ft ftaman on board that veftel; upon
w hich captain Rogers appointed him mafter’s mate cf
the Duke. After a fortnight’s ftay at Juan Fernandes,
the fhips proceeded on their cruize againft the Spa¬
niards i plundered a town on the coaft of Peru ; took a
Manilla fhip off California ; and returned by way of
the Eaft Indies to England, where they arrived the Jit
©f Odlober 1711 ; Selkirk having been abfent eight
years, more than half of which time he had fpent alone
in the ifland. The public curiofity being excited refpedl-
ing him, he was induced to put his papers into the
hands of Defoe, to arrange and form them into a re¬
gular narrative. Thefe papers muft have been drawn
up after he left Juan Fernandes, as he had no means of
recording his tranfa&ions there. Captain Cooke re¬
marks, as an extraordinary circumftance. that he had
Vol. XVII. Part I.
r 257 1
S E L
contrived to keep an account of the days of the week Selkirk,
Ikirk.
fliue.
and month : but this might be done, as Defoe makes
Robinfon Crufoe do, by cutting notches in a poft, or
many other methods. From this account of Selkirk,
Defoe took the idea of writing a more extenfive work,
the romance of Robinfon Crufoe, and very difhoneftly
defrauded the original proprietor of his, (hare of the
profits. Of the time or place or manner of this extra¬
ordinary man’s death we have received no account; but
in 1792 the chelt and mufket which Selkirk had with
him on the illand were in the poffeffion of his grand¬
nephew, John Selkirk weaver in Largo, where doubt-
lefs they are at prefent.
Selkirk, the capital of the county of the fame name,
is a finall town pleafantly fituated on a rifing ground,
and enjoys an extenfive profpetft in all directions, efpe-
cially up and down the river Etterick. It is remark¬
able for nothing but thofe plaintive airs produced in its
neighbourhood, the natural iimplicity of which are the
pride of Scotland and the admiration of ftrangers.
W. Long. 2. 46. N. Lat. 55. 26.
SELKIRKSHIRE, called alto the Sheriffdom of
Etteriik Fortfl, a county of Scotland, extending about
20 miles in length from eaft to weft, and about 12 in
breadth from fouth to north. It borders on the, north
with part of Tweeddale and Mid-Lothian ; on the fouth
and eaft with Teviotdale ; and on the weft with An-
nandale. This county was formerly referved by the
Scottifh princes for the pleafure of the chace, and
where they had houfes for the reception of their train.
A t that time the face of the country was covered with
woods, in which there were great numbers of red and
fallow deer, whence it had the name of Etterhk Fore ft.
The woods, however, are now almoft entirely cut down,
and the county is chiefly fupported by the breed of
fhcep.. They are generally fold into the fouth, but
fometimes into the Highlands, about the month of
March, where they are kept during fummer; and after
being improved by the mountain-grafs, are returned in¬
to the Lowlands in the beginning of winter.
1 his county, though not very populous at prefent,
was once the nurfe of heroes, who were juftly account¬
ed the bulwark of their native foil, being ever ready to
brave danger and death in its defence. Of this we
have a memorable proof in the pathetic lamentations
of their wives and daughters for the difafter of the field
of Flowden, “ where their brave forefters were a’ wed
away.” The rivers Etterick and Yarrow unite a little StaiiJUeA
above the town of Selkirk, and terminate in the Tweed* Account of
Lor five miles above its junction with the Etterick, the Scotl,n^i
Tweed is ftill adorned with woods, and leads the pleafedvo1' *’
imagination to contemplate what this country muft
have been in former times. The Yarrow, for about
five miles above its jun&ion with Etterick, exhibits na¬
ture in a bold and linking afpedl. Its native woods
fliil remain, through which the ftream has cut its turbid
courfe, deeply ingulphed amidft rugged locks. Here,
certainly in a flood, flood the ddcriptive Thomfon
when he faw it
“ Work and boil, and foam and thunder throuHi ”
Upon a peninfula, cut out by the furrounding ftream,
m the middle of this fantailically wild feene of grandeur
and beauty, Hands the caftle of Newark, which has been
fuppofed by many to be the birth-place of Mary Scot
the flower of \ arrow j but this we believe to be a miftake.
Kk- SELLA
S E L [ 25S 1 S E L
Sella, SELL A- turcica, Is a deep depreflion between the
Seltzer. clinoid apophyfes of the fphenoid bone. See Anato-
mv, p. 682. . .
SELTZER WATER, is a mineral water which
fpring.^ up at Lower Seltzer, a village in the eleftorate
of Triers, about 10 miles from Frankfort on the Mayne.
It is a very ufeful medicinal water. It contains, accoid-
ing to fome, a very fmall portion of calcareous earth,
of a native mineral alkali, and an acid ; but ofthefethe
quantity is too fmall to attribute any medicinal virtues
to; but it contains alfo near 1.7th ot its bulk oi fixed
air, which is more than is found in any other mineral
water, and to this it owes its principal virtues. Others
have faid that it is of the very fame nature with Pvrmont
water, and contains a fubtile aqueous fluid, a volatile
iron, and a predominant alkali, all joined together into
one brifk fpirituous water. The confequence of thefe
different opinions refpefting its conilituent parts is,
that different methods have been recommended for imi¬
tating it.
According to the former analyfis, artificial Seltzer
water may be prepared by adding one fcruple ot mag-
nefia alba, fix fcruples of foffil alkali, and four fcruples
of common fait, to each gallon of water, and faturating
the water with fixed air or carbonic acid. According to
the latter it may be imitated by adding to a quart of
the pureft and lightell w^ater thirty drops of a ftrong fo-
lution of iron made in fpirit of fait, a drachm of oil of
tartar per deliquium, and thirty drops of fpirit of vitriol,
or a little more or lefs as is found neceffary, not to let
the alkali of the oil of tartar prevail too ftrongly, tho’
it muff prevail a little. If the proportions be carefully
obferved, and the whole of thefe ingredients fhaken
brifkly together, the artificial Seltzer or Pyrmont wa¬
ter thus made will ftrongly refemble the natural, and
have the fame good effeft in medicine.
But as fixed air is the only efficacious medicinal part
of the compofition of Seltzer water, the heft method of
imitating it is by impregnating common water with that
acid by a procefs for wdiich we are indebted to Dr
Prieftley. The firft idea of this kind occurred to him
in 1767, when, having, placed fhallow veffels- of water
within the region of fixed air, on the furface of the fer¬
menting veffels of a brewery, and left them all night in
that fituation, he found that the water had acquired a
very fenfible and pleafant impregnation. He-proceeded
to accelerate the impregnation by pouring the wrater
from one veffel into another, wffiile they were both held
within the fphere of the fixed air. The method of
effedling this by air diflodged from chalk and other
calcareous fubftances did not occur to him till the year
1772, wdien he publifhed his dire&ions for this purpofe,
together with a drawing of the neceffary apparatus,
which he had before communicated to the Board of
Admiralty. That apparatus has now given way to
another invented by Dr Nooth, which is made of glafs,
Plate and Hands on a wooden veffel dd (fig 1.) refem-
cccci.xiv. bling a tea-board : the middle veffel B has a neck which
is inferted into the mouth of the veffel A, to which it
is ground air-tight. The lower neck of the veffel B
has a glafs ftopper S, compofed of twro parts, both ha¬
ving holes fufficient to let a good quantity of air pafs
through them. Between thefe two parts is left a fmall
{pace, containing a plano-convex lens, which adfts like a
valve, in fettieg the air pafs from below upwards, and
hindering its return into the veffel A. The upper vef- Seltzer,
fel C terminates below in a tube r tf which being crook- v"*
ed, hinders the immediate afeent of the bubbles of fixed
air into that veffel, before they reach the furface of the
water in the veffel B. The veffel C is alfo ground air¬
tight to the upper neck or the middle veffel B, and has
a ftopper p fitted to its upper mouth, which has a hole
through its middle. The upper veffel C holds juft half
as much as the middle one B ; and the end t of the
crooked tube goes no lower than the middle of the vef¬
fel B.
For the ufe of this apparatus : Fill the middle veffel
B with fpring or any other wholefome water, and join
to it the veffel C. Pour water into the veffel A (by the
opening m, or otherw'ife) fo as to cover the rifing part
of its bottom: for this about three-fourths of a pint will
be fufficient. Fill an ounce phial with oil of vitriol,
and add it to the water, ffiaking the veffel fo as to mix
them well together. As heat is generated, it will be
beft to add the oil by a little at a time, otherwife the
veffel may be broken. Put to this, through a wide glafs
or paper funnel, about an ounce of powdered raw chalk
or marble. White marble being firft granulated, or
pounded like coarfe fand, is better for the purpofe than
pounded chalk, becaufe it is harder ; and therefore
the aftion of the diluted acid upon it is flower, and lafts
to a confiderable time. On this account the fupply of
fixed air from it is more regular than with the chalk :
and befides, when no more air is produced, the water
may be decanted from the veffel A, and the white fedi-
ment wafhed off, and the remaining granulated marble
may be employed again, by adding to it frefh water
and a new’’ quantity of oil of vitriol. The funnel in this
procefs is made ufe of, in order to prevent the powder
from touching the infide of the veflel’s mouth ; for if
that happens, it will ftiek fo ftrongly to the neck of
the veflel B as not to admit of their being feparated
without breaking. Place immediately the two veffels
B and C (faftened to each other) into the mouth of the
veffel A, as in the figure, and all the fixed air which is
difengaged from the chalk or marble by the oil of vi¬
triol will pafs up through the valve in S into the vef¬
fel B. When this fixed air comes to the top of the
veffel B, it will diflodge from thence as much water as
is equal to its bulk ; which water will be forced up
through the crooked tube into the upper veffel C.
Care mnft be taken not to fhake the vefl’el A when
the powdered chalk is put in ; otherwife a great and
fudden effervefcence will enfue, which will perhaps ex¬
pel part of the contents. In this cafe it may be necef¬
fary to open a little the ftopper p, in or da to give vent,
otherwife the veffel A may burft. It will be proper
alfo to throw away the contents and wafh the veffel;
for the matter will flick between the necks of the
veffels, and cement them together. The operation
mull then be begun afrefh. But if the chalk be put into
the vtffel loofely wrapt up in paper, this accident will
be Hill better guarded againil. When the effervefcence
goes on well, the veflel C will foon be filled with water,
and the veffel B half filled with air; which will eafily
be known to be the cafe by the air going up in large
bubbles through the crooked tube r t.
When this is obferved, take off the two veffels B and
C together as they are, and lhake them fo that the wa¬
ter and air within them may be much agitated. A great
part
S E L
Se’tzfr.
, Part Sxed air will be abforbed into tbe water,
as will appear by the end of the crooked tube beinjJ
confiderably under the furface of the water in the veflel.
1'he (haking them for two or fh ree minutes wall be fuf-
fcient lor this purpofe. Thefe veffels mult not be
fhaken while joined to the under one A, otherwife too
great an effervefcence will be occafioned in the latter,
together with the ill. confequence above mentioned.
A fter the water and air have been fufficiently agitated,
loofen the upper veffel C, fo that the remaining water
may fall down into B, and the unabforded air pafs out.
Put thefe veffels together, and replace them into the
mouth of A, in order that B may be again half filled
with fixed air. Shake the veffels B and C, and Idt
out the unabforbed air as before. By repeating the
operation three or four times, the water will be fuffi-
ciehtly impregnated.
Whenever the effervefcence. nearly ceafes in the vef-
, A, it may be renewed by giving it a gentle lhake, fo
tnat the powdered chalk or marble at the bottom may
be mixed with the oil of vitriol and water above it;
for then a greater quantity of fixed air will be difen’
gaged. When the effervefcence can be no lonper re¬
newed by (baking the veffel A, either more chalk muff
be put in, or more oil of vitriol; or more water, if
neither of thefe produce the defired effeft.
Mr Magellan has Hill further improved this contri¬
vance. He has two fets of the veffels B and C. While
he is (baking the air and water contained in one of thefe
Hts, the other may be receiving fixed air from the veffel
A. . By this means twice the quantity of water may
be impregnated in the fame time He has a wooden
hand on which to fix the veffeis B, C, when taken off
from A, which is very convenient. He has a fmall
tin trough tor meafuring the quantity of chalk or mar¬
ble requifite for one operation, and a wide glafs funnel
for putting it through into the veffel A, to prevent its
IticKing to the Tides, as mentioned before.
He has alfo contrived a (topper without a hole, to
be uied occahonally initead of the perforated one *. Jt
muL be of a conical figure, and very loofe ; but fo
exactly and fmoothly ground as to be air-tight merely
by its preffure. Its ufe is to comprefs the fixed air on
the water, and thereby increafe the impregnation. For
by keeping the air on the water in this compreffed (late,
the latter may be made to fparkle like champaign. And
it the veifels are ftrong, there will be no danger of their
but (ting m the operation.
I he water thus impregnated may be drawn out at
the opening L But if it is not wanted immediately,
it will he better ter let it remain in the machine, where
it has no communication with the external air; other-
wne the fixed air flies off by degrees, and the water be¬
comes vapid and flat. But it may be kept a long time
m bottles well (topped, efpecially if they are placed
with them mouths downwards.
Dr Withering of Birmingham has lately contrived a
new apparatus for impregnating water with fixed air,
which, he fays, is preferable to that in common ufe, be-
caaie it can be made at lefs expence, and is more eafily
prepared ; becaufe the whole quantity of fixable air
produced is converted to ufe, without any waite of the
vitriolic acid ; becauie it impregnates three times the
quantity o water at one time more completely and
wuh lefs trouble; and the impregnated water will al-
C 259 1
S E L
ways retain its virtue, if the joints and cocks of the
machine are made perfectly air-tight; for which pur¬
pofe they (hould once a-year be fupplied with a fmall
quantity of unfalted lard. This apparatus is exhibited
by fig. 2. and confifts of a glafs veffel A, about ten
inches high in the cylindrical part, and fix inches and a
haL in diameter ; another glafs vefTel B, about twelve
inches high in the conical part, one inch and a half in
the neck, and five inches in diameter at the bottom ; a
copper pipe C paffing through the (topper of the veffel
B, and tied fail in the flexible tube D, made of ftrong
leather, air-tight, and kept hollow by means of a fpiral
wire paffing through its whole length ; a conical brafs
pipe E, with a (lop-cock faftened to the tube D ; ano-
ther conical pipe F, with a (lop-cock G, into which
the end of the tube E is accurately ground fo as to be
air-tight, and cutting off all communication with the
atmolphere when the pipe E is removed ; two large
hog’s bladders H, H, each of which ought to hold two
quarts ; a (top cock I to prevent the water rifing into
the bladders when the veffel A is agitated ; a bladder
K tied to the crooked tube with the (top-cock L,
which occafionaliy opens or (huts the communication
with the vcffel B ; a glafs funnel M, accurately fitted
with the glafs (topper N ; an aperture O, fitted with a
glafs (topper or a filver cock, from which the impreg¬
nated water is to be drawn for uie ; and, laltly, the
tube P opening into the veffel A. When this appara¬
tus is ufed, let the veffel A be filled with pure water,
and any other ingredients that are required, in a proper
proportion; into the veffel B put as much marble or
whitmg, in fmall lumps, as will cover its bottom to the
height of about two inches, and pour in water to the
height reprefented by the dotted line ; let the mouth
of the yeffel A be well fitted with a cork, and through
a hole in the cork pafs the tube P, putting upon the
cork melted iealing-wax of the fofteft kind, or model¬
ling-wax, fo as to make the whole air-tight. Let the
mouth of the veflel B be . flopped with a piece of ma¬
hogany, turned into a conical figure in a lathe, and of
a fiz.e fomewhat larger than the mouth of the glals will
admit ; put this piece of wood into melted bees-wax,
and heat the wax till the wood begins to grow black :
when cool, turn it again till it fits the mouth of the
vefft) : the tubes C, L, and M are fitted into holes
and bored through the wooden Hopper previous to its
being immerfed in the wax ; pufh thefe tubes through
1 m 1 °u and pre^S t^le ft°PPer ,rito the orifice of the
vtiid B, and cement the whole with fealing or model¬
ling wax ; (hut the ftop-cocks I and L, having previoufly
prefled the air out of the bladder K : open the (top-cocks
lx and E ; then fqueeze the air out of the bladders H, H,
and afterwards prefs the conical pipe E into the pipe F •
pour about a large .fpoonful of oil of vitriol through the’
funnel M, and flop it with its ftooper N. The fixable air
let loofe by the effervefcence in the veffel B, rifing
tnrough the tube C, paffes into the bladders H, H, and
diftends them. In this cafe open the flop-cock I, and
from the aperture O draw out about a quart of water •
and the fpace before occupied by the water will be
nlled with fixable air, which foon begins to be abforbed
by the remaiinng water, and is ft 11 fupplied from the
bladders H, H, and from the effervelcing mixture in
the veffel B. When the bladders are confiderably col-
lapied, more vitriolic acid mull be added through the
k 2 funnel
Seltze
r 260
S^'fZCT
S E L
funnel M, fo that they may be always kept pretty fully
diifended. When an impregnation is fpeedily required,
♦ urn the ilop-cocks at G and E, and open that at L ;
then feparate the pipe E from the tube F, and agKate
the veffel A ; the fixable air will pafs into the bladder
K., and may be preiTed into the two other bladdeis,
when the parts of the apparatus are united. During
the agitation, the ftop-cock at I Ihould be clofed, and
opened only occafionally to fupply out ot the bladders
H, H, the fixable air abforbed by the water. It a
ftrong impregnation be required, this procefs (hould be
carried on in a room, the heat of which does not ex¬
ceed forty-eight degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer.
Dr Withering obferves, that the impregnated water re¬
ceives no tafte from the bladders ; and that n the ve.-
fel A with its impregnated water be ieparated from the
X-efl'el 13 at the conical parting E, F, it may be inclofed
in a pyramidal mahogany cafe, out of the lower part of
which the filver cock at O proje&s; and thus ferve tor
an ornamental as well as luxurious and falubnous addi-
lion to the iide-board, particularly In the fuminer and
autumnal feafons.
The artificial mineral waters thus made, are more
pkaiant to the tafte than the natural Pyrmont or Selt¬
zer waters ; which, befides their fixed air, contain fa-
Bne particles of a difagreeable tafte, which are known
to contribute little or nothing to their medicinal vir¬
tues, and may, in fome cafes, be hurtful. They are
like wife confiderably ftronger. According to Sir John
Pringle, thefe waters may be made more nearly to re-
femble genuine Pyrmont water, by adding to each pint
of them from eight to ten drops of Unaura martis cum
fpiritu falu. Or this may be done, by adding to the
water in the middle veffel B (fig. 1.), in the propor¬
tion of about thirty grains of Epfom fait, ten grains of
common fait, a fcruple of magnefia alba, and a dram of
iron filings or iron wire, clean and free from ruft, to
one gallon of fpring water, and impregnating the whole
with fixed air in the manner already defcnbed. Let
them remain, till the other ingredients and as much
of the iron as is neceflary are diffolved ; which will
be in two or three daysor the magnefia may be
omitted, and then the operation will be finifhed in lefs
than half that time. Thefe waters may be. rendered
ferruginous or chalybeate very eafily, by putting in the
middle veffel two or more flender phials, filled with
cuttings of fine iron-binding wire, or with fmall irbn
nails; btcaufe the impregnated water w ill diffolve
the iron fo fall;, as to become well faturated with
it in a few hours, according to the experiments of Mr
Lane. But the method of rendering thefe artificial
waters chalybeate, ufed by Dr Hulme, is to add one
grain of fait of fteel to each pint (lixteen ounces) of
water already impregnated with fixed air.
But the ingenious Mr Bewley has invented a {till bet¬
ter method of exhibiting fixed air as a medicine. He
diredts a fcruple of alkaline fait to be diftblved in a fuf-
ficient quantity (a quarter of a pint, or lefs) of water,
which is to be impregnated with as much fixed air as
it can imbibe this is to be taken at one dofe. Mr
Bewley diretts it to be prepared in larger quantities at a
time, and calls it his mephitic julep. If immediately
alter it a fpoonful of lemon juice, mixed with two or
three fpoonfuls of water, and Iweetened with fugar, be
cu.unk, the fixed air will be extricated in the ftomach j
] S E M
and thus a much greater quantity of it may be given
than the fame quantity of water alone can be made to
imbibe. Fixed air adls as a corroborant; and there¬
fore may be given with fuccels in w’eaknefs of the
ftomach, and in vomitings arifing from that caufe. It
has alfo been given with fuccefs in the {tone and in nephri¬
tic complaints. When the lungs are purulent, fixed air
mixed with the air drawn into the lungs lias repeatedly
been found to perforin a cure. The bark alfo ipay oe
given with advantage in water impregnated with fixed
air, as they both coincide in their effedt. Fixed
air may be applied by means of a fyringe, funnel, or
otherwife, to inflamed breaits, putrid ulcers, mortified
parts, ulcerated fore throats, and has' been found in fuch
and fimilar cales to have very remarkable efficacy. It
may alfo be given internally at the fame time. In pu¬
trid dyfeuteries, and in putrid ftools, fixed air may be
given by w’ay of clyller. Fermenting cataplafms are
of fervice, chiefly as they fupply fixed air to the part.
In cafes of putridity fixed air has been fuccefsfully ap¬
plied to the furface of the body expofed to flreams of
it. It is alfo found an excellent cooling as w^ell as
ftrengthening beverage in hot relaxing weather, and has
the advantage of being pleafant to the tafte.
SEM, or {them, the fon of Noah, memorable for
his filial piety in concealing the folly and dilgrace of
his father; for which he received a remarkable bene-
diaion, about 2476 B. C. He lived to the age of 600
years.
Ras Sem. See Ras Sem and Petrf.fied City.
SEMEC ARPUS, in botany ; a genus of the trigy-
nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
The coiolla is quinquepetalous ; the drupa is heart-
flraped, cellulous, and monofpermous. There is but
one fpecies.
SEMEN, seed. See Botany, fea. iv. p. 435.
With refpea to number, plants are either fnrnifhed'
with one feed, as fea-pink and biftort ; two, as wood-
roof and the umbelliferous plants; three, as fpurge ;
four, as the lip-flowers of Tournefort and rough-leaved
plants of Ray j or many, as ranunculus, anemone, and
poppy.
The form of feeds is likewife extremely various, be¬
ing either large or fmall, round, oval, heart-fhaped, kid-
ney-fhaped, angular, prickly, rough, hairy, wrinkled,
fleck or ffiining, black, white, or brown. Moll feeds
have only one cell or internal cavity j thole of lefler bur¬
dock, valerian, lamb’s lettuce, cornelian cherry, and ie-
beften, have two.
With refpeft to fubflance, feeds are either foft, mem¬
branaceous, or of a hard bony fubflance ; as in grom-
well, tamarind, and all the nuciferous plants.
In point of magnitude, feeds are either very large, as
in the cocoa-nut; or very fmall, as in campanula, amman-
niar rampions, and throat wort.
With refpeft to lituation, they are either difperfed
promifcuoufly through the pulp (ftmina nidulantia), as-
in water-lily ; affixed to a future or joining of the valves
of the feed-veffel, as in the crofs-ffiaped and pea-bloom
flowers ; or placed upon a placenta or receptacle within
the feed veffel, as in tobacco and thorn-apple.
Seeds are faid to be naked (ferrima nuda) which are
not contained in a cover or veflel: fuch are thofe of
the lip and compound flowers, the umbelliferous and
rouoE-leaved plants j covered feeds (fmina tedaj are
S E M [ 261 I S E M
Sfmen. contained in fome veflfel, whether of the capfule, pod,
berry, apple, or cherry kind.
A ftraple feed is fuch as bears neither crown, wing1,
nor downy pappus ; the varieties in feeds, ariling from
thefe circumftances, are particularly enumerated under
their refpedtive heads.
In aflimilating the animal and vegetable kingdoms,
Linnaeus denomin? es feeds the eggs of plants. The
fecundity of plants is frequently marvellous ; from a
fingle plant or ftalk of Indian Turkey wheat, are pro¬
duced, in one fummer, 2000 feeds ; of elecampane,
3000; of fun-flower, 4000; of poppy, 32,000; of a
fpike of cat’s tail, 10,000 and upwards : a fingle fruit,
or feed-veffel, of tobacco, contains 1000 feeds ; that of
white poppy, 8000. Mr Ray relates,' from experi¬
ments made by himfelf, that 1012 tobacco-feeds are
equal in weight to one grain ; and that the weight of
the whole quantum of feeds in a fingle tobacco-plant,
is fuch as muft, according to the above proportion, de¬
termine their number to be 360,000. The fame au¬
thor eftimates the annual produce of a fingle ftalk of
fpleen-wort to be upwards of one million of feeds.
The diffeminatioR of plants refpeCts the different me¬
thods or vehicles by which nature has contrived to dit-
perfe their feeds for the purpofe of increafe. Thefe
by naturalifts are generally reckoned four.
1. Rivers and running waters. 2. The wind. 3. Ani¬
mals. 4. An elaftic fpring, peculiar to the feeds them-
fejves-
1. The feeds which are carried along by rivers and
torrents are frequently conveyed many hundreds of
leagues from their native foil, and call upon a very dif¬
ferent climate, to which, however, by degrees they ren¬
der themfelves familiar.
2. Thofe which are carried by the wind, are either
winged, as in fir-tree, trumpet-flower, tulip-tree, birch,
arbor-vitas, meadow rue, and Jefiamine, and fome um¬
belliferous plants ; furnifhed with a pappus, @r downy
crown, as in valerian, poplar, reed, fucculent fwallow-
Wort, cotton-tree, and many of the compound flowers;
laced within a winged calyx or feed-veflfel, as in fca-
ious, fea-pink, dock, diofcorea, afh, maple, and elm-
trees, logwood and woad ; or lailly, contained within a.
fwelled calyx or feed-vefiel, as in winter-cherry, cucuba-
lus, melilot, bladder-nut, fumatory, bladder-fena, heart-
feed, and chick-peafe.
3. Many birds fwallow the feeds of vanelloe, juniper,
tnifletoe, oats, millet, and other graffes, and void them
entire. Squirrels, rats, parrots, and other animals, fuf-
fer many of the feeds which they devour to efcape, and
thus in effect diffeminate them. Moles, ants, earthworms,
and other infects, by ploughing up the earth, admit a
free paffage to thofe feeds which have been fcattered
upon its furface. Again, fome feeds attach themfelves
to animals, by means of hooks, crotchets, or hairs,
which are either affixed to the feeds themfelves, as in
hound’s tongue, moufe-ear, vervain, carrot, baltard-par-
fley, fanicle, water hemp-agrimony, arftopus and verbe-
Jina; to their calyx, as in burdock, agrimony, rhexta,
fmall wild buglofs, dock, nettle, pellitory, and lead wort;
or to their fruit or feed-veffel, as in liquorice, enchan¬
ter’s night {hade, crofs-wort, clivers, French honey-
fuckle, and arrow-headed grafs.
4. The feeds which difperfe themfelves by an elaftic
force, have that force relident either in their calyx) as
in oats and the greater number of ferns ; in their pap- Semen
pus, as in centaurea crupina; or in their capfule, as II
in gerannium, herb-bennet, African fpinea, fraxinclla, Sem*
horfe-tail, balfam, Malabar nut, cucumber, elaterium, ’ , 'r~'
and male balfam apple.
Semen, in the animal economy. See Physiologv,
feft. xii. and Anatomy, n° 109.
Semen Sanftum, or Sanlonicum. See Artemisia.
SEMENDRIAH, a town of Turkey in Europe, in
the province of Servia, with a good citadel. It is the
capital of a fangiacate, was taken by the Turks in
1690, and is feated on the Danube, in E. Long. 2 1.4c..
N. Lat. 45. o.
SEMENTINJE feri a:,. in antiquity, feafls held an¬
nually among the Romans, to obtain of the gods a plen¬
tiful harveit. They were celebrated in the temple of
Tellus, where folemn facrifices were offered to Tellus
and Ceres. Thefe fcafls were held about feed-time,,
ufualiy in the month of January for, as Macrobius
obferves, they were moveable feafts.
SEMI, a word borrowed from the Latin, figniTying
half; but only ufed in compolition with other words,
as in the following articles.
SRMi-Arians, in eccleiiaftical hrftory, a branch of the
ancient Arians, conlifling, according to Epiphanius, of
fuch as, in appearance, condemned the errors of that
herefiarch, but yet acquiefced in fome of the principles
thereof, only palliating and hiding them under fofter
and more moderate terms. Though they feparated from
the Avian faftion (fee Arians), they could never be
brought to acknowledge that the Son was homooufios,
that is, confubftantial, or of the fame fubftance with
the Father ; they would only allow him to be homoi-
oufios, that is, of a like fubftance with the Father, or
fimilar to the Father in his effence, not by nature, but
by a peculiar privilege.
The femi-arianifm of the moderns confifts in their
maintaining that the Son was from all eternity begot¬
ten by the will of the Father, contrary to the do&rine
of the orthodox, who feem to teach that the eternal ge¬
neration is neceffary. Such at leaft are the refpeftive
opinions of Dr Clarke and Bifhop Bull. See T heology.
Semicircle, in geometry, half a circle, or that fi¬
gure comprehended between the diameter of the circle
and half its circumference.
Semicolon, in grammar, one of the points-or flops
ufed to diftinguifh the feveral members of a fentence
from each other.
The mark or chara&er of the femicolon is (;), and
has its name as being of fomewhat lefs effedl than a co¬
lon ; or as demanding a fhorter paufe.
The proper ufe of the femicolon is to diftinguifh the
conjunct members of a fentence. Now, by a conjunct
member of a fentence is meant fuch a one as contains
at leaft two fimple members.—Whenever, then, a fen¬
tence can be divided into feveral members of the fame
degree, which are again divifible into other fimple mem¬
bers, the former are to be feparated by a femicolon.
For inftance : “ If fortune bear a great fway over him,
who has nicely ftated and concerted every eircumftance
of an affair ; we muft not commit every thing, without
referve, to fortune, left (he have too great a hold of us.’*
Again : Si quantum in agro locifque defertis audacia potejl,
tantum in Joro atque judiciis impudentia valeret; non mi~
nut in caufa ctderet Aulus Cacinna Sexta JElutii impu-
dinticC}
EM r 262 1 S E M
Sftmicu- dent'ue, quant turn in vi facienda cejjit attdacue. -A n n-
k’!101 fiance in a more complex fentence we have in Cicero :
Semi! ela- &es f ^Hiaris primum bene Parta Jit, nulloque turpi qu.ef-
gians. tu : turn quam plunmis, modo dignis, fe utdem prabeat;
v  deinde augeatur rati one, diligentia, parfimonia ; nec Itbidini
potim luxurieeque, quam liberalitati et heneficent'ue. parent.
But though the proper ufe of the femicolon be to
diftinguijfh conjundl members, it is not neceflary that all
the members divided hereby be conjundl. For upon
dividing a fentence into ereat and equal parts, if one of
them be conjunct, all thoie other parts of the fame de¬
gree are to be diftinguifhed by a femicolon. -bometimes
alfo it happens, that members that are oppofite to each
ether, but relate to the fame verb, are ieparated by a
femicolon. Thus Cicero ; Ex hac parte pudor, idinc
petulantia ; bine fides• illinc fraudatio ; hinc pietas, illinc
fcelus. &c. To this like wife may be referred fuch fenten-
ces, where the whole going before, the parts follow: as
*i The parts of oratory are four ; invention, difpofition,
elocution, and pronunciation.”
Semicubium, in medicine, an half-bath, wherein the
patient is only placed up to the navel.
Semidiameter, half the diameter, or a right line
drawn from the centre of a circle or fphere to its cir¬
cumference : being the fame with what is otherwile
called the radius.
Semiflosculus, in botany, a term ufed to exprefs
the flowers of the fyngenefia clafs. Thele femiflofeuli
are petals, hollow in their lower part, but in their up¬
per flat, and continued in the fhape of a tongue.
Semitone, in mufic. See Interval.
SEMINAL, fomethingbelonging tothefemen orfeed
SEMINARY, in its primary fenfe, the ground
where any thing is fown, to be afterwards tranfplanted.
Seminary, in a figurative fenfe, is frequently ap¬
plied to places of education, whence fcholars are tranf¬
planted into life.— In Catholic countries it is particu¬
larly ufed for a kind of college or fchool, where youth
are inftrufted in the ceremonies, &c. of the facred mi-
niftry. Of thefe there are great numbers; it being
ordained by the council of Trent, that there be a fe-
minary belonging to each cathedral, under the direc¬
tion of the bifhop.
SEMIN ATION, denotes the manner or aft of fhed-
diiig and difperfing the feeds of plants. See Semen.
SEMIPELAGIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiitory, a
name anciently, and even at this day, given to fuch as
;etain fome tinfture of Pelagianifm. See Pelagians.
Caflian, who had been a deacon of Conftantinople,
d was afterwards a prieft at Marfeilles, was the chief
f thefe Semipelagians; whole leading principles were,
1. That God did not difpenfe his grace to one more
than another in confequence of predeitination, i e. an
eternal and abfolute decree, but was willing to fave all
men, if they complied with the terms of his gofpel.
2. That Chrift died for all men. 3. That the grace
purchfded by Chrift, and neceffary to falvation, was of¬
fered to all men. 4. That man, before he received
grace, was capable of faith and holy defires. 5. That
man was born free, and was confequently capable of re¬
filling the influences of grace, or of complying with its
fuggellion. The Semipelagians were very numerous ;
and the doftrine of Caffian, th ugh varioufly explained,
was received in the greateft part of the monaftic fchools
in Gaul, from whence it fpread itfelf far and wide thro’
the European provinces. As to the Greeks and other Semlramis,
eaftern Chriftians, they had embraced the Semipelagian ’empervi-
doftrines before Caflian, and ftill adhere to them. In vuni‘ ,
the 6th century, the controverfy between the Semipe- ' '
lagians and the difciples of Auguftin prevailed much,
and continued to divide the weftern churches.
SEMIRAMIS (fab. hill.), a celebrated queen of
AfTyria, daughter of the goddefs Derceto, by a young
Alfyiian. She was expofed in a defert; but her life
was preferved by doves for one whole year, till Simmas,
one of the Ihepherds of Ninus, found her and brought
her up as his own child Semiramis, when grown up,
married Menones, the governor of Nineveh, and accom¬
panied him to the liege of Baftria ; where, by her ad¬
vice and prudent direftions, fhe haftened the king’s ope¬
rations, and took the city. Thefe eminent fervices, to¬
gether with her uncommon beauty, endeared her to Ni¬
nus. The monarch alked her of her hulband, and offered
him his daughter Sofana in her Head; but Menones, who
tenderly loved Semiramis, refufed ; and when Ninus had
added threats to entreaties, he hanged himfelf. No foon-
er was Menones dead, than Semiramis, who was of an
afpiring foul, married Ninus, by whom Ihe had a fon
called blinyas. Ninus was fo fond of Semiramis, that
at her requeft he refigned the crown, and commanded
her to be proclaimed queen and foie emprefs of Aflyria.
Of this, however, he had caufe to repent: Semirainis
put him to death, the better to eftablilh herfelf on the
throne ; and when (he had no enemies to fear at home,
fhe began to repair the capital of her empire, and by
her means Babylon became the moft fuperb and mag¬
nificent city in the world. She vifited every pait of
her dominions, and left everywhere immortal monuments
of her greatnefs and benevolence. To render the roads
paflable and communication eafy, fhe hollowed moun¬
tains and filed up valleys, and water was conveyed at a
great expence by large and convenient aquedufts to
barren deferts and unfruitful plains. She was not
lefs diftinguifhed as a warrior: Many of the neighbour¬
ing nations were conquered ; and when Semiramis was
once told as fhe was duelling her hair, that Babylon had
revolted, Ihe left her toilette with precipitation, and
though only half dreffed, fhe refufed to have the reft of
her head adorned before the fedition was quelled and
tranquillity re eftablilhed. Semiramis has been accufed
of licentioufnefs ; and fome authors have obferved that
fhe regularly called the ftrbngeft and ftouteft men in
her army to her arms, and afterwards put them to
death, that they might not be living witneffes -of her
incontinence. Her paffion for her fon was alfo unnatu¬
ral ; and it was this criminal propenfity which induced
Ninyas to deitroy his mother with his own hands. Some
fay that Semiramis was changed into a dove after
death, and received immortal honours in Aflyria. It
is fuppofed that Ihe lived about 1 1 centuries before the
Chriltian era, and that Ihe died in the bad year of her
age and the 25th of her reign. Many fabulous reports
have been propagated about Semiramis, and fome have
declared that lor fome time fhe difguifed herlelf and paf-
fed for her fon Ninyas. Lemprierc s Bibliotheca Clajftca:
SEMPERVIVUM, house-leek, in botany: A
genus of plants belonging to the order of dodecagynia,
and to the clafs of dodecandria; and in the natural method
ranking under the 13th order, Succulent e. The calyx is
divided into 12 parts; the petals are 12, and the capfules
Semnervi
rum
'' II
Senate.
Lewis's
JILiteria
Medic a.
SEN [ 2
12, containing many feeds. There are 12 fpecies; the
arboreum, canarienfe, glutinofum, glandulofum, tefto-
rum, globiferum, villofum, tortuofum, arachnoidewn,
montanum, fedeforme, and menanthes. Linnseus has
on y eight of thefe. Hie teftorum alone is a native of
Britain. The ftalk is about a fodt high ; the radical
leaves are thick, oval, pointed, fringed, and fpreading in
a rofe ; thofe on the Item are imbricated and membra¬
nous : the flowers are pale red and feffile, and grow on
curved terminal bunches. It is frequent on the^tops of
houles, and flowers in July.
. Bhe following chemical defeription of this fpecies is
given by Lewis : “The leaves of houle-leek, of no re¬
markable fmell, difeover to the taite a mild fubacid
aullenty : them expreffed juice, of a pale yellowiih hue
when nlteied, yields on infpiffation a deep yellow, tena¬
cious, mucilaginous mafs, confiderably acidulous and
acerb : from whence it may be prefumed, that this herb
has fome claim to the refrigerant and reftringent virtues
that have been aferibed to it. It is obfervable that
the filtered juice, on the addition of an equal quantity
of reftitied fpirit of wine, forms a light white coagu-
lum, like cream of fine pomatum, of a weak buf pene¬
trating tatte: this, freed from the fluid part, and ex-
poled to the air, almoft totally exhales. From this ex¬
periment it is concluded by fome, that houfe-leek con¬
tains a volatile alkaline fait : but the juice coagulates
in the fame manner with volatile alkalis themfelves, as
. 0 fixed alkalis: Acids produce no coagula¬
tion.”
SENAAR, or Sennaar. See Sennaar.
SENA I E, in general, is an aflembly or council of
fenators ; that is, ot the principal inhabitants of a Hate,
who have a fhare in the government.
The fenate of ancient Rome is of all others the moft
celebrated. It exercifed no contentious jurifdiaion ;
but appointed judges, either from among the fenators
or knights, to determine proceffes : it alfo appointed go¬
vernors of provinces, and difpofed of the revenues of the
commonwealth, &c. Yet did not the whole foverehm
power refrde in the fenate, fince it could not eledt ma-
gntrates,. make laws, or decide of war and peace ;
in all which cafes the fenate was obliged to confult the
people.
The fenate, when firfl inftituted by Romulus, con-
iitted of 100 members ; to whom he afterwards added
trie fame^ number when the Sabines had migrated to
Rome. Tarquin the ancient made the fenate'confiil of
300, and this number remained fixed for a long time ; but
afterwards it fluftuated greatly, and was increafed, firft
to 700, and afterwards to 900 by J. CaTar, who filled the
ienatewith men of every rank and order. Under Auguftus
the fenators amounted to 1000, but this number was
reduced, and fixed to 600. The place of a fenator was
always beitowed upon merit: the monarchs had the pri¬
vilege of choofing the members ; and after the expulfion
of the larquins^it was one of the rights of the con-
1 uls, ti.l the ele&ion of the cenfors, who from their of-
r felmed mo.ft caPaWe of making choice of men whofe
character was irreproachable, whofe morals were pure,
and relations honourable. Only particular families were
admitted into the fenate; and when the plebeians were
permitted to fhare the honours of the ftate, it was then
required that they fhould be born of free citizens. It
was alio required that the candidates ihould be knights
63 ] SEN
before their admiflion into the fenate. They were to Senator,
be above the age of 25, and to have previoufly paffed Senates,
thiough the inferior offices of quaeftor, tribune of the J
people, edile, pretor, and conful.
1 he fenate always met of courfe on the rft of Janua- '
ry, for the inauguration of the new confuls ; and in all
months, univerfally, there were three days, viz. the ka¬
lends, nones, and ides, on which it regularly met: but
it always met on extraordinary occalionsr when ealled
together by conful, tribune, or diflator.
. render their decrees valid and authentic, a cer¬
tain number of members was requifite, and fuch as
weie abfent without fome proper caufe were -always-
fined. In the reign of Auguitus, 400 fenators were
requifite to make a fenate. Nothing was tranfafted be¬
fore fun-rife or after fun-fet. In their office the fena¬
tors were the guardians of religion, they difpofed of
tne provinces as they plealed, they prorogued the af-
femblies ot the people, they appointed thankfgivings.
nominated their ambafladors, diftributed the public mo¬
ney, . and in fliort had the management of every thing
political or civil in the republic, except the creating of
magiftiates, the enafling of laws, and the declarations
of war or peace, which were confined to the affimblie*
or the people.
SENA I OR, in general, denotes a member of fome
lenate.
The dignity of a Roman fenator could not be fup-
ported without the poffeffibn of 80,000 fciterces, or
about 700c 1. Englilh money ; and therefore fuch as
iquandered away their money, and whofe fortune w-as
reduced below this fum, were generally llruck out of
t:lt; fenators* This regulation was not made in
the hrtt ages ot the republic, when the Romans boafted
or their poverty. The fenators were not permitted to
be ot any trade or profeffion. They were diftinguithed
from the reft of the people by their drefs ; they wore
the laticlave, half-boots of a black colour, with a cref-
cent or filver buckle in the form of a C ; but this laft
honour was confined only to the defendants of thofe
hundred fenators who had been elecfted by Romulus, as
the^etter C feems to imply. See the preceding ar-
, -Among f nator is a member of parliament. In
the kws of king Edward the ConfefTor, we are told
that the Bmons called thok fenators whom the Saxons
cailtd afterwards a/dermen and borough-wafers ; thoup-h
not for their age, but their wifdom ; for fome of them
were young men but very well fldlled in the laws.
Kenulph king of the Mercians granted a charter, which
ran thus, viz. Conftlio et confenfu epifeoporum et fenato-
rum gent is fua largitus fuit diao tnonaferio. See.
xu Scotland, the lords of feffion are called fenators
of the college of juftice.
SENATES AucTORiTAs. See the next article.
OENA7US- Confu/tum, which made part of the Ro¬
man law. When any public matter was introduced
into the fenate, which was always called referre ad fe-
natum, any fenator whofe opinion was afked, was per¬
mitted to fpeak upon it as long as he pleafed, and on
mat account it was often ufual for the fenators to pro-
^ fpen?heS 1111 Jt was tao late ^ determine.
When the queftion w^as put, they pafted to the fide of
that fpeaker wliofe opinion they approved, and a majo¬
rity of votes was eafily coUeded, without the trouble
3 t ^
Sertc^.
SEN [
of counting the numbers. When the majority was
known, the matter was determined, and v.]enatus rontuU
turn was immediately written by the clerics of the hou e,
at the feet of the ’chief magillrates, and it was iigned
by all the principal members of the houfe. When
there was not a fufficient number of members to make
•a fenate, the decifion was called A'nafwr aurtorhtu, but it
was of no force if it did not afterwards pafs into a
fcnatus confultum. . „ . n .
The fenatus confulta were at firft left m the cnftody
of the kings, and afterward of the confuls, who could
fupprefs or preferve them ; but about the year of Itorne
204, they were always depofited in the temple of Ce¬
res, and afterwards in the treafury, by the ediles of the
^ S^ENECA (Lucius Annaeus), a Stoic philofopher,
was born at Corduba in Spain, about the beginning
of the Chriftian era, of an Equeilnan family, which
had probably been tranfplanted thither m a colony
from Rome. He was the fecund fon of Marcus An¬
naeus Seneca, commonly called the rhetorician, whofe
remains are printed under the title of Suaforhe C Con-
trover fue, cum Declamationum Excerptis; and his youngeib
brother Anmeus Mela (for there were three of them)
had the honour of being father to the poet Lucan.
He was removed to Rome, together with his father and
the reft of his family, while he was yet in his infancy.
There he was educated in the moft liberal manner, and
tinder the beft mafters. He learned eloquence from bis
father; but his genius rather leading him to philofophy,
he put himfelf under the ftoics Attains, Sotiou, and
Papiriue Fabianus ; men famous in their way, and of
whom he has made honourable mention in his writings.
It is nrobable, too, that he travelled when he was young,
fmce^we find him, in feveral parts of his works, parti¬
cularly in his ShjacJliones Naturaies, making very exaft
and curious oblervations upon Egypt and the Nile.
But this, though entirely agreeable to his own hu¬
mour, did not at all correfpond with that fcheme or
plan of life which his father had drawn out for him ;
who therefore forced him to the bar, and put him upon
foliciting for public employments ; fo that he afterwards
became quxftor, praetor, and, as Lipfius will have it,
even conful. # ,
In the firft year of the reign of Claudius, when Ju¬
lia the daughter of Germanicus was accufed of adul¬
tery by Meffalina, and baniftied, Seneca was banifhed
too, being charged as one of the adulterers. Corfica
was the feat of his exile, where he lived eight years ;
« happy in the midll of thofe things which ufually
make other people miferable ; inter eas res beat us, qutt
J'olent miferos facere and where he wrote his books
of confolation, addrefted to his mother Helvia, and to
his friend Polybius, and perhaps feme of thofe trage¬
dies which go under his name ; for he fays, modo J'e
levioribus Jludiis ibi obleSaffe. Agrippina being mar¬
ried to Claudius, upon the death of Meflalina, fhe pre¬
vailed with the emperor to recal Seneca from ba-
niftiment; and afterwards procured him to be tutor
to her fon Nero, whom fhe defigned for the empire.
Africanus Burrhus, a praetorian pnetedf, was joined
with him in this important charge : and thefe two
preceptors, who were entrufted with equal autho¬
rity, had each his refpeftive department. By the
bounty and generoiity of his royal pupil, Seneca ac-
264 ] SEN
quired that prodigious wealth which rendered lam in a
manner equal to kings. His houfes and walks were the
nioft magnificent in Rome. His villas were innu¬
merable : and he had immenfe fums of money placed
out at intereft in almoft every part of the world. 1 he
hiftorian Dio reports him to have had 250,'cob Ster¬
ling at intereft 111 Britain alone ; and reckons his call¬
ing it in all at a fum, as one of the caufes of a war with
that nation.
All this wealth, however, together with the luxury
and effeminacy of a court, does not appear to have had
any ill effect upon the temper and difpoiition of Se¬
neca. He continued abftemious, exadt in his manners,
and, above all, free from the vices fo commonly preva¬
lent in fuch places, flattery and ambition. “ I had ra¬
ther (laid he to Nero) offend you by fpeaking the
truth, than pleafe you by lying and flattery : maiuenn
veris offendere, quam placere ailulando.” How well he
acquitted himfelf in quality of preceptor to his prince,
may be known from the five firft years of Nero’s reign,
which have always been confidered as a perfect pattern
of" good government; and if that emperor had but been
as obfervant of his matter through the whole courfe of
it, as he was at the beginning, he would have been the
delight, and not, as he afterwards proved, the curfe and
deteftation of mankind. But when Poppasa and TU ,
gellinus had got the command of his humour, and hur¬
ried him into the moft extravagant and abominable vices,
he foon grew weary of his matter, whofe life muft indeed
have been a conftant rebuke to him. Seneca, percei¬
ving that his favour declined at court, and that be had
many accufers about the prince, who were perpetually
whifpering in his ear the great riches of Seneca, hia
magnificent houfes and fine gardens, and what a favou¬
rite through means of thefe he was grown with the
people, made an offer of them all to Nero. Nero re-
lufed to accept them : which, however, did not hinder
Seneca from changing his way of life ; for, as Tacitus
relates, he “ kept no more levees, declined the ufual civi¬
lities which had been paid to him, and, under a pretence
of indifpofition, or feme engagement or other, avoided
as much as poffible appearing in public.”
Nero, in the mean time, who, as it is fuppofed, had
difpatched Burrhus by poifon, con’d not be eafy till
he had rid himfelf of Seneca alfo : For Burrhus was
the manager of his military concerns, and Seneca
condu£led°his civil affairs. Accordingly, he attempt¬
ed, by means of Cleonicus, a freedman of Seneca, to
take him off by poifon ; but this not fucceeding, he
ordered him to be put to death, upon an information
that he was privy to Fife’s confpiracy again!! his per-
fon. Not that he had any real proof of Seneca’s be¬
ing at all concerned in this plot, but only that he was
glad to lay hold of any pretence for deilroying him.—
He left Seneca, however, at liberty to choofe his man¬
ner of dying 5 who caufed hi.-veins to he opened immedi¬
ately. His wife Paulina, who was very young in com-
parifon of himfelf, had yet the refolution and affeftion
to bear him company, and thereupon ordered her veins
to be opened at the fame time ; but as Nero was not
willing to make his cruelty more odious and infupport-
able than there feemed occafion for, he gave orders to
have her death prevented : upon which her wounds were
bound up, and the blood flopped, in juft time enough
to fave her : tho’, as Tacitus fays, fhe looked fo miier-
4 ‘b>r
Seneca,
SEN
Seneca,
Senecio,
ably pale and wan all her life after, that it was eafy to
read the lofs of her blood and fpirits in her counte¬
nance. In the mean time, Seneca, finding his death
flow and lingering, dehred Statius Annaeus his phyfi-
cian to give him a dofe of poifon, which had been pre¬
pared fome time before in cafe it fiaould be wanted ; but
this not having its ufual effedt, he was carried to a hot
bath, wdiere he w>as at length ftifled with the fleams.
He died, as Lipfius conjedlures, in the 63d or 64th
year of his age, and in about the 10th or 1 ith of Ne¬
ro’s reign. Tacitus, on mentioning his death, obferves,
that, as he entered the bath, he took of the water, and
with it fprinkled lome of his neareft domeftics, faying,
“ That he offeied thofe libations to Jupiter the Deli¬
verer.” Thefe words are an evident proof that Seneca
was not a Chrittian, as fome have imagined him to
have been ; and that the 13 epiflles from Seneca to St
Paul, and from St Paul to Seneca, are fuppofititious
pieces. His philofophical works are well known.—
They confift of \ZAe epijlles and diftindt treatifes; and,
except his books of phyTical quettions, are chiefly of the
moral kind, treating of anger, confolation, providence,
tranquillity of mind, conftancy, clemency, the fhortnefs
of life, a happy life, retirement, benefits. He has
been juftly cenfured by Quintilian and other critics, as
one of the firft corrupters of the Roman flyle ; but his
works are highly valuable, on account of the vaft eru¬
dition which they difeover, and the beautiful moral fen-
timents which they contain.
SENECIO, Groundsel, in botany : A genus be-
longing to the clafs of fyngenefia, and to the order of
polygamia fuperflua ; and in the natural claffification
ranked under the 49th order, Compofita. The recep¬
tacle is naked ; the pappus Ample ; the calyx cylindri¬
cal and calculated. The feales are equal and eontigu-
ous, fo as to feem entire ; thofe at the bafe are few, and
have their apices or points decayed. There are 97 fpe-
cies. Of thefe, feven are Britiflr, the vulgaris, vifeofus,
fylvaticus, erucifolius, jacobaea, paludofus, and farace-
nicus.
1. The vulgaris, or common groundfel, has its co-
rolls naked, its leaves fefiile, fmooth, and finuated, their
fegments fliort, broad, and minutely ferrated; the flowers
are yellow, and without radii. This weed grows in
cultivated ground everywhere, and flowers in May. Its
leaves have been ufed in medicine externally as a vulne¬
rary and refrigerant, and internally as a mild emetic ;
but they have little or no efficacy. 2. The vifeofus, or
cotton groundfel, has its corollas revolute, its leaves pin-
natifld, vifeid, and downy. The feales of the calyx
are lax and hairy, and are of the fame length with
the perianthium. 3. The fylvaticus, or mountain ground-
lel, has its corollas revolute, its leaves pinnatifid and
dentated, the flem comrybous and eredt. It flowers in
July, and is frequent in woods and heaths. 4. The
erucifolius, hoary perennial ragwort ; the corolls are ra¬
diant ; the leaves are pinnatifid, dentated, and downy
beneath ; the ftem is eredf, and two feet high ; the flow¬
ers are yellow, and grow in clufters. This plant is fre¬
quent in woods and hedges, y. The jacobaa, common
ragwort; the corolke are radiant; the leaves pinnated
and lyre-fhaped, and of a dark-green colour; the ftalk
is ered, round, and generally purplifh ; the flowers grow
in clufters on the tops of the (talks. The leaves have
a bitterifli fubacrid tafte, and extremely naufeous. Si-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
[ 265 1
SEN
mon Paulli fays, that a decodfion of them cured many Senegal,
foldiers of an epidemic dyfentery. 6. The paludofus, '—v—'
marfh ragwort ; the corollse are radiant; the leaves
fword-fhaped, acutely ferrated, and fomewhat downy
underneath; the ftem is ereft, branched towards the
top, and four or five feet high ; the flowers are large
and yellow. This plant is frequent in fens and ditches
in England. 7. Thefaracenicus, broad-leaved ragwort;
the corallae are radiant; the leaves are lanceolated, fer¬
rated, and fomewhat fmooth ; the ftem is ereft, Ample,
and four or Ave feet high ; there are feveral flowers on
each foot ftalk, which are yellow, and grow in clufters
on the top.. The plant grows in moift paftmes in Em>--
land ; and flowers in July or Auguft.
, SENEGAL, a part of Negroland in Africa, the
boundaries of which are not known. See Guinea.
Ife of Senegal, fometimes called Saint Louis, is a fmall
ifland in the mouth of the river Senegal, and according
to Mafkelyne’s tables is Atuated in N. Lat. 15.
W. Long. 16. 3 r. The Dutch were the firft Euro¬
peans who fettled at Senegal; but their colony was ex¬
pelled by the French in 1687. It was taken by the
Engliffi in 1692 ; and retaken by the French the year
following. It was a fecond time taken pofleffion of bv
the Englifli in lyyS; but in 1779 the French reco¬
vered it, and it was ceded by the Britifli crown by the
treaty of 1783.
The heft account of this ifland which we have feen,
is given in the interefting voyage of M. Saugnier to the
coaft of Africa. This adventurer vifited°Seneiral in
June 1783. °
“ The Jfland (^ys he), properly fpeaking, is only a
bank of fand in the middle of the river. It is 1000
geometucal paces long, and about 60 in its greateft
width ; is almqft on a level with the river and with the
fea, being defended from the latter by Barbary point,
which is of greater elevation than the colony. The
eaftern branch of the river is the more confiderable of
the two, being about 400 toifes acrofs ; the weftern
branch is only from yo to 200 toifes wide. The ifle
confifts entirely of burning fands. on the barren furface
of which you fometimes meet with fcattered flints
thrown out among their ballaft by veffels coming from
Goree, or with the ruins of buildings formerly ere&ed
by Europeans. There is fcarcely fuch a thing as
a garden upon the ifland ; European feeds in general
not thriving here. It is not furprifing that the foil is
unproductive; for the air is ftrongly impregnated
with fea felt, which pervades every thing, and confumes
even iron in a very ftiort fpace of time. The heats are
exceffiye, and rendered ftill more infupportable by the
refleftion of the fand ; fo that from ten in the morning
until four in the afternoon it is almoft impoffible to do
any work. During the months of January, February,
March, and April, the heats are moderated ; but in
Auguft and the following months they become fo op-
preffive as even to affe& the natives themfelves. What
effea then muft they have upon the Europeans, fudden-
ly tranfported into this burning climate ? The nights are
a little lefs fukry ; not always, however, but only when
the fea-breeze fets in. It is then that the inhabitants
of the colony breathe a freffier air, for which they have
been longing the whole of the day ; but this air in our cli¬
mate would feem aburning vapour. The nights are never-
thelefs troublefome, notwithftanding the comforts of the*
L 1 fea-
\
SEN f 266 ] SEN
Senegal, fea-breeze. The inftant the fun is fet, we are affailed
—— by an infinity of gnats, which are called mufquitos; their
ftings are very painful, and their multitudes incredible.
The inhabitants find but a poor defence in their gauze,
curtains. For my own part, accullomed as I had been
to live among the Moors, I was but little annoyed by
thefe infects. Being half a favage, I felt no defire to
recommend myfelf to the favourable regard of the fair
fex, and I was therefore under no necefiity of taking
cave of my perfon. In imitation of my former mailers,
I fmeared myfelf with butter, and this expedient pre-
ferved me at all times from thefe impertinent {lingers,
thefe fpiteful enemies to the repofe of the human kind.
“ If the profpect of Senegal is not agreeable to the
eye* much lei's are its environs, which are covered over
only with fund, and over-run with mangles. It may be
laid, without exaggeration, that there is not a more for-
lorn fituation to be found on the face of the inhabited
globe, or a place in which the common neceffaries of
life are procured with greater difficulties. Water, that
jndifpenfable aliment of man, is here not potable. Wells
are dug in the fand to the depth of five or fix feet, and
water is obtained by thefe means ; but whatever pains
arc taken to frefhen it, it ever retains a brackiffi talle.
I have dillilled this water myfelf, and obferved that it
always had a difagreeable favour, which cannot fail to
he hurtful to the health : it is true, that when the ri¬
ver is high, its ftreams are frefe, but the water is only
the more dangerous. It proves the caufe of molt of
thofe maladies which carry off the Europeans fo rapid¬
ly, that at the end of every three years the colony has
a frelh fee of inhabitants. The blacks themfelves, al¬
though accultomed to the climate, are not in this feafon
free from dileafe.”
The fort of St Louis is a quadrangle, and has two
baftions of conliderable ftrength ; but the greatell fecu-
rity of the fort is its natural litua^ion. The cannon of
the fort are numerous, and the arfenal well fupplied
with fmall arms and llores. Behdes this fort the
French had no other upon the river, except Fort St
iofeph, which Hands about four leagues below the ca-
taraifl at Govina, though they had a few factories in
different parts.
The principal commodity of this country is that of gum
Senagal (fee GvM-Senegal), which is a valuable branch of
comma ce, as it is ufed in many arts and manufadlures,
particularly by the painters in water-colours, the filk
weavers, and dyers.
The French import from the river Senegal not only
gum-arabic, but elephants teeth, hides, bees-wax, gold-
dull, cotton, oltrich feathers, ambergris, indigo, and
civet.
Notwithllanding the barrennefs of the fpot, Senegal
contains more than 6000 negroes, including the cap¬
tives of the Tapades, or negroes born of the black in¬
habitants of the country. They are never put up to
fale, unlefs convifted of fome crime. Their huts, con-
ftrudted in the form of bee-hives, and fupported upon
four Hakes, furround the habitations of the negro inha¬
bitants. The entire height of thofe huts may rife to
about 12 feet, the width in every direftion is common¬
ly from 10 to 12. The beds are compofed of hurdles
laid upon crofs-bars, fupported by forked Hakes at the
height of about a foot from the ground. Here the Haves.
lleep promifeuoufly, men, women, girls, and boys. A Kfnegid.
hre is made in the middle of the hut, which is filled  v—
with fmoke, fufficient to ilifle any man but a negro.
The men are tall, and the women are accounted the
handfomell negreffes of all Africa. The Senegaiians
may be coniidered as the moll courageous people of
that part of the world, without even excepting the
Moors. Their courage, however, is more nearly allied
to temerity than to bravery. In the courfe of the voy¬
age to Galam, they meet the greatell dangers with gaie¬
ty and fong ; they dread neither mulket nor cannon, and
are equally fearlefs of the cayman or crocodile bhould
one of their companions be killed, and devoured by
thefe animals before their face, they are not deterred
from plunging into the water, if the working of the
Ihip require it. Thefe excellent qualifications which di-
ftinguilh them, and on which they value themfelves fcj
much, do not, however, preferve them from the com¬
mon contagion of the country, which inclines them all
to rapine. They are emulous to furpafs one another
in all the arts of over-reaching and fraud. The con-
dudl of the Europeans has, no doubt, encomaged thefe
vices as much as the leffons of the marabous, who in¬
culcate the duty of plundering the Chrillians to the ut-
moll of their power.
The Yolof negroes of Senegal are either Chrillians
or Mahometans, or rather one and the other, or with
more truth neither ; religion being a matter of indiffe¬
rence to them. Thofe on the continent are of the fame
way of thinking, and their religious practices are kept
up only for the fake of form. A bar of iron, a
few beads, will make them change their opinion at will.
By fuch means are they adled upon ; a fufficient proof
of their want of all religious principle. The marabous,
or priefts, and the men of their law, are no better than
the reft. “ I have examined the charadler of feveral of
this order of men (fays M. Saugnier), and even among
the nation of the Ponies, who are confidered as great
fanatics, I difeovered that they were only publicly at¬
tached to their opinions. ‘ This white man (fay they)
does fo ; he is better informed than I, and why fhould
not I imitate his example ?” This way of reafonrng is
common to all that trafl of country.
The colony of Senegal is furrounded with illands,
which, on account of the proximity of the fea, are all
more unhealthy than that on which the town is built.
They are full of Handing pools, that, when dried up by
the fun, exhale a putrid vapour that carries mortality
with it, and defolates thefe illands. It is doubtlefs the-
fame caufe that takes off fo many of the French at Se¬
negal during the dangerous feafon of the year. This
alfo may be in part occafioned by the bad quality of
the water, which flows from the ponds in the neigh¬
bourhood of the colony, and though incorporated with
that of the river, comes down little agitated by the cur¬
rent, and is eafily diltinguifhed by a vapidnefs of talle.
This, particular is, in my opinion, effentially worthy of
notice, and if properly attended to by our medical men,
might become the means of preferving many lives.
S&NEGAi.-River, fee Niger. As fo little is known
refpe&ing this river, which is one of the greatell in A-
frica, any additional information mull be interelling. We
fhall therefore prefent our readers with the account con¬
tained in the communications prefented to the Affbcia-
tion
\
SEN [ 267 ] SEN
Senegal, tlon for promoting the difcovery of the Interior Parts
Seneka. Gf Africa, which, as far as we know, is the lateft and
moft authentic.
The river known to Europeans by the name of Ariger or
Senegal runs on the fouth of the kingdom of Cafma, in
its courfe towards Tombudlou ; and if the report which
Ben Alii heard in that town may be credited, it is af¬
terwards loll in the fands on the fouth of the country
of Tombuftou. In the map (a), only the known part
of its courfe is marked by a line ; and the fuppolititious
part by dots. It may be proper to obferve, that the
Africans have two names for this river ; that is, Neel
il Abeedy or river of the Negroes ; and Neel il Ktbeer, or
the great river. They alfo term the Nile (that is the
Egyptian river) NeelSbem ; fo that the term Neel, from
whence our Nile, is nothing more than the appellative
of river ; like Ganges,- or Sinde.
Of this river the rife and termination are unknown,
but the courfe is from eaft to weft. So great is its ra¬
pidity, that no veflel can afcend its ftream; and fuch
is the want of fkill, or fuch the abfenee of commercial
inducements among the nations who inhabit its borders,
that even with the current, neither velfels nor boats are
feen to navigate. In one place* indeed, the traveller
finds accommodations for the paflage of himfelf and of
his goods ; but even there, tho’ the ferrymen, by the in¬
dulgence of the fultan of Cafhna, are exempted from all
^ taxes, the boat which conveys the merchandife is no¬
thing more than an ill-con ftrudled raft; for the planks
are faftened to the timbers with ropes, and the fearns are
clofed both within and without by a piafter of tough
clay, of which a large proviilon is always carried on the
raft, for the purpofe of excluding the ftream wherever
its entrance is obferved.
The depth of the river at the place of paflage, which
is more than a hundred miles to the fouth of the city
of Cafhna, the capital of the empire of that name, is
cftimated at 23 or 24 feet Englifh. Its depth is from
10 to 12 peeks, each of which is 27 inches.
Its width is fuch, that even at the ifland of Gongoo,
where the ferrymen relide, the found of the loudeft voice
from the northern ihore is fcarcely heard; and at Tom-
buftou, where the name of Gnenva, or black, is given to
the ftream, the width is defcribed as being that of
the Thames at Wellminfter. In the rainy feafon it
fwells above its banks, and not only floods the adja¬
cent lands, but often fweeps before it the cattle and
cottages of the fliort-fighted or too confident inhabi¬
tants.
That the people who live in the neighbourhood of
the Niger fhould refufe to profit by its navigation, may
juftly furprife the traveller: but much greater is his
aftomftiment, when he finds that even the food which
the bouncy of the ftream would give, is uielefsly offer¬
ed to their acceptance ; for fuch is the want of fkill, or
fuch the fettled diflike of the people to this fort of pro-
vifion, that the hfh with which the river abounds are
left in undifturbed poffefiion of its waters.
SENEKA, or Senega, Rattlefnake-root, Milk wort,
a medicinal plant. See Polygala.
SENESCHAL, (Senefchaltus), derived from the Senefchal
German fein “ a houfe or place,” and fcale “ an of- II
ficer,” is a fteward, and fignifies one who has the dif- ‘ en"aaT'* f
peniing of juftice in fome particular cafes : As the
high fenefchal or fteward of England; fenefcbal de la
hotel de rot, “ fteward of the king’s houfehold, fenef¬
chal, or flevvard of courts, &c.” Co. Lit. 61. Croke's
jurifd. 102. Kitch. 83. See Steward.
SENNA, the leaf of the caffia fenna of Linna;us.
See Cassia.
Senna appears to have been cultivated in England in
the time of Parkinfon (1640); and Miller tells us, that Wood-nlltt
by keeping thefe plants in a hot-bed all the fnmmer, Medical B»-
he frequently had them in flower; but adds, it is very
rarely that they perfeft their feeds in England. There
can be little doubt, however, but that fome of the Bri-
tifh poffeflions may be found well enough adapted to
the growth of this vegetable, and that the patriotic
views of the Society for encouraging Arts, &c. which
has offered a reward to thofe who fucceed in the at¬
tempt, will be ultimately accomplifhed.
Senna, which is in common ufe as a purgative, was
firil known to the Arabian phylicians Serapion and
Mefue: the firft among the Greeks who takes any'
notice of it is Aftuarius, but he only fpeaks of the
fruit, and not of the leaves. To remove the difagree-
able tafte of this medicine, Dr Cullen recommends cori¬
ander feeds; and, for preventing the gripings with which
it is fometimes attended, he thinks the warmer aroma¬
tics, as cardamoms or ginger, would be more effeftual.
The Senna Ilalica, or blunt-leaved fenna, is a variety
of the Alexandrian fpecies; which, by its cultivation in
the fouth of France (Provence), has been found to af¬
lame this change. It is lefs purgative than the pointed¬
leaved fenna, and is therefore to be given in larger do-
fes. It was employed as a cathartic by Dr Wright at Lend. Med.
Jamaica, where it grows on the fand-banks near the fea. J0lir’ ,
SENNAAR, a country of Africa, bordering upon vol‘ 8*
Abyflinia, with the title of a kingdom ; the prefent go¬
vernment of which was ellablilhed in the 16th century
by a race of negroes named, in their ov/n language,
Sbillook. This country, together with all the northern
parts of Africa, had been over-run by the Saracens du¬
ring the rapid conquefts of the khalifs ; but inftead of
erefting any diltinft principalities here, as in other
parts, they had incorporated themfelves with the old
inhabitants called Shepherds, whom they found at their
arrival; had converted them to their religion, and become
one people with them. In 1504 the Shillook, a people
before unknown, came from the weflern banks of the
river Bahiar el Abiad, which empties itfelf into the
Nile, and conquered the country ; allowing the Arabs,
however, to retain their poffeffions on condition of pay¬
ing them a certain tribute. Thefe founded the city of
Sennaar, and have ever fince continued to carry on an
intercourfe with Egypt in the way of merchandife.
At the eftablilhment of their monarchy the whole na¬
tion were Pagans, but foon after became converts to
Mohammedanifm, and took the name of Funge, an ap¬
pellation lignifying “ lords or conquerors,” and like-
L 1 2 wifc
(a) The map alluded to is that which accompanies the volume which contains the proceedings of the Aflbci-=
•a* ions. This work was printed in 1791-
Sennaar.
Sruce's
Traiehy
Vol. 4.
SEN r 268 ] SEN
wife free citizens. Mr Bruce, who puffed through
this country in his return from Abyflinia, gives a li!l
of 20 kings who have reigned in it linee the conqueft.
of the ShiUook.
This country is inhabited by a people fo barbarous
and brutiih, that no hiftory of them can be expefted.
One of the moft remarkable of their cufloms is, that
the king afcends the throne with the expectation of be¬
ing murdered whenever the general council of the na¬
tion thinks proper. The dreadful office of executioner
belongs to one Ixngle officer, ftyled, in the language of
the country, Sid el Coom ; and who is always a relation
of the monarch himfelf. It was from his regilters that
Mr Bruce took the lilt of the kings already mention¬
ed, with the number of years they reigned, and which
may therefore be received as authentic. The Sid el
Coom in office at the time that Mr Bruce vifited this
country was named Achmet, and was one of his belt
friends. He had murdered the late king, v/ith three
of his fons, one of whom was an infant at its mother’s
bread; he was alfo in daily expectation of performing
the fame office to the reigning fovereign. He was by
no means referved concerning the nature of his office,
but anfwered freely every queilion that was put to him.
When aflced by Mr Bruce why he murdered the king’s
young fon in his father’s prefence ? he aefwered, that
he did it from a principle of duty to the king himfelf,
who had a right to fee his fon kdled in a lawful and re¬
gular manner, which was by cutting his throat with a
fword, and not in a more painful or ignominious way,
which the malice of his enemies might poffibly have in-
flifted.
The king, he faid, was very little concerned at the fight
of his fon’s death, but he was fo very unwilling to die
himfelf, that he often prefied the executioner to let him
efcape; but finding his intreaties ineffectual, he fubmitted
at lafl without reliftance. On being afked, whether he
was not afraid of coming into the prefence of the king,
confidering the office he might poffibly have to perform?
he replied, that he was not in the lead afraid on this
account; that it was his duty to be with the king every
morning, and very late in the evening ; that the king
knew he would have no hand in promoting his death ;
but that, when the matter was abfolutely determined,
the red was only an affair of decency; and it would un¬
doubtedly be his own choice, rather to fall by the hand
of his own relation in private than by a hired affaffin,
an Arab, or a Chriffian fiave, in the fight of the popu.
lace. Baady the king’s father, having the misfortune
to be taken priioner, was fent to Atbara to Welled
Haffan the governor of that province to be put to death
there. But the king, who was a ftrong man, and al¬
ways armed, kept fo much upon his guard, that Welled
could find no opportunity of killing him but by running
him through the back with a lance as he was wafhing
his hands. For this Welled himfelf was afterwards put
to death ; not on account of the murder itfelf, but be-
caufe, in the firft place, he, who was not the proper ex¬
ecutioner, had prefumed to put the king to death; and,
in the next, becaufe he had done it with a lance, where¬
as the only lawful inftrument was a fword.
On the death of any of the fovereigns of this coun¬
try, his eldeft fon fucceeds to the throne of courfe ; on
which as many of his brothers as can be found aie ap¬
prehended, and put to death by the Sid el Coom
in the manner already related. Women are excluded
from the fovereignty here as well as in Abyffinia.
The punceffes of Sennaar, however, are worfe off
than thole ot Abyffinia, having no fettled income, nor
being treated in any degree better than the daugh¬
ters of private perfons. Tiie king is obliged, once^in
his lifetime, to plough and low a piece of ground j
whence he is named jBciady, the 11 countryman or pea-
fant;” a title as common among the monarchs of Sen-
naar as Caeiar was among the liomans. The royal fa¬
mily were originally negroes; but as the kings frequent¬
ly marry Arab women, the white colour of the mother
is communicated to the child. This, we are told by
Mr Bruce, is invariably the cafe when a negro man of
Sennaar marries an Arab woman ; and it holds equally
good when an Arab man marries a negro woman ; and
he likewife informs us, that he never faw one black A-
rab all the time he was at Sennaar.
The foil and climate of this country is extremelv un¬
favourable both to man and bead. The men are ftrong
and remarkable for their iize, but fhortdived; and there
is fuch a mortality among the children, that were it
not foi a conftant importation of flaves, the metropolis
would be depopulated. The ffiortnefs of their lives,
however, may perhaps be accounted for, from their in¬
dulging themfelves from their infancy in eveiy kind of
excefs. No horfe, mule, nor ais, will live at Sennaar
or for many miles round it. The cafe is the fame with
bullocks, fheep, dogs, cats, and poultry; all of them
muft go to the fands every half-year. It is difficult to
account for this mortality ; though Mr Bruce allures
us it is the cafe everywhere about the metropolis of this
country, where the foil is a fat earth during the firft
feafon of the rains. Two greyhounds which he brought
along with him from Atbara, and the mules he brought
horn Abyffinia, lived only a few weeks alter their arri¬
val at Sennaar. Several of the kings of Sennaar have
tried to keep lions, but it was always found impoffible
to preferve them alive after the rains. They will live,
however, as well as other quadrupeds, in the fands, at
110 gi eat diftance from the capital. — No fpecies of tree
except the lemon flowers near this city ; the cultivation
of the rofe has often been attempted, but always with¬
out fuccefs. In other relpedts, however, the foil of
Sennaar is exceedingly fertile, being faid to yield 3©o
fold ; but this is thought by Mr Bruce to be a great
exaggeratiom It is all lown with dora or millet, which
is the principal food of the people ; wheat and rice are
alfo produced here, which are fold by the pound, even
in years of plenty. The foil all round is ftrongly im¬
pregnated with fait, fo that a fufficient quantity to ferve
the inhabitants is extrafted from it.
Sennaar., a city of Africa, the capital of the king¬
dom of that name. It Hands, according to Mr Bruce’s
obfervations, in N. Lat. 34' 36" E. Long. 330
30' 30" on the weftern fide of the Nile, and clofe upon
the banks of it; the ground on which it Hands being juft
high enough to prevent the inundation. The town is
very populous, and contains a great many houfes. In
Poncet’s time they were all of one ftory ; but now
moft of the officers have houfes of two ftories high.
They are built of clay mixed with a very little ftraw,
and have all flat roofs; which fhows that the rains here
muff
SEN [ 269 ] , SEN
Sennaar.
Vol. iv.
P* 475-
muft be much lefs in quantity than to the fouthward.
During the time of Mr Bruce’s rehdence here, however,
there was one week of continual rain, and the Nile, af¬
ter loud thunder and great darknels to the fouth, in-
creafed violently; the whole itream being covered with
the wrecks of houfes and their furniture ; fo that he
fuppofed it had deftroyed many villages to the fouth¬
ward. About 12 miles t® the north-wcit of Sennaar is a
collection of villages named Shaddly, from a great faint
of that name, who conftru£ted feveral granaries here.
Theie are no other than large pits dug in the ground,
and well plaftered in the mfide with clay, then filled
with grain when it is at its lowelt price, and afterwards
covered up and plaftered again at top : thefe pits they
call mat amores. On any profpeCt of dearth they are
opened, and the corn fold to the people. About 24
miles north of Shaddly there is another let of granaries
named IVed-Aboud, ftill greater than Shaddly; and upon
theie two the fubfiftence of the Arabs principally de¬
pends : for as thefe people are at continual war with
each other, and diredt their fury rather againft the crops
than the perfons of their enemies, the whole of them
would be unavoidably ftarved, were it not for this ex¬
traordinary refource. Small villages of foldiers are fcat-
tered up and down this country to guard the grain af¬
ter it is fown, which is only that fpecies of millet named
Dora ; the foil, it is laid, being incapable of producing
any other. There are great hollows made in the earth
at proper diftances throughout the country, which fill
with water in the rainy feafon, and are afterwards of
great ufe to the Arabs as they pafs from the cultivated
parts to the fands. The fly, which is fuch a dreadful
enemy to the cattle, is never feen to the northward of
Shaddly.
To the weftward of thefe granaries the country is
quite full of trees as jar as the river Abiad, or El-aice.
In this extenfive plain there arife two ridges of moun¬
tains, one called 'Jibbel Moira, or the Mountain oj water ;
the other Jibbel Segud, or the Cold Mountain. Both of
them enjoy a fine climate, and ferve for a protection to
the farms about Shaddly and Aboud already mentioned.
Here alfo are fortreffes placed in the way of the Arabs,
which ferve to oblige them to pay tribute in their flight
from the cultivated country, during the rains, to the dry
lands of Atbara. Each of thefe diflriCls is governed
by the defeendant of their ancient and native princes,
who long refifted all the power of the Arabs. Sacri¬
fices of a horrid nature are faid to have been offered up
on thefe mountains till about the year 1554, when one
of the kings of Sennaar befieged firft one and then the
other of the princes in their mountains; and having
forced them to furrender, he fattened a chain of gold to
each of their tars, expofed them in the market-place at
Sennaar, and fold them for flaves at lefs than a farthing
each. Soon after this they were circumcifed, convert¬
ed to the Mahometan religion, and reitored to their
kingdoms.
“ Nothing (fays Mr Bruce) is more pleafant than
the country around Sennaar in the end of Auguft and
beginning of September. The grain, being now fprung
up, makes the whole of this immenfe plain appear a le¬
vel green land, interfperfed with great lakes of water,
and ornamented at certain intervals with groups of vil¬
lages ; the conical tops of the houfes prefenting at a
diftance the appearance of fmall encampments. Through
this very extenfive plain winds the Nile, a delightful
river there, above a mile broad, full to the very brim,
but never overflowing. Everywhere on thefe banks
are feen herds of the moft beautiful cattle of various
kinds. The banks of the Nile about Sennaar refemble
the pieafanteft part of Holland in the fummer fea-
lon ; but foon after, when the rains ceafe, and the fun
exerts its utmoft influence, the dora begins to ripen, the
leaves to turn yellow and to rot, the lakes to putrefy,
fmell, become full of vermin, and all its beauty iuddenly
diiappears: bare fcorched Nubia returns, and all its ter¬
rors of poifonous winds and moving fands, glowing and
ventilated with fultry blafts, which are followed by a
troop of terrible attendants ; epilepfies, apoplexies, vio¬
lent fevers, obftinate agues, and lingering painful dyfen-
teries, ftill more obftinate and mortal.
“ War and treaion feem to be the only employment
of this horrid people, whom Heaven has feparated by
almoft impaflable deierts from the reft of mankind; con¬
fining them to an accurfed fpot, feemingly to give them
an earneft in time of the only other courfe which he
has referved to them for an eternal hereafter.”
With regard to the climate of the country round
Sennaar, Mr Bruce has feveral very curious obferva-
tions. The thermometer rifes in the fhade to 119 de¬
grees ; but the degree indicated by this inftrument does
not at all correfpond with the fenfations occafioned by
it; nor with the colour of the people who live under it.
“ Nations of blacks (lays he) live within latitude 13
and 14 degrees; about 10 degrees fouth of them, nearly
under the line, all the people are white, as we had an
opportunity of oblerving daily in the Galla Sennaar,
which is in latitude 13 degrees, is'hotter by the ther¬
mometer 50 degrees, when the fun is moft diftant from
it, than Gondar, which is a degree farther fouth, when
the fun is vertical.—Cold and hot (fays our author)
are terms merely relative, not determined by the lati¬
tude, but elevation of the place. When, therefore, we
fay hot, fome other explanation is neceflary concerningthe
place where we are, in order to give an adequate idea of
the fenfations of that heat upon the body, and the ef¬
fects of it upon the lungs. The degree of the ther¬
mometer conveys this but very imperfectly; 90 degrees
is exedlively hot at Loheia in Arabia Felix ; and yet
tne latitude of Loheia is but 15 degrees ; whereas 90.
degrees at Sennaar is only warm as to fenfe; though.
Sennaar, as we have already laid, is in latitude 12 de¬
grees.
“ At Sennaar, then, I call it cold, when one fully
clothed and at reft feels himfelf in want of fire. I call
it cool, when one fully clothed and at reft feels he could
bear more covering all over, or in part, than he has at
that time. I call it temperate, when a man fo clothed,
and at reft, feels no luch want, and can take moderate
exercife, luch as walking about a room without fweat-
ing. I call it warm, when a man, fo clothed, does not
fvveat when at reft; but, upon taking moderate exercile,
fweats, and again cools. I call it hot, when a man at reft,
or with moderate exercife, fweats exceffively. I call it
very hot, when a man with thin, or little clothing, fweats
much, though at reft. I call it excejjive hot, when a
man, in his Ihirt and at reft, fweats exceffively, when
ali/notion is painful, and the knees feel feeble, as if af¬
ter a lever. I call it extreme hot, when the ftrength
fails, a difpofition to faint comes on, a flraitnefs is found
ia
Sennanr.
SEN [ 270 1 SEN
Sennaar. in tlie temples, as if a {mall cord was drawn tight about
 v  the head, the voice impaired, the {kin dry, and the head
feems more than ordinarily large and light. This, I
apprehend, denotes death at hand; but this is rarely
or never effefted by the fun alone, without the addition
of that poifonous wind which purfued us through At-
bara, where it has, no doubt, contributed to the total
extinftion of every thing that hath the breath of life.
A thermometer^ graduated upon this fcale, would exhi¬
bit a figure very different from the common one ; for I
am convinced by experiment, that a web of the fined
muffin, wrapt round the body at Sennaar, wfill occafion
at raid-day a greater fenfation of heat in the body, than
a rife of 5 degrees in the thermometer of Fahrenheit.
“ At Sennaar, from 70 to 78 degrees of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer is cool; from 79 to 92 temperate ; at 92
degrees begins warmth. Although the degree of the
thermometer marks a greater heat than is felt by the
body of us ftrangers, it feems to me that the fenfations
of the natives bear Hill a lefs proportion to that degree
than ours. On the 2d of Auguft, while I was lying
perfectly enei vated on a carpet in a room deluged with
water at 12 o’clock, the thermometer at 116, I faw
feveral black labourers pulling down a houfe, working
with great vigour, without any fymptoms of being in¬
commoded.”
The drefs of the people of Sennaar confifts only of
a long fhirt of blue cloth, which wraps them up from
the under part of the neck to the feet. It does not,
however, conceal the neck in the men, though it does
in the women. The men fometimes have a fafh tied
about their middle; and both men and women go bare¬
footed in the houfes, wdiatever their rank may be. The
floors of their apartments, efpecially thofe of the w^o-
men, are covered with Perfian carpets. Both men and
women anoint themfelves, at leaft once a-day, with ca¬
mel’s greafe mixed with civet, which, they imagine,
foftens their {kins, and preferves them from cutane¬
ous eruptions ; of which they are fo fearful, that they
confine themfelves to the houfe if they obferve the
fmalleft pimple on their ikins. With the fame view
of preferving their fkins, though they have a clean
fhirt every day, they ffeep with a greafed one at night,
having no other covering but this. Their bed is a
tanned bull’s hide, which this conftant grealing foftens
very much ; it is alfo very cool, though it gives a fmell
to their bodies from which they cannot be freed by any
waffling.
Our author gives a very curious defcnption of the
queens and ladies of the court at Sennaar. He had
accefs to them as a phyfician, and was permitted to pay
his viiit alone. He was firft ffiown into a large fquare
apartment, where there were about 50 black women,
all quite naked excepting a very narrow piece of cotton
rag about their waifts. As he was muling whether
thefe were all queens, one of them took him by the
hand, and led him into another apartment much better
lighted than the former. Here he faw three women
fitting upon a bench or fofa covered with blue Surat
cloth; they themfelves being clothed from the neck to
the feet with cotton fhirts of the fame colour. Thefe
were three of the king’s wives ; his favourite, who was
one of the number, appeared to be about fix feet high,
and fo corpulent that our traveller imagined her to be
the largelt creature he had feen next to the elephant
and rhinoceros. Her features perfe&ly refembled thofe Sentmr,
of a negro: a ring of gold pafled through her under lip, Sennertii*.
and weighed it down, till, like a flap, it covered her
chin, leaving her teeth bare, which were frnall and very
fine. ■ The infide of her lip was made black with anti¬
mony. Her ears reached down to her {boulders, and
had the appearance of wings : there was a gold ring in
each of them about five inches in diameter, and fome-
what Imaller than a man’s little finger; the weight of
which had drawn down the.hole where her ear was
pierced fo much that three fingers might ealily pafs
above the ring. She had a gold necklace like that
called tfclavage, of feveral rows, one below another;
to which were hung rows of fequins pierced. She had
two manacles of gold upon her ancles larger than thofe
ufed for chaining felons. Oar author could not imagine
how it was poflible for her to walk with them, tiff he
was informed that they were hollow. t he others were
drefled much in the fame manner; only there was one
who had chains coming from her ears to the outhde of
each noffril, where they were faftened. A ring was
alfo put through the griffle of her nofe, and which hung
down to the opening of her mouth; having all together
fomething of the appearance of a horfe’s bridle; and
Mr Bruce thinks that ffic muff; have breathed with dif¬
ficulty.
The poorer fort of the people of Sennar live upon
the flour or bread of millet; the rich make puddings
of this, toafting the flour before the fire, and putting
milk and butter into it ; belides which they ufe beef
partly roafted and partly raw. They have very fine
and fat horned cattle, but the meat commonly fold in
the market is camel’s fleffi. The liver and fpare rib
of this animal are always eaten raw; nor did our au¬
thor fee one inftance to the contrary all the time he
was in the country. Hog’s flefh is not fold in the
market; but all the common people of Sennaar eat
it openly; thofe in office, who pretend to be Maho¬
metans, doing the fame in fecret.
There are no manufactures in this country, and the
principal article of trade is blue Surat cloth. In for¬
mer times, when caravans could pafs with fafety, Indian
goods were brought in quantities from Jidda to Sen¬
naar, and then difperfed over the country of the blacks.
The returns weie made in gold, a powder called Tibbary
civet, rhinocerofes horns, ivory, oftrich feathers, and
above all ffaves or glafs, more of thefe being export¬
ed from Sennaar than from all the Eait of Africa.
This trade, however, as well as that of the gold and ivo¬
ry, is almoft deftroyed; though the gold is {till reputed
to be the beft and pureft in Africa, and is therefore
bought at Mocha to be carried to India, where it all
centres at laft.
SENNERTUS (Daniel), an eminent phyheian, was
born in 1372 at Brcflaw ; and in 1593 he was fent to
Wittemberg, where he made great progrefs in philo-
fophy and phyhe. He vihted the univerlities of Leip-
fic, Jena, Francfort upon the Oder, and Berlin ; but
foon returned to Wittemberg, where he was promoted
to the degree of doftor of phyfic, and foon after to a
profeflbrlhip in the fame faculty. He was the firfl: who
introduced the ftudy of chermilry into that univerfity ;
he gained a great reputation by his works and praftice,
and was very generous to the poor. He died of the
plague at Wittemberg, in 1637. He raifed himfelf
enemies
SEN C 271 ] SEN
S«n^ncs enemies by contradisfting the ancients. He thought the
II feed of all living creatures animated, and that the foul
of this feed produces organization. He was accufed of
impiety for afferting that the fouls of beads are not ma¬
terial ; for this was affirmed to be the fame thing with
afieiting that they are immortal ; but he rejected this
confequenee, as he well might do. See Metaphysics,
Part III. chap. vi.
t SENONES, (anc. geog.), a people of Gfllia Cel-
tica, fituated on the Sequana to the fouth of the Parifii,
near the confluence of the Jeauna or Yonne with the
above-mentioned river. Their mod confiderable ex¬
ploit was their invafron of Italy, and taking and burn¬
ing Rome, as related under that article. This was done
v by a colony of them long before tranfported into Italy,
and fettled on the Adriatic. Their capital, Agendi-
cum in Gaul, was in the lower age called Senones, now
Sens. In Italy the Senones extended themfebes as far
as the river Adis ; but were afterwards driven beyond
the Rubicon, which became the boundary of Gallia Ci*
falpina, (Polybius, Strabo.)
SENSATION, in philofophy, the perception of
external objefts by means of the fenits. See Meta¬
physics, Part I. chap. i.
SENSE, a faculty of the foul whereby it perceives
external objects by means of the impreflions they make
on certain organs of the body. See Metaphysics,
Part I. and Anatomy, n° 137, &c.
Common Sense, is a term that has been varioufly
ufed both bv ancient and modern writers. With fome
it has been fynonymous with public fenfe ; with others
it has denoted prudence ; in certain inflances, it has been
confounded with fome of the powers of tafle ; and, ac¬
cordingly, thofe who commit egregious blunder s Math
regard to decorum, faying and doing what is offenilve
to their company, and inconfiftent with their own cha-
radter, have been charged with a defedl in common
fenfe. Some men are diftingnifhed by an uncommon
acutenefs in difeovering the chara&ers of others ; and
this talent has been fometimes called common fenfe; fp.
niilar to which is that ufe of the term, which makes
it to lignify that experience and knowledge of life
which is acquired by living in fociety. To this mean¬
ing Quintilian refers, fpeaking of the advantages of a
public education : Senfum ipfum qui communis dicitur, ubi
ilfeet, cum fe a congrejju, qui non heminibus folum, fed
mutis quoque animalibus naiuralis ejl, Jegregurit ? Lib. i.
cap. 2.
But the term common fenfe hath in modern times
been ufed to fignify that power of the mind which per¬
ceives truth, or commands belief, not by progreffive ar¬
gumentation, but by an inftantaneous, inllindlive, and
irrefrftible impulfe ; derived neither from education nor
from habit, but from nature ; adding independently of
our will, whenever its objedt is prefented, according to
an eftablifhed law, and therefore called fenfe; and adf-
,ing in a fimilar manner upon all, or at kail upon a
great majority of mankind, and therefore called common
j'enfe. See Metaphysics, n° j 27.
Moral Sense, is a determination of the mind to be
pleafed with the contemplation of thofe affedlions, ac¬
tions, or charadlers, of rational agents, which we call
good or virtuous.
This moral fenfe of beauty in addions and affedlions
may appear ftrange at firft view : feme of our mcralifts Senfe,
themfelves are offended at it in Lord Shaftefbury, as be* Senfiblc.
ing accuftomed to deduce every approbation or averfion
from rational views of intereft. It is certain that his
Lordfhip has carried the influence of the moral fenfe
very far, and fome of his followers have carried it far¬
ther. The advocates for the felfifh fyftem feem to drive
their opinions to the oppofite extreme, and we have elfe-
where endeavoured to (how that the truth lies between
the contending parties. See Moral Philosophy, nS
27 —32*
Public Sense is defined by the noble author of the
Charadtertftics to be an innate propenfity to be pleafed
with the happinefs of others, and to be uneafy at their
mifery. It is found, he fays, in a greater or lefs degree
in all men, and was fometimes called or fenfus
communis, by ancient writers.
Of the reality of this public fenfe wc-have great
doubts. The condudl of lavages, who are more under
the influence of original inllindl than civilized men,
gives no countenance to it. Their affedlions feem all
to be felfifh, or at lead to fpring from felf-love variouf¬
ly modified. For the happinefs ox their wives they
have very little regard, confideving them merely as in-
ftruments of their own pleafure, and valuing them for
nothing die. Hence they make them toil, while they
themfelves indulge in lilllefs idlenefs. To their children
we believe they exhibit ftrong fymptoms of attachment,
as feon as they derive affiltance from them in war, or in
the bufinefs of the chace ; but during the helplefs years
of infancy, the child is left by the felfifh father wholly
to the care and protedtion of its wretched mother y
who, impelled by the Jlorge of all females to their
young, cherifees her offspring with great fondnefs.—-
The favage is, indeed, fufceptible of ftrong attachments,,
fimilar to that which we call friendfliip ; but fuch at¬
tachments are no proofs of difinterefted benevolence, or
what his Lordfhip calls the public fenfe. Two barbarous
heroes are probably firft linked together by the ob-
fervation of each other’s provvefs in war, or their fkill
in purfuing their game ; for foch obfervation cannot fail
to fhow them that they may be ufeful to one another
and we have elfewliere fhown how real friendfhip may
fpxing from fentiments originally fdfifh. The favage is
very much attached to his horde or tribe, and this at¬
tachment refembles patriotifm : but patriotifm itfelf is
not a fentirnent of pure benevolence delighting in the
happinefs of others, and grieving at their mifery ; for
the patriot prefers his own country to all others, and is
not very fcrupulous with refpedt to the redlitude of the
means by which he promotes its intereft, or depreffes its
rivals. The favage purfues with relentlefs rigour the
enemies of himfclf or of the tribe to which he belongs;
fhows no mercy to them when in his power, but puts
them to the crudleft death, and carries their fealps to
the leader of his party. Thefe fadls, which cannot be
controverted, are perfedlly irreconcileable with innate
benevolence, or a public fenfe comprehending the whole
race of men ; and fnow the truth of that theory by
which we have in another place endeavoured to account
for all the paflions, fecial as well as felfifh. See Pas¬
sion. *
SENSIBLE note, in mufic, is that which confti-
tutes a third major above the dominant, and a femi-
8 tone
SEN [2
Senfibility tone beneath the tonic. Si, or B, is the fenfible note
in the tone of or C ^ ; or G {harp, in the tone
of /a or A.
They call it the fevjible note on this account,that it caufes
to be perceived the tone or natural feries of the key and
the tonic itfelf; upon which, after the chord of the do¬
minant, the fenfible note taking the fhorteft road, is
under a neceflity of rifing ; which has made fome au¬
thors treat this feniible note as a major diffonance, for
want of obferving, that diffonance, being a relation,
cannot be conftituted unlefs by two notes between which
it fubfifts.
It is not meant that the fenfible note is the feventh of
the tone, becaufe, in the minor mode, this feventh can¬
not be a fenfible note but in afeending ; for, in delcend-
ing, it is at the diftance of a full, note from the tonic,
and of a third minor from the dominant.
SENSIBILITY, is a nice and delicate perception of
pleafure or pain, beauty or deformity. It is very near¬
ly allied to tafte ; and, as far as it is natural, feems to
depend upon the organization of the nervous fyftem.
It is capable, however, of cultivation, and is experien¬
ced in a much higher degree in civilized than in favage
nations, and among perfons liberally educated than
among boors and illiterate mechanics. The man who
has cultivated any of the fine arts has a much quicker
and more exquifite perception of beauty and deformity
in the execution of that art, than another of equal or
even greater natural powers, who has but cafually in-
fpedfed its produdlions. He who has been long accuf-
tomed to that decorum of manners which charafterizes
the polite part of the world, perceives almoft inftantane-
oufiy the fmalleft deviation from it, and feels himfelf al¬
moft as much hurt by behaviour harmlefs in itfelf, as by
the grofleft rudenefs ; and the man who has long pro¬
ceeded fteadily in the paths of virtue, and often painted
to himfelf the deformity of vice, and the miferies of
which it is produAive, is more quickly alarmed at any
deviation from reAitude, than another who, though his
life has been ftained by no crime, has yet thought lefs
upon the principles of virtue and confequences of vice.
Every thing which can be called fenfibility, and is
not born with man, may be refolved into aflbeiation,
and is to be regulated accordingly ; for fenfibilities may
be acquired which are inimical to happinefs and to the
praAice of virtue. The man is not to be envied who
has fo accuftomed himfelf to the forms of polite addrefs
as to be hurt by the unaffeAed language and manners of
the honeft peafant, with whom he may have occafion
to tranfaA bufinefs ; nor is he likely to acquire much
ufeful knowledge who has fo feduloufly ftudied the
beauties of compofition as to be unable to read without
difguft a book of fcience or of hiftory, of which the ftyle
comes not up to his ftandard of perfeAion. That fen¬
fibility which we either have from nature, or neceflarily
acquire, of the miferies of others, is of the greateft ufe
when properly regulated, as it powerfully impels us
to relieve their diftrefs; but if it by any means become
fo exquifite as to make us fliun the fight of mifery, it
counteraAs the end for which it was implanted in our
nature, and only deprives us of happineft, while it con¬
tributes nothing to the good of others. Indeed there
is reafon to believe that all fuch extreme fenlibilities are
felfifti affeAations, employed as apologies for withholding
from the miferable that relief which it is in oiir power
72 ] SEN
to give ; for there is not a faA better eftablifhed in the Senfibiljty .
fcience of human nature, than that paffive perceptions ^"fiovc.*
grow gradually weaker by repetition, while aAive ha- ~—v  
bits daily acquire ilrength.
It is of great importance to a literary man to culti¬
vate his tafte, becaufe it is the fource of .much elegant
and refined pleafure, (fee Taste) ; but there is a de¬
gree of faftidioufnefs which renders that pleafure impof-
fible to be obtained, and is the certain indication of ex¬
piring letters. It is neceffary to fubmit to the artificial
rules of politenefs, for they tend to promote the peace
and harmony of fociety, and are fometimes a ufeful fub-
ftitute for moral virtue ; but he who with refpeA to
them has fo much fenfibility as to be difgufted with all
whofe manners are not equally polifhed with his ovn, is
a very troublefome member of fociety. It is every man’s
duty to cultivate his moral fenfibilities, fo as to make
them fubfervient to the purpofes for which they were
given to him; but if he either feel, or pretend to feel,
the miferies of others to fo exquifite a degree as to be
unable to afford them the relief which they have a right
to expeA, his fenfibilities are of no good tendency.
That the man of true fenfibility has more pains and
move pleafures than the callous wretch, is univerlally ad¬
mitted, as well as that his enjoyments and fufferings are
more exquifite in their kinds; and as no man lives for
himfelf alone, no man will acknowledge his want of
fenfibility, or exprefs a wifti that his heart were callous.
It is, however, a matter of fome moment to diftinguifti
real fenfibilities from ridiculous affeAions ; thofe which
tend to increafe the fum of human happinefs from fuch
as have a contrary tendency, and to cultivate them all in
fuch amanner as to make them anfwer the ends for which
they were implanted in us by the beneficent Author of na¬
ture. This can be done only by watching over them as
over other aflbeiations, (fee Metaphysics, n° 98.); for
exceflive fenfibility, as it is not the gift of nature, is
the bane of human happinefs. “ Too much tendernefs
(as Roufleau well obferves) proves the bittereft curfe
in Head of the moft fruitful bleffing ; vexation and dif-
appointment are its certain confequences. The tempe¬
rature of the air, the change of the feafons, the brilli¬
ancy of the fun, or thicknefs of the fogs, are fo many
moving fprings to the unhappy poffeflbr, and he becomes
the wanton fport of their arbitration.”
SENSITIVE-plant. See Mimosa, Dion^ea, and
Heuysarum.
The fenfitive plants are well known to poflefs a kind
of motion, by which the leaves and {talks are contraA-
ed and fall down upon being {lightly touched, or {haken
with fome degree of violence.
The contraAion of the leaves and branches of the
fenfitive plant when touched, is a very fingular phenome¬
non. Different hypothefes have been formed by bota-
nifts in order to explain it ; but we arc difpofed to be¬
lieve that thefe have generally been deduced rather from
analogical reafoning than from a colleAion of faAs and
obfervations. We {hall therefore give an account of all
the important faAs which we have been able to colleA
upon this cuiious fubjeA ; and then draw Inch conclu-
fions as obvioufly refult from them, without, however, at¬
tempting to fupport any old, or to eftablilh a new, hy-
pothefis.
1. it is difficult to touch the leaf of a healthy fenfi¬
tive plant fo delicately that it will not immediately col-
7 lapfe
SEN [2
lapfe (a), the foliola or little leaves moving at their
  bale till they come into contad, and then applying
themfelves clofe together. If the leaf be touched with
a little more force, the oppofite leaf will exhibit the
fame appearance. If a little more force be applied, the
partial footftalks bend down towards the common foot-
ilalk from which they iflue, making with it a more acute
angle than before. If the touch be more violent Hill,
all"'the leaves fituated on the fame fide with the one
that hasJ been touched will inltantly collapfe, and the
partial footftalk will approach the common footllalk t:o
which it is attached, in the fame manner as the partial
footftalk of the leaf apprciaches the ftem or branch
from which it iffues ; fo that the whole 'plant, from ha¬
ving its branches extended, will immediately appear like
a weeping birch.
2. Thefe motions of the plant are performed by means
of three diftind and fenlible articulations. The firft,
that of the foliola or lobes to the partial footftalk ; the
fecond, that of the partial footftalk to the common one ;
the third, that of the common footftalk to the trunk.
The primary motion of all which is the clofsng ot the
leaf upon the partial footftalk, which is performed in
a ftmilar manner, and by a fimilar articulation. I nis,
however, is much lefs viiible than the others. 1 hefe
motions are wholly independent on one another, as may
be proved by experiment. It appears that if the par¬
tial footftalks are moved, and collapfe toward the petioli,
or thefe toward the trunk, the little leaves, whofe
motion is ufually primary to thefe, fhould be affeded
alfo ; yet experiment proves that it is poffible to touch
the footftalks in fuch a manner as to affed them
only, and make them apply themfelves to the trunk,
while the leaves feel nothing of the touch ; but this
cannot be, unlefs the footftalks are fo difpofed as that
they can fall to the trunk, without fuffering their leaves
to touch any part of the plant in their paflage, becatife,
if they do, they are immediately affeded.
3. Winds and heavy rains make the leaves of the fen-
fitive plant contrad and clofe ; but no fuch effed is
produced from flight {bowers.
4. At night, or when expofed to much cold in the
day, the leaves meet and clofe in the fame manner as
when touched, folding their upper furfaces together,
and in part over each other, like fcales or tiles, io as to
expofe as little as pofiible of the upper \urface to the
air. The oppoflte ftdes of the leaves (foliola j do not
come clofe together in the night, for when touched they
apply themfelves clofer together. Dr Darwin kept a
fenfitive plant in a dark place for fome hours after day¬
break ; the leaves and footftalks were collapfed as in
its moft profound fleep; and, on expofing it to the light,
above 20 minutes paffed before it was expanded.
5. In the month of Auguft, a fenfitive plant was
carried in a pot out of its ufual place into a dark cave,
the motion that it received in the carnage fhut up its
leaves, and they did not open till 24 hours aftei wards ;
at this time t .ey became moderately open, but were af-
Vol. XVIL Fart. I.
73 j SEN
tewards fubjefl to no changes at night or morning, but Senfit
remained three days and nights with their leaves in the “~v
fame moderately open ftate. At the end of this time
they were brought out again into the air, and there re¬
covered their natural periodical motions, {hutting every
night, and opening every morning, as naturally and as
ftrongly as if the plant had not been in this forced ftate $
and while in the cave, it was obferved to be very little
lefs affected with the touch than when abroad in the
open air.
6. The great heats of fummer, when there is open
funfhine at noon, affed the plant in fome degree like
cold, caufing it to flint up its leaves a little, but never
in any very great degree. The plant, however, is leaft:
of all affeded about nine o’clock in the morning, and
that is confequentl/ the propereft time to make experi¬
ments on it. A branch of the fenfitive plant cut off,
and laid by, retains yet its property of {hutting up and
opening in the morning for fome days ; and it holds it
longer if kept with one end in water, than if left to
dry more fuddenly.
7. The leaves only of the fenfitive plant {hut up in the
night, not the branches'; and if it be touched at this
time, the branches are affeded in the fame manner as
in the day, {hutting up, or approaching to the ftalk or
trunk, in the fame manner, and often with more force.
It is of no confequence what the fubftance is with which
the plant is touched, it anfwers alike to all; but there
may be obferved a little fpot, difiinguifhable by its paler
colour in the articulations of its leaves, where the
greateft and niceft fenfibility is evidently placed.
8. Duhamel having obferved, about the 15th of
September, in moderate weather, the natural motion
of a branch of a fenfitive plant, remaiked, that at nine
in the morning it formed with the ftem an angle of 100
degrees; at noon, 112 degrees ; at three afternoon, it
returned to ico ; and after touching the branch, the
angle was reduced to 90. Three quarters of aa hour
after it had mounted to 112 ; and, at eight at night, it
defeended again, without being touched, to 90. The
day after, in finer weather, the fame branch, at eight
in the morning, made an angle of 135 degrees with the
item ; after being touched, the angle was diminilhed to
80 ; an hour after, it rofe again to 135 ; being touch¬
ed a fecond time, it deicended again to 80 ; an hour
and a half after, it had rifcn to 145 ; and upon being
touched a third time, defeended to 135 ; and remained
in that pofition till five o’clock in the afternoon, when
being touched a fourth time it fell to no.
9. The parts of the plants which have collapfed af¬
terwards unfold themfelves, and return to their former
expanded ftate. The time required for that purpofe
varies, according to the vigour of the plant, the feafon
of the y ear, the hour of the day, the ftate of the at-
mofphere. Sometimes half an hour is requifite, fome-
timea only ten minutes. The order in which the parts
recover themfelves varies in like manner : fometimes it
is the common footftalk ; fometimes the rib to which
Mm. the
(a) As the nature of the fenfitive plant is curious, we wifh to make the defeription of it intelligible to thofe
who are not acquainted with the technical language of botany. We have therefore uied the word IccJ inftead of
fz/ic/um, or lobe.
SEN
Senfuive the leaves arc attached ; and fometlmcs the leaves them
felves are expanded, before the other parts have made
any attempt to be reinftated in their former pofition.
10. If, without (baking the other (mailer leaves, we
cut off the half of a leaf or lobe belonging to the lad
pair, at the extremity or fummit of a wing, the leaf
cut, and its antagoniff, that is to fay, the firft pair,
begin to approach each other ; then the fecond, and (o
on fucceffively, till all the leffer leaves, or lobes of that
wing, have collapfed in like manner. Frequently, af¬
ter 12 or 15 feconds, the lobes of the other wings,
which were not immediately affe&ed by the ftroke, (hut;
whilft the (talk and its wing, beginning at the bottom,
and proceeding in order to the top, gradually recover
themfelves. If, inftead o( one of the leffer extreme
leaves, we cut off one belonging to the pair that is next
the footftalk, its antagonift (huts, as do the other pairs
fucceffively, from the bottom to the top. If all the
leaves of one fide of a wing be cut off, the oppofite
leaves are not affefted, but remain expanded. With
fome addrefs, it is poflible even to cut off a branch
without hurting the leaves, or making them fall. The
common footftalk of the winged leaves being cut as
far as three-fourths of its diameter, ail the parts which
hang down collapfe, but quickly recover without ap¬
pearing to have fuffered any confiderable violence by
the (hock. An incifion being made into one of the prin¬
cipal branches to the depth of one-half the diameter,
the branches fituated betwixt the feftion and the root
will fall down ; thofe above the incifion remain as be¬
fore, and the leffer leaves continue open ; but this di-
re&ton is foon deftroyed, by cutting off one of the
lobes at the extremity, as was obferved above. Laftly,
a whole wing being cut off with precaution near its in-
fertion into the common footftalk, the other wings are
not affefted by it, and its own lobes do not (hut. No
motion enfues from piercing thebranch with a needle or
other (harp inftrument.
11. If the end of one of the leaves be burned with
the flame of a candle, or by a burning glafs, or by
touching it with hot iron, it clofes up in a moment, and
the oppofite leaf does the fame, and after that the
whole feries of leaves on each fide of the partial or
little footftalk ; then the footftalk itfelf; then the branch
or common footftalk ; all do the fame, if the burning
has been in a fufficient degree. This proves that there
is a very nice communication between all the parts of
the plant, by means of which the burning, which only
is applied to the extremity of one leaf, diffufes its influ¬
ence through every part of the (limb. If a drop of
aquafortis be carefully laid upon a leaf of. the fenfitive
plant, (o as not to (hake it in the leaft, the leaf does
not begin to move till the acrid liquor corrodes the fub-
ftance of it ; but at that time, not only that particular
leaf, but all the leaves placed on the fame footftalk,
ciofe themfelves up. The vapour of burning fulphur
has alfo this effeft on many leaves at once, according as
they are more or lefs expofed to it ; but a bottle of
very acrid and fulphureous fpirit of vitriol, placed
under the branches unftopped, produces no fuch effedf.
Wetting the leaves with (pirit of wine has been obferved
alfo to have no effeft, nor the rubbing oil of almonds
over them ; though this laft application deftroys many
plants.
From the preceding experiments the following con-
SEN
clufions maybe fairly drawn : 1. The contraction ox Senfit've,
the parts of the fenfitive plant is occafioned by an exter- ——y—-w
nal force, and the contraction is in proportion to the
force. 2. All bodies which can exert any force affect
the fenfitive plant; fome by the touch or by agitation,
as the wind, rain, See. ; fome by chemical influence, as
heat and cold. 3. Touching or agitating the plant pro¬
duces a greater effect than an incifion or cutting off a
part, or by applying heat or cold.
Attempts have been made to explain tbefe curious
phenomena. Dr Darwin, in the notes to his admired
poem, intitled, 7 fie Bet mu Garden, lays it down as a
principle, that “ the deep of animals coniifts in a fuf-
penfion of voluntary motion ; and as vegetables are fub-
ject to deep as well as animals, there is reafon to con¬
clude (fays he) that the various action of clofing their
petals and foliage may be juftly aferibed to a voluntary
power ; for without the faculty of volition deep would
not have been neceffary to therm” Whether this defi¬
nition of deep when applied to animals be juft, we (hall
not inquirebut it is evident the fuppofed analogy be*-
tween the deep of animals and the deep of plants has
led Dr Darwin to admit this aftonifhing conclufion, that
plants have volition. As volition prefuppofes a mind or
foul, it were to be widied that he had given us fome in¬
formation concerning the nature of a vegetable foul,
which can think and will. We fufpedt, however, that
this vegetable foul will turn out to be a mere mechani¬
cal or chemical one ; for it is affeAed by external forces
uniformly in the fame way, its volition is merely paffive,
and never makes any fuccefsful refiftance againft thofe
caufes by which it is induenced. All this is a mere
abufe of words. The deep of plants is a metaphorical
expredion, and has not the leaft refemblance to the
deep of animals. Plants are faid to deep when the
dowers or leaves are contrafted or folded together ; but
we never heard that there is any fimilar contra&ion in
the body of an animal during deep.
The fibres of vegetables have been compared with
the mufcles of animals, and the motions of the fenfitive
plant have been fuppofed the fame with mufcular motion.
Between the fibres of vegetables and the mufcles of ani¬
mals, however, there is not the leaft fimilarity. If mufcles
be cut through, fo as to be feparaied from the joints
to which they are attached, their powers are completely
deftroyed ; but this is not the cafe with vegetable fibres.
The following very ingenious experiment, which was
communicated to us by a refpe&able member of tlie
Univerfity of Edinburgh, is decifive on this fubjeft.
He fele&ed a growing poppy at that period of its
growth, before unfolding, when the head and neck are
bent down almoft double. He cut the ftalk where it
was curved half through on the under fide, and half
through at a fmall diftance on the upper fide, and half
through in the middle point between the two fedions,
fo that the ends of the fibres were feparated from the
ftalk. Notwithftanding thefe feveral cuttings on the
neck, the poppy railed its head, and affumed a more
ere& pofition. There is, therefore, a complete diftinc-
tion between mufcular motion and the motions of a plant,
for 110 motion can take place in the limb of an animal
when the mufcles of that limb are cut.
In fine, we look upon all attempts to explain the
motions of plants as abfurd, and all reafoning from fup¬
pofed analogy between animals and vegetables as the
fourc«
C 27+ 1
SEN [27S
gentencc fource of wild conjefture, and not of found philofophy.
|| We view the contraftion and expanfion of the fenfitive
Sentiffient pjan^
in the fame light as we do gravitation, chemical
L ' ~ attraftion, eleftricity, and magnetifm, as a Angular faft,
the circumftances of which we may be fully acquainted
with, but muft defpair of underftanding its caufe.
What has been faid under this article chiefly refers to
the mimofa fenjitiva and pudlca. For a full account of
the motions of vegetables in general, fee Vegetable Mo¬
tion, under the article Motion.
SENTENCE, in law, a judgment palled in court
by the judge in feme procefs, either civil or criminal.
See Judgment.
Sentence, in grammar, denotes a period ; or a fet
of words comprehending fome perfect fenfe or fenti-
ment of the mind. The buiinefs of pointing is to di-
ftinguilh the feveral parts and members of fentences, fo
as to render the fenfe thereof as clear, diftindt, and
full as pofiible. See Punctuation.
In every fentence there are two parts neceflarily re¬
quired ; a noun for the fubjedt, and a definite verb:
whatever is found more than thefe two, affedls one of
them, either immediately, or by the intervention of fome
other, whereby the firfi: is affedfed.
Again, every fentence is either fimple or compound:
a fimple fentence is that conlifting of one Angle lub-
jedt, and one finite verb.—A compound fentence con¬
tains feveral fubjedts and finite verbs, either exprefsly
or implicitly.
A Ample fentence needs no point or diflindtion ; only
a period to clofe it: as, “ A good man loves virtue
for itfelf.”—In fuch a fentence, the feveral adjundts af-
fedt either the fubjedt or the verb in a different man¬
ner. Thus the word good exprefles the quality of the
fubjedt, virtue the objedt of the adtion, and for itfelf
the end thereof.—Now none of thefe adjundts can be
feparated from the reft of the fentence : for if one be,
why fhould not all the reft ? and if all be, the fentence
will be minced into almoit as many parts as there are
words.
But if feveral adjundts be attributed in the fame man¬
ner either to the fubjedt or the verb, the fentence be¬
comes compound, and is to be divided into parts.
In every compound fentence, as many fubjedts, or as
many finite verbs as there are, either exprefsly or im¬
plied, fo many diftindtions may there be. Thus, “ My
hopes, fears, joys, pains, all centre in you.” And thus
Cicero, Catilina abiit, excefit, evafit, erupit. —The reafon of
which pointing is obvious; for as many fubjedts or fi¬
nite verbs as there are in a fentence, fo many members
does it really contain. Whenever, therefore, there oc¬
cur more nouns than verbs, or contrariwife, they are
to be conceived as equal. Since, as every fubjedt re¬
quires its verbs, fo every verb requires its fubjedt, where¬
with it may agree : excepting, perhaps, in fome figu¬
rative expreflions.
- SENTICOSiE (from fentis, a “ briar or bramble)
the name of the 35th order in Linnaeus’s fragments of
a natural method, confifting of rofe, bramble, and other
plants, which refemble them in port and external ftruc-
ture. See Botany, page 465.
SENTIMENT, according to Lord Karnes, is a
term appropriated to fuch thoughts as are prompted
by paffion. It differs from a perception ; for a per¬
ception Agnifies the adt by which we become confcious
] SEN
of external objedls. It differs from confcioufiiefs of an Serthnenti,
internal adtion, fuch as thinking, fufpending thought,
inclining, refolving, willing, &c. And it differs from
the conception of a relation among objedls ; a concep¬
tion of that kind being termed opinion.
Sentiments, in poetry. To talk in the language
of mufic, each paflion hath a certain tone, to which
every fentiment proceeding from it ought to be tuned
with the greateft accuracy : which is no eafy work,
efpecially where fuch harmony ought to be fupported
during the courfe of a long theatrical reprefentation.
In order to reach fuch delicacy of execution, it is ne-
cefi’ary that a writer affume the precife charadler and
paffion of the perfonage reprefented; which requires
an uncommon genius. But it is the only difficulty ;
for the writer, who, annihilating himfelf, can thus be¬
come another perfon, need be in no pain about the fen-
timents that belong to the affumed charadler: thefe
will flow without the lead ftudy, or even preconcep¬
tion ; and will frequently be as delightfully new to him¬
felf as to his reader. But if a lively pidture even of a
Angle emotion require an effort of genius, how much
greater the effort to compofe a paffionate dialogue with
as many different tones of paffion as there are fpeak-
ers ? With what dudlility of feeling mutt that writer
be endued, who approaches perfedlion in fuch a work ;
when it is neceffary to affume different and even oppo-
Ate charadlers and paffions in the quickeft fucceffion ?
Yet this work, difficult as it is, yields to that of com-
pofing a dialogue in genteel comedy, exhibiting cha¬
radlers without paffion. The reafon is, that the diffe¬
rent tones of charadler are more delicate, and lefs in
fight, than thofe of paffion ; and, accordingly, many
writers, who have no genius for drawing charadlers,
make a fhift to reprefent, tolerably well, an ordinary
paffion in its Ample movements. But of all works of
this kind, what is truly the moft difficult, is a charac-
teriftical dialogue upon any philofophical fubjedl ; to
interweave charadlers with reafoning, by fuiting to the
charadler of each fpeaker a peculiarity not only of
thought but of expreffion, requires the perfedlion of
genius, tafte, and judgment.
How difficult dialogue writing is, will be evident, even
without reafoning, from the miferable compofitions of
that kind found without number in all languages. The
art of mimicking any Angularity in gefture or in voice,
is a rare talent, though diredted by fight and hearing,
the acuteft and moft lively of our external fenfes : how
much more rare muft that talent be, of imitating cha¬
radlers and internal emotions, tracing all their diffe¬
rent tints, and reprefenting them in a lively manner by
natural fentiments properly expreffed ? The truth is,
fuch execution is too delicate for an ordinary genius;
and for that reafon the bulk of writers, inftead of ex-
preffing a paffion as one does who feels it, content
themfelves with deferibing it in the language of a fpee-
tator. To awake paffion by an internal effort merely,
without any external caufe, requires great fenfibility ;
and yet that operation is neceffary, not lefs to the wri¬
ter than to the adlor; becaufe none but thofe who ac¬
tually feel a paflion can reprefent it to the life. The
writer’s part is the more complicated : he muft add
compofition to paffion : and muft, in the quickeft fuc-
ceffion, adopt every different charadler. But a very
humble flight of imagination may ferve to convert a
Mm2 writer
SEN [ 276 ] S X N
Sentiments, writer into a fpeftator, fo as to figure, in Tome obfcure
w^v~”'" manner, an aft ion as palling in his fight and hearing.
In that figured fituation, being led naturally to write
like a fpeftator, he entertains his readers with his own
refkftions, with cool defcription, and florid declama¬
tion ; inftead of making them eye-witnefles, as it were,
to a real event, and to every movement of genuine paf-
fion. Thus molt of our plays appear to be call in the
fame mould ; perfonages without charaftcr, the mere
Outlines of pafllon, a tirefome monotony, and a pompous
declamatory ftyle.
This defcriptive manner of reprefenting paffion is a
very cold entertainment; our fympathy is not raifed
by defcription ; we muft fivll be lulled into a dream of
reality, and every thing mull appear as palling in our
fight. Unhappy is the player of genius who afts a
part in what may be termed a defcriptive tragedy ; af¬
ter affuming the very pafiion that is to be reprefented,
how is he cramped in aftion, when he muft utter, not
the fentiments of the paffion hfc feels, but a cold de¬
fcription in the language of a byftander ? It is that im-
perfeftion, undoubtedly, in the bulk of our plays,
which confines our ftage almoft entirely to Shakefpeare,
notwithftanding his many irregularities. In our late
Englilh tragedies, we fometimes find fentiments tole-
(rably well adapted to a plain palfiou : but we mull not
in any of them expeft a fentiment exprelfive of cha-
rafter; and, upon that very account, our late perform¬
ances of the dramatic kind are for the moll part into¬
lerably infipid
But it may be proper to illuftrate this fubjeft by ex¬
amples. The firft examples lhall be of fentiments that
appear the legitimate offspring of paffion ; to which
fhall be oppofed what are defcriptive only, and illegiti¬
mate : and in making this comparifon, the inftances lhall
be borrowed from Shakefpeare and Corneille, who for
genius in dramatic compofition Hand uppermoft in the
rolls of fame.
I. Shakefpeare fhall furnilh tire firll example, being
of fentiments diftated by a violent and perturbed paf-
fion :
Lear. Filial ingratitude !
Is it not as if this mouth Ihould tear this hand
For lifting food to’t ?—But I’ll pimilh home ;
No, I will weep no more. In fuch a night,
To fhut me out ! Pour on, I will endure.
In fuch a night as this ! O Regan, Gonerill,
Your old kind father, whofe frank heart gave all—*
O ! that way madnefs lies ; let me Ihun that j
No more of that. 
Kent. Good, my lord, enter here.
Lear. Prithee, go in thyfelf, feek thine own eafe,
This tempeft will not give me leave to ponder
On things would hurt me more but I’ll go in ;
In, bey, go firft. You houfelefs poverty 
Nay, get thee in ; I’ll pray, and then I’ll fleep—
Poor naked wretches, wherefoeJer you are,
That bide the pelting of this pitilefs ftorm !
How fhall your houfelefs heads, and unfed fides.
Your loop’d and window’d raggednefs defend you
From feafons fuch as thefe ! O I have ta’en
Too little care of this ! take phyfic, Pomp $
Fxpofe thyfelf to feel what wretches feel,
That thou may’ll fhake the fuperfiux to them, Sentiment*,
And fhow the heav’ns more juft, '—■"'v J
King Lear, a8 $.fc. 5.
With regard to the French author, truth obliges us
to acknowledge, that he deferibes in the ftyle of a fpec-
tator, inftead of expreffing palfion like one who feels
it; which naturally betrays him into a tirefome mono¬
tony, and a pompous declamatory ilyle. It is fcarce
neceflary to give examples, for he never varies from
that tone. We ihal!, however, take two paffages at a
venture, in order to be confronted with thofe tranferi-
bed above. In the tragedy of Cinna, after the coh-
Ipiracy was difeovered, ^Emilia, having nothing in view
but racks and death to herfelf and her lover, receives
a pardon from Auguftus, attended with the brighteft
circumftances of magnanimity and tendernefs. This is
a lucky fituation for reprefenting the paffions of fur-
prife and gratitude in their different llages, which feem
naturally to be what follow. Thefe paffions, raifed at
once to the utmoft pitch, and being at firil too big for
utterance, muft, for fome moments, be expreffed by
violent gellures only : fo foon as there is vent for words,
the firft expreffions are broken and interrupted: at laft,
we ought to expeft a tide of intermingled fentiments,
occafioned by the fluctuation of the mind between the
two paffions. ^Emilia is made to behave in a very dif¬
ferent manner: with extreme coolnefs Are deferibes her
own fituation, as if fhe were merely a fpeftator; or ra¬
ther the poet takes the talk off her hands:
Ft je me rends, Seigneur, a ces hautes bontes :
Je recouvre la vue aupres de leurs clartes.
Je connois mon forfait qui me fembloit juftice ;
Ft ce que n’aVoit pu la terreur du fupplice,
Je fens naitre en mon ame un repentir puiflant.
Ft mon coeur en fecret me dit, qu’il y confent.
Fe ciel a refolu votre grandeur fupreme ;
Ft pour preuve, Seigneur, je n’en veux que moi-meme,
J’oie avec vanite me donner cet eclat,
Puifqu’il change mon cceur, qu’il veut changer Petat.
Ma haine va mourir, que j’ai crue immortelle ;
File eft morte, et ce coeur devient fujet fidele;
Ft prenant deformais cette haine en horreur,
L’ardeur de vous fervir fuccede a fa fureur.
Aa $.fc. 3
So much in general upon the genuine fentiments of
paffion. We proceed to particular obfervations. And,
firll, paffions feldom continue uniform any confiderable
time : they generally fluftuate, fwelling and fubfiding
by turns, often in a quick fuccelfion ; and the fenti¬
ments cannot be juft unlefs they correfpond to fuch fluc¬
tuation. Accordingly, a climax never {hows better than
in expreffing a fwelling paffion : the following paffages
may fuffice for an illuftration.
Almeria. How haft thou charm’d
The wildnefs of the waves and rocks to this ;
That thus relenting they have giv’n thee back
To earth, to light and life, to love and me ?
Mourning Bride, a3 l.fc. 7^
I would not be the villain that thou think’ll
For the whole fpace that’s in the tyrant’s grafp,
And the rich earth to boot.
Macbeth, act c\. fc. 4.
The
SEN [s'
Sentiment!. The following pafiage exprefles finely the progrefs of
t—conviftion.
Let me not ftir, nor breathe, left I cli|Tolve
'Fhat tender, lovely form, of painted air,
So like Almeria. Ha ! it finks, it falls ;
I’ll catch it e’er it goes, and grafp her fhade.
’Tis life i ’tis warm ! ’tis file ! Jtis flic hcrfelf!
It is Almeria ! ’tis, it is my wife !
Mourning Bride, aft 2. fc. 6.
In the progrefs of thought our refolutions become
more vigorous as well as our pafilons.
If ever I do yield or give confent,
By any adtion, word, or thought, to wed
Another lord; may then juft heav’n Fhow’r down, &c.
Mourning Bride, aft i-fc. I.
And this leads to a fecond obfervation, That the dif¬
ferent ftages of a paffion, and its different dire&ions,
from birth to extinction, muft be carefully reprefented
in their order; becaufe otherwife the fentiments, by
being mifplaced, will appear forced and unnatural. —
Refentment, for example, when provoked by an atro¬
cious injury, difcharges itfelf firft upon the author :
fentiments therefore of revenge come always firft, and
muft in fome meafure be exhaufted before the perfon
injured think of grieving for himfelf. In the Cid of
Corneille, Don Diegue having been affronted in a cruel
manner, expreffes fcarce any fentiment of revenge, but
is totally occupied in contemplating the low fituation
to which beds reduced by the affront:
O rage ! 6 defefpoir ! 6 vieilleffe ennemie !
N’ai-je done tant vecu que pour cette infamie ?
Et ne fuis-je blanch! dans les travaux guerriers,
Que pour voir en un jour fletrir tant de lauriers ?
Mon bras, qu’avec refpedt tout i’Efpagne admire,
Mon bras qui tant de fois a fauve cet empire,
Tant de fois affermi le trone de fon roi,
Trahit done ma querelle, et ne fait rien pour moi !
O cruel fouvenir de ma gloire paffe !
Oeuvre de tant de jours en un jour effacee !
Nouvelle dignite fatale a mon bonheur !
Precipice eleve d’ou tombe mon honneur !
Eaut-il de votre eclat voir triompher le comte,
Et mourir fans vengeance, ou vivre dans la honte ?
Comte, fois de mon prince a prefent gouverneur,
Ce haut rang n’admet point un homme Ians honneur ;
Et ton jalo’ux orgueil par cet affront infigne,
Malgre le choix du roi, m’en a fu rendre indigne.
Et toi, de mes exploits glorieux inftrument,
Mais d’un corps tout de glace inutile ornement,
Eer jadis tant a craindre, et qui dans cette offenfe,
M’as fervi de parade, et non pas de defenfe,
Va, quitte deformais le dernier des humains,
Paffe pour me venger en de meilleures mains.
Le Cid, aft l. fc. 7.
Thefc fentiments are certainly not the firft that are
faggefted by the pafiion of refentment. As the firft
movements of refentment are always direfted to its ob-
jeft, the very fame is the cafe of grief. Yet with rela¬
tion to the fudden and fevere diftemper that feized
Alexander bathing in the river Cydnus, Qmntus Cur¬
tins deferibes the firft emotions of the army as direfted
tcgthemfelves, lamenting that they were left without a
leader, far from home, and had fcarce any hopes of re*
77 J SEN
turping in fafety: their king’s diftrefs, which mnft na- Sentmun *.
turally have been their firft concern, occupies them but
in the fecond place according to that author. In the
Aminta of Taffo, Sylvia, upon a report of her lover’s
death, which fhe believed certain, inftead of bemoaning
the lofsof her beloved, turns her thoughts upon herleU,
and wonders her heart does not break :
Ohime, ben fon di faffo,
Poi che quefta novella non m’uccide. Aft. 4. fc, 2.
In the tragedy of Jane Shore, Alicia, in the full pur-
pofe of deftroying her rival, lias the following reflec¬
tion :
Oh Jealoufy ! thou bane of pleafing friendfhip,
Thou worft invader of our tender bofoms ;
How does thy rancour poifon all our foftnefs,
And turn our gentle nature into bitternefs i
See where fhe comes ! Once my heart’s deareft bleffing.
Now my chang’d eyes are blafted with her beauty,
Loathe that known face, and ficken to behold her.
Aa$.fc.i.
Thefe are the refle&ions of a cool fpeflator. A paffion,
while it has the afeendant; and is freely indulged, fug-
gefts not to the perfon who feels it any fentiment to its
own prejudice : refle&ions like the foregoing occur not
readily till the paffion has fpent its vigour.
A perfon fometimes is agitated at once by different
paffions ; and the mind in that cafe, vibrating like a pen¬
dulum, vents itfelf in fentiments that partake of the fame
vibration. This we give as a third obfervation :
Queen. Would I had never trod this Englifli earth5
Or felt the flatteries that grow upon it!
Ye’ve angels faces, but heav’n knows your hearts. -
What fnall become of me now ? wretched lady !
I am the moft unhappy woman living.
Alas ! poor wenches, where are now your fortunes ?
Uo her women.
Shipwreck’d upon a kingdom, where no pity,
No friends, no hope, no kindred, weep for me l
Almoft no grave allow’d me.
Henry VIH. nS 3./. 1.
Othello. Oh devil, devil 1
If that the earth could teem with woman’s tears,
Each drop fhe falls would prove a crocodile.
Out of my fight!
Defdemona. I will not flay t’offend you. {Going.
Lodovico. Truly, an obedient lady:
I do befeech your lordfhip, call her back.
Oth. Miftrefs 
Def. My lord.
Oth. What would you with her. Sir :?
Lod. Who, I, my lord ?
Oth. Ay; you did wifh that I would make her turn.
Sir, ftie can turn and turn, and yet go on 'r
And turn again. And fhe can weep, Sir, weep ;
And (he’s obedient: as you fay, obedient:
Very obedient—proceed you in your tears—
Concerning this, Sir,—oh well painted paffion !—»
I am commanded home—get you away,
I’ll fend for you anon — Sir, I obey the mandate,
And will return to Venice. Hence, avaunt!
{Exit Defdemona
Othello, aft 4. fc.6.
JEmilia*
SEN [ 27S 3 SEN
Sentiments. JEmilia. Oh ! my good lord, I would fpeak a word
^ with you.
Othello. Yes,’tis TEmilia—By and by.—She’s dead.
’Tis like (lie comes to jpeak of Caffio’s death ;
The noife was high.—Ha ! no more mpving ?
Still as the grave. Shall fhe come in ? wer’t good ?
I think fhe ftirs again—No—-what’s the heft ?
If Hie come in, {lie’ll, fure, fpeak to my wife:
My wife ! my wife ! what wife ? I have no wife;
Oh infupportable ? oh heavy hour !
Othello, a8 fc. 7.
A fourth obfervation is, That nature, which gave us
paflions, and made them extremely beneficial when mo¬
derate, intended undoubtedly that they fhould be fub-
jetted to the government of reafon and confcience. It
is therefore againft the order of nature, that paffion in
any cafe fhould take the lead in contradiftion to reafon
and confcience : fuch a date of mind is a fort of anarchy
which every one is afhamed of and endeavours to hide
or diffemble. Even love, however laudable, is attended
with a confcious fliame when it becomes immoderate :
it is covered from the world, and difolofed only to the
beloved objeft:
Et que 1’amour fouvent de remors combattu
Paroiffe une foiblefl’e, et non une vertu.
Boileau, VArt Poet, chant. 3. /. 101.
O, they love lead that let men know they love.
Two Gentlemen of Verona, ad i.fc. 3.
Hence a capital rule in tire reprefentation of immode¬
rate paflions, that they ought to be hid or diffembled
as much as poffible. And this holds in an efpecial man¬
ner with refpett to criminal pafiions : one never coun-
fels the commiffion of a crime in plain terms ; guilt
muff not appear in its native colours, even in thought;
the propofal muft be made by hints, and by reprefent-
ing the adtion in fome favourable light. Of the pro¬
priety of fentiment upon fuch an occafion, Shakefpeare,
in the Tempejl, has given us a beautiful example, in a
fpeech by the ufurping duke of Milan, advifing Se-
baflian to murder his brother the king of Naples:
too late, make a fourth. Vicious fentiments exptifedSentimnw;
in their native drefs, inftead of being concealed or dif- —-y-—^
guifed, make a fifth. And in the latt dais fhall be col-
lefted fentiments fuited to no chara&er nor pafiion, and
therefore unnatural.
The frfl clafs contains faulty fentiments of various
kinds, which we fhall endeavour to diftinguifh from each
other.
1. Of fentiments that are faulty by being above the
tone of the paffion, the following may ferve as an ex¬
ample :
Othello.   O my foul’s joy !
If after every tempeft come fuch calms,
May the winds blow till they have waken’d death:
And let the labouring bark climb hills of feas
Olympus high, and duck again as low
As hell’s from heaven ? Othello, ad 2. fc. 6.
This fentiment may be fuggefted by violent and infla¬
med paffion ; but is not fuited to the fatisfa&ion, how¬
ever great, that one feels upon efcaping danger.
2. Inftance of fentiments below the tone of the paf¬
fion. Ptolemy, by putting Pompey to death, having
incurred the difpleafure of Caefar, was in the utmofl
dread of being dethroned : in that agitating fituation,
Corneille makes him utter a fpeech full of cool reflec¬
tion, that is in no degree expreffive of the paffion.
Ah ! fi je t’avois erh, je n’aurois pas de maitre,
Je ferois dans le trone ou le ciel m’a fait naitre ;
Mais c’efl une imprudence affez commune aux rois,
H’ecouter trop d’avis, et fe tromper au choix.
Le Deftin les aveugle au bord du precipice,
Ou fi quelque lumiere en leur ame fe gliffe,
Cette faufie clarte dont il les eblouit,
Le plonge dans une gouffre, et puis s’evanouit.
La Mort de Pompe, ad \.fc. r.
3. Sentiments that agree not with the tone of the
paffion; as where a pleafant fentiment is grafted upon
a painful paffion, or the contrary. In the following
inftances, the fentiments are too gay for a ferious paf¬
fion :
Antonio. What might,
Worthy Sebaflian,—O, what might—no more.
And yet, methinks, I fee it in thy face
What thou fhould ft be : the occafion fpeaks thee, and
My ftrong imagination fees a crown
Dropping upon thy head. Ad 2.fc. 2.
A pi&ure of this kind, perhaps ftill finer, is exhibited
in King John, where that tyrant folicits {ad 3. fc. 5.)
Hubert to murder the young prince Arthur; but it is
too long to be inferted here.
II. As things are belt illuftrated by their contraries,
we proceed to faulty fentiments, difdaining to be in¬
debted for examples to any but the moft approved au¬
thors. The firft clafs fhall confift of fentiments that ac¬
cord not with the paffion ; or, in other words, fenti¬
ments that the paffion does not naturally fuggeft. In
the fecond clafs fhall be ranged fentiments that may be¬
long to an ordinary paffion, but unfuitable to it as tinc-
tuied by a lingular charafter. Thoughts that properly
aJ*<r not Jentiments, but rather deferiptions, make a
tmuh Sentiments that belong to the paffion repre-
fented, but are faulty as being introduced too early or
No happier talk thefe faded eyes purfue ;
To read and weep is all they now can do.
Eloifa to Abelard. 1. 47.
Again ;
Heav’n firft taught letters for fome wretch’s aid,
Some banifh’d lover, or fome captive maid :
'J hey live, they fpeak, they breathe what love infpires.
Warm from the foul, and faithful to its fires ;
The virgin’s wifh without her fears impart,
Excufe the blufh, and pour out all the heart;
Speed the foft intercourfe from foul to foul,
And waft a figh from Indus to the pole.
Eloifa to Abelard, /. 5 t.
Thefe thoughts are pretty : they fuit Pope, but not
Eloifa.
Satan, enraged by a threatening of the angel Gabriel,
anfwers thus:
Then when I am thy captive, talk of chains,
Proud limitary cherub ; but ere then
Far heavier load thyfelf expedt to feel
From my prevailing arm, though heaven’s King
6 Ride
SEN [
gentimenrs. Rk!e on thy winpfs, and thou with thy compeers,
*—Us’d to the yoke, draw’ft his triumphant wheels
In progrefs thro’ the road of heav’n flar-pav'd.
Paradife Loji, b. 4.
The concluding epithet forms a grand and delightful
image, which cannot be the genuine offspring of rage.
4. Sentiments too artificial for a ferious paffion. The
fit ft example is a fpeech of Percy expiring.
O, Harry, thou haft robb’d me of my growth:
I better brook the lofs of brittle life,
Than thofe proud titles thou haft won of me ; [flefti.
They wound my thoughts worfe than thy fv/ord my
But thought’s the Have of life, and life time’s fool;:
And time, that takes furvey of all the world.
Mull have a ftop.
F'trjl Part, Henry IV. aft 5. fc. 9.
The fentiments of the Mourning Bride are for the
moll part no lefs delicate than juft copies of nature :
fn the following exception the piffure is beautiful, but
too artful to be fuggefted by fevere grief.
Almeria. Q no 1 Time gives increafe to my afflic¬
tions.
The circling hours, that gather all the woes
Which are diffus’d through the revolving year,
Come heavy laden with th’ oppreffive weight
To me ; with me, fucceffively, they leave
The fighs, the tears, the groans, the reftlefs cares,
And all the damps of grief, that did retard their flight ;
They fhake their downy wings, and fcatter all
The dire colle&ed dews on my poor head ;
Then fly with joy and fwiftnefs from me. Aft x. fc. 1.
In the fame play, Almeria feeing a dead body, which
fhe took to be Alphonfo’s, expreffes fentiments {trained
and artificial, which nature fuggefts not to any perfon
upon fuch an occafion t
Had they or hearts or eyes, that did this deed ?
Could eyes endure to guide fuch cruel hands ?
Are not my eyes guilty alike with theirs,
That thus can gaze, and yet not turn to (tone ?
— I do not weep ! The fprings of tears are dry’d,
And of a fudden I am calm,-as if [der’d !
All things were well ; and yet my hufband’s mur-
Yes, yes, I know to mourn : I’ll {mice this heart,
The fource of wo, and let the torrent in.
Aft $. fc. rr
Pope’s elegy to the memory of an unfortunate lady,
expreffes delicately the moft tender concern and forrow
that one can feel for the deplorable fate of a perfon of
worth. Such a poem, deeply ferious and pathetic, re.-
je&s with difdain all fitftion. Upon that account, the
following paffage deferves no quarter; for it is not the
language of the heart, but of the imagination indulging
its flights at cafe, and by that means is eminently dift
cordant with the fubjeft. It would be a ftill more fe¬
vere cenfure, if it fhould be aferibed to imitation, copy¬
ing indifcreetly what has been faid by others :
What tho’ no weeping loves thy aflies grace,
Nor polifh’d marble emulate thy face ?
What though no facred earth allow thee room,
Nor hallow’d dirge be mutter’d o’er thy tomb ?
279 ] SEN
Yet {hall thy grave with rifing flow’rs be dreftr Sentiments >
And the green turf lie lightly on thy bread;: —v——*
There fhall the morn her earlieft tears beftow,
There the firft rofes of the year fhall blow ;
While angels with their filver wings o’erfhade
The ground, now facred by thy relics made.
5. Fanciful or finical fentiments. Sentiments that
degenerate into point or conceit, however they may
amufe in an idle hour, can never be the offspring of
any ferious or important paffion. In the Jerufalem of
Taffo, Tancred, after a fingle combat, fpent with fa¬
tigue and lofs of blood, falls into a fwoon ; in which
fituation, underftood to be dead, he is difcovered by
Erminia, who was in love with him to diftraftion. A
more happy fituation cannot be imagined, to raife grief
in an inftant to its higheft pitch ; and yet, in venting
her forrow, fhe defcends moft abominably into antithefis
and conceit even of the loweft kind :
E in lui verso d’inefficabil vena
Lacrime, e roce di fofpiri mifta.
In che mifero punto hor qui me mena
Fortuna ? a che veduta amara e trifta ?
Dopo gran tempo i’ ti ritrovo a pena
Tancredi, e ti riveggio, e non fon vifta
Vifta non fon da te, benche prefente
T trovando ti perdo eternamente.
Canto 19. Jl. 105.
Armida’s lamentation refpeSing her lover Rinaldo is in
the fame vicious tafte. Vid. canto 20. ftan.
126.
124, 125,.
Queen. Give me no help in lamentation,
I am riot ban-en to bring forth complaints :
All fprings reduce their currents to mine eyes,
That I, being govern’d by the wat’ry moon,
May fend forth plenteous rears to drown the world.
Ah, for my hufband, for my dear lord Edward.
King Richard III. aft. 2. fc. 2.
Jane Shore utters her laft breath in a witty conceit :
Then all is well, and I {hall fleep in peace 
’Tis very dark, and I have loft you now 
Was there not fomething I would have bequeath’d you?
But I have nothing left me to beftow,
Nothing but one fad figh. Oh mercy, Heav’n ! [Dies.
Aft y..
Gilford to Lady Jane Gray, when both were con¬
demned to die ;
Thou ftand’ft unmov’d ;
Calm temper fits upon thy beauteous brow ;
Thy eyes that flow’d io faft for Edward’s lofs,
Gaze unconcern’d upon the ruin round thee,
As if thou had ft refolv'd to brave thy fate.
And triumph in the midft of defolation.
Ha ! fee, it fwells, the liquid cryflal rifes,
It ftarts in fpite of thee — but I will catch it.
Nor let the earth be wet with dew fo rich.
Lady fane Gray, aft near the end.
The concluding fentiment is altogether finical, unfuit-
able to the importance of the occafion, and even to the
dignity of the paffion of love.
Corneille.
s E N [ 280 ] SEN
Si'ntmier.ta. Corneillt, In his Exnmen of the Cul, anfwering an ob-
'—^  jeftion. That his fentiments are fometimes too nmch re¬
fined for perfons in deep diftrtfs, obferves, that if poets
did not indulge fentiments more ingenious or refined than
are prompted by pafiion, their performances would of¬
ten be low, and extreme grief would never fuggeft but
exclamations merely. This is in plain language to af-
fert, that forced thoughts are more agreeable than thofe
that are natural, and ought to be preferred.
The feconrf clafs is of fentiments that may belong to
an ordinary pafiion, but are not perfe&ly concordant
with it, as tin&ured by a fingular charafter.
In the laft a& of that excellent comedy The Carelefs
Hujband, Lady Eafy, upon Sir Charles’s reformation,
is made to exprefs more violent and turbulent fenti¬
ments of joy than are confiftent with the mildnefs of her
character.
Lady Eafy. O the fdft treafure ! O the dear reward
of long-defiring love. Thus ! thus to have you mine,
is fomething more than happinefs ; ’tis double life, and
madnefs of abounding joy.
The following inftances are defcriptions rather than
fentiments, which compofe a third clafs.
Of this defcriptive manner of painting the pafiions,
there is in the Htppolytus of Euripides, aft v. an illu-
ftrious inftance, vi%. the fpeech of Thefeus, upon hear¬
ing of his fan’s difmal exit. In Racine’s ttagedy of
Eflher, the queen hearing of the decree iflued againit
her people, in dead of exprefiing fentiments fuitable to
the occafion, turns her attention upon herfelf, and de-
fcribes with accuracy her own fituation.
Jufte ciel! tout mon fang dans mes veines 'fe glace.
sia x.ye. 3.
Again,
Aman. C’en eft fait. Mon orgneil eft forcp de plier.
L’inexorable Aman elt reduit a prier.
EJlher, a8 $.fc. 5.
Athalie. Quel prodige nouveau me trouble et m’em-
barrafie ?
'La douceur de fa voix, fon enfance, fit grace,
Font infenfiblement a mon inimitie
Succeder Je ferois fenfible a la pitie ?
Athaliet aB 2.f~. 7.
Titus. O de ma pafiion fureur defefperee !
Brutus of Foltaire, aa 3. fc. 6.
What other are the foregoing inftances but defcribing
the pafiion another feels ?
The fourth clafs is of fentiments expreffed too early
or too late.
Some examples mentioned above belong to this clais.
Add the following from Venice PrcferVd, a3 5. at the
cl ore of the fcene between Belvidera and her father
Priuli. The account given by Belvidera of the danger
fhe was in, and of her hulband’s threatening to murder
her, ought naturally to have alarmed her relenting fa¬
ther, and to have made him exprefs the moll perturbed
fentiments. Inffead of which, he diffolves into tender-
nefs and love for his daughter, as if he had already de¬
livered her from danger, and as if there were a perfedl
tranquillity ;
Canfl thou forgive me all my follies palt! Sentiments*
I’ll henceforth be indeed a father ; never, <—
Never more thus expofe, but cherifh thee,
Dear as the vital warmth that feeds my life,
Dear as thofe eyes that weep in fondnefs o’er thee :
Peace to thy heart.
Immoral fentiments expofed in their native colours,
inftead of being concealed or dilguifed, compole theJU'th
clafs.
The Lady Macbeth, proje&ing the death of the
king, has the following foliloquy :
 The raven himfelf’s not hoarfe
That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan
Under my battlements. Come, all you fpirits
That tend on mortal thoughts, unfex me here,
And fill me from the crown to the toe, top full
Of diredt cruelty ; make thick my blood,
Stop up th’ accefs and paflage to remorfc.
That no compunttious vilitings of nature
Shake my fell purpofe. Macbethr a8 x.fc.
This fpeech is not natural. A treacherous murder was
never perpetrated even by the moll hardened mifereant
without compundtion : and that the lady here muR •
have been in horrible agitation, appears from her invo¬
king the infernal fpirits to fill her with cruelty, and to
ftop up all avenues to remorfe. But in that ftatc of
mind it is a never-failing artifice of felf-deceit to draw
the thickeft veil over the wicked adtion, and to exte¬
nuate it by all the circumftances that imagination can
fuggeft : and if the crime cannot’bear difguife, the next
attempt is to thrull it out of mind altogether, and to
rufh on to adlion without thought. This laft was the
hulband’s method.
Strange things I have in head, that wall to hand ;
Which muft be adfed ere they muft be fcann’d.
Aa 3./-. 5.
The lady follows neither of thefe courfes, but in a de¬
liberate manner endeavours to fortify her heart in the
commifiion oi an execrable crime, without even attempt¬
ing to colour it. This, we think, is not natural; we
hope there is no fuch wretch to be found as is here re-
prefented.
The laJl chSs comprehends fentiments that are unna¬
tural, as being fuited to no charadter nor pafiion. Thefe
may be fubdivided into three branches : firft, fentiments
unfuitable to the conftitution of man, and to the laws
of his nature ; fecond, inccnfiftent fentiments; third,
fentiments that are pure rant and extravagance.
When the fable is of human affairs, every event, eve¬
ry incident, and every cireumftance, ought to be natu¬
ral, otherwife the imitation is imperfedt. But an im-
perfedt imitation is a venial fault, compared with that
of running crofs to nature. In the Hippo/ytus of Euri¬
pides (aa iv. fc. 5,), Hippolytus, wifhing for another
felf in his own fituation, “ How much (fays he) fhould
I be touched with his misfortune !” as if it were natu¬
ral to grieve more for the misfortune of another than
for one’s own.
Ofmyn. Yet I behold her—yet —and now no more.
Turn your lights inward, eyes, and view my thought;
So fhail \ou itill beh&ld her—’Twill not be.
; O
5
SEN . [ 381
0 Impotence of fi iht I mechanic fenfe,
Which to exterior objefts ow’ft thy faculty»
Not feeing of election, but neceffity,
Thus do our eyes, as do all common mirrors, N
Succefilvdy reflect fucceeding images.
Nor what they would, but muft $ a itar or toad j
Juft as the hand of chance adminifters!
Mourning Bride^ aft %-fc. 8,
No man, in his fenfes, ever thought of applying his
eyes to difeover what pafles in his mind j far left of Wa*
ming his eyes for not feeing a thought or idea. In Mo,
Here’s /'Aitare (aft iv, /r. 7 ) Harpagon, being robbed
of his money, feixes himfeif by the arm, miftakmg it
for that of the robber. And again he expreftes himfeif
as follows 5
Je veux after querir la juftice, et faire donner la que*
ftioo a toute ma maifon } a fervantes, a valets, a file, k
ftlle, et a moi auffi.
This is fo abfurd as fcarce to provoke a fmile, if it be
not at the author.
Of the fecond branch the following example may
fuffice:
   Now bid me run,
And I will ftrive with things mpojjible^
Yea, get the better of them,
Julius Cafar, aft %.fc, 3.
Of the third branch, take the following famples, Lu»
can, talking of Pompey’s fepulchre,
— — Romanum nomen, et omne
Imperium magno eft tumuli modus, Obme faxa
Criraine plena deum. Si tota eft Herculis Oete,
Et juga tota vacant Bromio Nyfeia 5 quare
Unus in Egypto Magno lapis ? Omnia Lagi
Rura tenere pot eft, fi nullo cefpite nomen
Hseferit. Etremus populi, cinerumque tuomm,
Magne, metu nullaa Nili calcemus arenas,
L, viii, /. 798,
Thus, in Rowe’s tranfiation 5
Where there are feas, or air, or earth, or ikies,
Where’er Rome’s empire ftretehes, Pompey lies.
Far be the vile memorial then convey’d !
Nor let this ftone the partial gods upbraid.
Shall Hercules all Oeta’e heights demand,
And Nyfa’s hill for Bacchus only ftand ?
While one poor pebble is the warrior’s doom
That fought the caufe of liberty and Rome ?
If Fate decrees he muft in Egypt lie,
Let the whole fertile realm hip grave fupply.
Yield the wide country to his awful ihade, }
Nor let us dare on any part to tread, C
Fearful we violate the mighty dead, j
The following pafTages are pure rant, Coriolanus,
fpeaking to his mother,
What is this ?
Your knees to me ? to your corre&ed fon ?
'1 hen let the pebbles on the hungry beach
Pillop the ftars: then let the mutinous winds
Strike the proud cedars ’gainft the fiery fun ;
Murd’ring impoifibility, to make
What cannot be, flight work.
Csriolanus, aft e. fc.
Voi. XVII. Part I,
1 SEP
Csfar, -p—— Hanger knows full we!!,
That Csefar ig more dangerous than he.
We were two lions litter’d in one day, v
And I the elder and more terrible,
Julius Cafar, aft 2. fc, 4,
Ventidius. But you, ere love milled your wand’ring
eyes,
Were fure the chief and beft of human race,
Fram’d in the very pride and boaft of nature,
So perfetft, that the gods who form’d you wonder’d
At their own (kill, and cry’d, A lucky hit
Has mended our defign, Dryden, All for Love, aft r.
Not to talk of the impiety of this fentiraent, it is ludi¬
crous inftead of being lofty.
The famous epitaph on Raphael is not He abfurF
than any of the foregoing paflages 1
Raphael, tlmuit, quo fofpite, vinci,
Rerum magna parens, et moriente mori.
Imitated by Pope, in his epitaph on Sir Godfrey KneL
ler;
Living, great Nature fear’d he might outvie
Her works } and dying, fears herfelf may die.
Such is the force of Imitation ? for Pope of himfeif
would never have been guilty of a thought fo extrava¬
gant.
SENTINEL, or Sentry, in military affairs, a
private fokfier placed in fome poft to watch the ap¬
proach of the enemy, to prevent furprifes, to flop fuch
as would paft without orders or difeovering who they
arc. They are placed before the arms of all guards,
at the tents and doors of general officers, colonels of
regiments, Re,
, Sektihu Perdu, a foldler pofted near an enemy, or
in fome very dangerous poll Where he is in hazard of
being loft,
All fentinels are to be vigilant on their polls; neither
are they to fing, fmoke tobacco, nor fuffer any noife to
be made near them. They are to have a watchful eye
over the things committed to their charge. They are
not to fuffei any light to remain, or any fire to be
made, near their poftsm the night-time ; neither is any
fentry to be relieved or removed Rom his poft but by
the corporal of the g'ufircL They are not to fuffer any
one to touch or handle their arms, or in the night-time
to come within ten yards of their poft.
No perfon is to Itrike or abufe a fentry on his poft 5
but when he has committed a crime, he is to be relie¬
ved, and then punilhed according to the rules and ar¬
ticles of war,
A ientinel, on his poft in the night, is to know no¬
body but by the counter-fign ; when he challenges,
and is anfwered, Relief, he calls out, Stand, relief! ad¬
vance, corporal! upon which the corporal halts his men,
and advances alone within a yard of the fentry’s fire¬
lock (firft ordering his party to reft, on which the
lentry does the fame), and gives him the counter-fisn,
taking care that no one hear it,
SEPIA, the Cuttle-fish, a genus belonging to
the order of vermes molufea. There are eight bra-
chm interfperfed on the interior fide, with little round
ferrated cups, by the contra&ion of which the animal
lays ffift hold of any thing. Beftdes thefe eight arms,
N n it
l#nt!menti
i!
Sepia.
N
SEP [ 2;
it has two tentacula longer than the arms, ami frequent¬
ly pedunculated. The mouth is fituated in the centre
of the arm*, and is horny and hooked, like the bill of a
hawk. The eyes are below the tentacula, towards the
body of the animal. The body is flefhy, and received
into a iheath as far as the bread. ' Their food are tun-
rues, fprats, lobders, and other (hell fifh. With their arms
and trunks they fallen themWves, to relift the motion
of the waves. Their beak ia like that of a parrot.
Tire females are diftinguiihed by two paps. They co¬
pulate as the polypi do, by a mutual embrace, and lay
their eggs upon lea-weed and plants, in parcels like
bunches of grapes. Immediately after they are laid
they are white, and the males pafs over and impregnate
them with a black liquor, after which they grow larger.
On opening the egg, tire embryo-cuttle is found alive.
The males are very conltant, accompany their females
everywhere, face every danger in their defence, and
refcue them intrepidly at the hazard of their own lives.
The timorous females fly as foon as they fee the males
wounded. The noife of a cuttle-ftlh, on being dragged
out of the water, refembles the grunting of a hag.
When the male is purfued by the fea-wolf or other
ravenous filh, he fhuns the danger by ftratagem. He
fquirts his black liquor, fometimes to the quantity of a
dram, by which the watei becomes black as ink, under
flielter of which he baffles the purfuit of his enemy.
This ink or black liquor has been denominated by Mr
le Cat ttlhiops animat, and is referred in a particular
gland. In irs liquid Hate it refembles that of the cho¬
roid in man ; and would then communicate an inde¬
lible dye ; when dry, it might be taken for theprodudl
©flhe black liquor in negroes dried, and made a preci¬
pitate by fpirit of wine. This aethiops animal in ne¬
groes as well as in the cuttle-fiih, is more abundant
after death than even during life. It may ferve either
for writing or printing ; in the former of which ways
the Romans ufed it. It is faid to be an ingredient in
the compofition of Indian ink mixed with rice. There
are ftve fpecies.
1. The loligo, or great cuttle, with fhort arms and
long tentacula ; the lower part of the body rhomboid
and pinnated, the upper thick and cylindric. They in¬
habit all our Teas, where having blackened the water by
the effufton pf their ink, they abfeond, and with their tail
kap out of the water. They are gregarious and fwift
in their motions: they take their prey by means of
their arms ; and embracing it, bring it to their central
naouth. They adhere to the rocks, when they wifh to
be quiefeent, by means of the concave difes that are pla¬
ced sdong their arms.
2. The oclopodia, with eight arms, connefted at
their bottom by a membrane. This is the polypus of
fliny, which he diftinguifhes from the loligo and fepia
by the want of the tail and tentacida. They inhabit
our feas, but are molt at home in the Mediterranean.
In hot climates thefe are found of an enormous fixe.
The Indians affirm, that feme have been feen two fa¬
thoms broad over their centre, and each arm nine
fathoms lonpn When the Indians navigate their little
boats,'they go in dread of them ;■ and left thefe animals
fhould fling their arms over and fink them, they never
fail without an ax to cut them oft'. When ufed for
fpod they are ferved up red from their own liquor,
S2 1 SEP
which from boiling with the addition of nitre becomes Sepit
red. Barthol. fays, upon cutting one of them open, fo Sepiar
great a light broke forth, that at night, upon taking
away the candle, the whole houfe leemed to be in a
blaze.
3. The media, or middle cuttle, with a long, {lender,
cylindric body ; tail finned, pointed, and carinated on
each fide ; two long tentacula ; the body almoft tranfpa-
rent, green, but convertible into a dirty brown j con¬
firming the remark of Pliny*, that they change their
colour through fear, adapting it, chameleon-like, to
that of the place they are in. The eyes are large and
ffnaragdine.
4. The fepiola, or fmall cuttle, with a fhort body,
rounded at the bottom, has a round fin on each fide and
two tentacula. They are taken off Flintfhire, but chiefly
inhabit the Mediterranean.
5. The officinalis, or officinal cuttle, with an ovated
body, has fins along the whole of the fides, almoft:
meeting at the bottom; and two long tentacula. The
body contains the bone, the cuttle-bone of the (hops,
which was formerly ufed as an abforbent. The bones
are frequently flung on all our fhores ; the animal very
rarely. The conger eels bite off their arms, or feet ;
but they grow again, as does the lizard’s tail (Plin. ix.
29). They are preyed upon by the plaife. This fifh
emits (in common with the other fpecies), when fright¬
ed or purfued, the black liquor which the ancients fup-
pofed darkened the circumambient wave, and concealed
it from the enemy.
The endanger’d cuttle thus evades his fears,
And^ffSKve hoards of fluid fatety bears.
A pitchy^ink peculiar glands fupply,
Whofe (hades the fharpeft. beam of light defy.
Purfu’d, he bids the fable fountains flow.
And, wrapt in clouds, eludes th* impending foe.
The fifh retreats unfeen, while felf-born night.
With pious fliade befriends her parent’s flight.
The ancients fometimes rpade life of it inftead of ink.
Perfius mentions the fpecies in his defeription of the
noble Undent.
‘fam liber, (t licolar pafiils membrana capillis,
Inque minus eburite, noda/qu? vend arundo.
Turn quermur, crajfus calamo quod pendeat humor ;
Nigra quod infufa •venefcat fepia lympha.
\&t length, his book he fpreads, his pen he takes}
His papers here in learned order lays,
And there his parchment’s fmoother fide difplavs.
But oh l what croffes wait on ftudious men !
The cuttle's juice hangs clotted at our pen.
In, all my life fucb fluff 1 never knew,
Ho gummy thick—Dilute it, it will do.
Nay, now'tis water ! Dryden.
This animal was efteemed a delicacy by the ancients*
and is eaten even at prefent by the Italians. Rondele-
tius gives us two receipts for the dreffing, which may,
be continued to- this day. Athenseus alfo leaves us
the method of making an antique cuttle-fifti faufage ;
and we learn from Ariftotle, that thofe animals are in
higheft feafon when pregnant.
SEPIARIZi, (from/e/vu, “ a. hedge”), the name
of the 44th order of Linnasus’s Fragments of a Natural
Method;,
sep r 2
Srp* Method, canfifting of a beautiful colleflion ef woody
, II . plants, fome of which, from their iize and elegrance, are
Septentno. proper furniture for hedges. See Botany, p. 467.
SEPS, in zoology, a fpecies of Lacerta.
SEPTARI^i, in natural hi dory, a large clafs of
folfils, commonly known by the names of iudut Hel-
montit and waxen veins.
Thev are defined to be fofiils not inflammable, nor
foluble in water; of a moderately firm texture and
dulky hue, divided by feveral fepta or thin partitions,
and compofed of a fparry matter greatly debafed by
earth ; not giving fire with fteel ; fermenting with
acids, and in great part diflblved by them ; and calci¬
ning in a moderate fire.
Of this clafs there are two diftindl orders of bodies,
and under thofe fix genera. The feptariae of the firll
order are thofe which are ufually found in large maf-
fts, of a fimple uniform conftruftion, but divided by
large fepta either into larger and more irregular por¬
tions, or into fmaller and more equal ones, called ta/c.
The genera of this order are four. 1. Thofe divided
by fepta of fpar, called fecomix e 2. 'J hofe divided by
fepta of earthy matter, called gaiophragmia : 3. Thofe
divided by fepta of the matter of the pyrites, called pyn-
terc'ia : And, 4. Thofe divided by fepta of fpar, with
an admixture oi cryftal, called diaugophragmia.
Thofe of the fecond order are fuch as are ufually
found in fmaller mafles, of a crullated ftructure, form¬
ed by various incruilations round a central nucleus, and
divided by very thin fepta. Of this order are only
two genera. 1. Thofe with a fhort roundilh nucleus,
incloied within the body of the mafs ; and, 2. Thofe
with a long nucleus, Handing out beyond the ends ot
the mafs.
SEPTAS, in botany : A genus of plants belonging
to the order of Hcptagynia, and the elafs ot Heptandria ;
and in the natural fyftem ranged under the 13th order,
Succulenta. The calyx is divided into feven parts ; the
petals are feven ; the germens feven: the capfules are
alfo feven, and contain many feeds. There is only one
fpecies, the Capenjis^ which is a native of the Cape of
Good Hope, is round-leaved, and flowers in Augult
or September.
SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of the year, con-
fifting of only thirtyr days ; it took its name as being
the feventh month, reckoning from March, with which
the Romans began their year. ft
SEPTENNIAL, any thing lafting feven years.
Septennial Eledions. Blackitone, in his Commen¬
taries, Vol. 1. p. 189. fays, (alter obferving that the
ntmoll extent of time allowed the fame parliament to
fit by the flat. 6 W. and M. c. 2. was three years),
“ But, by the ftatute 1 Geo. I. 11. 2. c. 38. (in or-
-derprofejj'edly to prevent the great and continued ex-
pences of frequent elections, and the violent heats and
aniraofities confequent thereupon, and for the peace and
fecurity of the government, juft then recovering from
the late rebellion), this term was prolonged to feven
years ; and what alone is an inftance of the valt au¬
thority ol parliament, the very lame houfe that was
chofeu for three years enacted its own continuance lor
feven ”
SEPTENTRIO, in aftronomy, a conftellation, more
ufually called urfa minor.
83 ] s V. !’
In cofmography, the lei m fepttntno denctrs the fame Sepuer,
with north ; and hence feptentrional is applied to any Scpnz n.
thing belonging to the north ; as fcptehtrionalJigns, pa- <~~~m
railed. &c.
SEPTICS, are thofe fubftances which promote pu¬
trefaction, chiefly the calcareous earths, rtiagnefia, and
teilaceous powders. From the many curious experi¬
ments made by Sir John Pringle to afeertain the feptic
and antifeptic virtues of natural bodies, it appears that
there are very few fubftances of a truly feptic nature.
1 hofe commofily reputed fuch by authors, as the al-
caline and volatile falls, he found to be no wife feplic.
However, he difeovered fome, where it feemed leaft
likely to find any fuch quality ; thei’e were chalk, com¬
mon fait, and teftaceous powders. He mixed twenty
grains of crabs eyes, prepared with fix drams of ox's
gall, and an equal quantity of water. Into another
phial he put an equal quantity of gall and water, but no
crabs-eyes. Both thefe mixtures being placed in the
furnace, the putrefaction began much fooner, where
the powder was, than in the other phial. On making
a like experiment with chalk, its feptic virtue was found
to be much greater than that of the crabs-eyes: nay,
what the doCtor had never met with before, in a mixture
of two drams of fleih, with two ounces of water and
thirty grains of prepared chalk, the flefh was refolved
into a perfeft mucus in a few days.
To try whether the teftaceous powders would alfo
dificlve vegetable fubftances, the doCtor mixed them
with barley and water, and compared this mixture with
another of barley and water alone. After a long ma¬
ceration by a fire, the plain water was found to fwell
the barley, and turn mucilaginous and four; but that
with the powder kept the grain to its natural fize, and
though it foftened it, yet made no mucilage, and re¬
mained fweet.
Nothing could be more unexpe&ed, than to find fea
fait a haitener of putrefa&ion ; but the fad is thus ; one
dram of fait preferves two drams of frefh beef in two
ounces of w^ater, above thirty hours uncorrupted, in a
heat equal to that of the human body ; or, which is
the fame thing, this quantity of fait keeps flefli fweet
twenty hours longer than pure water ; but then half a
dram of fait does not preferve it above two hours
longer. Twenty-five grains have little or ho antifeptic
virtue, and ten, fifteen, or even twenty grains, maniteit-
ly both haften and heighten the corruption. The
quantity which had the moft putrefying quality, was
found to be about ten grains to the above proportion of
ftelh and water.
Many inferences might be drawn from this experi¬
ment : one is, that fince fait is never taken in aliment
beyond the proportion of the corrupting quantities, it
would appear that it is fubfervient to digeftidn chiefly
by its Jeptic virtue, that is, by foltening and refolving
meats ; an attion very different from what is. commonly
believed.
It is to be ©bferved, that the above experiments
were ntade with the fait kept for domeftic ules. See
Pringle’s Obferv. on the Diieafts of the army, p. 348,
et feq.
SEPTIZON, or Septizonivm, in Roman antiqui¬
ty, a celebrated maufoleum, built by Septimus Severus,
in the tenth region of the city of Rome: it was fo
N n 2 called
SEP
r
SCf^a?e' Ca^c^ fromfejtem and 7,ona> by reafon it confifted of
U, tua!>irit/even Itor‘es> each of which was furrounded by a row of
—-— colum
ins.
SiiP I tJAGESIMA, in the kalendar, denotes the
third Sunday before Lent, or before Quadragefima
Sunday: fuppofed by fome to take its name from its
being a,bout feventy days before Eafter.
SEPTUAGINT, the name given to a Greek ver-
fion of the books of the Old Teftament, from its being
fuppofed to be the work of feventy-tvvo Jews, who are
ufually called the Jevenly interpreters, becaufe ieventv is
a round number.
The hiftory of this verfion is exprefsly written by
Anftoeas, an ofEcer of the guards to Ptolemy Philadel-
phus, the fubftance of whole account is as follows :
Ptolemy having erected a fine library at Alexandria,
which he took care to fll with the moll curious and
valuable books from all parts of the world, was inform¬
ed that the Jews had one containing the laws of Mofes,
and the hiltory of that people ; and being defirous of
enriching his library with a Greek trar.flation of it, ap¬
plied to the high priell of the Jews ; and to engage
him to comply with his requeft, fet at liberty all the
Jews whom his father Ptolemy Soter had reduced to
flavery. After fuch a Hep, he eafily obtained what he
defired ; ElecW.ar the Jewilh high-prieft fent back his
ambafiadors with an exaft copy of the Mofaical law,
written in letters of gold, and fix elders of each tribe,
in all feventy-two: who were received with marks of
Vefpeft by the king, and then conduced into the ifle
of Pharos, where they were lodged in a houfe prepared
for their reception, and fupplied with every' thing ne-
ceffary. They fet about the tranflation without lofs of
time, and finifhed it in feventy-two dayrs: and the whole
being read in the prefence of the king, he admired the
profound wifdom of the laws of Mofes ; and fent back
the deputies laden, with prefents, for themfelves, the high-
pried, and the temple.
Ariftobulus, who was tutor to Ptolemy Phyfcon,
Philo who lived in our Saviour’s time, and was contem¬
porary with the apoftles, and Jofephus, fpeak of this
tranflation as made by 72 interpreters, by the care of
Demetrius Phalereus in the reign of Ptolemy PhiladeL-
phus. Ail the Chriftian writers, during the firft 15
centuries of the Chriftian era, have admitted this ac¬
count of the Septuagint as an undoubted fadt. But
fince the reformation, critics have boldly called it in
quettion, becaufe it was attended with circumftances
•which they think inconfiftent, or, at leaft, improbable.
Du Pin has allied, why were 72 interpreters employed,
fince 12 would have been fufficient? Such an objection
is trifling. We may as well afk, why did king Janies I.
employ 54 tranfiators in rendering the Bible into Eng-
lifh, fincc Du Pin thinks 12 would have been fuffi¬
cient ?
1. Prideaux objefts, that the Septuagiat is not writ¬
ten in the Jewiffi, but in the Alexandrian, dialed!; and
could not therefore be the work of natives-of Palefline.
'But thefe diale&s were probably at that time the fame,
for both Jews and Alexandrians had received the Greek
language from the Macedonians about 50 years before.
2. i rideaux farther contends, that all the books of the
Did Teftament could not be tranfiated at the fame time;
fc» tiiej exhibit great difference of ftyle. To this it is
*34 1 SEP
fufficient to reply, that they were the work of 72 men, ^ep'uigint;
each of whom had ieparate portions iffigned them. -n—v "■ ■«<
3. i he Dean alio urges, that A ilfasas riftobulus,
Philo, and Jofephus, all diredtly tell us, that the law was
tranflated without mentioning any of the other facred
books. But nothing was more common among writers
of the Jewiffi nation than to give this name to the Scrip¬
tures as a whole. In the New Teftament law is ufed
as fynonymous with what we call the Old Teftament.
Lefides, it is exprefsly' faid by Ariftobulus, in a frag¬
ment quoted by Eufebius (Pr.tp. Euan. 1. i.),that the
whole Sacred Scripture was rightly tranflated through
the means of Demetrius Phalereus, and by the command
of Philadelphus. Jofephus indeed, lays the learned
Dean, afferts, in the preface to his Antiquities, that the
Jewifh interpreters did not tranflate for Ptolemy the
whole Scriptures, but the law only. Here the evi¬
dence is contradidlory, and we have to determine, whe¬
ther Ariftobulus or Jofephus be moft worthy of credit.
W e do not mean, however, to accufe either of forgery,
but only to inquire which had the bell opportunities of
knowing the truth. Ariftobulus was an Alexandrian
,Jevv> tutor to an Egyptian king, and lived within 100
years after the tranflation was made, and certainly had
accefs to fee it in the royal library. Jofephus was a
native of Paleftine, and lived not until 300 years or
more after the tranflation was made, and many years
after it was burnt along with the whole library of A-
lexandria in the wars of Julius Csefar. Suppofing the
veracity of thefe two writers equal, as we have no proof
of the contrary, which of them ought we to confider as
the heft evidence? Ariftobulus furely. Prideaux, indeed,
feems doubtful whether there was ever fuch a man; and
Dr Hody fuppofes that the Commentaries on the five
books of Mofes, which bear the name of Ariftobulus,..
were a forgery of the fecond century. To prove the
exillenceof any human being, who lived 2000 years be¬
fore us, and did not perform fuch works as no mere
man ever performed, is a talk which we are not difpofed
to undertake ; and we believe it would not be Ids dif¬
ficult to prove that Philo and Jofephus exifted, than
that fuch a perfon as Ariftobulus did not exift. If the
writings which have pafled under his name were a for¬
gery of the feeond century, it is furprifing that they
ihould have impofed upon Clemens Alexandrinus, who
lived in the fame century, and was a man of abilities,
learning, and well acquainted with the writings of the
ancients. Eufebius, too, in his Pr<rp. Evan, quotes
the commentaries of Ariftobulus. But, continues the
learned Dean, “ Clemens Alexandrinus is the firft au.
thor that mentions them. Now, had any fuch commen-
taries exifted in the time of Philo and Jofephus, they
would furely have mentioned them. But is the cir-
cumftance of its not being quoted by every fucceedimT
author a fufficient reafon to difprove the authenticity
of any book? Neither Philo nor Jofephus undertook
to give a lift of preceding authors, and it was by no
means the uniform practice of thefe times always to
name the authors from whom they derived their infer-
mation.”
4. Prideaux farther contends, that the fum which
Ptolemy is faid to have given to the interpreters is too
great to be credible. If his computation were juft, it
certainly would be fo. He makes it L. 2,coo,ocq
Sterling,
'-Sr”1
LcBurn
ttc Carton
Stilling-
jket' i Ori-
SEP [
Septuaei^'Sterling, Irut other writers^ reduce it to L. 85,42.1,
and forne to L. 56,947 ; neither of which is a fum fo
very extraordinary in fo great and magnificent a prince
as Phihdelphus, who fpent, according to a paffage in
Athenreus (lib. v.), no lefs than 1 o,'oc talents on the
furniture of one tent ; which is fix times more than
what was fpent in the whole of the embaffy and tranf-
lation, which amounted only to 1552 talents.
5. Prideaux fays, “ that what convidls the whole (lory
of Ari teas of falfity is, that he makes Demetrius Pha-
lereus to be the chief ador in it, and a great favourite
of the king; whereas Philadelphus, as foon as his father
was dead, call him into prifon, where he foon after
died.” But it may be replied, that Philadelphus reign-
^ed two years jointly with his father Lagus, and it is
gwes Sacra. not by Hermippus that Demetrius was out of fa¬
vour with Philadelphus during his father’s life. Now,
if the Septuagint was tranflated in the beginning of the
reign of Philadelphus, as Eufebius and Jerome think,
the difficulty wilfbe removed. Demetrius might have
been librarian during the reign of Philadelphus, and yet
imprifoned on the death of Lagus. Indeed, as the
caufe of Philadelphus’s difpleafure was the advice which
Demetrius gave to his father, to prefer the fons of Ar-
finoe before the Ion of Berenice, he could fcarcely fhow
it till his father’s death. The Septuagint tranfiation
might therefore be begun while Philadelphus reigned
jointly with his father, but not be finifhed till after his
lather’s death.
6. Befides the objections which have been confidered,
there is only one that, deferves notice. The ancient
ChriIlians not only differ from one another concerning
priJeaux's tjje tjme jn which Ariftobulus lived, but even contra-
Cvnnettions, themfelves in different parts of their works. Some-
b. times they tell us, he dedicated his book to Ptolemy
Philometer, at other times they fay, it was addreffed to
Philadelphus and his father. Sometimes they make
him the fame perfon who is mentioned in 2 Maccabees,
chap t. and fometimes one of the 72 interpreters 152
years before. It is difficult to explain how authors fall
into fuch inconfntencies, but it is probably occafioned
by their quoting from memory. This was certainly
the practice of almoffi all the early Chrillian writers,
and iometimes of the apoftles themfelves. Miftakes
were therefore inevitable. Jofephus has varied in the
circumftances of the fame event, in his antiquities and
wars of the Jews, probably from the fame caufe ; but
we do not hence conclude, that every circumttance of
fuch a relation is entirely falfe. In the account of the
Marquis of Argyle’s death in the reign of Charles II.
we have a very remarkable contradiction. Lord Cla¬
rendon relates, that he was condemned to be hanged,
which was performed the fame day : on the contrary,
Burnet, Woodrow, Heath, Echard, concur in dating,
that he was beheaded; and that he was condemned
f Biagraph- upon the Saturday and executed upon the Monday f.
HritJH. "SSIas any reader of Englifh hiltory ever fceptic enough
to raife from hence a queftion, whether the Marquis of
Argyle was executed or not? Yet this ought to be
left in uncertainty according to the way of reafoning in
which the fads refpeCting the tranflation of the Septu-
arint is attempted to be difproved.
Such are the objeClions which the learned and inge¬
nious Prideaux has railed againft the common account
of the Septuagint tranflation, and fuch are the anlwers
285 ] SEP
which may be given to them. We have chofen to fup- Septuaffly
port that opinion which is fanCtioned by hiftorical evi^ v
dence, in preference to the conjeCtures of modern critics
however ingenious; being perfuaded, that there are ma¬
ny things recorded in hiltory, which, though perfedly
true, yet, from our impcrfed knowledge of the conco¬
mitant circumftances, may, at a diftant period, feem li¬
able to objedions. To thofe who require pofitive evi¬
dence, it may be ftated thus. Anftasas, Anftobulus,
Philo, and Jofephus, affure us, that the law was tranf¬
lated. 'Faking the law in the molt reftrided fenfe, we
have at lead, fufficient authority to affert, that the Pen¬
tateuch was rendered into .Greek under I tolemy Phila¬
delphus. Ariftobulus affirms, that the whole Scrip¬
tures were tranflated by the 72. Jofephus confines
their labours to the books of Motes. He theieforc
who cannot determine to which of the two the greateft
refped is due, may fufpend his opinion. It is certain,'
however, that many of the other books were tranflated
before the age of our Saviour; for they are quoted both
by him and his apoftles : and, perhaps, by a minute exa¬
mination of ancient authors, in the fame way that Dr
Lardner has examined the Chriftian lathers to prove
the antiquity of the New Teftament, the precife period
in which the whole books of the Septuagint were com-
poied might, with conliderable accuracy, be afeertain-
ed. ....
For 400 years this tranflation was in high eftimation
with the Jews. It was read in their fynagogues in pre¬
ference to the Hebrew ; not only in thole places where
Greek was the common language, but in m my fyna¬
gogues of Jerufalem and Judea. But when they faw
that it was equally valued by the Chriftians, they be¬
came jealous of it, and at length, in the fecund century,
Aquila, an apoftate Chriftian, attempted to fubftitute-
another Greek- tranflation in its place. In this work
he was careful to give the ancient prophecies con¬
cerning the Meffiah a different turn from the Septua¬
gint, that they might not be applicable to Chrift. In
the fame defign he was followed by Symmachus and
Theodotion, who alfo, as St Jerome informs us, wrote
out of hatred to Chrilfianity.
In the mean time, the Septuagint, from the ignorance,
boldnefs, and careleffnefs ol tranl'crihers, became full of
errors. To correct thefe, Origen publilhed a new edi¬
tion in the beginning of the third century, in which he
placed the tranflations of Aquila, Symmachus, and The¬
odotion. This edition was called TeCrupla, the tranfla¬
tions being arranged oppofite to one another in four
columns. He alfo added one column, containing the.
Hebrew text in Hebrew letters, and another exhibiting,
it in Greek. In a fecund edition he publilhed two ad¬
ditional Greek verfions; one of which was found at Ni-
copolis, and the other at Jericho : this was called the
Hexapla. By comparing fo many tranflations, Origen
endeavoured to form a correft copy of the Scriptures.
Where they all agreed, he confidered them right. The
paffages which he found in the LXX, but not in the
Hebrew text, he marked with an obelilk : what he-
found in the Hebrew, but not in the LXX, he marked
with an afterilk St Jerome fays, that the additions
which Origen made to the LXX, and marked with an
afterilk, were taken from Theodotion. From this valu¬
able work of Origen the verfion of the LXX wa$.
tranferibed in a leparate volume, with the afteriiks and
obeiifksi- *
A
SEP [ 286 1 S E
obeliiks for lire nfr of tlie churclies ; and from this cm- noloscy were extant till the time of Eufebiuj, and fome Septum
’ v cumlbnce the great work itfelf was flegle&ed and lod. till the year 700. ' jl
About the year 300 two new editions of the LXX SEPTUM, in anatomy, an inclofure or partition; a Se<lue(lri‘
werepubTi/lied; the oneby Helychius an Egyptianbifhop, term applied to feveral parts of the body, which ferve to a<‘“‘ ^
and the other by Lucian a prefbyter of Antioch. But feparate one part from another ; as, Jeptutn narium, or
as thefe authors did not mark with any note pf diftinc- partition between the noftrils, &c.
tion the alterations which they had made, their edition SEPULCHRAL* fomethijig belonging to fepul*
does not poffefs the advantages of Origen’s.. chres or tombs : thus a fepulchral column is a column
T. he bell editioa of the i^XX is that of Dr Grabe, ercftied over a tomb, with an infcription on its fhaft ;
which was publiflied in the beginning of the prefent and fepulchral lamps, thofe faid to" have been found
century. He had accefs to two MSS, nearly of equal burning in the tombs of feveral martyrs and others,
antiquity, the one found in the Vatican library at See Lamp.
Rome, the other in the Royal library at St James’s, SEPULCHRE, a tomb or place (Mined for the
which was prefented to Charles I. by Cyril, patriarch of interment of the dead. This term is chiefly ufed in
Alexandria, and hence k commonly called the Jlexan. ipeaking ef the burying-places of the ancients, thofe of
dime MS. Anxious to djleover which of thefe was the moderns being ufually called tombs.
according to the edition of Origen, Dr Grabe colle&ed Sepulchres were held Vacred and inviolable ; and the
the fragments of the Hexapla, and found they agreed care taken of them has always been held a religious
Avith the Alexandrian MS. but not with the Vatican duty, grounded on the fear of God, and the belief of
where it differed with the other. Hence he concluded the foul’s immortality. Thofe who have fearched or
that the Alexandrine MS. w’as taken from the edition of violated them have been thought odious by all na-
Origen. By comparing the quotations from fcripture Irons, and were always feverely punifhed.
in the works of Athanafius and St Cyril (who were pa- The Egyptians called iepulchres eternal houfes, in con- «
tuafchs of Alexandria at the time St Jerome fays He- tradiftinAion to their ordinary' houfes or palaces, which
fychius s edition of the LXX was there ufed) with the they called innsy on account of their flrort flay in the one
Vatican MS. he found they agreed fo well that he juft- in comparifon of their long abode in the other. Sec
ly inferred that that MS. was taken from the edition of Tome.
rj^C.h'U8‘ Regular Canons of St SppvicHR-Ey a religious order.
Phis verfion was in ufe to the time of our bleffed formerly inftituted at Jerufalem, in honour'of the holy
Saviour, and is that out of which moft of the citations fepulchre, or the tomb of Jefas Chrift.
in the New leftament, from the Old, are taken, ft Many of thefe canons were brought from the Holy
was alfo the ordinary' and canonical tranflation made Land into Europe, particularly into France, by Louis
ufe of by the Chriftian chuich in the earlieft ages ; the Younger ; into Poland, by Jaxa, a Polifh gentle-
and it ftiil fubfifts in tn*: chuiches both of the eaft and man ; and into Flanders, by the counts thereof; many x
v'c^‘ alfo came into England. This order was, however,
Thofe who defire a more particular account of the fuppreffed by pope Innocent VIII. who gave its reve-
Septuagint tranfiations may confult Hody de Bibhorum nues and effeas to that of our Lady of Bethlehem :
Text/bus, Prideaux’s Conneaions, Owen’s Inquiry into which alio becoming extina, they were beftowed on
the Septuagint Verfion, Blair’s Leaures on the Canon, the knights of St John of Jerufalem. But the fup-
?.nd Micliaehs s Intioduaion to the New B eftamefit, preflion did not take effea in Poland, where they Hill
iitft edition. fubfift, as alfo in feveral provinces of Germany. Thefe
Septuagint Chronology, the chronology which is canons follow the rule of St Auguftine.
formed from the dates and periods of tune mentioned Knights op the Holy Sepulchre, a military order,
•in the Septuagint tranfiation of the Old Beftament. It eftabliftred in Paleftine about the year 1 114..
reckons 1 500 years more from the creation to Abraham B'he knights of this order in" Flanders chofe Phi-
than the Hebrew bible. Dr Kennicot, in the diflerta- lip 11. king of Spain, for their mafter, in i?\8, and
tion piehxed to his Hebrew bibie, has fhown it to be afterwards his fon ; but the grand-mafter of the order
very probable that the chronology of the Hebrew lerip- of Malta prevailed on the lalt to refign ; and when
tines, fince the period juft mentioned, was corrupted by afterwards the duke of Nevers aftumed the fame qua-
the Jewrs, between the years 175 and 200, and that the lity in France, the fame grand-mafter, byr his intereft
-chronology^ of the Septuagint is more agreeable to and credit, procured a like renunciation of him, aud
truth.. It is a fait, that during the fecond and third a confirmation of the union of this order to that of
centuries the Hebrew feriptures were nlmoft entirely Malta.
in the hands of the Jews, while the Septuagint was-con- SEQUANI, a people anciently forming a part of
fined to the Chriftians. The Jews had therefore a Gallia Celtica, but annexed to Belgica by Auguftus,
very favourable opportunity for this corruption. ’The leparated from the Helvetii by mount Jura, with the
following is the reafon which is given by otiental writers: Rhine on the eaft (Strabo), bordering on the fEdui,
It being a very ancient tradition, that the Meffiah was and Seguftiano to the fouth, and Lingonts to the weft
to come in the fixth chiliad, becaufe he was to come in (ft’acitush Now Franche Comte.
Tie laft days (founded on a myftical application of the S.EQJJESf RA. 1’fON, in common law, is felting
fix days creation), the contrivance was toJhorten the age afide the thing in controverfy from the pofteftion of
vj tne -worldfrom about 5joo to 3760; a\! thence to both the parties that contend for it. In which fenfe
prove that jefus could not be the Mejfiah. Dr Kennicot it is either voluntary, as when done by the confent of
hat Inrhc Hebrew copies having the larger ebro- the patties ; or needlary, as where it is done by the
2 judge.
S E [ :
SfcpcIV*- iiulge, of his own authority, whether the parties will
non. 0r not.
Sequestration, in the civil law, is the aft of the
ordinary, difpofin:? of the goods and chattels of one
deceafed, whofc eftate no man will meddle with.
A widow is alfo faid to fequefter, when fhe difclaims
having any thing to do with the eftate of her deceafed
hufhand.
Among the Romanifts, in queftions of marriage,
where the wife complains of impotency in the hufoand,
fhe is to be fequeftered into a convent, or into the hands
of matrons, till the procefs be determined.
Sequestration is alfo ufed for the aft of gathering
the fruits of a benefice void, to the ufe of the next in¬
cumbent.
Sometimes a benefice is kept under fequeftration for
many years, when it is of -fo fmall value, that no cler¬
gyman fit to ferve the cure will be at the charge of ta¬
king it by inftitution ; in which cafe the fequeftration
is committed either to the curate alone, or to the curate
and church-wardens jointly. Sometimes the profits of
a living in controverfy, either by the confent of the par¬
ties, or the judge’s authority, are fequeftered and pla¬
ced for fafety in a third hand, till the fuit is determi¬
ned, a minifter being appointed by the judge to ferve
the cure, and allowed a certain falary out of the pro¬
fits. Sometimes the profits of a living are fequeftered
for negleft of duty, for dilapidations, or for fatisfying
the debts of the incumbent.
Sequestration, in chancery, is a eommiffion ufu-
ally direfted to feven perfons therein named, empower-
fng them to feize the defendant’s perfonal e*ftate, and
the profits of his real, and to detain them, fubjeft to
the order of the court. It iffues on the return of the
ferjeant at arms, wherein it is certified, that the defend¬
ant had fecreted himfelf.
Sequeftrations were firft introduced by Sir Nicholas
Bacon, lord keeper in the reign of Queen Elizabeth ;
before which the court found fome difficulty in enfor¬
cing its procefs and decrees ; and they do not feem to be
in the nature of procefs to bring in the defendant, but
©nly intended to enforce the performance of the court’s
decree.
A fequeftration is alfo made, in London, upon an
aftion of debt ; the courfe of proceeding in which cafe
is this: The aftion being entered, the officer goes to
the defendant’s ftiop or warehoufe, when no perfon is
there, and takes a padlock, and hangs it on the door,
uttering thefe words: “ I do fequefter this warehoufe,
and the goods and merchandize therein, of the defend-
ant in this adtion, to the ufe of the plaintiff,” Sec. after
which he fets on his feal, and makes a return of the fe¬
queftration in the compter ; and four days being paffed
after the return made, the plaintiff may, at the next
court, have judgment to open the fnop or wirehoufe,
and to have the goods appraifed by two freemen, who
are to be fworn at the next court held for that comp¬
ter ; and then the ferjeant puts his hand to the bill of
appraifement, and the court grants judgment thereon ;
but yet the defendant may put in bail before fatisfac-
tion, and by that means diffolve the fequeftration ; and
after fatisfaftion, may put in bail to diiprove the debt,
See.
in the time of the civil wars, fequeftration iwas ufed
S; ] S E R
for a feizing of the eftates of delinquents for the ufe of Sequeflrr.*
the commonwealth. tlon
Sequestration, in Scots law. See Law, p.683. s jL
SEQUIN, a gold coin, ftruck at Venice, and in fe-  y J
veral parts of the Grand Signior’s dominions. In Tur¬
key it is called dahub, or piece of gold, and according
to Volney is in value about 6s. 3d. Sterling. It va¬
ries, however, confiderably in its value in different coun¬
tries. At Venice it is equal to about 9s. 2d. Sterling.
The Venetian fequins are in great requeft in Syria,
from the finenefs of their ftandard, and the praftice
they have of employing them for womens trinkets.
The fafhion of thefe trinkets does not require much art ;
the piece of gold is fimply pierced, in order to fufpend
it by a chain, likewife of gold, which flows upon the
breaft. The more fequins that are attached to this
chain, and the greater the number of thefe chains, the
more is a woman thought to be ornamented. This is
the favourite luxury, and the emulation of all ranks.
Even the female peafant?, for want of gold, wear
piallres or fmaller pieces ; but the women of a certain
rank difdain filver ; they will accept of nothing but fc-
quins of Venice, or large Spanifli pieces, and crufadoes.
Some of them wear 200 or 300, as well lying flat, as
ft rung one on another, and hung near the forehead, at
the edge of the head-drefs. It is a real load : but they
do not think they can pay too dearly for the fatisfac-
tion of exhibiting this treafure at the public bath, be¬
fore a crowd of rivals, to awaken whofe jealoufy confti-
tutes their chief pleafure. The effeft of this luxury on
commerce, is the withdrawing confiderable fttms from
circulation, which remain dead } btfides, that when any
of thefe pieces return into common nfe, having loll
their weight by being pierced, it becomes neceffary to
weLffi them. The praftice of weighing money is ge¬
neral in Syria, Egypt, and all Turkey. No piece,
however effaced, is refufed there ; the merchant draws
out his feales and weighs it, as in the days of Abra¬
ham, when he pui chafed his fepulchre. In confider¬
able payments, an agent of exchange is fent for, who
counts paras by thoulands, rtjefts a great many pieces
of falfe money, and weighs all the fequins, either fepa-
rately or together.
SERAGLIO, formed from the Perfian word feraw,
or 'I urkiih word faret, which fignifies a houfe, and is
commonly ufed to exprefs the houfe or palace of a
prince. In this fenfe it is frequently ufed at Conftan-
tinople ; the houfes of foreign ambaffadors are called Je-
faglios. But it is commonly ufed by way of eminence
for the palace of the grand fignior at Conftantinople,
where he keeps his court, and where his concubines are
lodged, and where the youth are trained up for the chief
polls- of the empire.
It is a triangle about three Italian miles round, whol¬
ly within the city, at the end of the promontory Chry-
foceras, now called the Seraglio Point. The buildings
run back to the top of the hill, and from thence are
gardens that reach to the edge of the fea. It is inclo-
fcd with a very high and ftrong wall, upon which there
are fe veral watch towers : and" it has many gates, fome
of which open towards the fea-fide, and the reft into the
city; but the chief gate is one of the latter, which is
conltautiy guarded by a company of capoochees, or
porters 5 and in the night it is well guarded towards
the.
i
S E R [ 2S8 1 S E R
Seraglio, ^1€ fea> The outward appearance ia not very heautu
t^e arc^ite(g-ure hgmg irregular, confifting of fepa-.
ratp edifices in the form of pavilions and dom^s.
The ladies of the feraglio are a collection df beauti¬
ful young women, chiefly lent as prefents from the pro¬
vinces and the Greek iflands, molt of them the children
of Chriilian parents The brave prince Heraclius hath
for fome years paft abolifhed the infamous tribute of chil¬
dren of both (exes, which Georgia formerly paid every
year to the Porte. The number of women in the harem
depends on the tafte of the reigning monarch or fultan,
Selim had 2000, Achmet had but 300, and the late
fultan had nearly 1600. On their admiffion they are
committed to the care of old ladies, taught fewing and
embroidery, mufic, dancing, and other accomplifhments,
and furni(hed with the richeft clothes and ornaments.
They all deep in feparate beds, and between every
fifth there is a preceptrefs. Their chief governefs is
called Ka/on Kiaga, or governefs of the noble young
ladles. There is not one fervant among them, for they
are obliged to wait on one another by rotation ; the
lad that is entered ferves her who preceded her and her-
felf. Thefe ladies are fcarcely ever fuffered to ,go a-
broad, except when the grand fignior removes from
one place to another, when a troop of black eunuchs
conveys them to the boats, which are incloied with lat¬
tices and linen curtains ; and when they go by land
they are put into clofe chariots, and lignals are made
at certain diftances, to give notice that none approach
the roads thiough which they march. The boats of
the harem, which carry the grand fignior’s wives, are
manned with 24 rowers, and have white covered tilts,
fhut alternately by Venetian blinds. Among the em¬
peror’s attendants are a number of mutes, who adl and
•converfe by figns with great qurcknefs, and fame
dwarfs, who are exhibited for the diverfion of his ma-
jefty.
When he permits the women to walk in the gardens
of the feraglio, all people are ordered to retire, and on
every fide there is a guard of black eunuchs, with fa-
bres in their hands, while others go their rounds in
order to hinder any perfon from feeing them. If, un¬
fortunately, any one is found in the garden, even thro*
ignorance or inadvertence, he is undoubtedly killed,
and his head brought to the feet of the grand fignior,
who gives a great reward to the guard for their vigi-
lance. Sometimes the grand fignior pafles into the
gardens to amufe himfelf when the women are there ;
and it is then that they make ufe of their utmoft efforts,
by dancing, finging, feducing geftures, and amorous blan-
difhments, to enfnare the affe&ions of the monarch. It
is not permitted that the monarch fhould take a virgin
to his bed, except during the foiemn feftivals, and on
eccafion of fome extraordinary rejoicings, or the arrival
of fome good news. Upon fuch occations, if the ful-
tan chooies a new companion to his bed, he enters into
the apartment of the women, who are ranged in files
by the governefles, to whom he (peaks, and intimates
the perfon he likes beil: the ceremony of the handker¬
chief, which the grand fignior is faid to throw to the
girl that he clefts, is an idle tale, without any founda¬
tion. As foon as the grand fignior has chofen the girl
that he has deftined to be the partner of his bed, all the
others follow her to the bath, wafhing and perfuming
her, and drefiing her fuperbly, condufting her finging,
dancing, and yejeaqing, to the bed-chamber of ths
grand fignior, who is generally, on fuch an occafion, al¬
ready in bed. Scarcely has the new-defted favourite
entered the chamber, introduced by the grand eunuch
who is upon guard, than fhe kneels down, and when
the fultan calls her, fhe creeps into bed to him at the
foot of the bed, if the fultan does not order her, by
efpecial grace, to approach by the fide: after a certain
time, upon a fignal given by the fultan, the governefs
of the girls, with all her fuite, enter the apartment, and
take her back again, condufting her with the fame ce-
remony to the womens apartments ; and if by good
fortune (he becomes pregnant, and is delivered of a boy,
(he is called afakt fuhanefs, that is to fay, fukanefs-mo-
ther ; for the firft fon (he has the honour to be crown*
ed, and (he has the liberty of forming her court.
Eunuchs are alfo alfigned for her guard, and for her
particular fervice. No other ladies, though delivered
of boys, are either crowned or maintained with fuch
coftly diftinftton as the firft $ however, they have
their fervice apart, and handfome appointments. Af¬
ter the death of the iultan, the mothers of the male
children are (hut up in the old feraglio, from whence
they can never come out any more, unlefs any of
their fons afgend the throne. Baron de Tott in¬
forms us, that the female (lave who becomes the mo¬
ther of a fultan, and lives long enough to fee her fort
mount the throne, is the only woman who at that period
alone acquires the diftinftion of fultana.mother; (he is
till then in the interior of her prifen with her fon. The
title of bacbe kadun, principal woman, is the firft digni¬
ty of the grand fignior’s harem ; and fhe hath a larger
allowance than thole who have the title of ftcond, third,
and fourth woman, which are the four free women the
Koran allows.
This is a defeription of the grand fignior’s feraglio *
we (hall now add an account of the feraglio or barem^
as it is often called, of the emperor of Morocco, from
the very interefting tour of Mr Lempriere. This gen¬
tleman being a i'urgean by profefiion, was admitted into
the harem to preferibe for fome of the ladies who were
indifpofed, and was therefore enabled to give a particu¬
lar account of this female prifon, and, what is full more
curious, of the maimers and behaviour of its inhabi¬
tants.
The harem forms a part of the palace. The apart¬
ments, which are all on the ground floor, are fquare,
very lofty, and four of them inclofe a fpacious fquare
court, into which they open by means of large folding
doorsi In the centre of thefe courts, which are floor¬
ed with blue and white checquered tiling, is a foun¬
tain, fupplied by pipes from a large refervoir on the
outfide or the palace, which ferves for the frequent ab¬
lutions recommended by the Mahometan religion, as
well as for other purpofes. The whole of the harem
confifts of about twelve of thefe fquare courts, commu¬
nicating with each other by narrow paflages, which af¬
ford a free accefs from one part of it to another, and
of which all the women are allowed to avail themfelves.
The apartments are ornamented on the outfide with
beautiful carved wood. In the infide moft of the
rooms are hung with rich damafk of various colours ;
the floors are covered with beautiful carpets, and there
are matreffes difpofed at different diftances, for the pur¬
pofes of fitting and fieeping,
1
Befidej
SER FaSg] SER
Serag^'fl" Befides thefe, the apartments are furnlfhed at each
i*-—v extremity with an elegant European mahogany bed-
ftead, bung with damafk, having on it feveral matrefles
placed one over the other, which are covered with va¬
rious coloured filks ; but thefe beds are merely placed
there to ornament the room. In all the apartments,
without exception, the ceiling is wood, carved and
painted. The principal ornaments in fome were large
and valuable looking-glaffes, hung on different parts of
the walls. In others, clocks and watches of different
fizes, in glafs cafes, were difpofed in the fame manner.
. 1 he fultana Lalla Batoom and another favourite
were indulged with a whole fquare to themfelves ; but
the concubines were only each allowed a lingle room.
Each female had a feparate daily allowance from the
emperor, proportioned to the eftimation in which they
were held by him. The late emperor’s allowance was
very trifling : Lalla Douyaw, the favourite fultana, had
very little more than half-a-crown Englifli a-day, and
the others lefs in proportion. It muff be allowed, that
the emperor made them occafional prefents of money,
drefs, and trinkets ; but this could never be fufficient
to fupport the number of domeftics and other expences
they muff incur. Their greateft dependence therefore
was on the prefents they received from thofe Europeans
and Moors who vifited the court, and who employed
their influence in obtaining fome particular favour from
the emperor. This was the moft fuccefstul mode that
could be adopted. When Mr Lempriere was at Mo¬
rocco, a Jew, defirous of obtaining a very advantage¬
ous favour from the emperor, for which he had been a
long time unfuccefsfully foliciting, fent to all the prin¬
cipal ladies of the harem prefents of pearls to a very
large amount; the confequeuce was, that they all went
in a body to the emperor, and immediately obtained
the wiffied-for conceffion.
The ladles feparately fnrnifh their own rooms, hire
their own domeftics, and, in fadl, do what they pleafe
in the harem, but are not permitted to go out without
an exprefs order from the emperor, who very feldom
grants them that favour, except when they are to be re¬
moved from one palace to another. In that cafe, a
party of foldiers is difpatched a little diftance before
them, to difperfe the male paffengers in particular, and
to prevent the poffibility of their being feen. This
previous ftep being taken, a piece of linen cloth is tied
round the lower part of the face, and afterwards thefe
miferable females cover themfelves entirely with their
haicks, and either mount mules, which they ride like
men, or, what is more ufual, are put into a fquare car¬
riage or litter, conftrudted for this pmpofe, which by
its lattice-work allows them to fee without being feen.
In this manner they fet off, under the charge of a guard
of black eunuchs. This journey, and fometimes a walk
within the bounds of the palace, with which they are,
however, feldom indulged, is the only excrcife they are
permitted to take.
The late emperor’s harem confifted of between 60
and too females, belides their domeftics and flaves,
which were very numerous. Many of the concubines
were Moorifti women, who had been prefented to the
emperor, as the Moors confider it an honour to have
their daughters in the harem ; feveral were European
flaves, who had either been made captives, or purcha-
fed by the emperor ; and fome were Negroes.
VoL.X'VIi. Bart 1.
In this group the Europeans, or their defcendants, S«rag’iO| v
had by far the greateft claim to the charadltr of hand- v f
fome. There was one in particular, who was a native
of Spain, and taken into the harem at about the fame
age as Lalla Douyaw, who was indeed a perfeft beau¬
ty. Nor was this lady quite lingular in that refpeft,
for many others were almoft equally handfome.
The eunuchs, who have the entire charge of the
women, and who in fadf live always among them, are
the children of Negro flaves. They are generally ei¬
ther very fliort and tat, or elfe tall, deformed, and lame.
Their voices have that particular tone which is obfer-
vable in youths who are juft arriving at manhood ; and
their perfons altogether afford a difgufting image of
weaknefs and effeminacy.
The fame gentleman gives us a very curious account
of the manners and ignorance of thefe immured females,
from his own obfervation, when viliting the prince’s ha*
rem. Attended by an eunuch (fays he), after palling
tire gate of the harem, which is always locked, and un¬
der the care of a guard or eunuchs, we entered a nar¬
row and dark paffage, which foon brought us to the
court, into which the womens chambers open. We
here faw number's of both black and white women and
children ; fome concubines, iome flaves, and others hired
domeftics.
“ Upon their obferving the unufual figure of an Eu¬
ropean, the whole multitude hr a body furrounded me,
and expreffed the utmoft. aftouilhment at my dtefs and
appearance. Some flood motionlefs, with their hands
lifted up, their eyes fixed, and their mouths open, in
the ufual attitude of wonder and furprife. Some burft
into immoderate fits of laughter ; while others again
came up, and with uncommon attention eyed me from
head to foot. The parts of my drefs which feemed
moft to attradl their notice were my buckles, buttons,
and ftockings ; for neither men nor women irt this coun¬
try wear any thing of the kind. With refpeft to the
club of my hair, they feemed utterly at a lofs in what
view to conftder it; but the powder which I wore they
conceived to be employed for the purpofe of deftroy-
ing vermin. Moft of the children, when they faw me,
ran away in the moft perfect confternation ; and on the
whole, I appeared as lingular an animal, and 1 dare fay
had the honour of exciting as much euriofity and at¬
tention, as a lion or a man-tiger juft imported from
abroad, and introduced into a country town in England
on a market-day. Every time l vilited the harem, I
wTas fufrounded and laughed at by this curious mob,
who, on my entering the gate, followed me clofe to the
very chamber" to which 1 was proceeding, and on my
return univerially efcorted me out.
“ The greateft part of the women were uncommonly
fat and unwieldy ; had black and full eyes, round faces,
with fmall «ofes. They were of different complexions $
fome very fair, fome fallow, and others again perfect
Negroes.
“ One of my new patients being ready to receive me,
I was delired to walk into her room ; where, to my
great furprife, I faw nothing but a curtain drawn quite
aerofs the apartment, fimilar to that of a theatre which
feparates the ftage from the audience. A female do-
rceftic brought a very low ftool, placed it near the cur¬
tain, and told me I was to lit down there, and feel her
miftrefs’s pulfe.
O Q
u 'Ike
S E R r 200 ] S E R
f eraglio. « The lady, who had by this time fummoned up cou-
"“'“"Y-—- j-age to fpeak, introduced her hand from the bottom of
the curtain, and defxred me to inform her of all her com¬
plaints, which fhe conceived I might perfe&ly do by
merely feeling the pulfe It was in vain to afk her
where her pain was feated, whether in her llomach,
head, or back | the only anfwer I could procure was a
requeft to feel the pulfe of the other hand, and then
point out the feat of the difeafe, and the nature of the
pain.
5‘ Having neither fatisfied my curiofity by exhibiting
her face, nor made me acquainted with the nature of
her complaint, I was under the neceffity of informing
her in pofitive terms, that to underhand the difeafe, it
was abfolutely neceffary to fee the tongue as well as to
feel the pulfe ; and that without it I could do nothing
for her. My eloquence, or rather that of my Jewifh inter¬
preter, was, however, for a long time exerted in vain ;
and I am perfuaded fhe would have difmiffed me without
any further inquiry, had not her invention fupplied htr
with a happy expedient to remove her embarraffment.
She contrived at lafl to cut a hole through the curtain,
through which fhe extruded her tongue, and thus com¬
plied with my injunction as far as it was neceffary in a
medical view, but molt effe&ually difappointed my cu¬
riofity.
“ I was afterwards ordered to look at another of the
prince’s wives, who was afhCted with a fcrophulous
fwelling in her neck. This lady was, in the fame man¬
ner as the other, at firft excluded from my fight ; but
as fhe was obliged to fhow me her complaint, I had an
opportunity of feeing her face, and obferved it to be
very handfome.”
It is curious to obferve the ftrange and childifh no¬
tions of perfons who have been totally fecluded from
the world. AH the ladies of the harem expefted that
■our author fhoitid have in'fantly difeovered their com¬
plaints upon feeling the pulfe, and that he could cure
every difeafe inftantaneoufly. He found them proud
and vain of their perfons, and extremely ignorant. “ A-
mong many ridiculous qtteftions, they alked my inter¬
preter (fays Mr Lempriere) if I could read and write ;
upon being anfvvered in the affirmative, they expreffed
the utmoft furprife and admiration at the abilities
of the Chriftiansi There was not one among them who
could do either ; thefe rudiments of learning are indeed
only the lot of a few of their men, who on that ac¬
count are named Talls^ or explainers of the Mahome¬
tan law.”
It is melancholy to refiefl on the lltuation of thefe
unfortunate women. Being confukred as the mere in-
ftruments of pleafure, no attention is paid to the im¬
provement of their minds. They have no employment
to occupy their time. Their needle-work is performed
by Jeweifes ; their food is drefled, and their chambers
taken care of, by flaves and domeftics. They have no
amufement but a rude and barbarous kind of melan¬
choly mufic, without melody, variety, or talle ; and
converfation with one another, which muft indeed be
very confined, uniform, and inanimate, as they never
lee a new object. Excluded from the enjoyment of
Jrefh air and exercife, fo neceffary for the lupport of
health and life ; deprived ol all fociety but that of their
fellow fuherers, a fociety to which rnoft of them would
prefer Hhtude itfelf ; they are only to be conhdered as
the mod abje& of flaves—Haves to the vices and ca* Sera|
price of a licentious tyrant, who exadts even from his H
wives themfelves a degree of fubmiffion and refpeCt ^er'^l!5*
which borders upon idolatry, and which God and na¬
ture never meant fhould be paid to a mortal.
SERAI, a building on the high-road, or in large ci¬
ties in India, ereded for the accommodation of travel¬
lers.
SERAPH, or Seraphim, a fpirit of the higheft,
rank in the hierarchy of angels ; who are thus called
from their being fuppofed to be moll inflamed with di--
vine love, by their nearer and more immediate atten¬
dance at the throne of God, and to communicate their
fervour to the remoter and inferior orders. See An¬
gel.
SERAPHIC, burning or inflamed with love or zeal, •
like a feraphim : thus St Bonaventure is called the fe*
raphic do ft or, from his abundant zeal and fervour.
SERAPJAS, in botany ; A genus of plants belong¬
ing to the order of diandria, and to the clafs of gynan-
dria; and in the natural fyllem arranged under the yth
order, Or chide# > The nedarium is egg-lhaped and gib¬
bous, with an egg-lhaped lip. The ipecies, according
to Linnseus, are ten. I. Latifolia; 2. Longifolia 5
3. Grandiflora, or enfifolia } 4. Lancifolia ; 5. Rubra ;
6. Lingua 5 7. Cordigera ; 8. Capenfis } 9. Ereda ;
10. Falcata. The three firft are natives of Britain..
1. The Latifolia, or broad-leaved-helleborine, is di-
ftinguifhed by fibrous bulbs, By ovate ftem-clafping
leaves, and pendulous flowers. The ftalk is ered,
about a cubit high, and furnilhed with fix or eight,
nervous oval leaves ; the fpike is about fix inches long £
the three upper petals are of a green colour, and of an oval
acute form ; the lateral ones are a little fhorter, and of
a white colour, with a little tinge of green. 2. The
Palujlris, or marfh helleborine, grows in rough boggy?
paftures and marfhes, and flowers in July. It is diftia-
guifhed by fibrous bulbs, fword-lhaped feffile leave
pendulous flowers ; and the lip of the nedarium is ob~
tufe, fomewhat ferrated, and longer than the petals.
The flowers grow to the number of 15 or 70 in a loofe
fpike. The three exterior petals are green mixed with
red 5 the lateral ones are white with a red blufh ; and
the nedarium is marked with red lines and yellow tu¬
berculous fpots. 3. The Grandiflora, or white-flowered
helleborine, grows in woods, and flowers in June. Its
charaderillics are, fibrous bulbs, iword-fhaped leaves#
ered flowers; and the lip of the nedarium is obtufe and
fhorter than the petals. The flowers are large and ered,
and confifting of fix or eight in a thin fpike ; the petals
are all white, and connive together ; the lip of the
nedarium is inclofed within the petals, is white and
ftreaked with three yellow prominent lines.
SERAPION, a phyfician of Alexandria. He and
Philinus of the ifle of Cos were both fcholars of Hero-
philus, and were founders of the empiric fed 5 which'
happened about 287 B. C.
SERAPIS, in mythology, an-Egyptian deity, who
was worftiipped under various names and attributes, a»
the tutelary god of Egypt in general, and as the patron
of fevcral of their principal cities. Tacitus informs us#
that he was worlhipped as a kind of univerfal deity that
reprefented Efculapius, Ofiris, Jupiter, and Pluto ; and
he was fometimes taken for Jupiter Ammon, the Sun,
and Neptune ; and the honours that were rendered to
him
8 E R t *9* 1 s „ E R
him at A^andris were more folemn and extraordinary and when the pope or the facred college write to the
emperor, to kings, or to the doge, they give them no
other title, In like manner, the emperor gives no other
title to any king, except to the king of France.^
SERENUS (Sammonicus), a,celebrated phyficia*
in the reigns of the emperor Severue and Caracalla, in
and about the year 200. He wrote feveral treaties on
hiftory and the works of nature ; but there is only one
of them extant, which is a very indifferent poem on the
Remedies of Difeafes. He was murdered at a feftival
by the order of Caracalla. He had a library that con¬
tained 63,000 volumes, which Quintus Serenus Sam-
momeus his fon gave to Gordian the Younger, to whom
he was preceptor,
SERES (Ptolemy) 5 a people of the Farther Afia *
bounded on the weft by Scythia extra Imaum 5 on the
north and eaft, by Terra Incognita j and on the fouth,
by India extra Gangem. According to thefe limits,
their country anfwers nearly to Cathoy or North China,
Other authors vary greatly in placing them, though
the generality agree in placing them far to the eaft.
jSetaps!
tl than thpfe of any other place,
Serene. piutarch and Clemens of Alexandria, as well as Ta-
Hifl. dtus *, inform us, that while the firft Ptolemy was em-
j,|v,cap- ,vployed in fortifying Alexandria with walls, adorning it
j>iut. de iff w{th temples and ftately buildings, there appeared to
*€1. °JAkx fleeP a y°uug man of extraordinary beauty,
infrotrp.’ a ftature more than human, admonifhing him to dif-
patch into Pontus feme of his moft trufty friends to
bring from thence his ftatue 5 he allured him, that the
city and kingdom which poffeffed it fhould prove
happy, glorious, and powerful. The young man ha¬
ving thus fpoke, difappeared, mounting up into heaven
in a blaze of fire.
Ptolemy difeovered his vifion to the priefts j but find¬
ing them ignorant of Pontus, he had recourfe to an A-
•thenian, who informed him that near Sinope, a city of
Pontus, there was a temple much reforted to by the
natives, which was confecrated to Pluto, where he had
Ptolemy
Sefe^u*
II
Serg?.
—■"Y"—^
a ftatue, near which ftood that of a woman,
negle&ing the injunctions of the apparition, it again „ . „ , _
appeared to him in a menacing attitude } and the king Mela places them between the indi and Scythae; and
immediately difpatched ambaffadors to the Serapiau perhaps beyond the Indi, it we diftinguilh the Sin*
monarch, loaded with prefents. The king of Sinope from them. 'r^ —,-nt.
confented ? but his fubjedts oppofed the removal of the
ftatue. The god, however, of his own accord, as we
nre informed, conveyed himfelf to the ambaffador’s Ihip,
nnd in three days landed in Alexandria, The ftatue of
Serapis was erected in one of the fuburbs of the city,
where a magnificent temple was afterwards reared.
The ftatue of Serapia, according to Macrobius, was
of a human form, with a baficet or bulhd on his head,
fignifying plenty s his right hand leaned on the head
of a ferpent, whofe body was wound round a figure
with three heads, of a dog, a lion, «ud a wolf i in his
Jeft hand he held a meafure of a cubit length, as it were
to take the height of the waters of the Nile, The figure
of Serapis is found on many ancient medals.
The famous temple of Serapjg at Alexandria was
deftroyed by order of Theodofius | and the celebrated
ftatue of this deity was broken in pieces, and its limbs
carried firft in triumph by the Chriftian^ through the
city, and then thrown into a fierce fire, kindled for that
purpofe in the amphitheatre. As the Egyptians aferi-
bed the overflowing of the Nile, to which was owing
the fertility of their country, to the benign influence of
their god Serapis, they concluded, that now he was
deftroyed, the river would no longer overflow, and that
a general famine would enfue 5 but when they obfgrved,
on the contrary, that the Nile fwelled to a greater
height than had been known in the memory of man,
and thereby produced an immenfe plenty of all kinds
of provifions, many of the pagans renouncing the war-
fhip of idols, adored the God of the Chriftians.
SERENA gutta, the fame as amvrofu. See Me¬
dicine, hp 360.
SERENADE, a kind of concert given in the night
by a lover to his miftrefs, under her window. Thefe
fometimea only confift of inftrumental mufic, but at
other times voices are added; the mufic and fongs com-
pofed for thefe occafions are alfo called fgrenades,
SERENE, a title of honour given to feveral princes
and to the principal magiftrates of republics. The king
of Britain, the republic and doge of Venice, and the
children of the king of Spain, are called mjl jerene;
The ancients commend them for their cot¬
ton manufa&ures, different from the produce of the
bombyces or filk-worms, called feres by the Greeks j
whence ferica filk.”
SERGE, a woollen quilted fluff, manufactured on 3
loom with four treddlea, after the manner of rateens,
and other fluffs that have the whale. The goodnefs of
ferges is known by the quilting, as that of cloths by
the fpinning. Of ferges there are various kinds, deno¬
minated either from the different qualities thereof, or
from the places where they are wrought. The moft
confiderable is the London ferge, now highly valued
abroad, particularly in France, where a manufacture is
carried on with confiderable fuccefs, under the title of
ferge fatjon de Lmdres,
The method of making the London ferge we (hall
now deferibe ; For wool, the longeft is chofen for the
warp, and the fhorteft for the woof. Before either kind
is ufed, it is firft fcoured, by putting it in a copper of
liquor, fomewhat more than lukewarm, compofed of
three parts of fair water and one of urine. After
having flayed long enough therein for the liquor to
diffolve, and take off the greafe, &c. it is ftirred brifkly
about with a wooden peel j taken out of the liquor,
drained, and wafhed in a running water, dried in the
fhade, beaten with flicks on a wooden rack to drive
out the coarfer dull and filth, and then picked clean
with the hands. Thus far prepared, it is greafed with
oil of olives, and the longeft part, deflined tor the waip,
is combed with large combs, heated in a little furnace
for the purpofe. To clear off the oil again, the wool
is put in a liquor compofed of hot water, with foap
.melted therein .* whence being taken out, wrung, and
dried, it is fpun on the wheel.
As to the fhorter wool, intended for the woof, it
is only carded en the knee with fmall cards, and then
fpun on the wheel, without being fcouved of its oil.
It muff be remarked, that the thread for the warp is al¬
ways to be fpun much finer, and better twilled than
that of the woof. The wool both for the warp and
the woof being fpun, and the thread divided into fleams,
that of the woof is put on fpools (unkfs it have been
O 0 2 fpun
S E R [ 202 ] S E R
fpan ireon them) fit for the cavity or eye of the fhuttle;
fffear]t‘ and that for the warp is wound on a kind of wooden
v bobbins to fit it for warping. When wnrped, it is ftiff-
ened with a kind of fize, whereof that made of the
Hi reds cf parchment is held the beft ; and when dry is
put on the loom.
When mounted on the loom, the workman railing
end lowering the threads (which aie pafi'ed through a
reed), by means of four treddles placed underneath the
loom, which he makes to aft tranfverfely, equally, and
alternately, one after another, with his feet, in propor¬
tion as the threads are raifed and lowered, throws the
fhuttle acrofs from one fide to the other ; and each
time that the fhuttle is thrown, and the thread of the
woof is crolfed between thofe of the warp, ftrikes it
with the frame to which the reed is faflened, through
thofe teeth the threads of the warp pafs; and this
Itroke he repeats twice or thrice, or even more, till he
judges the croffing of the ferge fufficiently clofe : thus
he proceeds till the warp is all filled with woof.
The ferge now taken off the loom is carried to the
fuller, who fcours it in the trough of his mill with a
kind of fat earth, called earth, firfl purged of all
Hones and filth. After three or four hours icouring,
the fuller’s earth is waflied out in fair water, brought by
little and little into the trough, out of which it is taken
when all the earth is cleared ; then, with a kind of iron
pincers or plyers, they pull off all the knots, ends,
ilraws, &c. flicking out on the furface on either fide ;
and then returning it into the fulling trough, where it
is worked with water fomewhat more than lukewarm,
with foap diflblved therein for near two' hours : it is
then wafhed out till fuch time as the water becomes
quite clear, and there be no figns of foap left; then it
is taken out of the trough, the knots, &c. again pulled
off, and then put on the tenter to dry, taking care as-
fafl as it dries to flretch it out both in length and
breadth till it be brought to its juft dimenfions. When
well dried, it is taken off the tenter, and dyed, fliorn,
and preffed.
SERGEANT, or Serjeant at Law, or of the Coif,
is the higheft degree taken at the common law, as
that of X)oftor is of the civil law; and as thefe are
fuppofed to be the moil learned and experienced in the
practice of the courts, there is one court appointed for
them to plead in by themfelves, which is the common
• pleas, where the common law of England is moft ftrieft-
ly oblerved : but they are not reffribled from pleading
in any other court, where the judges, who cannot have
that honour till they have taken the degree of ferjeant
at law, call them brothers.
htRGEANT at Arms, or Mace, an officer appointed to
attend the perfon of the king ; to arreft traitors, and
fuch perfons of quality as offend ; and to attend the lord
high fteward, when fitting in judgment on a traitor.
Of thefe, by ftatute 13 Rich. II. cap. 6. there are
not to be above 30 in the realm. There are now nine
at court at L. 100 per annum falary each ; they are
called the king's fergeants at arms, to diftinguifh them
from others : they are created with great ceremony,
the perfon kneeling before the king', his majefty lays the
mace on his right fhoulder, and fays, Rife vp. fergeant at
arms, and efquire for ever. They have, befides, a pa¬
tent^ for the office, which they hold for life.
j hey have their attendance in the prefence-chamber,
where the band of gcntlemen-penfioners wait; and, re- Sergeant
ceiving the king at the door, they carry the maces be- !j
fore him to the chapel door, whilft the band of penfion- ^r‘es-
era {land foremofl, and make a lane for the king, as v T
they alfo do when the king goes to the houfe of lords.
1 here are four other fergeants at arms, created in the
fame manner ; one, who attends the lord chancellor ; a
fecond, the lord treafurer ; a third, the fpeaker of the
houfe of commons ; and a fourth, the lord mayor of
London on folemn occafions.
They have a confiderable fhare of the fees of honour,
and travelling charges allowed them when in waiting,
viz. five {hillings per day when the court is within ten
miles of London, and ten {hillings when twenty miles
from London. The places are in the lord chamberlain’s
gift-
1 here are alfo fergeants of the mace of an inferior
kind, who attend the mayor or other head officer of a
corporation.
Common Sergeant, an officer in the city of London,
who attends the lord mayor and court of aldermen on
court days, and is in council with them on all occafions,
within and without the precindls or liberties of the city.
He is to take care of orphans eftates, either by taking
account of them, or to ftgn their indentures, before their
paffing the lord mayor and court of aldermen : and he
was likewife to let and manage the orphans eflates, ac¬
cording to his judgment to their beft advantage. See
Recorder.
Sergeant, in war, is an uncommiffioned officer in a
company of foot or troop of dragoons, armed with an
halbert, and appointed to fee difeipline obferved, to
teach the foldiers the exercife of their arms, to order,
ftraiten, and form their ranks, files, &c. He receives
the orders from the adjutant, which he communicates
to his officers. Each company generally has two fer¬
geants.
SERGEANTY (Serjeantia), fignifies, in law, afer-
vice that cannot be due by a tenant to any lord but the
king ; and this is either grand fergeanty, or pttit. The
fir ft is a tenure by which the one holds his lands of the
king by fuch fervices as he ought to do in perfon to the
king at his coronation ; and may alfo concern matters
military, or iervices of honour in peace ; as to be the
king’s butler, carver, &c. Petit fergeanty is where a
man holds lands of the king to furnifh him yearly with
fome fmall thing towards his wars; and in effeed pay¬
able as rent. Though all tenures are turned mio[occage
by the 12 Car. II. cap. 24. yet the honorary fervices of
grand fergeanty ftill remain, being therein excepted. See
Knigh t- Service.
SERIES, in general, denotes a continual fucceffion
of things in the fame order, and having the fame rela¬
tion or connexion with each other : in this fenfe we
fay, a ferits of emperors, kings, bifhops, &c.
In natural hiftory, a feries is ufed for an order or fub-
divifion of fome clafs of natural bodies; comprehending
all fuch as are diftinguifhed from the other bodies of
that clafs, by certain charadlers which they poffefs in
common, and which the reft of the bodies of that call
have not.
Series, in arithmetic and algebra, a rank or num- ceri2?.
ber of terms in fucceffion, increaftng or diminifhing in 2
fome certain ratio or proportion. There are feveral various
kinds of feries; as arithmetica!, geometrical, wfnite, &c. kinds of.
2 The .
Scries.
S E R C 293 ]
The two firft of thefe are, however, more generally ^ Lct t]i£ fraa;on
" known or diftinguiflied by the names of arithmetical and
geometrical progrefton. Thefe feriefes have already been
explained and illuftrated in the article Algebra, par¬
ticularly the two firft: it therefore only remains, in
this place, to add a little to what has already been
done to the laft of thefe ; namely.
Infinite Series,
Is formed by dividing the numerator of a fra&ion
by its denominator, that denominator being a compound
quantity ; or by extracting the root of a furd.
4 An infinite feiies is either converging or diverging.
Converging /\ converging feries is that in which the magnitude
and diver t}ie feveral terms gradually diminifii ; and a diver¬
ging ferief. feries js that in wh;ch the fuccefiive terms increafe
r in magnitude-
Lawofan The law of an infinite feries is the order in which
infinite fe- the terms are obferved to proceed. This law is often
ay
I -I- x
E R
be converted into an infi-
Serfes.
nite feries t
(ay-ayx-l-ayx—ayx sc4, &Cj
aji-j-ay x
—ay x
•—ay x—ay x*
Infinite fe¬
ries.
ay x2
ay x1-}-ay x3
—ay x3
—ay x1—ay *4
Hence
ay
i+x
— a/ X 1 — x ft- x2 — x3 -f- x4, &c.
m'+x\ . „ . . . »
Reduce the fra&ion . into an infinite feries r
eafily difeoxered from a few of the firft terms of the
feries ; and then the feries may be continued as far as , ^ A
may be thought neceftary, without any farther divifion an(j the jaw Gf the feries is obvious,
or evolution.
An infinite feries, as has already been obferved, is
obtained by divifion or evolution ; but as tnat method
is very tedious, various other methods have been pro-
pofed for performing the fame in a more eafy manner;
as, by affuming a feries with unknown coefficients, by
the binomial theorem, &c.
ay x41
ay x^J^ay x7
—ay xs
ff! 4" *
O V2
m+xy'+x2 («-*+——^ + ~3
m -+-m x
&c.
L Of the Method of Series by Divfion and Evolution.
Rule.
Metffod of Let the divifion or evolution of the given fraftion,
converting which is to be converted into an infinite feries, be per-
8 fra&ional formed as in Chapters I. and IV. of our article Alge*
quantity BRA and the required feries will be obtained.
finite feries, Examples.
by divifion, x
i. Convert the fra&ion flTx '‘nto an *nfin*te ^e”es *
1—sc)i (1 4-x4-x24-x1-f-x4, &c.
1—x
— m ac 4-x
1 :
■—m x—x
2x2 +
2xi
2x
2X4
m
2x*
2X4
&C.
X X . X3
X   1 
I m m
TT w2-|-xs ,251
Hence .—— zzm — x-y-—
rw-fiac m
the law of the feries is evident.
a2
4. Convert the quantity ay ~
feries ?
s2 + 2 rfy +/ )a\ (I ■
&c. and*
into an infinite
2 .y t 3/ 4TS
a +2r7_y-f/
'+ —
as
&c.
x’
X4 Xs
-2ay—y ^ 3
-2ay—w L
a
Hence the fraftion ~ ~ — 1 x -f-x'-f- x -f- x4, &c.
From infpeftion of the terms of this feries, it appears
that each term is formed by multiplying the preceding
term by x ; and hence it may be continued as far as
may be thought neeeffary without continuing the divi¬
fion.
3/+f
a a1
Whenca-
S E R
l «94 ]
S E R
. gerie*,
-v- Whe„«^^
each term is found by multiplying the preceding by
y
U+U'^l\ &e, 8rilJ I.rt the .(Tumed fcrft, be A + B^+C^'+D^I, fa,
o (i% a1 * * which multiplied by cl *4- 2 gives
c*
- and increafing the coefficient by unity.
And evolu, 5’ ^et ^be converted into an infinite feries ?
iicin. Jl* | yC ^
a~~8a ' 16as 1
4"’
A +f* Bj'•d-c’C/d-e3 Dy5, &c,
+ 2 f Ay + 2 c B ya-f 3 c Gy}
— Ay* — By’,
Now, by equating the coefficients sf the homologous
terms, we have ci~ei A, r1B + a r A = C 4- ac
B—■ A^Os c1 D-f-a c G B ss 0, &c. j whence A-s
1, B=_iA=_i,c=-5^?=,+±=i.,D3
C c C* c* c2
B
-2c C _—3 — IO
:r
X* X*\ X
J3 ^T-, )—•—
1 a oaj 4a
 *— 3 — IO _ 13 &e s w}lence c
f1 <4 * PaVcvITv3
—“Ti-’acc-
««
x«
+ 7T3
“4a3 8a*“r 640'
\ x6 x“
x» x4 a <
2a ~4A+ i6AJ8^4 640s
X8 X8
8a4’^” 16a5 64«3~^
5x8
1 ™i"
x»°
c c
3* Required the fquare root of <j*«—-x* ?
Let a3—x3>17 = A 4" B x3+ C x4 “h Ox6, &c. which
1>eing fquared gives
a* — x*s: A*4-2 A B x'4“B* x-» + a ADx«, &c.
4. a AC x4+2 B C x6.
Hence A* = o% a A B 4-T —B * 4- 2 A C =r r*
a A D 4* 2 B C ss «, &c. Then A ~ a, B =s —»
1 1 r _ B\_ i T v_ B C 1
3 A 2a aA Ba5* A ^ j6as*
64a0'6438 256a
Jo
x4
6cc. j whence «*’—»x*l4=5a«
Hence the fquare root of az+x%zza'\- --—gpH-
”3 « 8 a3 16 as
5cc.
I28x7
;| &C.
HI, 0/ Method of reducing a fractional Quantity inti
an Infinite Serkf by the Binomial Theorem.
As this method has already been illuftrated in the And9by Sir
1 /-> I« A v ^ TC B A mxr.ct * L   i*   1 * , £l n , t tr _ .
In continuing the operation, thofe terms may be ne» — — -— ~v -w,. »« mv^na uysif
glefted whofe dimenfions exceed thofe of the laft term art^e Algebra, we fhall therefore briefly ftate the baac New.;
to which the root is to be continued. theorem, and add a few examples. t0?’.8 ftma-j
II. Of the Method of Series by ajfuming a Series with m»
known Coefficients.
Sy means Rule. Afiume a feries with unknown coefficients
-cfai’ aflum. to reprefent that required. Let this feries be multiplied
fA feries; or involved, according to the nature of the queftionj
and the quantities of the fame dimenfion being put
equal to each other, the coefficients will be determined}
and hence the required feries will be known.
theorem, and add a few examples.
Binomial Theorem.
mial thco»
rem.
JH
>n
m*~n
m
——Ti T T . » , >» m—n
J+D" =0 “+-0 ■ j.
m—-3 n
, m v m—n ns—-3 n
—a —.^X —.—-X<?
a 2 n 3 a
w
«— m
-rr « —       
" I — , m .. b . m m—n b
m— m
Examples, x. Let——beconverted into an infi-
a-x
^ S&c.
m
Ova
n
X i 4- ~ = «
Q\
nite feries ? A flume = A 4° B.v 4~ C x* 4* H x3 4”
a-x
Ex4, &c.
Then this aflumed feries, multiplied by a—x, gives
l,zza A 4. a B x 4- a C x* 4- a D x* 4- a E x4, &c.
— A x — B x8 ■ C xJ — H x4, &c.
Now, by equating the coefficients of the fame powers
of x, we have a A =i,a B~ A = <», a C — B=c, a D tm • Now
x l+—X -4- G.x—X'-r-
a an 2n a
+-X^X-
a zn
~—Z n bl
&c.
$n a*
Examples.
I. Let **=aB~^* be converted into an infinite fe*
— C —o, a E—B=o, &c. Hence A ss i-, B =
= 4-, C = 'B = -1 X) = = E ^
a a a% a a111 a as>
* =2 a X ax —x*i
= —., X
ax t
I—■
x'-J
• And this laft expreffion, being
&c.; w'hence, by fubftitution, we have —L..— L4.™ compared with the general theorem, gives ^-=‘L
t a—x -a a* a a
4- —4.A_4.
^a}Ta4 ‘a
&c.
J 1 y,4 * „S
2. Convert the quantity - c% 
? P-tzcy—y'
—I, n=2. Hence, by fubftitution, we have -
ax-
rilte feries l
intoan'infi- =A.
X
X I — -I a— * x
~~ 4 x
SEE
Series. .—j—2 —1—4 x}
a I ^ 1 , »
. &C.= — +1 + ,-+
4
[ 295 3
S E R
a; 3 j?1
2tf *0 «4
274. Se?ics»-
19683’^TT—t114t ^ TttI7 ^ 0.60000008
5 a: :
35 x
16 128 «
4> &C>
9353’
J5C49X14 “ ^5 j tt| ^ **“ 0.0000000 j
2. Required the fquare root of at-\-xi ?
By comparing this with the general theorem, we
havetf=:fl% b — x1, tnzzl, n—2. Hence, by fubllitu*
. , _ . , xa 1—2
tion, the fenes becomes aXi 4-^X"^y + Y><
Sum of the pofitive terms, 1.05760968
Sum of the negative terms, 0.00331885
Difference,
2X 2
I.O5429083
8
x* 1—*2 l~-4
Xfl4+TX— X
X -5, &C. = <3 X I+~~
2X2 3X2 0® 2a
Cube root of 600, = 8.43432664!l
In operations of this kind, the neared power to the
+^15__5^L &c. And 1U =: given number, whether greater or lefs than it, is to be ufed,
^ a 16a 1a8’   as by that means the feries will converge more quickly.
a X
5 *
&c.
An infinite feries may be involved to any given Involution
power, or any propofed root of a given feries may bean3 evohi*
~ _ .1 . . . t;on 0{ aa
2 a 8a4 16 a6" 128 a8
In order to apply this to numbers, let the fquare extracted by means of the following general theorem. .ot
>e required? Now, the fquare root of 85 z ^ X (a+£ a; + c #* + a; 5 4-^ *’4> = z ries,
multiplied by
Toot of 85 be required
5= \/ 81 + 4; hence a—9, and = 4.
Then 1 = 1.000000
2 a
v-4
~ O.O2469I
m tn—i m-—1 m—2 1
a ’\-mba x 4m • ”—“—]
2 X 81
4X4
F^4 ““ 8X81 x 81 ““ ©.000304
4 m
m — 1
a c J
1
16 a6
4X4X4
16X81X81X81
=: 0.000007
I.024394
9
m— 1 m — 2 m — 3
4m.”  • —  a b'
2 3 I
m — 1 m 2 9k3
4 ^ ^ 2,3 ^1
9.2i954^>
Square root of 85
true except the laft decimal.
3. Required the cube root of ai-\-b'’ ?
This being compared with the general theorem gives
az:**, b =yi, m = 1, « =: 3. Hence a* + b -
, I—3
T
4 m •
4 ma m “
rn — 1 m — 2 tn— 7,
ld J
w —4,41
a a4 f
4 m
2 3 4
m — 1 m — 2 m — 3
3 a btc\
4 tn .
m
3
1 m
—•. a
2 ^ibd
•i+>-
1 V T J- i. v -v J- » v 1 4 X
6 x6
a | X 1 4 t x r x
6
4 <2-
m
1—6. y
  X -
9 . v2
, &c. = a X I 4 y
y6 -r
9' ' g xl 9X6 8iy9
f-7?~ 4 m. l
~ 2345 *
ioy'
., &c. And a3 — j J~ a X 1
243
3 a; 3 9X0
12! &c.
81 X9 243 X11 ^ __
Let the cube root of 600 be required ? Now'6oo|f
— 8X14T8Alr Then y3 = 88, x3=5t2l m = 1,
and n — 7>
Then 1 1 ‘Oocooooo
4 ** •
4
m— i m—2 m—3
4a
m—4
Pc
2 34' |
m -— 1 m —2 m—3 Klcx y<*d
■3a
2 3 J u-\-bxd
m— 1 tn — 2 t d
m—I
4 ?» . —-—2 a
2
4^ e
4 w
/
-} rn T”-1 w~~2 w—3 m—4 m-~zl a m~6 i6 1
‘ 2 * 3 * 4 ‘ 5 ' 6 *
x3'
X
88
512
!Tm 3
9
5 J9 _
81 ““ 1
10-x-a .= tVt xTlIi4 = ““ 0,OO0©3591
O.OC328233'
0,0003 134!
m—1 m~ 2 m—% tn—4 tn—5
4 tn . ——. Pt—.5a ^4 c
* 3 4 5
m—1 m—2 rj — 3 m*~4 \ 6bxc*
4«. t-*—a
4
4
C 354^ C ^
W!“'-.2.aw-3|6^f
3
0x0000453
243 X
_ a a y Tr, J
729 x’3 ~ T*ir x '5'TTl
,5L-n = sV/.xSy” = —o.oo^oco6o
— T
4 tn . -r— .
t e3 I
,n-2 N2*/ I
) 2 £ e
d-*
656
4 «j a
m—1
New-
Scries.
g E R [ 296 ] S E R
‘Now each term of the given feries is to be compared above theorem ; and by fnbftitution in the fecond, the Seriej.
with the correfpondent terms in the firft part of the feveral terms of the required feries will be obtained. 1 v—•
Examples.
\Jl. What is the fquare of the feries y——y7 + &c. ?
By comparing this with the general theorem, we find z=y, 0 = 1, 3=0, c~—1, d—o^ g~—1, &c. and
m—2 ; whence y—yi~tyi —y7V = yz X (1 — 2 ax1 cz x* — 2 c e &c. — y2X (1—2 y2+3y4—4y0)»
+ 2<? a:4 — 2gx6)
See. =y2—2y4 + 3y6—4^8, &c.
2d. Required the fourth power of the feries 1 +x:+a;24-oc3, &c. ?
Here z = 1, a = 1, b ~ 1, c~ 1, d— 1, & w = 4.
Then r 4- .v 4- rc2-f- x\ See. [4 = 1 + 4 3 x + b ^2a:a4- 4^3+ ^4x4, &c.
4-4 c 4* 1 2 bc -j1” 12 bzc
4- 4 4- 6 r2
4-12
4- 4 e
I 4* 4 ^ + IO X2 4- 20 X3 + 35 AC4, &C.
1 I 1 I
3^/, What is the fquare + + + °£C*
In this cafe z ~—7, x — ~, a~i, bzz\, czzl, dzzzi, & mz=. 2.
'Then i--j-&c.!2;=—rX(i-\-2bX b^X-! 4'2£eX—~4'2^X +> ^c*
X X2 X1 | * V *v x x
4- c2
4- 2 e
=Z~X (14-^- + + “3 + &c.)
X \ X ‘ x2 1 X3 x4’ /
3
I 2
“T+U
+
± , JL *
xi + X6 ’ &c’
A.th, What is the fquare root of   0 5 
r%~~T+^7 ~b74+870’&c*
The quantity reduced is lx ^ ^
— -
1 2r2"^"4r2 br^^Sr8
&c.
. , 1 , „ _ , — — r — d — — 7—, Sec. and m — 1 —
In this examplez—*^, x — *2> — 12 ®c 4 r4 ’ br0’ 2 —^ 
3_. <^z±= , &c.
3**
4
Then
r2 — *— 4"
2 f 41
:, &c.
-=Tx(
4 r 1 32 r4
1
'8~r~
5 X3
I28r°
3,
”s2r<5
1
, &c.
■ i 2 r°
X2 11 x3
IT') &c'
r 4r3 32rS 384r ' . . i4
Harmonic Series^ a feries of terms formed in harmoni- Again, let x be the fourth term, to find Which in The me-
 ; terms of a and b, we have
a b
Then bx —
b-.x'.'.b —
a b
2 a ■
. x r=
xnonical fe- cal proportion. It has been already obferved in the terms of a and b, we have
sies. article Proportion, that if three numbers be in har-
raonical proportion, the firft is to the third as the dif¬
ference between the firft and fecond is to the difference
between the fecend and third.
Let 0, b, and x be three terms in haimonical pro¬
portion : then a : x 1 : a — b :b —x
whence ax — bx — ah — a x.
% and 2 a x — bx — ab
. a b
then x ~  
b " 2 a — b
ab1
— bx
— X
thod of ex¬
tending thiJ
feries.
20 —a
$ab — 2 b~
2a — b
ab2
x
2 a—b
a b2
2 a — b
2 a — b
a b
2 a
2a — b' ^ab—2^ 30—2b’
Hence the three thereforethefourfirft terms area.
firft terms of this feries is 0, b,-
ab
2 0'
X a—b 30-—2b
Whence the law of the feries is obvious, and it m?,y be
continued
Series
S E
continued as follows, a. b.
ab
R
a b
la
&c.
b' 3*-
and the »th term is
-lb
ab
40—3^»
The fi ^
term lefs
5 a—^.b’ ' n — I .a—n—l.b
If, in aferies of terms in harmonical proportion, a and
b be two affirmative quantities, and fuch that a^Lb ;
dian ^'^nci then this feries, which is pofitive at lirft, will become
!.'>th po- negative as foon as n —2 . b exceeds n — 1 . a. But if
fitive, the a ^ feries will converge, and although produced
ferie-wiil^ ^ infinity will not become negative.
Let a and b be equal to 2 and 1 refpeftively ; then
this feries becomes LLt-'J’ &c' an(^ fince> if each term
of an harmonical feries be divided by the fame quantity,
the feries will ftill be harmonical. Therefore i*4-
to infinity will not become negative,
become ne- } . 0 .
gative.
14
But if the
fir ft is
^ ^CC‘18 an liarmonicai fcrics: whence the denominators of
fecond^the this feries form a feries of numbers in arithmetical pro-
fcries is af- greffion ; and converfely, the reciprocals of an arithme-
firmative tical progreffion are in harmonical proportion.
Recurring Shribs, a feries of which any term is form¬
ed by the addition of a certain number of preceding
terms, multiplied or divided by any determinate numbers
whether pofitive or negative. Thus 2. 3. 19. 101. 543*
2917. 15671, See. is a recurring feries, each term of
non in har- which is formed by the addition of the two preceding
Hfo^onion te'rms» the fir ft of which being previoufly multiplied by
and con- 'the conftant quantity 2 and the other by 5. Thus the
third term 19 = 2X 24-3X5 ; the fourth term 101 =
3X24-19 X 5, &c.
The principal operation in a feries of this nature is
that of finding its firm.—For this purpofe, the two firft
and two laft terms of the feries muft be given, together
with the conftant multipliers.
Let a, b, r, d, e,f. See. be any number of terms of a
feries formed according to the above law, each fuc-
ceffive term being equal to the fum of the produfts
of the two preceding terms, the firft being multiplied
by the given quantity m, and the other by the given
quantity n. Hence we will have the following leries
of equations c tn a n b, d—mb-^nc, e~mc-\-
n d, j— md ^ ne. Sec. Then adding thefe equations,
we obtain c Jt-d-\-e-\-f— mX-a-^-b-^c-^d-^-nX.
£ 4- c d-\- e. Now the firft member of this equation
is the fum of all the terms except the two firft; the
quantity by which m is multiplied in the fecond mem¬
ber is the fum of all the terms except the two laft ; and
that by which n is multiplied is the fum of all the terms
except the firft and laft. Now let s £=2 fum of the feries.
then s — a — b= m x r — e
•> 5
The reci¬
procals of
an arith-
tr.et'cai
progref
verfely.
16
Summa¬
tion of a
recurring
Ceries.
297 1 S E R
Reverjion of Sf.uno is the method of finding the
value of the quantity whofe feveral powers are involved
in a feries, in terms of the quantity which is equal to
the given feries.
In order to this, a feries muft be affumed, which be¬
ing involved and fubftituted for the quantity equal to
the feries, and its powers, negle&irtg thofe terms whofe
powers exceed the higheft power to which it is pro-
pofed to extend the feries.
Let it be required to revert the feries a x 4-^ i*’4“
c x^-\-dx‘l -\-e x^^Re.czzy ; or, to find x in an infinite
feries exprefied in the powers of y. >
Subftitutey11 for x, and the indices of the powers of
y in the equation will be «, 2 «, 3 n, Sec. and 1, there¬
fore n~ 1 ; and the differences are o. r. 2. 3. 4. 5. &c.
Hence, in this cafe, the feries to be affumed is Ay 4- By*
4- Cyi4"-D y4, &c. which being involved and lubftitu-
ted for the refpective powers of x, then we have
« Ay 4* a By2 4* Cyi 4- « Dy4> &c. ^
/ 4* « X j — a — f
b
Hence ,= Y.a+f—a
m 4- n — 1
Let the fum of the firft feven terms of the above
feries be required ?
Two laft terms
Sum
Sum
Firft term
Laft term
Sum
n
— 24-3
24-5—i = 6
You XVII. Part I.
37176
78361;
11554i
5
2
*5673
5
78365
ihjs6
19256 zz Sum of the feries.
4*^AIy24-2^ABy34~2i ACy4 7 -
4-^B2y43 j> = y
4- c A3yi 4- 3r A2Byq &c. j
4~ d A^j'4, &c. J
Whence, by comparing the homologous terms, we
r £
have a Ay — y ; therefore A =r —, B =r —» C
b x* ~
d X* ZZ
2 b A B 4- £ A3
2^AC4-^B2-f3cA*
( =
(=-
Sabc—stf—a'd
__
by
) =
2 b2
D
B 4- ^ A4 \
zb2
- ac
s Xy3 —
See. and confequently x
5 b3— 5 al a2 d
Xy4, See.
Examples.
iy?, Let x
ing in this cafe equal to I, £ =:
4- — —
3
x*
Sec. —y. There a be-
x2
2-1 4
JL _L _L
2 ’c 3 ’ 4 »
Sec. we fiiall, by fubftituting thefe values, have x = y 4.
2 +
+
Sec.
H
id. Let x —- jc* 4” x3— x* 4- x J, &c. =r y ; to find
In this example we have x = x, a
= !•» d— — x, &c.: whence x
1
Sec.
-f +
—5 + 5 —»
= ~
1
, b — — I,
+ / +
y4, &C. =y 4-y2 +y3+y4f
$d. Let a zi r —
2 r
+ TTTj —
&c. to find x ?
Put r — aizv; then v =
72or> ^4032 r1
2 r
x4
24r3
720 rs
403:
bzz
2r>
Sec. By comparifon we find x:
==
24 r*
» c =
jior5’
dzz
4032^9
Sec.
Hence
Series.
\
S E R.
C
▼ t i — « 24 r3 , 1.288 I 440^
Hence x1 — a r <y — —x— u1 *f- _j—
1
ITr
1
V3, See. rraru-f-
2 r v X ^
whence x
3 3 2 r>
4 I
- + ^ +  
3 ~ 45r 35 »•
■u q
i +   4
I 2 r
i6or:
+
6cc.
u4, &c,
5 7r’
8 96ri
Summation of Series is the method of finding the
fam of the terms ot an infinite leries produced to in¬
finity, or the ium ot any number of terms of fuch a
ieries.
The value of any arithmetical feries, as '*+ 2* + 33
+ 4’  . . 72% varies according as (n) the number
©f its terms varies ; and therefore, if it can be exprefs-
ed in a general manner, it muft be explicable by >1 and
its powers with determinate coefficients ; and thofe
powers, in this cafe, mutt be rational, or fuch whofe
indices are whole politive numbers ; becaufe the progref-
fmn, being a whole number, cannot admit of furd quan¬
tities. Latlly, it will appear that the greateft. of the
faid indices cannot exceed the common index of the
feries by more than unity ; for, otherwife, when n is
taken indefinitely great, the higheft power of n would
be indefinitely greater than the fum of all the relt of
the terms.
Thus the higheft power of n, in an expreffion exhi¬
biting the value of l2 + 2* 4-32-f 42...r2% cannot be
greater than n3; for T 4- 2* -}- 3* -f- 42..../f‘ is manifeft-
ly lefs than 72% or 72* 4" «2 + 7i2 4"? &c. continued to n
terms ; but n*, when n is indefinitely great, is indefi¬
nitely greater than 72% or any other interior power of
k, and therefore cannot enter into the equation. This
being premifed, the method of inveftigation may be as
follows :
Examples.
l. Required the fum of n terms of the feries 1 + 2 +
3+4 -b.....72 ?
Let A 72" 4" B 72 be afiumed, according to the fore¬
going obfervations, as an univerfal expreffion for the
value of 1 4- 2 4“ 3 + 4..'...77, where A and B repre-
fent unknown but determinate quantities. Therefore,
fince the equation is fuppofed to hold univerfally,
whatfoever is the number of terms,, it is evident, that if
the number of terms be increafed by unity, or, which
is the fame thing, if tz 4- t be wrote therein inftead of
«, the equation will ftill fubfift; and we fhall have
Ax«4"il T-B x 7j4" i — i 4~ 2 4-3 4" 4 »4"«—1.
Prom which the firft equation being fubtradied, there
remains AX 7j q- i|" —A7224-B Xn—1—672=724-1}
this contra&ed will be 2Atj4-A4-B:=724-J}
■whence we have 2A — 1 X714-A4-B — 1 —Oi
Wherefore, by taking 2 A — 1=0, and A 4- B — 1
o, we have A = 4, and B = 4 ; and confequently
3 4- 2 4- 3 + 4   ( = A721 4- B «) = ^ ~
72 X 72 4* I
2
A hat is the fum of the ten firft terms, of the feries
1 + 2 + 3^ &c. ?
la this cafe n sr 10, then ” x ” + i_-i o X 11 __
3 a ~"*5,
29S ] S E R
2. Required the fum of the feries l* + 2* + 3b.
<5 or 1, 4- 4 + ? + 16   ?
J .et A 723 4- B 722 4- C 72, according to the aforefaid
obfervations, be afiumed =. jz 4- 22 4- 3* n2; then,
as in the preceding cafe, we ihall have A X 72 4- 1 jJ
+ B X 72 4" 1 |* + C X 72 4- l = I1 4* 22 + 32 722 x
7/ 4- 1 j2 ; that is, by involving 72 4“ I to its feveral pow¬
ers, A « 4-3^ 72* 4“3A724* A 4" B 722 4* 2 B 72 4- B
4-C724-C=:T4- 22 4- 32...t22 4-« 4-113; from which
fubtradting the former equation, we obtain 3 A >i7 4*
3A724-A4-2 Bt2 4- B4-C (=:72-t- 1 j1) = f22 4" 2 72 4“! }
and cohfequently 3 A"—T X 722 4- 3 A 4^2!^—~2 X n
+ A.-f- B 4“ L — 1 = 0; whence 3 A — t = c, 3 A
+ 2 B —■- 2 zz. o1 and A + B 4- C — 1 = 0; therefore
> is _ 2 .3 A.
T>
A = 4, B =
= 4, C = i—A — B
and confequently 1 4- 4 9 4. ig ^
or ”*» + » -274- i
6
What is the fum of the ten firft terms of the feries
12 + 22+ 3% &c.?
TT , «r724- I *2 72 4- l 10X11X21
Here 71= ic, then  —; 1— —- — ?  
o t>
= 38L _
3. Required the fum of the feries i34-234-334-43 n\
or 1 >.8 4-27 4-64....72: >
By putting A n* 4- B 72;’ -f C 772 -f D n =r 1 -f- 8 +
27 + 64 *... 723; and proceeding as above, we fhall have
4 A 723-f6 a 7224~4 a 7/-f-A4:3B 722 + q Bt2 4- B + 2Ct*
+ C + D ( = 72 4- 1 j ) — + 3 tz2 + i * and therefore
4 A— 1 X 7iJ 4- 6A4"3 B —*• 3 Xt224- 4 A4-3B f2C—3
X724-A4-B 4“ C + D— 1 zzo. Hence A =
D (= 1 —A
+ 33 + 43 •
B
• C) = o ; and therefore i3 4- 1*
1   722 X/2 +l|%
•72" — — -p — 4- — or =
4 2 4’ 4
In the very feme manner it will be found, that
-3
I4 + 2+4-34 * n
Is + 2j + 3!
16 4- 2° + 30
- S + 2.+
3
72s rr
5n
+ T+7T -
11
2
725 »>'
7+ 2-
30
12
723
6 42*
• * • 72C =- 4-
7 .
What is the fum of the ten firft terms of the feries
i3 4- 23 4- 3% &c. ?
722 x 72 4-1 j2_ tooXiar
tizz ic, then    = 25 X izt
4 4
= 3025;
4. Required the fum of 71 terms of the feries of trh
angular numbers o, 1, 3, 6, 10   ?
Let A tz 3 4- B 722 -f C tz = o, 1, 2, 3 72, =    
Now the 72 4- ith term of this feries, by Example 2. i»
T+2* Then A. 72 4- 1 j3 4- B .TTp if . c .
   72* 72
” + I--•^ + T^+2, ^°w> firft equation be*
2 ’ 2
ing fubtradfed from this, we have 3 A 72* 4- 3 A 4-711'
Xn + A 4-B+C=—4--. Or, 3A»* 4-3A« +
A
S E R
Serififi
[ 299 1
S E R
A “I" C
'+ t— 2 B X « — B.
The difference of thefe feries is
V-
rd a Strlngfap#-
~r “** tam,
r *  
Whence, by equating the homologous terms, we
have 3 A — t> an£f A zz i 2B — 3A; whence
2 B t— t =■ '^ A + C = — B. Hence C =.—
Nov/, thefe values being fubftituted in the above
, . , r n3 n
equation, gives the lum = -
n q-s — 1 Xr +- a — I
n r‘
6 ~~
,« + 1
and if n -}- 1 be put for n, the
fum of n terms of this feries will be
«.«-{- 1 • n 4- 2
1.2 .3
By proceeding; in the fame manner, the fum of n nuiL^B t ail„   6„ , , 
terms of pyramidal numbers, i, 4, 10, 20, 35, &c  Doftrine of Chances, and a Paper by the fame author in
    —■— .    , . , -t r o • o _ c: r a i
which reduced becomes
To proceed farther would lead us far beyond the li¬
mits aligned for this article ; we muft therefore refer
thofe who require more information on this fubjeft to
the following authors-—Bertrand’s Dlveloppement, 8cc.
vol. I ; Dodfon’s Mathematical Repofitory, vol. I ; E-
merfon’s, Algebra ; Appendix to Gravefend’s Algebra;
Hutton’s Paper on Cubic Equations and Infinite Se¬
ries, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 17804 Mac-
laurin’s Fluxions; Malcolm’s Arithmetic ; Mafere’s An¬
nuities ; and Scriptores Logarithmic}, &c.; De Moivre’a
will be found
n > n -\- 1 . « 4" 2 • w “h 3-
And
1.2 .3 . 4
the fum of any feries of figurate numbers is determined
by a like formula, the law of continuation being obvi¬
ous.
What Is the fum of the ten firil terms of triangular
numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, See. ?
Here « =: 10; then
4- r . « 4- 2 10X 11X12
- 6
220.
1 z, -5 ,
5. Let the fum of the feries “r pi TTs contl*
123
~R + +
nued to n terms be required ?
If we multiply this feries indefinitely continued by
R — 1 j1, or R2 — 2 R 4' 1 > the produft is R; there-
R
fore the amount of the indefinite feries is ^ antJ
the fum of n terms may be found by fubtrafting the
terms after the nth from that amount. Now, the terms
n l n 4” 2
after the *th are 4- &c* which may
be divided into the two following feries :
1 1 1
Fir ft, X r 4-
RJ + R7
1 — R“ ^ R-
1 • J 2 3 I
Second, ^ ri- ri- ~ ^ n X
R
t
R-1’
Rn^ R — 1!
and r for R — x, and
fubtradl the fum of thefe two feries from the amount
of the propofed feries indefinitely continued, the remain¬
der will be found —
xR —
n a
6. Let the fum of the feries
n— 1 n — 2 i n~ 3
Tr" + ~TRi'+7R1
&c. be required ?
'Phis feries is equal to the difference of the two fol¬
lowing.
1 x 1
Firft, —p H—rr
» K » R
t+
« R
3, &C. == R +R» +
R
"j* &c.
Second, —n ri*
« R r,
1 1
&c. = -x -
n
R
-+-J_
,8cc. = ~X p 4-
1 1
R"rR5 + RI
XR—-
the Philotophical Tranfaftions, n° 240; Simpfon’s Al¬
gebra, Effays, Fluxions, and Mifcellanies ; Sterling’s
Summatio tt Interpolatio Serierum ; Syntagma Malhefios*
&c.
SERINGAPATAM, the capital of Myfore, the
dominions of Tippoo Sultan, is fttuated in an ifland of
the Cavery river, about 290 or 300 miles from Ma¬
dras. The ifiand, upon furvey, appeared to be about
four miles in length by one and a half in breadth,
acrofs the middle, where it is likewife higheft, whence
it gradually falls and narrows towards the extremities.
The v/eft end of the ifiand, on which there is a fort of
confiderable ftrength, flopes more, efpecially towards
the north ; and the ground riling on the oppofitc fide
of the river commands a diftinft view of every part of
the fort. The fort and outworks occupy about a mile
of the weft end of the ifland, and are diftinguilhed by
magnificent buildings, and ancient Hindoo pagodas,
contrafted with the more lofty and fplendid monuments
lately raifed in honour of the Mahometan faith. The
great garden, called the Laul Buug, covers about as
much of the eaft end of the ifland as the fort and out¬
works do of the weft; and the whole intermediate fpace,
except a fmall inclofure on the north bank near the fort,
was, before the laft war, filled with houfes, and formed
an extenfive fuburb, of which the greatelt part was de-
ftroyed by Tippoo to make room for batteries to de¬
fend the ifland when attacked by the combined forces
of Earl Cornwallis and the Mahratta chiefs in Februa¬
ry 1792. This fuburb, or town of modern ftrudfture,
is about half a mile fquare, divided into regular crofs
ftreets, all wide, and fhaded on each fide by trees. It
is furrounded by a ftrong mud wall, contains many good
houfes, and feems to have been preferved by the Sultan
for the accommodation of merchants, and for the con-
venience of troops ftationed on that part of the ifland
for its defence. A little to the eaftward of the town
is the entrance to the great garden, which was laid out
in tegular fhady walks of large cyprefs trees, and
abounding with fruit-trees, floweis, and vegetables of
every defeription. It poffeffed all the beauty and ele¬
gance of a country retirement, and was dignified by
the maufoleum of Hyder the late fultan, and a fuperb
new palace built by his fon. This noble garden was
devoted to deftruClion; and the trees which had fhaded
their proud matter, and contributed to his pleafures,
were formed into the means of protefting his enemies
in fubverting his empiie. Before that event, fo glori¬
ous to the arms of England, this infulated metropolis
P p 2 (fays
Serinsrham
II
Seriphus.
S E R [ 300 ] S E R
(fays Major Dirom) muft have been the richeft, moll
convenient, and beautiful fpot poflefl'ed in the prei'ent
a^e by any native prince in India ; but when the allies
left it, the Sultan’s fort and city only remained in re¬
pair amidft all the wrecks of his former grandeur, the
if]and prefenting nothing but the appearance of wretch¬
ed barrennefs. Tippoo is a man of talents, enterprife,
and great wealth ; but, in the opinion of our author,
the remaining years of his ill-fated life will be unequal
to renew the beauties of his terreftrial paradife. N. Lat.
12° 31' 45". E. Long. 96° 46'45".
SERINGHAM, an ifland of Indoftan, formed
about fix miles north-weft of Trinchinopoly by the river
Cavery, which divides itfelf into two branches : that to
the northward takes the name of Cokroon, but the
fouthern branch preferves its old name the Cavery.
Each of thefe rivers, after a courfe of about 90 miles,
empty themfelves into the fea ; the Coleroon at Devi-
cottah, and the Cavery near Tranquebar, at about 20
miles diftance from one another. In this iiland, facing
Trinchinopoly, flood a famous pagoda furrounded by
feven fquare walls of ftone, 25 feet high and four feet
thick. The fpace between the outward and fecond
walls meafured 310 feet, and fo proportionably of tjjc
reft. Each inclofure had four large gates, with a high
tower; which were placed, one in the middle of each
fide of the incldfure, and oppofite to the four cardinal
points. The outward wall was about four miles in cir¬
cumference, and its gateway to the fouth was ornament¬
ed with pillars, fome of which were fingle ttones 33 feet
in length and five in diameter; while thofe that formed
the roof were ftill larger ; and in the inmoft inclofure
were the chapels.—About half a mile to the eaft was
another large pagoda called ‘JumlihiJina, which had but
one in lofure.
The pagoda of Seringham was held in great venera¬
tion, from a belief that it contained the identical image
of the god Wiftnou worfhipped by Brama; and pilgrims
came here from all parts of India with offerings of mo¬
ney to procure abfolution. A large part of the reve¬
nue of the ifland was allotted for the maintenance of
the Bramins who inhabited the pagoda; and thefe, with
their families, formerly amounted to no fewer than
40,000 perfons, all maintained by the fuperftitious li¬
berality of the adjacent country.
SERIOLA, in botany: A genus of plants belonging
to the order of polygamia sequalis, and to the clats of
fyngenefia; and in the natural fyftem ranged under the
49th order, Compcjita. The receptacle is paleaceous;
the calyx Ample ; and the pappus is fomewhat plumofe.
There are tour fpecies; 1. The Levigata. 2. JEthnen-
fis. 3. Cretenfis. 4. Urens. The firft is a native
of the ifland of Candia, and flowers in July and Auguft;
the fecond is a native of Italy ; and the fourth is a na¬
tive of the fouth of Europe.
SERIPHIUM, in botany; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the order of monogamia, and to the clafs of fyn¬
genefia. The calyx is imbricated ; the corolla is mo-
nopetalous and regular, with one oblong feed under it.
'.['here is only one fpecies, the cinereum, which is a na¬
tive of the Cape of Good Hope.
SERIPHUS (anc. geog.), one of the Cyclades or
Hands in the Aigean lea, called Saxum Seripbium by
Tacitus, as if all a rock ; one of the ufual places of ba-
pifhment among the Romans. The people, Seriphii y
who, together with the Siphnii, joined Greece againft
Xerxes, were aimoft the only Handers who refufed
to give him earth and water in token of iubmiffion,
(Herodotus). Seribhia Rana, a proverbial faying con-
cerning a perfon who can neither fing nor fay; frogs in
this Hand being faid to be dumb, (Pliny).
SERMON, a difco.urfe delivered in public, for the
purpole of religious inftrudlion and improvement.
Funeral Sbrmon. See Funeral Orations.
SERON of almonds, is the quantity of two hun¬
dredweight; of anile feed, it is from three to four hun¬
dred; of Caftile foap, from two hundred and an halt to
three hundred and three quarters.
SEROSITY, in medicine, the watery part of the
blood.
SERPENS, in aftronomy, a conftellation in the
northern hermfphere, called more particularly Serpens
Ophiucbi. The liars in the conftellation Serpens, in
Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 18 ; in Tycho’s, 13 ; in He-
velius’s, 22 ; and in the Britannic catalogue, 64.
Serpens Biceps, or Double-headed Snake; a monfter
©f the ferpent kind, there being no permanent fpecies
of this conformation. That reprefented orv Plate
CCCCXLIX. and copied from Edwards, came from
the Hand of Barbadoes ; and was faid to have been ta¬
ken out of an egg of the fize of a fmall pullet’s egg by
a man who found it under-ground as he was digging.
The heads were not in an horizontal pofition when the
fnake lay on its belly, but inclined to each other on
their under-fides, leaving an opening for the throat to
come in between the two heads underneath, as is ex-
prelfed at A. The upper-fide, for the whole length,
was covered with fmall leaks, falling one over another ;
the belly was covered with fingle leaks running acrofs
it, in the form of half rings. It was all over of a yel-
lowilh colour, without any fpots or variation. Mr Ed¬
wards alio informs us, that a perfon brought to him
a common Englifir fnake, which had two heads quite
feparate from each other, the necks parting about an
inch from the head.
Serpens, Serpent, in the Linngean fyftem of zoo¬
logy, an, order of animals belonging to the clafs of am¬
phibia, and comprehending fix genera, viz. the crotalus,
or rattk-fnake ; the boa, including ten fpecies ; the co¬
luber, or viper ; the angu's, or fnake : the amphjbana, or
annulated fnake, the body and tail of which are ccm-
pofed of annular fegments; and the c a cilia, or tentacu¬
lated Make, the body and tail of which are wrinkled,
without fcales, and the upper part furnilhed wu’th twq
feelers ; and including two fpecies. See an account of
thefe genera under their refpeeftive names. r
The charaders of ferpents, according to Linnaeus,Diftin-
are thefe: They are amphibious animals, breathing£uiihing
through the mouth by means of lungs only ; having
tapering body, no diftind neck ; the jaws not articular' e!i’cu
ted, but dilatable, and deftitute of feet, fins, and ears. 2
The ferpent has from the beginning been the enemy General
of man; and it has hitherto continued to terrify andoh^rva"
annoy him, notwithftanding all the arts which haveuulls'
been pradifed to deftroy it. Formidable in itfelf, it
deters the invader from the purfuit; and from its fii
gure, capable of finding fhelter in a little fpace, it is
not eaiily dilcovered by thofe who would venture to
encounter it. Thus poffeffed at once of potent arms,
and inacceffible or fecure retreats, it baffles all the
arts
r //f/f/Y/Zt) /ut'ie «
<* ycY/ZZ /ZrJ f
S E R
[ 301 ]
S E R
arts of man, though ever fo earneflly bent upon its
deftruftion. For this reafon, there is fcarce a country
in the world that does not itill give birth to this poi-
fonous brood, that feems formed to quell human pride,
and reprefs the boafts of Security. Mankind have dri¬
ven the lion, the tiger, and the wolf, from their vicini¬
ty ; but the fnake and the viper ftill defy their power.
’ Their numbers, however, are thinned by human af-
fiduity ; and it is poffible fome of the kinds are whol¬
ly deftroyed. In none of the countries of Europe are
they fufficiently numerous to be truly terrible. The
various malignity that has been afcnbed to Euiopean
ferpents of old is now utterly unknown ; there are not
above three or four kinds that are dangerous, and
their poifon operates in all in the fame manner. The
drowiy death, the llarting of the blood from every
pore, the infatiable and burning third, the melting
down the folid mafs of the whole form into one heap
of putrefaction, laid to be occaftoned by the bites ot
African lerpents, arc horrors with which we are entire¬
ly unacquainted.
But though we have thus reduced thefe dangers, ha¬
ving been incapable of wholly removing them, in other
parts of the world they Itill rage with all their ancient
inalio-nity. In the warm countries that lie within the
tropics, as well as in the cold regions of the north,
where the inhabitants are tew, the ferpents propagate
in equal proportion. But of all countries thofe re¬
gions have them in the gfeateft abundance where the
fields are unpeopled and fertile, and where the climate
fupplies warmth and humidity. All along the fwampy
banks of the river Niger or Oroonoko, where the fun
is hot, the fotefls thick, and the men but few, the fer¬
pents cling among the branches of the trees in infinite
numbers, and carry on an unceafing war againft all
ether animals in their vicinity, iravellers have allured
us, that they have otten feen large Inakes twining
round the trunk of a tall tree, encompafiing it like a
wreath, aad thus riling and defeending at pleafure.—
We are not, therefore, to rejedl as wholly xabulous the
accounts left us by the ancients of the terrible devafta-
tions committed by a lingle ferpent. It is probable, in
early times, when the arts were little known, and man¬
kind were but thinly fcattered over the earth, that fer¬
pents, continuing undiilurbed poffeffors of the foreit,
grew to an amazing magnitude ; and every other tribe
of animals fell before them. It then might have hap¬
pened, that ferpents reigned the tyrants of a dill rid
for centuries together. To animals of this kind, grown
by time and rapacity to 100 or 150 feet in length, the
lion, the tiger,' and even the'elephant itfelf, were but
feeble opponents. That horrible feetor, which even the
commonell and the molt harmlefs fnakes are Itill found
to diffufe, might, in thefe larger ones, become too
powerlul for any living being to withltand; and while
they preyed without diltindion, they might thus alfo
have poifoned the atmofphere around them. In this
manner, having for ages lived in the hidden and un¬
peopled foreit, and finding, as their appetites were more
powerful, the quantity of their prey decrealing, it is
poffible they might venture boldly from their retreats
into the more cultivated parts of the country, and carry
confternation among mankind, as they had before de-
folation among the lower ranks of nature. We have
many hiltbries of antiquity) prefenting us fuch a pic¬
ture, and exhibiting a whole nation finking under the Serpens^
ravages of a lingle ferpent. At that time man had not y'--j
learned the art of uniting the efforts of many to effeft
one great purpofe. Oppofmg multitudes only added
new viftims to the general calamity, and increafed mu¬
tual embarraffment and terror. The animal was there¬
fore to be fmgly oppofed by him who had the greatell
llrength, the belt armour, and the moft undaunted cou¬
rage. In fuch an encounter, hundreds mull have fal¬
len ; till one, more lucky than the reft, by a fortunate
blow, or by taking the monfter in its torpid interval,
and furcharged with fpoil, might kill, and thus rid his
country of the deftroyer. Such was the original oc¬
cupation of heroes ; and thofe who firft obtained that
name, from their deltroyhig the ravagers of the earth,
gained it much more defervedly than their fucceffors,
who acquired their reputation only for their fkill in de-
ftroying each other. But as we defeend into more en¬
lightened antiquity, we find thefe animals lefs formi¬
dable, as being attacked in a more fuccefsful manner.
We are told, that while Regains led his army along the
banks of the river Bagrada in Airica, an enormous fer¬
pent difputed his pafiage over. We are a {hired by Pliny,
chat it was 120 feet long, and that it had deftroyed many
of the army. At laft, however, the battering engines
were brought out againft it; and thefe aflailing it at a
diftance, it was foon deftroyed. Its fpoils were car¬
ried to Rome, and the general was decreed an ovation
for his fuccefs. There are, perhaps, few fadts better
afeertained in hiflory than this : an ovation was a re¬
markable honour ; and was given only for fome fignal
exploit that did not deferve a triumph : no hiftorian
would offer to invent that part of the flory at leaft,
without being fubjedt to the moft fhameful dete&ion.
The fkin was kept for feveral years after in the Capi¬
tol; and Pliny fays he faw it there. At prefent, in¬
deed, inch ravages from ferpents are fcarce feen in any
part of the world; not but that, in Africa and Ame¬
rica, fome of them are powerful enough to brave the
affaults of men to this day,
Nequent expkri corda tuendo
‘Terribiles oculos vdlofaque fells peUore.
If we take a furvey of ferpents in general, they have
marks by which they are diftinguiftied from all the reft
of animated nature. They have the length and the fup-
plenefs of the eel, but want fins to fwim with ; they
have the fcaly covering and pointed tail of the lizard,
but they want kgs to walk with ; they have the
crawling motion of the worm, but, unlike that animal,
they have lungs to breathe with: like all the reptile
kind, they are refentful when offended ; and nature has
fupplied them with terrible arms to revenge every in¬
jury.
Though they are poffeffed of very different degrees Cnn^,.ns.
of malignity, yet they are all formidable to man, and tion 0jfi
have a Itrong limilitude of form to each other. With their
refpeft to theft conformation, all ferpents have a very mouth,
wide mouth in proportion to the fize ol the head j and,
what is very extraordinary, they can gape and fwallow
the head of another animal which is three times as big
as their own. However, it is noway furprifing that
the {kin of the fnake fttould ffretch to receive lo large
a morfel; the wonder feems how the jaws could take it.
S E R
Serpen?.
4-.
Their
teeth.
5
Eyes.
<5
T«ngue.
7
Gullet.
S.nnps and
lieart.
in. To explain tin's, it mult be obferved, that the javva
of this animal do not open as .ours, in the manner of a
pair of hinges, where bones arc applied to bones, and
play upon one another : on the contrary, the ferpent’s
jaws are held together at the roots by a ftretching muf-
•cular fkin ; by which means they open as widely as the
animal choofes to ftretch them, and admit of a prey
much thicker than the fnake’s own body. The throat,
like ftretching leather, dilates to admit the morfel ;
the ftomach receives it in part, and the reft remains in
the gullet, till putrefa&km and the juices of the ferptnt’s
body unite to dilfolve it.
Some ferpents have fangs or canine teeth, and others
are without them. The teeth in all are crooked and
hollow ; and, by a peculiar contrivance, are capable of
being eredted or deprefted at pleafure.
The eyes of all ferpents are fmall, if compared to
the length of the body; and though differently co-
loure in different kinds, yet the appearance of all is
malign and heavy ; and, from their known qualities,
they ftrike the imagination with the idea of a creature
meditating mifchief. In fome, the upper eyelid is
■wanting, and the ferpent winks only with that below ;
in others, the an<nral has a niftitating membrane or
fkin, refembling that which is found in birds, which
Iceeps the eye clean and preferves the light. The fub-
flance of the eye in all is hard and horny ; the eryital-
line humour occupying a great part of the globe.
The holes for hearing are very vifible in all: but
there are no conduits for fmelling ; though it is proba¬
ble that fome of them enjoy that fenfe in tolerable per-
feftion.
The tongue in all thefe animals is long and forky.
It is compofed of two long fiefhy fubftances, which
terminate in (harp points, and are very pliable. At
the root it is connefted very ftrongly to the neck by two
tendons, that give it a variety of play. Some of the vi¬
per kind have tongues a fifth part of the length of their
bodies ; they are continually darting them out ; but they
are entirely harmlefs, and only terrify thofe who are ig¬
norant of the real fituation of their poifon.
If from the jaws we go on to the gullet, we fhall
find it very wide for the animal’s fize, and capable of
being dilfended to a great degree ; at the bottom of
this lies the ftomach, which is not fo capacious, and
receives only a part of the prey, while the reft conti¬
nues in the gullet for digeftion. When the fubftance
in the ftomach is diffolved into chyle, it pafies into the
inteftines, and from thence goes to nourifhment, ©r to
be excluded by the vent.
Like moft other animals, ferpents are furnifhed with
lungs, which we fuppofe are ferviceable in breathing,
though we cannot perceive the manner in which this
operation is performed ; for though ferpents are often
ieen apparently to draw in their breath, yet we cannot
find the fmalleft figns of their ever refpiring it again.
Their lungs, however, are long and large, and doubt-
lefs are neceflary to promote their languid circulation.
The heart is formed as in the tortoife, the frog, and
the lizard kinds, fo as to work without the alftftance
of the lungs. It is fingle ; the greateft part of the
blood flowing from the great veih to the great artery
by the fhorteft courfe. By this contrivance of nature
we eafily gather two confequences; that fnakes are
wnphibious, being equally capable of living on land
[ 302 1
S E It
and in.the water; and that alfo they are torpid in win- Sefp#nt.
ter, like the bat, the lizard, and other animals formed
in the fame manner. 9
The vent in thefe animals ferves for the emiffion of M'>de of
the urine and the fasces, and for the purpofes of gerte-£eiieitttl0B*
ration. The inftrument of generation in the male is
double, being forked like the tongue : the ovaries in
the female are double alfo ; and the aperture is very
large, in order to receive the double inftrument of the
male. They copulate in their retreats ; and it is faid
by the ancients, that in this fituation they appear like
one ferpent with two heads. J9
As the body of this animal is long, flender, and ca- Number of
pable of bending in every direction, the number ofj0'0'8*1'
joints in the back-bone are numerous beyond what onelhe hac^*
would imagine. In the generality of quadrupeds, they 0011 ’
amount to not above 30 or 40 ; in the ferpent kind
they amount to 145 from the head to the vent, and 2 5
more from that to the tail. The number of thefe joints
mult give the back-bone a furpriling degree of pliancv;
but this is ftill increafed by the manner in which each
of thefe joints are locked into the other. In man and
quadrupeds, the flat furfaces of the bones are laid one
againft the other, and bound tight by fmews ; but in
ferpents, the bones play one within the other like ball
and focket, fo that they have full motion upon each
other in every direction. ti
Though the number of joints in the back bone is Number ot
great, yet that of the ribs is ftill greater ; for, fromr:^)!'*
the head to the vent, there are two ribs to every joint,
which makes their number 290 in all. Thefe ribs are
furnifhed with mufcles, four in number; which being
inferted into the head, run along to the end of the tail,
and give the animal great ftrength and agility in all its
motions.
The fkin alfo contributes to its motions, being com¬
pofed of a number of fcales, united to each other by a
tranfparent membrane, which grows harder as it grows
older, until the animal changes, which is generally done
twice a-year. This cover then burfts near the head,
and the ferpent creeps from it by an undulatory mo¬
tion, in a new fkin, much more vivid than the former.
If the old flough be then viewed, every fcale will be
diftindlly feen like a piece of net-work, and will be
found greateft where the part of the body they covered
was largeft.
There is much geometrical neatnefs in the difpofal of
the lerpent’s fcales, for aflifting the animal’s finuous
motion. As the edges of the foremoft fcales lie over
the ends of their following fcales, fo thofe edges, when
the fcales are ereifed, which the animal has a power of
doing in a fmall degree, catch in the ground, like the
nails in the wheel of a chariot, and fo promote and fa¬
cilitate the animal’s progreffive motion. The erecting
thefe fcales is by means of a multitude of diftiiuft mufcles
with which each is fupplied, and one end of which is
tacked each to the middle of the foregoing.
In fome of the ferpent kind there is theexa&eft fym-
metry in thele fcales ; in others they are difpofed more
irregularly. In fome there are larger fcales on the bel¬
ly, and often aniwering to the number of ribs ; in others,
however, the animal is without them. Upon this flight
difference, I.innseus has founded his diftiu&ions of the
various claffes oi the ferpent tribe.
When we come to compare ferpents with each other, Their7fi*e»
the
1*
Scales*
iJ
gerpenfc
14
Glutton),
And abfti-
#«nce.
SIR [ 3°.? 1 S E R
tKe firft jJJi'cat diftinftion appears In their fize ; no other
tribe of animals dififerinir fo widely in this particular.
This tribe of animals, like that of fifhes, feems to have
ro bounds put to their growth : their bones are in a
great meafure cartilaginous, and they are confequontly
capable of great extenfion : the older, therefore, a fer-
pent becomes, the larger it grows ; and as they feem to
live to a great age, they arrive at an enormous fize.
Leguat affures us, that he law one in Java that was
50 feet long. Carli mentions their growing to above
40 feet; and we have now the ikin of one in the Bri-
tift Mufasum that meafurts 32. Mr Wentworth, who
had large concerns in the Berbices in America, affures
us> that in that country they grow to an enormous
length. He one day fent out a foldier, with an Indian,
to kill wild-fowl for the table ; and they accordingly
went fome miles irom the fort : in purfuing their game,
the Indian, who generally marched before, beginning
to tire, went to refl himfelf upon the fallen trunk of a
tree, as he fuppofed it to be; but when he was juft
going to fit down, the enormous monfter began to
move ; and the poor favage perceiving that he had ap¬
proached a boa, the greateft of all the ferpent kind,
dropped down in an agony. The foldier, who percei¬
ved at fome diftance what had happened, levelled at
the ferpent’s head, and by a lucky aim fhot it dead :
however, he continued his fire until he was affured that
the animal was killed ; and then going up to refcue his
companion, who was fallen motionleis by its fide, he,
to his aftonifhment, found' him dead likewife, being
killed by the fright. Upon his return to the fort, and
telling what had happened, Mr Wentworth ordered
the animal to be bron -ht up, when it was meafured,
and found to be 36 feet long. He had the fkin fluff¬
ed, and then fent to Europe as a prefent to the prince
of Orange, in whofe cabinet it w'as lately to be feen at the
Hague ; but the fkin is fhrunk, by drying, twm or three
feet. In the Eafl indies they grow alio to an enormous
lize, particularly in the ifland of Java, where, we are af¬
fured, that one of them will deftroy and devour a buf-
lalo. See Boa.
But it is happy for mankind that the rapacity of thefe
frightful creatures is often their punifhment; for when
ever any of the ferpent kind have gorged themfelves in
this manner, whenever their body is feen particularly
diftended with food, they then become torpid, and may
be approached and dellroyed with fafety. Patient of
hunger to a furprifing degree, whenever they feize and
fwallow their prey, they feetn, like forfeited gluttons,
unwieldy, ftupid, helplefs, and fleepy : they at that
time feek feme retreat, where they may lurk for feve-
ral days together, and digeft their meal in fafety : the
fmallelt effort at that time is capable of deftroying
them ; they can fcarce make any reliftance ; and they
are equally unqualified for flight or oppofition : that is
the happy opportunity of attacking them with luccefs;
at that time the naked Indian himfelf does not fear to
affail them. But it is otherwife when this fleepy in¬
terval of digeftion is over; they then iffue, with fa-
mifhed appetites, from their retreats, and with accu¬
mulated terrors, while every animal of the forelt flies
before them.
But though thefe animals are of all others the moft
voracious, and though the morfel which they fwallow
without chewing, is greater than what any other crea-
vv_l no am-
tare, eitner by iana or water, can devour j y
mals upon earth bear abltinence fo long as they. A '—vr- -
Angle meal, with many of the fnake kind, feems to be
the adventure of a feafon ; it is an occurrence, of which
they have been lor weeks, nay lometimesfor months, in
patient expectation. When they have feized their
prey, their induftry for feveral v/eeks is entirely difeon-
tinned ; the fortunate capture of an hour often fatisfies
them for the remaining period of their annual adlivitv.
As their blood is colder than that of moft other terref-
trial animals, and as it circulates but flowly through
their bodies, fo their powers of digeftion are but feeble.
Their prey continues, for a long time, partly in the
ftomach, partly in the gullet, and is often feen in part
hanging out of the mouth. In this manner it digefts
by degrees ; and in proportion as the part below is dif-
folved, the part above is taken in. It is not therefore
till this tedious operation is entirely performed, that
the ferpent renews its appetite and its activity. But
fhould any accident prevent it from iffuing once more
from its cell, it itill can continue to bear famine for
weeks, months, nay for years together. Vipers * are of- * See AS*
ten kept in boxes for fix or eight months, without any /?*«">«•
food whatever; and there are little ferpents fometimea
fent over to Europe from Grand Cairo, that live for
feveral years in glaffes, and never eat at all, nor even
ifain the glafs with their excrements. ^
Other creatur es have a choice in their provifion : but Foo<L
the ferpent indiferiminately preys upon all; the buf¬
falo, the tiger, and the gazelle. One would think that
the porcupine’s quills might be fuflicient to proteft it
but whatever has life ferves to appeafe the hunger of
thefe devouring creatures : porcupines, with all their
quills, have frequently been found in their flomachs
when killed and opened ;. nay, they moft frequently are
feen to devour each other.
A life of favage hollility in the foreft offers the imar
gination one of the moft tremendous pictures in nature, which they
In thofe burning countries, v/here the fun dries up eve-frc<lueilt-
ry brook for hundreds of miles round ; when what had
the appearance of a great river in the rainy feafon, be¬
comes, in fummer, one dreary bed of fand ; in thofe
countries, a lake that is never dry, or a brook that is
perennial—is conlidered by every animal as. the greateft
convenience of nature. When they have difeovered
this, no dangers can deter them from attempting to-
flake their third- Thus the neighbourhood of a rivu¬
let, in the heart of the tropical continents, is generally
the place where all the hoftile tribes of nature draw up
for the engagement. On the banks of tin's little envied
fpot, thoufands of animals of various kinds are feen ven¬
turing to quench their third:, or preparing to feize thdf-
prey. Tire elephants are perceived in a long line, march¬
ing from the darker parts of the foreft ; \he buffaloes,
are there, depending upon numbers for fecurity ; the
gazelles relying folely upon their fwiftnefs ; tire lion and
tiger waiting a proper opportunity to feize ; but chief¬
ly the larger ferpents are upon guard there, and defend
the acceffes of the lake. Not ah hour paffes without
fome dreadful combat; but the ferpent, defended by its
feales, and naturally capable of fuitaining a multitude-
of wounds, is, of all others, the moft formidable. It
is the moft wakeful alfo; for the whole tribe fleep.
with their eyes open, and are confequently for ever
upon the watch : fo that, till th&ir rapacity is fatisfied*
few
S E R C 304 1 S E R
Serpens few other animals will venture to approacn their ila*
'C tion.
Th f , In comparing ferpents as to their voices, fome are
which Xy found filent, fome have a peculiar cry ; but hilling is
utt«r. the found which they molt commonly fend forth, ei¬
ther as a call to their kind, or as a threat to their ene¬
mies. In the countries where they abound, they are
generally lilent in the middle of the day, when they
are obliged to retire from the heat of the climate ; but
as the cool of the evening approaches, they are then
heard ilTuing from their cells with continued hillings ;
and fuch is the variety of their notes, that fome have
affared us they very much refemble the mufic of an
Englilh grove. This fome will hardly credit; at any
rate, fuch notes, however melodious, can give but very
little delight, when we call to mind the malignity of
the mtnftrel. If confidered, indeed, as they anfwer the
animal’s own occalions, they will be lound well adapt
ed to its nature, and fully anfwering the purpofes of
terrifying fuch as would venture to offend it.
How they With refpeA to motion, fome ferpents, particularly
s&ove, t}1()fe 0f the viper kind, move llowly; while others
dart with amazing fwiftnefs. The motion in all is ii-
milar ; but the ftrength of body in lome gives a very
different appearance. The viper, that is but a flow
feeble-bodied animal, makes way in a heavy undulating
manner 5 advancing its head, then drawing up its tail
behind, and bending the body into a bow ; then from
the fpot where the head and tail were united, aciean-
cing the head forward as before, ’this, which is the
motion of all ferpents, is very different from that of
the earth-worm or the naked fnail. The ferpent, as
was laid above, has a back-bone, with numerous joints;
and this bone the animal has a power ot bending in
every direAion, but without being able to Ihorten or
lengthen it at pleafure. The earth-worm, on the other
hand, has no back-bone ; but its body is compofed of
rings, which, like a barber’s puff, it can lengthen or
Ihorten as it finds neceffary. The earth-worm, there¬
fore, in order to move forward, lengthens the body ;
then by the fore part clings to the ground where it has
reached, and then contrads and brings up its rear:
then, when the body is thus fhortened, the lore-part is
lengthened again for another progreflion, and fo on.
The ferpent, inftead of fhortening the body, bends it
into an arch ; and this is the principal difference between
ferpentine and vermicular progrefiion.
We have inftanced this motion in the viper, as mod
eafilv difeerned ; but there are many ferpents that dart
with fuch amazing fwiftnefs, that they appear rather
to leap than crawl. It is moft probable, however, that
no ferpent can dart upon even ground farther than its
own length at one effort. Our fears indeed may in-
creafe the force of their fpeed, which is fometimes
found fo fatal. We are told by fome, that they will
dart to a very great diltance ; but this we have never
been able to afeertain. The manner of progreffion in
the fwifteft ferpent we know, which is the jaculus, is
by iiiftantly coiling itfelf upon its tail, and darting
from thence to its full extent: then carrying the tail,
as quick as lightning, to the head ; coiling and dart¬
ing again ; and by this means proceeding with extreme
rapidity, without ever quitting the ground. Indeed,
if we confider the length and the weaknefs of the
back-bone in all thefe animals; if we regard the make
3
of the vertebrae, in which we fhall find the jendures Screen*,
all formed to give play, and none to give power ; we ’“"“■V""**
cannot be ot opinion that they have a faculty of fpring-
ing from the ground, as they entirely want a fulcrum^
if we may fo exprefs it, from whence to take their
fpring ; the whole body being compofed of unfup-
ported mufcles and joints that are yielding. so
Though all ferpents are amphibious, fome are much fhoueh
fonder of the water than others ; and though deftitutea^1>^,'^ou*
of fins or gills, remain'at the bottom, or iwim along
the furface, with great eafe. From, their internal ftruc-immerfed
ture, we fee how well adapted they are for either ele-'n water,
ment: and how capable their blood is of circulating at
the bottom as freely as in the frog or the tortoife.
They ; an, however, endure to live in frelh water only;
for fait is an effedual bane to the whole tribe. The
greateft ferpents are moft ufuaily found in frefh water,
either chooling it as their favourite element, or finding
their prey in fuch places in the greateft abundance.
But that all will live and fwim in liquids, appears from
an experiment of Redi ; who put a ferpent into a large
glafs vcffel of wine, where it lived fwimming about fix
hours; though, when it was by force immerfed and
put under that liquid, it lived only one hour and an
half. He put another in common water, where it
lived three days ; but when it was kept under water,
it lived only about 12 hours Their motion there,
however, is perfedly the reverfe ot what it is upon
land; for, in order to fupport themfelves upon an ele¬
ment lighter than their bodies, they are obliged to in-
creafe their furface in a very artificial manner. On earth
their windings are perpendicular to the furface ; in wa¬
ter they are parallel to it : in other words, if a perfon
fhould wave his hand up and down, it will give an idea
of the animal’s pregrefs on laud ; if to the right and
left, it will give fume idea of its progrefs on the water. 2r
Some ferpents have a moft horrible fee tor attending Fcecor.
them, which is alone capable of intimidating the brave.
This proceeds from two glands near the vent, like thofe
in the weafel or polecat ; and, like thofe animals, in
proportion as they are excited by rage or by fear the
feent grows ftronger. It would feem, however, that
fuch ierpents as are moft venomous are leaft offenfive in
this particular ; fince the rattlefnake and the viper have
no fmell whatever ; nay, we are told, that at Caltcut
and Crariganon, in the Eaft Indies, there are fome ve¬
ry noxious feipents, who are fo far from being difa-
greeable, that their excrements are fought after, and
kept as the moft pleafing petfume. 1 he Eiculapian
ferpent is alfo of this number. 2S
Some lerpents bring forth their young alive, as the S >me vi-
viper; fome bring forth eggs, which are hatched by vl!'arMI'>,
the heat of their iituation, as the common black fnake, ^XuS,'’V1”
and the majority of the ferpent tribe. When a reader,
ignorant of anatomy, is told, that fome of thofe ani¬
mals produce their young alive, and that fome produce
eggs only, he is apt to fuppofe a very great difference
in the internal conformation, which makes fuch a varie¬
ty in the manner ol bringing forth. But this is not
the cafe : thefe animals are internally alike, in what¬
ever manner they produce their young ; and the variety
in their bringing forth is rather a flight than a real dif-
crimination. The only difference is, that the viper
hatches her eggs, and brings them to maturity, within
her body ; the fnake is more premature in her produc-
tions,
S E R
[ 3°5 1
S E R
Serpent tlons, and fends her eggs into the light fome time be-
fore the young ones are capable of leaving the (hell.
Thus, if either are opened, the eggs will be found in
the womb, covered with their membranous (hell, and
adhering to each other like large beads on a ftring. In
the eggs of both, the young ones will be found, though
at different ftages of maturity : thofe of the viper will
crawl and bite in the moment the (hell that inclofes
them is broke open : thofe of the fnake are not yet ar¬
rived at their perfeft form.
Father Labat took a ferpent of the viper kind that
was nine feet long, and ordered it to be opened in his
prefence.- He then faw the manner in which the eggs
of thefe animals lie in the womb. In this creature there
were fix eggs, each of the fize of a goofe egg, but
longer, more pointed, and covered with a membranous
fkin, by which alfo they were united to each other.
Each of thefe eggs contained from 13 to 15 young
ones, about fix inches long, and as thick as a goofe-
quill. Though the female from whence they were ta¬
ken was fpotted, the young feemed to have a va¬
riety of colours very different from the parent ; and this
led the traveller to fuppofe that the colour was no cha-
rafteriftic mark among ferpents. Thefe little mifehie-
vous animals were no fooner let loofe from the (hell,
than they crept about, and put themfelves into a threat¬
ening pofture, coiling themfelves up and biting the (lick
with which he was dellroying them. In this manner he
killed 74 young ones ; thofe that were contained in one
of the eggs efcaped at the place where the female was
killed, by the hurtling of the egg and their getting
among the bufhes.
n The fafeinating power aferibed to ferpents, efpecially
Fafcinatirg^ rattlefnakes, by which they are faid to draw animals
afcribid to t0 them, is very curious. Ir has been deferibed by fo
ferpents. many different perfons, who affirmed that they had
• ieen inftances of it, and has been believed by fo many
men of penetration and difeernment, that it deferves at
lead to be mentioned. The rattlefnake fixes its eyes
upon any animal, fuch as a bird or fquirrel. When the
animal fpics the fnake, it (kips from fpray to fpray, ho¬
vering and approaching nearer the enemy ; descending,
with diftrafted geftures and cries, from the top of the
loftiell trees to the mouth of the fnake, who opens his
jaws, and in an inftant fwallows the unfortunate ani¬
mal.
The following inftances of fafeination have fo much
the appearance of fiftion, that it would require a very
uncommon degree of evidence to render them credible.
They are extra&ed from a paper in the Gentleman’s
Magazine for the year 176:, p. 5 1 1. which was com¬
municated by Mr Peter Collinfon from a correfpondent
in Philadelphia.
“ A perfon of good credit was travelling by the fide
of a creek or (mall river, where he faw a ground fquirrel
running to and fro between the creek and a great tree
a few yards diftant ; the fquirrel’s hair looking very
rough, which (bowed he was feared, and his returns being
ffiorter and (hotter, the man itood to obferve the caufe,
and foon fpied the head and neck of a rattlefnake point¬
ing at the fquirrel through a hole of the great tree, it
being hollow ; the fquirrel at length gave over running,
and laid himfelf quietly down with his head clofe to
the fnake’s ; the fnake then opened his mouth wide, and
took in the Squirrel’s head j upon which the man gave
Vol. XVII. Part I.
the fnake a whip acrofs the neck, and fo the fquirrel be¬
ing releafed, he ran into the creek.
“ When I was about 13 years old, I lived with Wil¬
liam Atkinfon, an honed man in Bucks county, who,
returning from a ride in warm weather, told us, that
while his horfe was drinking at a run, he heard the cry
of a blackbird, which he fpied on the top of a failing*
fluttering and draining the way he feemed unwilling to
fly, and holding fo fad the fprigs he was perched upon
that the fappling top bent. After he had viewed the
bird a few minutes, it quitted the place, and made a
circle or two higher in the air, and then refumed its
former danding, fluttering and crying: Thereupon
William rode the way the bird drained, and foon fpied
a large black fnake in coil, deadily eyeing the bird. He
gave the fnake a lafh with his whip, and this taking off
the fnake’s eye from his prey, the charm was broken,^
and away ded the bird, changing its note to a Song of
joy.
“ Mr Nicholas Scull, a furveyor, told me, that when
he was a young man, as he happened once to be lean¬
ing upon a fence, and looking over it, he faw a large
rattlefnake in coil, looking dedfadly at him. He found
himfelf furprifed and lifllefs immediately, and had no
power for about a minute (as he thinks) but to look at
the fnake, and then he had the refolution to pufh him¬
felf from the fence, and turn away, feeling fuch horror
and confufion as he would not undergo again for any
confideration.
“ Dodlor Chew tells me, a man in Maryland was
found fault with by his companion that he did not
come along ; the companion depping towards him, ob-
ferved that his eyes were fixed upon a rattlefnake which
was gliding (lowly towards him, with his head raifed as
if he was reaching up at him; the man was leaning to¬
wards the fnake, and faying to himfelf, he 'will bite me!
he ivill bite me ! Upon which his companion caught him
by the (boulder, and pulled him about, and cried out.
What the devil ails you P He •will bite you Jure enough !
This man found himfelf very fick after his inchant-
ment.”
The fafeinating power of ferpents was believed by
Dr Mead and other eminent men, who certainly thought
they had fufficient evidence for admitting it. Incredible
therefore as it appears, it ought not to be rejedted
without examination -, though being of a very extraor¬
dinary nature, it cannot be received without unquedion-
able evidence. Scepticifm is no lefs abfurd than incre¬
dulity ; and the true philofopher will carefully avoid
both. Human knowledge is founded on oblervatioa
and experience ; not, however, on every man’s perfonal
obfervation and experience, but on the united ob-
fervation and experience of all mankind. But this
pi-efuppofes the credibility of human teftimony in every
cafe that does not involve an impoffibility. All the
laws of nature are not yet known, nor all the wonder¬
ful powers of which (he is poffeffed. It is not more in¬
credible a priori., that the eye of a ferpent (hould at¬
tract an animal than that a magnet ffiould attradl a
piece of iron, or a piece of iron attract ele&rical mat¬
ter. The evidence of thefe fadls reds entirely on per¬
fonal obfervation or authentic tedimony. The only
thing requifite with refpedl to objedls of tedimony is,
when the fa£l is fo extraordinary as has not fallen within
the obfervation of the generality of men, the ilrength
* Qjl of
Serpent*
*3
How their
poifon ooe
yots$.
S E R [ ^
Serpent cf evidence muft be in proportion to the extraordi-
v nary nature of the fact. To apply this to the prefent
cafe : We have the teftimony of many perfons that
fome ferpents have a power of fafcination ; but the ge¬
nerality of men have never obferved this; it is therefore
an extraordinary facf, and requires extraordinary evi¬
dence. But the evidence is not fatisfadhory ; therefore
we do not receive it as a fadl: on the other hand, it is
unphilofnphical to reject it a priori.
No fubjedt has excited more philofophical controver¬
sy than the poifon of ferpents, with regard to its na¬
ture and mode of operating. Antiquity has not been
fparing in conjedfure and fidtion upon this fubjeCl:, and
its errors have been retained with the moft reverential
obftinacy by the vulgar: among thefe we are to rec¬
kon the tidlitious fling fixed in the tail of the ferpent, as
the painters fometimes have groundlefsly enough repre-
fented it; fome have invented a fimilar fiction of a black
forked tongue, which the ferpent vibrates on both lides,
and have aferibed its power of producing fuch noxious
effedt to this ; while others, affecting an air of fuperior
difeernment, have, upon equally good reafdns, aferibed
it to the teeth in general : tbefe are all errors of a mag¬
nitude that the molt defultory attention to the fubjedl
would have been fufficient to have removed: There is
a very fmall bone clofely fixed to the upper jaw, in the
infide of the lip of a poifonous ferpent, which has a
power of moving backward or forward ; to this two or
three fanns are annexed larger than the teeth, which
the ferpent, by its affiftance, when enraged, darts for¬
ward, or withdraws and conceals at his pleafure, in a
fimilar manner to the claws of a cat: thefe fangs, which
the common people name the large teeth of the ferpent,
are excellently deferibed by Tyfon in the anatomy of
the rattlefnake, which he has given in the Philofo¬
phical Tranfadbions. “ In thefe (the fangs) we obfer¬
ved a confiderable cavity near the bafe ; and near the
point a very difcernible fiffure of fome length like the
flit of a pen : the part of the tooth from the fifiure to
the root was manifeftly channelled, which we firft dif-
covered by lightly prefling the gums ; we then faw the
poifon afeend through the cavity of the fang and flow
out of the fiffure ; and as thefe fangs are fo very acute,
fo firm and folid toward the point (the fiffure being on
the external and convex, not the internal fide), nothing
could be conceived more convenient either for inflidting
a wound, or to infure the infufion of the poifon.”
Each of the fangs is furrounded with a velicle furnifli-
ed with glands fecreting a certain fluid ; which, upon
the vefiele being prefled, feems to flow out of the point
of the fang. The ferpent when incenfed, railing his
head, extends the fmall bone armed with the langs
mentioned above ; and attacking his enemy with a force
combined of the.weight of his body and the adlion of
the mufcles, he wounds him with the expanded fangs,
and the veficle being comprefled the poifon immediately
flows into the wound : this is clear from the experience
of thofe who, having broken off their fangs with a pair
of forceps, handled the. ferpent thus difarmed without
any hurt. i he North Ameiicans, after carefully ex¬
trading thefe venomous fangs, iuffer the rattlefnake to
bite and gnaw them with his teeth till the blood flows
freely, with total impunity.
Antiquity amuied itfelf with a fable deflitute of all
appearance oi truth, that anger was excited by black
06 ] S E R
bile : they applied this fid ion without hefitation to the Serpent,
prefent fubjed, and founded an hypothefis upon it, to —"v——<
account for the effeds of the bite of an incenfed fer¬
pent ; pretend.uig to have difeovered an ideal canal
which conduded the bile from its veficle to the mouth
of the ferpent, whence it flowed into the part bitten,,
and produced the moft fatal fymptoms. But toward
the end of the laft century, this fubjed was greatly il-
hiftrated under the aufpices of Ferdinand II. Great
Duke of Tufcany : 'This prince, defirous of inquiring
into that myfterious qfteftion, the nature of ferpents, ini
vited Steno, Rhedi, and fome other philofophers of the
firil eminence, to his court ; and a multltu of the
molt poifonous ferpents being colleded, Rhedi made fe¬
deral experiments upon them, which difeovered to him
a number of particulars before unknown ; of which the
following feem to have the befl: claim to our attention.
When he either caufed a living viper to bite a do?, or
wounded him with the teeth of one newly dead (the
^poifonous veficle remaining unbroken', the event was
the lame. If the bite was repeated, its effed became
weaker, and at laft was loft, the poifon contained in the
veficle being totally exhamfted. That the teeth of fer¬
pents, when extended to bite, were moiftened over with
a certain liquor ; and when the veficle at the bafe was
preffed, a drop of poifon flowed to the point of the
fang. When the poifon thus flowing from the veficle
was received in foft bread or a fponge, an animal bitten
by the ferpent received no more harm from the wound
than from being pricked by a needle, till after a few
days, when the venom was reftored afrefh : hut when an
animal was wounded with the point of a needle dipped
in the poifon, it was tormented with the fame pains as if it
had been bitten by the viper itfelf. Preferving fome of
this poifon in a glafs, and total! evaporating the moif-
ture in the fun, when the rdiduum was diluted again
with water, and the point of a needle dipped in the fo-
luuon, Rhedi found to his great furprife that it had the
fame effedl as when recent. But the boldnefs of Toz-
zi, one who charmed vipers, flung all thefe men who
were deeply verfed in natural phiiofophy into the ut-
moft aftonifliment. They happening to fall into dif-
courfe (while the prince was prefent) upon the certain
death which would attend any perfon's fwallowing this
poifon of the viper by miftake, inftead of fpirit of wine
or water ; Tozzi, confiding in his art drank a conn-
derable portion of it without hefitation : they were all
aftonilhed at his apparent rafhnds, and prediifted inifant
death to the man ; however, he efcaped as fafely as if he
had drunk only fo much water. This event, which
ft ruck the prince and his illuftrious affociates in thefe
philofophical inqu ries by its novelty, was well known
to the ancients. Lucan, in the 9th book of the Phaiv
falia, (peaking of the ferpent, fays,
Noxia ferpentum ejl admiflo fanguine p fth
Morfu virus halent et fatum dente min ntur,
Pocu/a morte carent. Phar. I. 9. v. 614.
Mix’d with the blood that venom flays alone,
His bite is poifon ; death is in his fang;
Yet is the draught innoxious.
Nor muft we omit obferving. that barbarous nations
are perfe&ly acquainted with the property of the poi¬
fon of ferpents by which it retains its deadly power af¬
ter
S E R
f.urpeflt'
24
Symptoms
attending
the bite i f
different
ferments
ter k has been long kept; they have been podefled of
this fatal fecret for ages palt ; it being their culiom to
tinge the points of their arrows with the juice of fpurge,
putrid flefh, or oil of tobacco, but more particularly
with the poifon of vipers. Some modern Indians con¬
tinue the practice to this day ; and we have the tefti-
mony of Pliny, in his Natural Hiftory, that the Scy¬
thians had long ago the lame cuttom : “ The Scythians
{fays that author) dip"'their arrows in the poifon of vi¬
pers and human blood ; a horrid pra&ice, as the flight-
eft wound influfted by one of them defies all the art of
medicine.”
'The poifon of ferpents produces fatal effefts only by
mixing with the blood. To confirm this principle, the
Florentine philofophers collected a quantity of poifon,
and gave it to different animals without producing the
leaft inconvenience ; but when applied to an external
wound, every one of thofe horrid fymptoms which ac¬
company the real bite followed, viz inflammatory and
malignant fevers, ending in death, unlefs nature, by a
fpontaneous hemorrhage, or fome other evacuation, dif-
chatged this poifon. With refpeft to the experiments
of Rhedi, every one or his obfervations prove, that the
liquid prefted out ot the veficle which moiftens the
fangs of the ferpents is only noxious by being convey¬
ed into the blood, by means of a pumfture or wound ;
and the cafe of L'ozzi, who drank, a conliderable quan¬
tity of this poifon without fuffering injury, proves that
it hurts the blood only when externally mixed with it.
The fymptoms of the bite of the viper have already
been deferibed under Medicine, 1T408. with the cures
recommended by Dr Mead for the bite of ferpents in
general. Under the article Poison, p. 269'. we have
mentioned the Abbe Fontana’s method of cure, viz. li¬
gatures, and the beneficial effedls of the volatile alkali.
We ftiall now' therefore fupply what has been omitted
in thefe articles, by deferibing the fymptoms which ac¬
company the bite of other ferpents.
The fymptoms attending the bite of the coluber pref-
ter^ a native of Sweden, are, pain in the wound, tumor,
third, afthma, anxieties, convulfions, and death.
There is a ferpent ftill more dreadful than any of the
former, found in Sweden, called coluber enreia. t he
bite of this is followed by immediate change of colour,
. coldnefs, ftupor, palpitation of the heart, acute pain all
over rite body, and death. Linnseus tried oil in this
cafe*, but it proved ineffeftual.
The c'otaius horrulu of Linnaeus, the rattlefnake,
kills in a very fudden manner ; his bite ufually produ¬
cing death within twelve hours.
The following- account of the poifon ferpent of the
.Eaft Indies is given by M. d’Obfonville. “ Among the
ferpents of India, that which I believe to be moft for¬
midable is but about two feet long, and very fmall. Its
/kin is freckled with little traits of brown or pale red,
and contrafted with a ground of dirty yellow : it is
moilly found in dry and rocky places, and its bite mor¬
tal in lefs than one or two minutes. In the year 1 759,
and in the province of Cadapet, I faw feveral initances
of it; and among others, one very fingular, in the midft
of a corps of troops commanded by M. de Bufly. An
Indian Gentoo merchant perceived a Mahometan foi-
dier of his acquaintance going to kill one of thefe rep¬
tiles, which he had found fleeping under his packet,
r 3-7 1
S E R
the Gentoo flew' to beg its life, protefting it would do
no hurt if it was not fir ft provoked ; paffing at the
fame time his hand under its belly to carry it out of the
camp, when fuddenly it twifted round, and bit his little
finger; upon which this unfortunate martyr ot a fana¬
tic charity gave a fhriek, took a few fteps, and fell
down infenfible. They flew to his aflifiance, applied
the (erpent-ftone, fire, and fcarifications, but they were
all ineffe&ual, his blood was already coagulated. About
an hour after, I faw he body as they were going to
burn it, and I thought I perceived feme indications of
a complete difiblution of the blood.
“ The ferpens brulans, or burning ferpent, is nearly of
the fame form with the laft mentioned ; its fkin is not
quite of fo deep a brown, and is fpeckled with dark
green fpots; its poifon is almoft as dangerous, but it is
lefs a drive, and its effeds are very different: in fome
perfons it is a devouring fire, which, as it circulates
through the veins, prefently occafions death ; the blood
diffolves into a lymphatic liquor, refembling thin broth,
without apparently having paifed through the interme¬
diate Hate of coagulation, and runs from eyes, nofe, and
ears, and even through the pores. In ether fubjeds,
the poifon feems to have changed the very nature of the
humours in diffolving them; the flrin is chapped and
becomes fcaly, the hair falls off, the members are tume¬
fied, the patient feels all over his body the mo ft ‘racking
pains, numbnefs, and is not long in perifhing. It is
laid, however, that people have been cured by remedies
well and foon applied. Be that as it may, it feems to
me that the poifon of thefe different reptiles is in gene¬
ral more powerful the more they live' in hot and dry
places, where they feed upon infeds that are full of fa- .
line, volatile, and acrimonious particles.”
We are ignorant of what fpecie the hemorrhou was,
which is deferibed by Lucan as caufing by its bite a
flux of blood from every part of the body. But the
bite of an American ferpent named de la crux kills in
the fame manner.
The dipfafas is at prefent likewife unknown. Lu¬
can informs us, that the perfon wounded by it was at¬
tacked by an unquenchable thirft. 1 his is finely paint¬
ed by him ; where A. Tufcus, ftandard-bearer ofCato,
is deferibed as bitten by that ierpent: '
Non decus imperii, non moejli jura Catonis
Ardentem tenuere virum, quin fpargere Jtgria
Auderet, totijque Jurens exquireret agris
Quas pofeebat aquas Jitiens in corde venenum.
Pharfal. 1. 9,
His wild impatience, not his honour’d ftate,
Nor forrowing Cato’s high command, reftrain ;
Furious, difhonour’d in the duit, he flings
"ILs (acred eagle, and o’er all the fields
Rapid he bin its to feek the cooling ftream,
To quench the thirfty poifon in his bread.
And a few' verfes after :
Scrutatur vtnas penitus fqualentis arena
Nunc redd ad Syrtes, et jluclus accipit ore,
Aquoreafque'placet, fed nonJibi Jujficit humor,
Nec fentit fatique genus, mortemque veneni,
Sed put at ejfejit'm ; ferroque aperire tumentes
SuJUnuit venas, atque os implere cruore.
Qjq 2 Now
s E R. [ 308 ] S E R
Serpent. Now tearingf up the fands, fome latent vein
Fruftrate he feeks ; now to the Syrtes Ihore
Return’d, he fwallows down the briny flood
Mix’d with its rolling fands ; nor knows his fate
And the fad poifon’s death, but calls it third; ;
Then with his fword opens his fpouting veins,
And drinks the burfting blood. 
The phytas, or amodytes of Linnreus, or, according
t® others, the coluber afp'ts, feems to have been the fer-
pent made ufe of by Cleopatra to deftroy herfelf. This
woman, to terminate a diffipated life with an eafy death,
ordered her phyficians to prepare a poifon for her which
might beft effedt this purpofe. Having tried a num¬
ber of different experiments upon condemned criminals,
they at lalt difcovered this fpecies of afp, which brings
on death without any previous appearance of diftemper
or hiccough : the face feems in a flight perfpiration, an
eafy infenfibility and lethargy creeps upon the whole
frame, and the perfon bitten feems altnoft totally igno¬
rant of his approaching diflblution. Having acquaint¬
ed the queen with their difcovery, fhe applied the afp
either to her bofom or her arms ; or, according to fome
authors,, dipping the point of a needle in the poifon,
and pricking herfelf with it, fhe expired in an eafy
fleep.
The bite of the nnja is fo fatal, that a man dies by
it in the fpace of an hour, his flefli entirely falling off
his bones in a femidiffolved putrid bate : this makes it
probable that it is the fame ferpent which the ancients
named the fepe.
The experiments of Rhedi have not, in the opinion
of fome celebrated philofophers, fo far cleared the the¬
ory ol the operation of the poifon of the viper, as to
leave nothing further to be defired upon that fubjeft.
Fontana and Carminati have endeavoured to inveftigate
its operations more clearly. Carminati, from i 1 expe¬
riments, deduces the following conclufions : 1. That if
poifon be inftilled into a nerve, the animal wounded dies
almoft inftantly ; and the whole nervous fyftem, to
which it is rapidly conveyed, is deprived of its quality
called fenjibility. 2. If a mufcle be wounded, it is de-
prived of its irritability. This is confirmed by the ex¬
periments of Fontana. 3. The poifon inje&ed into a
wounded mufcle or tendon is coniiderably longer in kill¬
ing an animal than that introduced into a nerve. 4.
The fymptoms which precede the death of the animal
bitten are, a fiupor, lethargy, tremors, convulfions, pa-
ralyfis o; the legs (part wounded), entire diflblution of
the limbs. The blood is not always coagulated, nor its
crafis diflblved. Marks of inflammation are fometimes
difcovered in certain parts of the animal after death,
fometimes not : thefe are the effe&s of fpafms and con¬
vulfions, not of the poifon. 5-. Not the leafl fign of
the jaundice was difcoverable in the eyes of any of the
animals upon which Carminati made his experiments.
<5. The ftomach in every one of them was very much
inflated ; a fymptom^remarked only by Fallopius and
Albertini. 7. A ligature applied inftantly above the
part bitten, if it be fo placed as to admit one, was
found by lome experiments a good preventative againft
the diffufion of the poifon : its compreffion fhould be
conliderable, but not exceffive.
As few ferpents, comparatively fpeaking, are poifon-
•us, iw may be interefting to our readers to know what
are the chara&eriftics which diftinguifh poifonous from Serpent,
harmlefs ferpents. The external charadteriftics of the —v—
poifonous tribe are thefe : *5
“ 1. Abroad head, covered with fmall fcales, though^.owtn
it be not a certain criterion of venomous ferpents, is, poifonous
with fome few exceptions, a general charadler of them. L
“ 2. A tail under one-fifth of the wdiole length Tranf,
is alfo a general chara&er of venomous ferpents ; but,vo^
fince many of thofe which are not venomous have tails
as ftiort, little dependence can be placed upon that cir-
cumftance alone. On the other hand, a tad exceeding
that proportion, is a pretty certain mark that the fpe¬
cies to which it belongs is not venomous.
“ 3. A thin and acute tail is by no means to be con-
fidered as peculiar to venomous ferpents ; though a thick
and obtufe one is only to be found among thole which
are not venomous.
“ 4- Carinated fcales are, in fome meafure, chara&er-
iftic of venomous ferpents, fince in them they are more
common than f mooth ones, in the proportion of nearly
four to one ; whereas fmooth leales are, in thofe fer¬
pents which are not venomous, more common, in the
proportion of nearly three to one.
“ Upon the whole, therefore, it appears, that though
a pretty certain conjefture may, in many inftances, be
made fiom the external charafters, yet, in order to de¬
termine with certainty whether a ierpent be venomous
or not, it becomes neceflary to have recourfe to fome
certain diagnoftic. This can only be fought for in the
mouth : we muft therefore next confider how the fangs,
with which the mouths of venomous ferpents are fur-
nifhed, are to be diftinguiflied from common teeth.
“ To thofe who form their ideas of the fangs of a
venomous ferpent, from thofe of the rattlefnake, or even
from thofe of the Fnglifh viper, it will appear ftranpe
that there fhould be any difficulty in diftinguilhing
thofe weapons from common teeth ; and indeed the di-
ftinftion would really be very ealy, were all venomous
ferpents furnifhed with fangs as large as thofe of the
fore-mentioned fpecies. But the fad is, that in many
fpecies the fangs are full as fmall as common teeth, and
confequently cannot, by their fiz.e, be known from them;
this is the cafe with the coluber laticaudatus, lacleusy
and feveral others.”
Linnaeus thought that tire fangs might be diftin¬
guiflied by their mobility and fituation ; but other na-
turalifts have not found it a general fad that fangs are
loofe in their fockets, por have they obferved any diffe¬
rence in fituation between the fangs of venomous fer¬
pents and the teeth of others. The following diftinc-
tion is ettablifhed by Dr Gray in a paper inferted in the ^
Philofophical Tranfadions, Vol. Ixxix. Alt-venomous fer¬
pents have only two rows of teeth in the upper jaw, and
all others have four.
In the preface to the Mufeum Regis, and in the in-
trodudion to the clafs amphibia in the Syjtema Nature,
Linnaeus fays, that the proportion of venomous ferpents
to others is one in ten ; yet, in the Syjlema Naturae, of
which the fum total in fpeciss is 131, he has marked
23 as venomous, which is fomewhat more than one in
fix. How he came to be fo much at variance with
himfelf, it is not eafy to fay; but the laft mentioned
proportion feems to be not far from the truth, as Dr
Gray, after examining 154 fpecies of ferpents, found
only 26 that feemed to be venomous.
The
(
SER [309] SER
Serpent. The coluber Jlolatus and my£leriz.ans, though, mark-
'—-v—- ed by Linnaeus, we are affured by Dr Gray are not poi-
ionous: he thinks the fame may be faid of the leberts
and dypfas. On the other hand, he obferves, that the
boa contortrix, coluber cerajles, laticaudatus, and colu¬
ber fulvus, none of which are marked in the Syjlema
Natura, are all poifonous.
In addition to the method of cure mentioned in the
articles referred to above, we i'hall fubjoin the prefcrip-
• P- 3a- tion of a new author, Dr Mofeley*, who fpent 1 2 years
in the Weft Indies, and whole abilities and extenfive
pnvlice very juftly intitle Iris opinion to a place in
this work, to the attention of the public, and to all me¬
dical gentlemen going to the Weft Indies.
»6 “ The bites and flings of all venomous animals are
Dr Mofe- cure(j the fame local means ; which are very Ample,
thod of " ^ they were always at hand. The injured part mull
cure. be inllantly deftroyed or be cut out. Deftroying it is
the moft fafe, and equally certain : and the bell appli¬
cation for that purpofe is the lapis infernalis or the but-
ter of antimony.— I hefe are preferable to an hot iron,
which the ancients ufed, becaufe an hot iron forms a
cruft, which a£ls as a defence to the under parts, in-
ftead of deftroying them. The lapis infernalis is much
better than any other cauftic, as it melts and penetrates
during its application. The bitten part mull be de¬
ftroyed to the bottom, and where there is any doubt
that the bottom of the wound is not fufficiently expo-
fed, butter of antimony fhonld be introduced into it on
the following day, as deep as poftible ; and inciftons
fbould be made to lay every part open to the adtion of
thefe applications. Befides deftroying, burning, or cut¬
ting out the part, incifions ftiould be made round the
wound, to prevent the communication of the virus. The
wound is to be dreffed for fome time with poultices, to
aftuage the inflammation caufed by the cauftics ; and
afterwards with acrid dreffings and hot digeftives to
drain the injured parts.
“ Where the above-mentioned cauftics cannot be
procured, corrolive fublimate, oil of vitriol, aquafortis,
fpirit of fait, common cauftic, or a plafter made of
quicklime and foap, may be applied to the wound.
Gunpowder laid on the part, and iired, has been ufed
with fuccefs. When a perfon is bitten remote from
any affiftance, he (hould make a tight ligature above
the part, until proper application can be made. The
Spanifh writers fay, that the habilla de Carthagena, or
Carthagena bean, is a ipecific for poilonous bites, taken
inwardly.
“ Ulloa fays, it is ‘ one of the moft effettual anti¬
dotes known in that country (Carthagena) againft the
bites of vipers and ferpents : for a little of it being
eaten immediately after the bite, it prefently Hops the
effefts of the poifon ; and accordingly all who frequent
the woods, either for felling trees or hunting, never fail
to eat a little of this habilla falling, and repair to their
work without any apprehenfton.
4 The natives tell you, that this habilla being hot in
the higheft degree, much of it cannot be eaten ; that
the common dofe of it is lefs than the fourth part of a Serpent,
kernel; and that no hot liquor, as wine, brandy, &c.
muft be drunk immediately after taking it.’
“ The Carthagena bean, or habilla, is found in great
abundance in the Weft Indian iflands, where it is gene¬
rally known by the name of Antidote or Cocoon, or An¬
tidote Cocoon. In fmall dofes it is ftomachic and dia¬
phoretic ; and in large dofes emetic and purgative. In
feveral diforders it is a powerful remedy ; but its virtues
are not fufficiently known, except among the Indians
and negroes, who chiefly ufe an infuljon or tinfture of
it made in rum. This is externally as well as internally
ufed for many complaints (a).
“ I have been informed by fome intelligent Indians,
that any of the red peppers, Inch as bird pepper, or
bell pepper, or what is called Cayenne pepper, powdered
and taken in a glafs of rum as much as the ftomach can
poffibly bear, fo as to caufe, and keep up for fome time,
great heat and inflammation in the body and a vigorous
circulation, will flop the progrefs of the poifon of fer-
pefrts, even after its effects are vifible ; and that the
bitten part only afterwards mortifies and feparates, and
that the patient, with bark, wine, and cordials, foon re¬
covers.
“ This fiery praftice is certainly agreeable to that of
the ancients, and probably the only internal treatment
that can have any good effedt ; as in thefe cafes the
powers of life, and the adtion of the heart, are fuddenly
enfeebled, and the pulfe in ftrength and frequency ob¬
ferves almoft a regular declenfion from the time of the
bite until it entirely ceafes in death.” ^
Polygala fmega, or rattlefnake-root, was formerly fome-
confidered as a fovereign remedy for the bite of the ferpents are
rattlefnake ; but this opinion is now exploded. poii’onous.
If it be afked for what purpofe were ferpents created
with fuch deftrudlive weapons ? we anfwer, that they
were given for felf-defence. Without thefe, ferpents,
of all other animals, would be the moft expofed and de-
fenceiefs ; without feet for efcaping a purfuit, without
teeth capable of inffidting a dangerous wound, or with¬
out ftrength for refiftance ; incapable, from their fize,
of finding fecurity in very fmall retreats like the earth¬
worm, and difgufting all from their deformity, nothing
was left for them but a fpeedy extirpation. But fur-
niffied as they are with powerful poifon, every rank of
animals approach them with dread, and never feize them
but at an advantage. Nor is this all the benefit they
derive from it. The malignity of a few ferves for the
protedtion ef all. Though not above a tenth of their
number are adtually venomous, yet the fimilitude they
ali bear to each other excites a general terror of the
whole tribe ; and the uncertainty of their enemies
about what ferpents are poifonous, makes even the moft
harmlefs formidable. Thus Providence feems to have
adted with double precaution : it has given fome of
them poifon for the general defence of a tribe naturally
feeble; but it has thinned the numbers of thofe which,
are venomous, left they fliould become too powerful for
the reft of animated nature.
From
(a) “ This bean is the feed of the Fevillea foliis cordatis of Flumier, Ed. Burmanni, p. 203. tab. 209"
FeviUea foliis cordatis, angulatis, of Linnaeus, Spec. P. Fevillea foliis craffioribus, glabris, quandoque cordati**
quandoque trilobis, or Antidote Cocoon, of Brown, p. 374.”
78
Enemies
ferjents,
*See Vi-
■ verra ar.
£v s.
1'SYL! r.
29
Some per
foi.s fa-
nious for
charming
them.
30
Regarded
Svith vene¬
ration in
fome coun
tries.
S E R [
Fro-n thefe noxious qualities in the ferpent kind, it
is no wonder that not only man, but beads and birds,
nf carry on an unceafing war againil them, ’i'he ichneu¬
mon of the Indians, and the peccary * of Amer ica, de-
ftroy them in great numbers. i hefe animals hdve the
-d art of feizing them near the head ; and it is faid that
they can fkin them with great dexterity. The vulture
and the eagle alio prey upon them in great abundance ;
and often, fouling down from the clouds, drop upon a
long lerpent, which they fnatch up draggling and wri¬
thing in the air. Dogs alfo are bred up to oppofe
them. Father Feuillee tells us, that being in the woods
of Martinico, he was attacked by a large ferpent, which
he could not eafily avoid, when his dog immediately
came to his relief, and feized the alfailant with great
courage. The ferpent entwined him, and preffed him
fo violently, that the blood came out of his mouth, and
yet the dog never ceafed till he had torn it to pieces.
The dog was not lenfible of his wounds during the
fight ; but foon after his head fwelled prodigioufiy, and
belay on the~ground as dead. But his mafttr having
found a banana tree hard by, he applied its juice mixed
with treacle to the wounds, which recovered the dog,
and quickly healed his fores.
The Pfyili of old were famous for charming and de-
ftroying ferpents «jj. Some moderns pretend to the
fame art. Cafaubon fays that he knew a man who
could at any time fummon 100 ferpents together, and
• draw them into the fire. Upon a certain occafion,
when one of them, bigger than the relt, would not be
brought in, he only repeated his charm, and it came
forward, like tire reft, to i’ubmit to the flames. Philo-
ftratus deferibes particularly how the Indians charm fer¬
pents, “ They take a fcarlet robe, embroidered with
golden letters, and fpread it before a ferpent’s hole. —
The golden letters have a fafeinating power; and by
looking ftedfaftly, the ferpent's eyes are overcome and
laid afleep.” Thefe and many other feats have been of¬
ten pradtiied upon thefe animals by artful men, who had
firft prepared the ferpents for their exercife, and then
exhibited them as adventitioufly affembled at their call.
In India there is nothing fo common as dancing fer¬
pents, which are carried about in a broad- flat veflel,
fomewhat refembling a freve. Thefe erect and put
themfelves in motion at the word of command. When
their keeper flags a flow tune, they feem by their heads
to keep time ; when he lings a quicker meafure, they ap¬
pear to move more brilk and lively. rUl animals have
a certain degree of docility ; and we find that lerpents
themfelves carr be brought to move and approach at the
voice of tlreir mafter. From this trick, fucceisfully
pra&ifed before the ignorant, it is moft probable has
ariitn moft of the boalled pretentions which fome have
made to charming of ferpents ; an art to which the na¬
tive Americans pretend at this very day, but the exfft-
ence of which we are affured of by Mr Haflelquiti
amongil the native Egyptians.
Though the generality of mankind regard this for¬
midable race with horror, yet there have been fome na-
. tions, and there are lome at this day, that confider them
with veneration and regard. T he adoration paid by
the ancient Egyptians to a ferpent is well known :
many of the nations at prclent along the weftern coaft
of Africa retain the fame unaccountable veneration. Up-
o-1 S E R
on the (told and flare coaftt, 3 flrangrr, npon enter',- Serpant.
the cottages of the natives, is often lurprifed to fee the   v—•
roof iwarming with ferpents, that cling there without
molefting and unmolefled by the natives. But his fur-
pnie will mcreate upon going farther fouthward to the
kingdom of Widah, when he finds that a lerpent is the
god of the country. I his animal, which travellers de-
fenbe as a huge overgrown creature, has its habitation,
its temple, and its priefts. Thele impreis the vulgar
with an r pinion of its^virtues ; and numbers are daily
feen to offer not only their goods, their provilions, and
their prayers, at the fhrine of their hideous deity, hut
aho their wives and daughters. Thefe the priefts rea¬
dily accept of^ and after fome days of penance return
them to their fnppliants, much benefited by theferpent’a
fuppoled embraces.
Serpent, a mufical inftrument, ferving as a bafs
to the cornet, or jmad fbawm, to fuftain a chorus
of lingers in a large edifice. It has its name ferpent
from its figure, as confifting of feveral folds or wreaths,
which lei ve to reduce its length, which would other-
wife be fix or feven feet.
It is ufually covered with leather, and confifts of
three parts, a mouth-piece, a neck, and a tail. It has
fix holes, by means whereoi it takes in the coraoafs of
two ottaves.
Merfennus, who has particularly deferibed this in-
ftrument, mentions fome peculiar properties of it,
e' Sr' that the found of it is ftrong enough to drown
2.. robuft voices, being animated merely by the breath
of a boy and yet the found of it may be attempered to
the foftneis of the fweeteft voice. Another peculiarity
to this hiftrument is, that great as the d itance between
the third and fourth hole appears, yet whether the
third hole be open or fhut, the difference is but a tone.
Serpent, in mythology, was a very common fymbol
of the fun, and he is reprefented biting his tail, and
with his body formed into a circle, in order to indicate
the ordinary courfe of this luminary, and under this
form it was an emblem of time and eternity. The fer-
pent was alfo the fymbol of medicine, and of the gods
which pi elided over it, as of Apollo and JElculapius :
and this animal was the objeft of very ancient and gene¬
ral worlhip, under various appellations and characters.
In moft of the ancient rites we find fome allui'on to
the ferpent, under the feveral titles of Ob, .Ops, Py¬
thon, &c. This idolatry is alluded to by Mo’fes, (Lev.
xx. 27.) The woman atEndor who had a familiar i'pi-
rit is called Oub, or Ob, and it is interpreted Pythohif-
fa. The place where Ihe refided, fays the learned Mr
Bryant, feems to have been named from the worlhip
then inftituted ; for Endor is compounded of En.ador,
and fignifies funs Pyth nis, “ the fountain of light, the
oracle of the god Ador, which oracle was probably
founded by the Canaanites, and had never been totally
fuppreffed. His pillar was alfo called Abbadir, or Ab¬
ac,ir, compounded of ab and adir, and meaning the
ferpent deity Addir, the fame as Adorns.
In the orgies of Bacchus, the perfons who partook
of the ceremony ufed to carry ferpents in their hands,
and with horrid fereams call upon Eva ! Eva ! Eva
being, according to the writer juft mentioned, the fame
as epha, or opha, which the Greeks rendered obhis,
and by it denoted a ierpent. Thele ceremonies and
4 this
S E R [ill ] S E R
gerperit* th?* fyrnbolie worfhip bef>an among tbe Mag'5, who
l| Were the fons of Chus ; and by them they were propa-
gerpenta- ^atej jn varJous parts Whoever the Amonians found-
TiUS' ed any places of worfhip, and introduced their rites,
there was generally fume flory of a ferpent. There was
a legend about a ferpent at Colchis, at Thebes, and at
Delphi; and hkewife in other places. The Greeks
called Apollo himfelf Python, which is the fame as
Opis, Oupis, and Oub.
In Egypt there was a ferpertt named Thermuthis,
which was looked upon as very facred ; and the natives
are faid to have made ufe of it as a royal tiara, vyith
which they ornamented the ftatues of Ifis. i he kings
of Egypt wore high bonnets, terminating in a round
ball, and furrounded with figures of afps ; and the
priefts Hkewife had the reprefentation of ierpents upon
their bonnets.
Abadon, or Abaddon, mentioned in the Revelations
xx. 2. is fuppofed by Mr Bryant to have been the name
of the Ophite god, with whofe worfhip the world had
been fo long infe&ed. This worfhip began among the
people of Chaldea, who budt the city ot Ophis upon
the Tigris, and were greatly addi tied to divination, and
to the worfhip of the ferpent. Prom Chaldea the wor¬
fhip pafied into Egypt, where the ferpent deity was
called Canoph, Can eph, and C’neph. It had alfo the
name ot Ob or Oub, and was the fame as the Bafdtfcus
or royal ferpent, the fame as the Thermuthis, anti made
ufe of by way of ornament to the itatues of their gods.
The chief deity of Egypt is laid to have been Vulcan,
who was ftyled Opas. He was the fame as Oiiris, the
Sun, and hence was often called Ob el, or Pytho-fol;
and there were pillars facred to him, with curious hie-
roglyphical infcriptions bearing the fame name; whence
among the Greeks, who copied from the Egyptians,
every thing gradually tapering to a point was ftyled
obelos, or obelifcus.
As the worfhip of the ferpent began among the fons
of Chus, Mr Bryant conjectures, that from thence they
were denominated Ethiopians and Aithiopians, from
Ath ope or Ath opes the god whom they worfhipped,
and not from the-r complexion : the Ethiopes brought
thefe rites into Greece, and called the ifland where they
firft tftablifhed them JLllopla, Solis Serpentis infu.'a, the
fame with Eu a , or Oubaia, i. e. “ the ferpent Hand.”
The lame learned writer difccvers traces o1^ the ft:pent
worfhio among the Hyperboreans, at Rhodes, named
Ophiufa, in Phrygia, and upon the Hellefpont, in the
ifland Cyprus, in Crete, among the Athenians, in the
name of Cecrops, among the natives of Thebes in Boeo-
tia, among the Lacedemonians, in Italy, in Syria, &c,
and in the names of many places, as well as of the peo¬
ple where the Ophites fettled. One ot the molt early
herefiess introduced into the Chnftian church wras that
of the Ophitas. Bryant's Analyfis of Ancient My¬
thology, vol. i. p. 43, &c. p. 473, &c
Sf.rpf.kt Stones. See Cornu Amrnmis,
Sro-SeRPFNT. See SEA-Serpent..
SERPENT ARIA, snake-root ; a fpecies of
Aristolochia.
SERPENT RIUS, in aftronomy, a conftellation
oc 'the northern hemifphere, catted alio Ophiuchus, and
anciently JEfculapius The ftars in the conftellation
Berpentarius, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 29 ; in Tycho’s
13; in Hevelius's 40 ; in the Britannic catalogue they
are 74. v"-**-
SERPENTINE, in general, denotes any thing that
refembles a ferpent ; hence the worm or pipe ot a ftill,
twifted in a fpiral manner, is Urrntd a w irm.
S'RPKW*r.iifE Sion-y a genus of magnefian earths, of
which there are different fpecies: . The brofus, eom-
poftd of fibrous and coherent particles. This refem¬
bles the albedos fo much that it might he coufounded
with it, were not the ebres ot the ierpentiue Jo clolely
coherent, that they cannot be diftinguilhed when the
(tone is cut or polifhal. The fibres themlelves are
large, and feem to be twifted. There are two varieties,,
a dark green and a light one ; the former from Ger¬
many, the latter from S ■. eden. 2. i he zoeblitz ter¬
pentine, found near that place, of many diffeient co¬
lours, as black, deep green, light green, red, bluifh-grey,.
and white ; but the green colour is molt predominant.
3. Porcelain earth mixed whh ir n. It is met with
either diffuftble in water or indurated The former is
found of a red colour horn China and Montmartre.
The water-clinkers, i ported fr in feme places in Ger¬
many, feem t * be made of this kind of earth 'There
are two varieties of the indurated kind, viz the mar¬
tial foap-earth, of a red colour, rrorn j ulx rg and o’her
places in Norway, or black iron fomeparts of Sweden.
4. The telgfton of the Swedes, the fame with the la¬
pis ollaris. it is found in various pTces ol Norway,
as light grey, dark grey, whuilh yellow, and dark
green. It is employed with great advantage for bund¬
ing lire places, furnaces, &c the extremities of the ftra-
ta being turned towards the ere when it is flaty..
M. Magellan oblerves, that there is a great v?ri< -ty
of colour as well as competition 111 th s kind of ftones ;
it being found eithei white, green, brown, yellow, light-
blue, black, fpotted, or Leaked with veins ot different
c lours. Its texture is either indiltiudl, oblcuiely la¬
minar, or bious. The Ipecilic gravity is irom 2400
to - 65 ; and it is harder than loap-rock or fteatites ;
though not hard enoui h to ftrike lire with Heel;
being lefs fmooth to the touch than fteatites, but luf-
ceptible of a good poluh, looking like marble; and is
oiten met with in thru lemitranfparent plates. It melts
in a ftrong heat without addition, and corrodes the cru¬
cibles, but hardens in a lower degree of heat. It is-
flowly and partially folunlc in acids, but does not effer-
vefee with them. According to Bayon’s at.alylis, ioo>
parts of it contain about 41 o lilex, or raider irnea;
330 magnefia ; 00 argillaceous earth ; 1 2 of water,
and about 3 of iron. 1 hit brought from Corfica
contains a greater proportion of argil, and a imaller one
t f filex. The' fetpentine commonly lo culled, accord¬
ing to Fabroni, is a true lapis ollaris ; but nas its name
from be'ng variegated with green, yellowilh, and brown
fpots, like the Hein o' fome ferpents ; great quantities
of it are found in Italy and Switzerland, where it is
frequently worked into difhes and other veffels.
Serpentine veres, are luch as begin and end with
the lame word. As,
/Imbo jlorentes atntibus, Arcacles amlo.
Serpentine, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to>
have a lerpentine tongue, i. it is always frilking and
moving, aud lometimes palling over the bit, in Head of
keeping
Serrarula,
S E R [31
Serpicuh keeping in the void fpace, called the liberty of the
tongue.
SERPICULA, in botany; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of monoecia, and to the order of te-
trandia. The male calyx is quadridentate, and the co
rolla confiftsof four petals : The female calyx is divided
into four parts, and the pericarpium is a tomentofe nut.
There are two fpecies, the verticillata and repens.
SERPIGO, in furgery, a kind of herpes, popularly
called a tetter or ringworm. See Surgery.
SERPULA, in natural hiftory ; a genus belong¬
ing to the clafs of vermes, and to the order of teftacea.
The fhell is Engle,tubular, and adhering to other bodies.
The animal which inhabits it is the terebella.
SERRANUS (Joannes), or John de Serres, a learn¬
ed French Proteilant, was born about the middle of the
fixteenth century. He acquired the Greek and Latin
languages at Laufanne, and grew very fond of the phi-
lofophy of Ariftotle and Plato. On his return to France
he itudied divinity. He began to diftinguilh himfelf
in 1572 by his writings, but was obliged to forfake
his country after the dreadful maffacre of St Bartho¬
lomew. He became minifter of Nifmes in 1582, but
was never regarded as a very zealous Calvinift : he has
even been fufpefted, though without reafon, of having
a&ually abjured the Protettant religion. Fie was one
of the four clergymen whom Henry IV. confulted about
the Romifh religion, and who returned for anfwer, that
Catholics might be fivecl He wrote afterwards a trea-
tife in order to reconcile the two communions, entitled
De fide Cathohca, five de principiis religionis Chrifiiana,
communi omnium Chrifiianorum confenfiu, femper' et ubique
rails. This work was difliked by the Catholics, and
received with fuch indignation by the Calvinifts of Ge¬
neva, that many writers have affirmed that they poifon-
rd the author. It is certain at lead: that he died at
Geneva in 1598, at the age of 50. His principal
works are, r. A Latin tranflation of Plato, publiffied
by Henry Stephens, which owes much of its reputation
to the elegance of the Greek copy which accompanies
it. 2. A Treatife on the Immortality of the Soul.
3 Defiatu religionis et reipublicce in Francia. 4. Me
moire de la ^me guerre civile et derniers troubles de France
fous Charles IX. &c. 5. Inventaire general' de VHi.
Jloire de France, illufire par la conference de VEglife et
de I Empire, (F c. 6. Recited de chofe memorable avenue en
France fous Henri II. Franqois II Charles IX. HenrilJI
Thefe three hiftorical treatifes have been julily accufed
of partiality and paffion ; faults which it is next to im-
poffible for a contemporary writer to avoid, especially if
he bore any part in the tranfaftions which he defcrilxs.
His flyle is exceedingly incorredf and inelegant; his mif-
takes too and misllatements of fadls are very numerous.
SERRATED, in general, fomething indented or
notched in the manner of a faw ; a term much ufed in
the defcription of the leaves of plants. See Botany.
SERRATULA, saw wort, in botany : A genus
of plants belonging to the clafs of fyngenefia, and to the
order of polygamia aequalis. In the natural fyltem it is
ranged under the 49th order, Compofitee. The calyx is
fubcylindrical, imbricated; the fcales of it pointed, but
not fpinous. There are 15 fpecies: The tinftoria, al-
pina, arvenfis, coronata, japonica, falicifolia, multiflora,
moveboracenfis, prsealta, glauca, fquarrofa, fcariofa, fpi-
eata, amara, and centauroides. The three firft fpecies
s E R
I. The tinftoria is diflinguifhed by a Serratus]
2 ]
are Britifh.
ftem eredt and {lender, branched at the top, and three H
feet high. The leaves are fmooth, pinnatitid, and fer.Servandoni
rated : The flowers are purple, in umbels, and terminal. 'r“'-
1 he down of the feed is glofly, with a brown or gold
tinge. It grows in woods and wet paftures. It dyes
cloth of an exceeding fine yellow colour, which {lands
well when fixed with alum. Goats eat this plant;
horfes are not fond of it; cattle, fwine, and flieep, leave it
untouched. 2 J’he alpina, or mountain faw-wort. The
root and ftem are woody ; the latter being from one
to two feet high. The leaves are numerous, triangu-
lar, long, pointed, fubftantial, dark green above, white
beneath, and ferrated, with round intervals between
the teeth, on footftalks. The flowers are purple. The
fcales of the calyx are very fliort and downy. It
grows on high mountains, and flowers commonly in
July or Auguft 3. The arvenfis, corn faW-wort, or
way-thiftle. I he ftem is generally erefl, branched,
and two or three feet high. The leaves are finuated,
ferrated, and fpinous ; thofe above being almoft entire.
The flowers aie of a pale purple ; the down is very long.
This plant grows in cultivated grounds and by way-
fides, and flowers m July or Auguft When burned
it yields good allies for making glafs or fixed alkali.
SERRAiUS, in anatomy, a name given to feve«
ral mufcles, from their refemblance to a faw. See A-
N atomy, Table of the Mufcles.
SERTORIUS (Quintus), an eminent Roman ge¬
neral ; (fee Spain), under the hiftory of which his ex¬
ploits are related.
SER 1 UL ART A, in natural hiftory, a genus belong¬
ing to the clafs of vermes, and to the order of zoophy-
ta. The ftem is radicated, fibrous, naked, and jointed ;
the florets are hydrae, and there is one at each joint.
This genus comprehends 42 fpecies o^ corallines.
SERVAL, mountain cat. See Felis, xvi.
SERVANDONI (John Nicolas), was born at Flo¬
rence in 1695. He rendered himfelf famous by his
exquifite taite in archite&ure, and by his genius for
decorations, fetes, and buildings. He was emoloyed
and rewarded by moft of the princes in Europe! He
was honoured in Portugal with the order of Chrift : In
France he was architect and painter to the king, and
member of the different academies eftablifhed for the ad¬
vancement of thefe arts. Fie received the fame titles
from the kings _ of Britain, Spain, Poland, and from
the duke of Wirtemberg. Notwithftanding thefe ad¬
vantages, his want of economy was fo great, that he
left nothing behind him He died at Paris in 1766.
1 ans is indebted to him for many of its ornaments.
He made decorations for the theatres of London and
Drefden. The French king’s theatre, called la fade
des Machines, was under his management for fome time.
He was permitted to exhibit {hows confifting of fimple
decorations : Some of thefe were aftonifhingly fublime ;
his “ Defcent of gEneas into Hell” in particular, and his
“ Enchanted Foreft,” are well known. He built and
embelliflicd a theatre at Chamber for Marefchal Saxe ;
and furnifhed the plan and the model of the theatre royal
at Drefden. His genius for fetes was remarkable ; he
had the management of a great number in Paris, ancl
even in London. He condu&ed one at Lifbon given
on account of a vi&ory gained by the duke of Cumber¬
land. He was employed frequently by the king of
3 Portugal,
Uemnt.
s E R L 3
Portugal, to whom he prefented feveral elegant plans
and models. The prince of Wales, too, father to the
prefent king, engaged him in his fervice; but the death
of that prince prevented the execution of the defigns
which had been projected. He prefsded at the mag¬
nificent fete given at Vienna on account of the marriage
of the archduke Jofeph and the Infanta of Parma.
But it would be endlefs to attempt an enumeration of
all his performances and exhibitions.
SERVANT, a term of relation, fignifying a perfon
who owes and pays obedience for a certain time to
another in quality of a mafter.
As to the feveral forts of fervants : It was obferved,
under the article Liberty, that pure and proper flavery
does not, nay cannot, fubfift in Britain : fuch we mean
whereby an abfolute and unlimited power is given
to the mafter over the life and fortune of the Have.
And indeed it is repugnant to reafon, and the principles
-of natural law, that fuch a ftate fhould fubfift anywhere.
See Slavery.
The law of England therefore abhors, and will not
endure, the exiftence of ftavery within this nation : fo
that when an attempt was made to introduce it, by
ftaftute i Edw. VI. c. 3. which ordained, that all idle
■vagabonds fhould be made flaves, and fed upon bread,
water, or fmall drink, and refufe-meat; fhould wear a
ring of iron round their necks, arms, or legs ; and fhould
be compelled, by beating, chaining, or otherwile, to
perform the work affigned them, were it ever fo vile ;
the fpirit of the nation could not brook this condition,
even in the moft abandoned rogues ; and therefore this
ftatute was repealed in two years afterwards. And
now it is laid down, that a Have or negro, the inflant
he lands in Britain, becomes a freeman ; that is, the
law will proteft him m the enjoyment of his perfon
and his property. Yet, with regard to any right
which the mafter may have lawfully acquired to the
perpetual fervice of John or Thomas, this will remain
exactly in the fame ftate as before : for this is no
more than the fame ftate of fubje&ion for life which
every apprentice fubmits to for the fpace of feven years,
or fometimes for a longer term. Hence, too, it follows,
that the infamous and unchriftian pra&ice of withhold¬
ing baptifm from negro-fervants, left they fhould there¬
by gain their liberty, is totally without foundation, as
well as without excufe. The law of England a&s
upon general and extenfive principles : it gives liberty,
rightly underftood, that is, prote&ion, to a Jew', a
Turk, or a Heathen, as well as to thofe who proofs
the true religion of Chrift ; and it wull not diffolve a
civil obligation between maftei and fervant, on account
of the alteration of faith in either of the parties ; but
the Have is entitled to the fame protection in England be¬
fore as after baptifm ; and, whatever fervice the Heathen
negro owed of right to his American mafter, by general,
not by local law, the fame (whatever it be)*is he bound
to render when brought to England and made aChriftian.
1. The firft fort of fervants, therefore, acknowledged
by the laws of England, are menial fervants; fo called
from being intra mcenici, or domeftics.- The contract
between them and their rnafters arifes upon the hiring.
If the hiring be general, without any particular time
limited, the law conftrues it to be a hiring for a year;
upon a principle of natural equity, that the Tervant ftiall
ierve and the mafter maintain him, throughout all the
Vol. XVII. Parti.
3 3 S E R
revolutions of the refpeCtive feafons; as well when there
is work to be done, as when there is not : but the con¬
trail may be made for any larger or fmaller term. All
fingle men between 12 years old and 60, and married
ones under 30 years of age, and all iingle women between
12 and 40, not having any viftble livelihood, are com¬
pellable by two juftices to go out to fervice in huf-
bandry or certain fpecific trades, for the promotion of
honeft indsdlry ; and no mafter can put away his fer¬
vant, or fervant leave his mafter, after being fo retained,
either before or at the end of his term, without a quar¬
ter’s warning ; uniefs upon reafonable caufe, to be allowfc
ed by a juftice of the peace : but they may part by con-
fent, or make a fpecial bargain.
2. Another fpecies of fervants are called apprentices^
(from apprendre, to learn) ; and are ufually bound for
a term of years, by deed indented or indentures, to
ferve their mailers, and be maintained and inftru&ed
by them. This is ufually done to perfons of trade, in
order to learn their art and myftery; and fometimes
very large fums are given wuth them as a premium for
fuch their inftruftion : but it may be done to hulband-
men, nay, to gentlemen and others. And children of
poor perfons may be apprenticed out by the overfeers,
with confent of tw'o juftices, till 24 years of age, to
fuch perfons as are thought fttting ; who are alfb com¬
pellable to take them : and it is held, that gentlemen
of fortune, and clergymen, are equally liable with
others to fuch compulfton: for which purpofes our
llatutes have made the indentures obligatory, even
though fuch parilh-apprentice be a minor. Apprentices
to trades may be difcharged on reafonable caule, either
at the requeft of themfdves or mailers, at the quarter-
feflions, or by one juftice, with appeal to the feffions;
who may, by the equity of the ftatute, if they think it
reafonable, diredl reftitution of a rateable lhare of the
money given with the apprentice: and parifh-appren-
tices may be difcharged in the fame manner by two
juftices. But if an apprentice, with whom lefs than 10
pounds hath been given, runs away from his mafter, he
is compellable to ferve out his time of abfence, or make
fatisfaftion for the fame, at any time within feven years
after the expiration of his original contradft. See Ap¬
prentice and Apprenticeship.
3. A third fpecies of fervants are labourers, who
are only hired by the day or the w'eek, and do not live
intra mania, as part of the family ; concerning whom
the ftatutes before-cited have made many very good re¬
gulations ; 1. Directing that all perfons who have no
vifible effe£ls may be compelled to work ; 2. Defining
how long they mull continue at work in fummer and in
winter: 3. Puniihing fuch as leave or defert their
work : 4. Empowering the juftices at feffions, or the
fheriff of the county, to fettle their wages : and, 5. In*
Aiding penalties on fuch as either give or exacl more
wages than are fo fettled.
4 There is yet a fourth fpecies of fervants, if they
may be fo called, being rather in a fuperior, a minifte-
rial, capacity ; fuch as JleiOards, j at tors, and bailiffs ;
whom, however, the law conliders as lervants pro tem¬
pore, with regard to fuch of their ads as affed their
mailer’s or employer’s property.
As to the manner in which this relation affeds the
mafter, the fervant himfelf, or third parties, fee the ar¬
ticle Mm teh and Servant.
R r , For
Servant.
S E R [3
Servetsftf, j?or con(j;t[on Gf fervants by the law of Scotland,
,   lee JLaw.
SERVETISTS, a name given to tbe modern An-
titrinitarians, from their being fuppofed to be the fol¬
lowers of Michael Servetus ; who, in the year 1553,
was burnt at Geneva, together with his books.
SERVETUS (Michael), a learned Spanifh phyfi-
cian, was born at Villaneuva, in Arragon, in i^og. He
was fent to the univerfity of Touloufe to ftudy the civil
law. The Reformation, which had awakened the moft
polifhed nations of Europe, direfted the attention of
thinking men to the errors of the Romifh church and
to the ftudy of the Scriptures. Among the reft Ser¬
vetus applied to this ftudy. From the love of novelty,
or the love of truth, he carried his inquiries far beyond
the other reformers, and not only renounced the falfe opi¬
nions of the Roman Catholics, but went fo far as to
queftion the do6trine of the Trinity. Accordingly, af¬
ter fpending two or three years at Touloufe, he deter¬
mined to go into Germany to propagate his new opi¬
nions, where he could do it with moft fafety. At Ba-
fil he had feme conferences with Oecolampadius. He
, w-ent next to Stralburg to vifit Bucer and Capito,
two eminent reformers of that town. From Strafburg
he went to Hugenau, where he printed a book, intided
De Trmhatis Erroribus, in The enfuing year
he publilhed two other treatifes on the fame fubjeft: in
an advertilement to which, he informs the reader that
it was not his intention to retraft any of his former fen-
timents, but only to ftate them in a more diftindt and
accurate manner. To thefe two publications he had the
courage to put his name, not fufpe&ing that in an age
when liberty of opinion was granted, the exercife of
that liberty would be attended with danger. After
publifhing thefe books, he left Germany, probably find¬
ing his dodftrines not fo cordially received as he expect¬
ed. He went firft to Baiil, and thence to Lyons, where
he lived two or three years. He then removed to Pa¬
ris, where he ftudied medicine under Sylvius, Fernelius,
and other profeflbrs, and obtained the degree of mafter
of arts and doftor of medicine. His love of controverfy
involved him in a ferious difpute with the phyiicians of
Paris ; and he wrote an A pology, which was fupprefted
by an ediCt of the Parliament. The mifunderftanding
which this difpute produced with his colleagues, and the
chagrin which fo unfavourable a termination occafioned,
made him leave Paris in difguft. He fettled two or
three years in Lyons, and engaged with the Frellons,
eminent printers of that age, as a corrector to their
prefs. At Lyons he met with Pierre Palmier, the
archbifhop of Vienne, with whom he had been ac¬
quainted at Paris. That Prelate, who was a great en-
courager ol learned men, prefied him to accompany him
to Vienne, offering him at the fame time an apartment
in his palace. Servetus accepted the offer, and might
have lived a tranquil and happy life at Vienne, if he
could have confined his attention to medicine and lite¬
rature. But the love of controverfy, and an eagernefs
to eftabhfh his opinions, always poffefl'ed him. At this
time Calvin was at the head of the reformed church at
Geneva. With Servetus he had been acquainted at Pa¬
rrs, and had there oppofed his opinions. For 16 years
Calvin kept up a correfpondence with him, endeavour,
ang to reclaim him from his errors. Servetus had read
„ works of Calvin, but did not think they merited the
n 1 s e n
high eulogies of the reformers, nor were they fufficieat S«ryetOT,
to convince him of his errors. Pie continued, however, *—v—
to confult him ; and for this purpofe fent from Lyons to
Geneva three queftions which refpected the divinity of
Jefus Chrift, regeneration, and the necefuty of baptifim
To thefe Calvin returned a civil anfwer. Servetus treat¬
ed the anfwer with contempt, and Calvin replied with
warmth. From reafoning he had recourfe to abulive
language; and this produced a polemical hatred, the moft
implacable difpofition in the world. Calvin havino- ob¬
tained fome of Servetus’s papers, by means, it is faid,
not very honourable, fent them to Vienne along with
the private letters which he had received in the courfe
of their correfpondence. The confequence was, that
Servetus was arrefted ; but having efcaped from prifon,
he refolved to retire to Naples, where he hoped to
praftife medicine with the fame reputation which he had
fo long enjoyed at Vienne. He imprudently took his
route through Geneva, though he could not but know
that Calvin was his mortal enemy. Calvin informed the
magiftrates of his arrival ; Servetus was apprehended,
and appointed to Hand trial for herefy and blafphemy.
It was a law at Geneva, that every accufer Ihould fur-
render himfelf a prifoner, that if the charge fhoukbbe
found falfe, the accufer fhould fuffer the punifhment in
which he meant to involve the accufed Calvin not choo-
fing to go to prifon himfelf, fent one of his domeflics to
prefent the impeachment againft Servetus. The articles
brought againft himw-ere colletftcd from his writings with
great care; an employment which took up three days.
One of thefe articles was, “ that Servetus had denied
that Judaea was a beautiful, rich, and fertile country; and
affirmed, on the authority of travellers, that it was
poor, barren, and difagreeable.” He was alfo charged
with “ corrupting the Latin Bible, which he was em¬
ployed to corredt at Lyons, by introducing imperti¬
nent, trifling, whimfical, and impious notes of his own
through every page.” But the main article, which
was certainly fatal to him, was, “ that in the perfon of
Mr Calvin, minifter of the word of God in the church
of Geneva, he had defamed the doftrine that is preach¬
ed, uttering all imaginable injurious, blafphemous words
againft it.”
Calvin vifited Servetus in prifon, and had frequent
conferences with him; but finding that, in oppofition
to all the arguments he could employ, the prifoner re¬
mained inflexible in his opinions, he left him to his fate.
Before fentence was paffed, the magiftrates of Geneva
confulted the minifters of Bale, of Bern, and Zurich ;
and, as another account informs us, the magiftrates of
the Proteftant Cantons of Switzerland. And to ena¬
ble them to form a judgment of the criminality of Ser¬
vetus, they tranfmitted the writings of Calvin, with his
anfwers. The general opinion was, that Servetus ought
to be condemned to death for blafphemy. He was ac¬
cordingly fentenced to be burnt alive on the 27th of
Oftober 1553. As he continued alive in the midft of
the flames more than two hours, it is faid, finding his
torment thus protra&ed, he exclaimed, “ Unhappy
wretch that I am ! Will the flames be inffifficient to
terminate my mifery ! What then ! Will the hundred
pieces of gold, and the rich collar which they took from
me, not purchafe wood enough to confume me more
quickly ! “ Though the fentence of death was palled
againft Servetus by the magiftrates of Geneva, with the
appro.
SEE • C 35
fcVVm> i&ppK&atbn of a great number of the mgjftmtes and
'' |j minifters of Switzerland, yet it is the opinion of moif
Service, ^iftorians that this dreadful fentence was impofed at the
initigatipn of Calvin. This aft of feverity for holding a
Speculative opinion, however erroneous and abfurd, has
left a ftain on the charaifer of this illuftrious reformer,
which will attend the name of Calvin as long as hiilory
(hall preferve it from oblivion. The addrefs and art
which he ufed in apprehending Servetus, his inhuma¬
nity to him during his trial, his diflimulation and ma¬
levolence after his condemnation, prove that he was as
much influenced by perfonal hatred as by a defire to
fupport the intereft of religion, though probably, du¬
ring the trial, Calvin believed he was performing a very
pious adion. This intolerant fpirit of Calvin and the
jnagiftrates of Geneva gave the Roman Catholics a fa¬
vourable opportunity to accufe the Proteftants of incon-
fiftency in their principles, which they did not fail to
embrace. “ How could the magiftrates (fays the au¬
thor of the DiHlonnaire des Her eft a), who acknowledged
no infallible interpretation of the Scriptures, condemn
Servetus to death becaufe he explained them differently
from Calvin ; fmee every man has the privilege to ex¬
pound the Scripture, according to his own judgment,
without having recourfe to the church ? It is a great
jnjuftice to condemn a man becaufe he wall not fubmit
to the judgment of an enthufiaft, who may be wrong
as well as himldf.,,
Servetus was a man of great acutenefs and learning,
and well verfed in the arts and fciences. In his own
profeffion his genius exerted itfelf with fuccefs. In his
trad intitledChriftiani/mi i^Ywi'io.publifhed in 1553, he
remarks, that the whole mafs of blood pafles through
the lungs by the pulmonary artery and vein, in oppofi-
tion to the opinion which was then univerfally enter¬
tained, that the blood pafles through the partition which
divides the two ventricles. This was an important ftep
towards the difeovery of the circulation of the blood.
His works confrft of Controverfial Writings concern¬
ing the Trinity ; an edition of Pagninus’s Verfron of the
Bible, with a preface and notes, publifhed under the
name of Michael Viilanevanus ; an Apology to the
Phyfkians of Paris ; and a book intitled Ratio Syrupo*
rum, Mofheim has written in Latin a Hiftory of the
Herefy and Misfortunes of Servetus, which was publifh¬
ed at Helmftadt, in 410, in 1728. From the curious
details which it gives it is extremely interefiing.
SERVIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, bound¬
ed on the north by the rivers Danube and Save, which
leparate it from Hungary ; on the eaft, by Bulgaria ;
on the weft, by Bofnia j and on the fouth, by Albania
and Macedonia. It is about 190 miles in length from
eaft to weft; 95 in breadth from north to fouth ; and is
divided into four fangiacates. Two of thefe were ceded
to the Chriftians in 17x8, who united them into one.
This continued till 1739, when the Turks were vidori-
ous; and then they were abandoned to the Turks by
the treaty of Belgrade. Belgrade is the capital town.
SERVICE, in law, is a duty which a tenant, on
account of his fee, owes to his lord.
There are many divifions of fervices; as, 1. Into
perfonal, where fomething is to be done by the tenant
in perfon, as homage and fealty. 2. Real, fuch as
wards, marriages, &c. 3. Accidental, including he-
riots, reliefs, and the like. 4. Entire, where, on the
£ 3 S E R
alienation of any p-arf of the lands by a tenant, the Semce
jfervices become multiplied. 5, Frank-fervice, which “
was performed by freemen, who were not obliged to
perform any bafe fervice, but only to find a man and
horfe to attend the lord into the army or to court.
6. Knight’s fervice, by which lands were anciently held
of the king, on paying homage, fervice in war, &c.
As in every free and well regulated fociety there
muft be a diverfity of ranks, there muft be a great num¬
ber of perfons employed in lervice, both in agriculture
and domeflic affairs. In this country, fervice is a contraif
into which the fervant voluntarily enters; and the mailer’s
authority extends no farther than to the performance of
that fpecies of labour for which the agreement was made.
“ The treatment of fervants (fays that refpeftable mo- paiey>s
ralift Mr Paley), as to diet, difeipline, and accommoda- Moral and
tion, the kind and quantity of work to be required of Political
them, the intermiflion, liberty, and indulgence to be ah p^'MaPh*
lowed them, muft be determined in a great meafure by1’" '
cuftom ; for where the contrail involves fo many parti¬
culars, the contrailing parties exprefs a few perhaps of
the principal, and by mutual underftanding refer the
reft to the known cuftom of the country in like cafes.
“ A fervant is not bound to obey the unlawful com¬
mands of his mafter ; to minifter, for inftance, to his un¬
lawful pleafures; or to afiift him in unlawful prailices
in his profeffion ; as in fmuggling or adulterating the ar¬
ticles which he deals in. For the fervant is bound by
nothing but his own promife ; and the obligation of a
promife extends not to things unlawful.
“ For the fame reafon, the mailer’s authority does not
juftify the fervant in doing wrong; for the fervant’s
own promife, upon which that authority is founded,
would be none.
“ Clerks and apprentices ought to be employed entire¬
ly in the profeffion or trade which they are intended to
learn. Inftrudlion is their wages ; and to deprive them
of the opportunities of inftrudlion, by taking up their
time with occupations foreign to their bufinefs, is to
defraud them of their wages.
‘f The mafter is refponfible for what a fervant does in
the ordinary courfe of his employment; for it is done
under a general authority committed to him, which is
in juilice equivalent to a fpecific diredlion. Thus, if
l pay money to a banker’s clerk, the banker is ac¬
countable : but not if I had paid it to his butler or his
footman, whofe buiiuefs it is not to receive money.
Upon the fame principle, if I once fend a fervant to
take up goods upon credit, whatever goods he after¬
wards takes up at the fame {hop, fo long as he conti-
nues in my fervice, are juftly chargeable to my ac¬
count.
“ The law of this country goes great lengths in in¬
tending a kind of concurrence in the mafter, fo as to
charge him with the confequences of his fervant’s con-
dudl. If an innkeeper’s fervant rob his guefts, the
innkeeper muft make reftitution ; if a farrier’s fervant
lame your horfe, the farrier muft anfwer for the da¬
mage ; and ftill farther, if your coachman or carter
drive over a paffenger in the road, the pafienger may
recover from you a fatisfadtion for the hurt he fuffers.
But thefe determinations Hand, I think, rather upon
the authority of the law, than any principle of natural
juftice.”
There is a grievance which has long and juftly
R r 2 been
g E R [ 3
been complained of, the giving of good chara&ers to
bad fervants. This is perhaps owing to careleflhefs,
to a defire of getting rid of a bad fervant, or to miita-
ken compaffioh. But fnch carelefTnefs is inexcufable.
When a man gives his fanftion to the character of a
bad fervant, h'e ought to reflect on tlie nature and confe-
quences of what he is doing, He is giving his name
a falfehood ; he is deceiving the honeft man who con¬
fides in his veracity ; and he is deliberately giving a
knave an opportunity of cheating an honeft man. To
endeavour to get quit of a bad fervant in this way, is
furely not lefs criminal than concealing the faults and
difadvantages of an eftate which is advertifed for fale,
and afcribing to it advantages which it does not poftefs.
In this cafe, we know the fale would be reduced, and
the advertifer difgraced. Many mafters give charafters
to fervants out of compaffion ; but it is to this miftakcn
compaffion that the diforderly behaviour of fervants is
perhaps principally owing : for if the puniftrment of
diftionefty be only a change of place (which may be a
reward inftead of a punifhment)., it ceafes to be a fer-
vant’s intereft to be true to his truft.
We have faid above that a maker’s authority over
his fervant extends no farther than the terms of contract;
by which we meant, that a mafter could give no unrea-
fonable orders to Iris fervarrt, or fuch as was inconiiftent
with the terms of contract. But the relation between
a mafter and fervant is certainly clofer than the mere
terms of a contraft : it is a moral as well as a legal
relation. A mafter of a family ought to fuperintend
the morals of his fervants, and to reftrain them from
vices. This he may do by his example, by his influ¬
ence, and authority. Indeed every man pefiefled of
authority is guilty of criminal negligence if he does not
exert his authority for promoting virtue in his inferiors;
and no authority is fo well adapted for this purpofe as
that of mafters of families, becaufe none operates with
an influence fo immediate and conftant. It is wonder¬
ful how much good a nobleman or gentleman of for¬
tune can do to his domeftics by attending to their mo¬
rals ; and every mafter may be a blefling to individuals
and to fociety, by exerting prudently that influence
which his fttuation gives him over the conduft of his
fervant.
Choral Serpicf., in church-hiftory, denotes that part
of religious worfhip which confifts in chanting and fing-
ing. The advocates for the high antiquity of finging,
as a part of church-mufic, urge the authority of St
Paul in its favour (Ephef. chap. v. ver. 19. and Co-
lof. chap. iii. ver. 16). On the authority of which paf-
fages it is aflerted, that fongs and hymns were, from the
eftablifhment of the church, fang in the aflemblies of
the faithful; and it appears from undoubted teftimony,
that fmging, which was pra&ifed as a facred rite among
the Egyptians and Hebrews, at a very early period, and
which likewife conftituted a confiderable part of the re¬
ligious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans, made a
part of the religious worfhip of Chriftians, not only before
churches were built, and their religion eftablifhed by
law, but from the firft profeffion of Chriftianity. How¬
ever, the era from whence others have dated the intro¬
duction cf mufic into the fervice of the church, is that
period during which Leontius governed the church of
Antioch, i. e. between the year of Chrift 347 and 356.
See Antiphonv.
iG ] s E R
From Antioch the practice foon fpread through the Servins,
other churches of the Eaft ; and io a few ag-es after its v—*
firft introduction into the divine fervice, it not only re¬
ceived the fanCtion of public authority, but thofe were
forbid to join in it who were ignorant of mufic. A
canon to this purpofe was made by the council of Lao-
dicea, which was held about the year 37 2 ; and Zorm-
nas informs us, that thefe canonical fingers were rec¬
koned a part of the clergy. Singing was introduced
into the weftern churches by St Ambrofe about the
year 374, who was the inftitutor of the Ambrofian
chant eftablilhed at Milan about the year 386; and
Eufebius (lib. ii. cap. 1 7.) tells us, that a regular choir,
and method of finging the fervice, were firft eftabliihed,
and hymns ufed, in the church at Antioch during the
reign of Conftantine, and that St Ambrofe, who had
long refided there, had his melodies thence. This was
about 230 years afterwards amended by pope Gregory
the Great, who eftablifhed the Gregorian chant; a
plain, unifonous kind of melody, which he thought
confiftent with the gravity and dignity of the fervice to
which it was to be applied. This prevails in the Ro¬
man church even at this day : it is known in Italy by
the name of canto fermo; in France by that of plain
chant; and in Germany and moft other countries by
that of the cantus Gregot-ianus. Although no fatisfaftory
account has been given of the fpecific difference between
the Ambrofian and Gregorian chants, yet all writers on
this fubjeft agree in faying, that St Ambrofe only ufed
the four authentic modes, and that the four plagal were
afterwards added by St Gregory. Each of thefe had
the fame final, or key-note, as its relative authentic ;
from which there is no other difference, than that the
melodies in the four authentic or principal modes are
generally confined within the compafs of the eight
notes above the key-note, and thofe in the four plagal
or relative modes, within the compafs of the eight notes
below the fifth of the key. See Mode.
Ecclefiaftical writers feem unanimous in allowing
that Pope Gregory, who began his pontificate in 590,
colledted the mufical fragments of fuch ancient pfalms
and hymns as the firft fathers of the church had appro¬
ved and recommended to the firft Chriftians; and that
he feledted, methodized, and arranged them in the or¬
der which was long continued at Rome, and foon a-
dopted by the chief part of the weftern church. Gre¬
gory is alfo laid to have banifhed from the church the
canto figuralOy as too light and diffolute ; and it is add¬
ed, that his own chant was called canto fermo, from its
gravity and fimplicity.
It has been long a received opinion, that the eccle¬
fiaftical tones were taken from the reformed modes of
Ptolemy ; but Dr Burney obferves, that it is difficult
to difeover any connection between them, except in
their names 5 for their number, upon examination, ia
not the fame ; thofe of Ptolemy being feven, the ec¬
clefiaftical eight ; and indeed the Greek names given to
the ecclefiaftical modes do not agree with thofe of Pto¬
lemy in the fingle inftance of key, but with thofe of
higher antiquity. From the time of Gregory to that
of Guido, there was no other diftinCIion of keys than
that of authentic and plagal; nor were any femitones
ufed but thofe from E to F, B to C, and occafionally
A to B b.
With refpeCf to the mufic of the primitive church, it
may
S E R l 317- 1 S E R
may be obfewd, that though it'confided in the finglng the knowledge of the Roman chant. At length the fuc- ^ Swu*.
^—y— of pfalms and hymns, yet it was performed in many dif- cdfors of St Gregory, and of And in his miffionary, ~ v
ferent ways; fometimes the pfalms were fang by one having eftabhihed a fchool for ecclefiaftieal mafic at Can-
perlon alone, whilft the veil attended in fdence ; fome- terbury, the reft of the iiland was furnifhed with ma-
times they were fung by the whole aifembly ; fometimes fters from that leminary. The choral fervice was firft
alternately, the- congregation being divided into fepa- introduced in the cathedral church of Canterbury ; and
rate choirs ? and fometimes by one perfon, who repeated till the arrival of Theodore, and his fettlement in that
the firft part of the verfe, the reft joining in the clofe of fee, the pra&ice of it feems to have been confined to the
it. Of the four different methods of finging now reci- churches of Kent ; but after that, it fpread over the
ted, the fecond arid third were properly diftiirguifhed by whole kingdom; and we meet with records of very
the names of fymphony and ant phony; and the latter was ample endowments for the fupport of this part of public *
fometimes called rejponfarh, in which women were al- worfhip. This mode of religious worfnip prevailed in
lowed to join. St Ignatius, who, according to So- all the European churches till the time of the Rcforma-
crates (lib. vi. cap. 8.), converfed with the apofiles; is tion : tire firft deviation from it is that which followed
generally fuppofed to have been the firft who luggefted the Retormation by Luther, who, being hirr.felf a lover
to the primitive Chriftians in the Eaft the method of of mufic, formed a liturgy, which was a nurfical iervice,
finging hymns and pfalms alternately; or in dialogue ; contained in a work entitled PJalmodia, h. z. Cantka 1
and tire cuftom foon prevailed, in every place where facra Vrtcns Ecrltftx fekSla, printed at Norimberg in
Chriftianity was eftablifhed ; though Theodoret in his 1^53, and at Wittemberg in 1561. But Calvin, in his
hiftory (lib. ii. cap. 24.) tells us, that this manner of eftablifhment of a church at Geneva, reduced the whole
finging was firft pra&ifed at Antioch. It fikewifo ap- of divine iervice to prayer, preaching, and finging ; the
pears, that almoft from tire time when mufic was firft latter of which he reftrained. He excluded the offices
introduced into the fervice of the church, it was of two of the antiphon, hymn, and motet, of the Romiffi fer-
kinds, and confuted in a gentle infledtion of the voice, vice, with that artificial and elaborate mufic to which
which they termed plain fong, and a more elaborate they were fung ; and adopted only that plain metrical
and artificial kind of mufic, adapted to the hymns and pfalmody, which is now in general ufe among the re-
folemn offices contained in its ritual; and this diftinc- formed churches, and in the parochial churches of our
tion has been maintained even to the prefent day. own country. For this purpoie he made ufe ofMarot’s
Although we find a very early dillin&ion made be- verfion of the Pfalms, and employed a mufician to fet
tween the manner of finging the hymns and chanting them to eafy tunes only of one part. In 1553, he dl-
the pfalms, it is, however, the opinion of the learned vided the Pfalms-into paufes or fmall portions, and ap-
Martini, that the mufic of the firft five or fix ages of pointed them to be fung in churches. Soon after they
the church confifted chiefly in a plain and fimple chant were bound, up with the Geneva catechifm ; from which
of unifons and o&aves, of which many fragments are time the Catholics, who had been accnftomed to fing
ftill remaining in the canto fermo of the Romiffi miflals. them, were forbid the ufe of them, under a fevere pe-
For with relperft to mufic in parts, as it does not ap- nalty. Soon after the Reformation commenced in Eng-
pear, in thefe early ages, that either the Greeks or Ro- land, complaints were made by many of the dignified
mans were in pofitffion of harmony or counterpoint, clergy and others of the intricacy and difficulty of the
which has been generally aferibed to Guido, a monk of church-mufic of thofe times : in confequence of which.
Arezzo in Tufcany, about the year 1022, though others it was once propofed, that organs and curious finging
have traced the origin of it to the eighth century, it is fhould be removed from our churches. Latimer, in his
in vain to feek it in the church. The choral mufic, diocefe «f Worceftev, went ftill farther, and ifi'ued in-
wlrich had its rife in the church of Antioch, and from junftions to the prior and convent of St Mary, forbid-
thence fpread through Greece, Italy, France, Spain, and ding in their fervice all manner of finging. In the reign
Germany, was brought into Britain by the fingers who of-Edward VI. a commiffion was granted to eight bi-
accompanied Auftin the monk, when he came over, in fliops, eight divines, eight civilians, and eight common
the year 596, charged with a commiffion to convert the lawyers, to compile a body of fuch ecclefiaftical laws as
inhabitants of this country to Chriftianity. Bede tells fhould in future be obferved throughout the realm. The
us, that when Auftin and the companions of his mif- refult of this compilation w-as a work firft publifned by
fion had their firft audience of king Ethelbert, in the Fox the martyrologift, in 1571, and afterwards in 1640,,
i£le of Thanet, they approached him in proceffion, fing- under the title of Reformatio Legum Ecclejiajlicarum*
ing litanies; and that, afterwards, when they entered the Thefe 32 commiffioners, inflead of reprobating church-
city of Canterbury, they fung a litany, and at the end mufic, merely condemned figurative and operofe mu-
©f it Allelujah. But though this was the firft time the fic, or that kind of finging which abounded with
Anglo-Saxons had heard the Gregorian chant, yet Bede fugues, refponfive paffages, and a commixture of various
likewife tells us, that our Britifh anceflors had been in- and intricate proportions ; which, whether extemporary
ftnufted in the rites and ceremonies of the Gallican or written, is by muficians termed defcant. However,
church by St Germanus, and heard him fing Allelujah notwithftanding the objeftions againft choral mufic, and
many years before the arrival of St Auflin. In 680, the pra&ice of fome of the reformed churches, the com-
John, praecentor of St Peter’s in Rome, was fent over pilers of the Englifh liturgy in 1548, and the king him-
by pope Agatho to inftrudl the monks of Weremouth ielf, determined to retain mufical fervice. Accordingly
in the art of finging; and he was prevailed upon to open the llatute 2 & 3 Edw. VI. cap. 1. though it contains
fchools for teaching mufic in other places in Northum- no formal obligation on the clergy, or others, to ule or
berland. Benedift Bifcop, the preceptor of Bede, Adrian join in either vocal or inftrumental mufic in the common
the monk, and many others, contributed to difleminatc prayer, does clearly recognife the pradice of finging ;
5 an<l
Service
(i
Serpm.
S E R f 3 \
fttid in lefs than two years after the compiling of King
Edward's liturgy, a formula was eompofed, which con,
tinues, with fcarce any variation, to be the rule for cho-
.ral fervicc even at this day. The author of this woik
was John Marbecke, or Marbeike ; and it was printed
by Richard Grafton, in f55'o, under the title of the
Kook of Common Prayer, noted. Queen Mary labour¬
ed to re-eftabhlh the Romifh choral fervice ; but the ac-
ceffion of Elizabeth was followed by the a£t of unifor¬
mity ; in confequence oi which, and of the cpieen’s in-
junfiions, the Book of Common Prayer, noted by Mar-
bccke, was confidered as the general formula of choral
fervice. In 1560, another mufical fervice, with fome
additions and improvements, was printed by John Day;
and in 1565, another eolledlion of offices, with mufical
notes. Many objeftions were urged by Cartwright and
other Puritans againft the form and manner of cathe¬
dral fervice, to which Plooker replied in his Ecclefiafti-
.cal Polity', In 1664, the llatutes of Edward VI. and
Elizabeth, for uniformity in the Common Prayer, were
repealed ; and the Dire&ory for Public Worffijp, which
allows only of the iinging of pfalms, eftablifhed. But
upon the reiteration of Charles II. choral fervice was
again revived, and has fmee uniformly continued. See
on this fubjeft Hawkins’s Hiftory of Mafic, vol. i.
p. 404. vol, ii. p. 264. vol. iii. p.'58—468, &c. vol.
iv. p. 44~d47-
Sekr 1 cs-Tree. See Sorbus.
SERVITES, a religious order in the church of
.Rome, founded about the year 1233, by feven Floren¬
tine merchants, who, with the approbation of the bifhop
of Florence, renounced the world, and lived together in
a religious community on mount Senar, two leagues
from that city.
SERVITOR, in the univerfity of Oxford, a itu-
dent who attends on another for "his maintenance and
.learning. See Sizar.
SERVITUDE, the condition of a fervant, or ra¬
ther Have.
Under the declenfion of the Roman empire, a new
Kind of fervitude was introduced, different from that of
the ancient Romans: it confifted in leaving the lands of
lubjugated nations to the firft owners, upon condition
of certain rents, and fervile offices, to be paid in ac-
jknowledgment. Hence the names of fervi cenfiti, a.
jcrlptuii, and addifti gklx ; fome whereof were taxable
at the reafonable diferetion of the lord; others at a
certain rate agreed on 5 and others were mainmortable,
who, having no legitimate children, could not make a
will to above the value of five pence, the lord being
heir of all the reft; and others were prohibited marry-
or going to live out of the lordffiip. Molt of thefe
fervices exifted lately in France; but they were long
ago aboliihed in England. Such, however, was the ori¬
ginal of our tenures, &c. See Slave.
Servitude, in Scots law. See Law, Part III,
Sea. ix.
SERVIUS (Maurus Honoratus), a celebrated gram¬
marian and critic of antiquity, who flouriffied about the
time of Arcadius and Honorius ; now chiefly known
by his Commentaries on Virgil. There is alfo extant
piece of Servius upon the feet of verfes and the quan-
4ity of fyllables, called Centimetrum.
.SERUM, a thin, tranfparent, falthh liquor, which
b r sis
makes a corffidpable part of the mafa of blood, See SriWE
Anatomy, nc 126. and Blood. U-h,
SESAMOIDEA ossa, certain fmall bones fome- Selatmun,
what resembling the feeds of fefamum, whence their ' 'Trm*
name, i hey are placed at the under part of the bones
oi the iaft joints of the fingers and toes.
SESAMUM, oily grain, in botany ; A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of didynamia, and to
the order of angiofpermia ; and in the natural fyfi
tem ranging under the 20 th order, Lurid a. The ca-
lyx is divided into five parts. The corolla is cam-
panulated, the tube of which is nearly the length of
the calyx ; the throat is inflated, and very large ; the
border is divided into five parts, four of which are
fpreading and nearly equal; the fifth is the loweft and
largeft. There are four filaments, and the rudiments of
a fifth. The ftigma is lanceolated, and the capfule has
four cells. There are only two fpecies, the orientak
and indicum. j. The orientale has ovate, oblong, entire
leaves. It is an annual, and grows naturally on the coaft
of Malabar and in the ifland of Ceylon 5 rifiog with
an herbaceous four-cornered ftalk, two feet high, fend-
ing out a few ffiort fide-branches j the leaves are ob-
long, oval, a little hairy, and {land oppofite. The
flowers terminate the ftalks in looie fpikes ; they are
fmall, of a dirty white colour, ffiaped fomewhat like
thofe of the fox-glove. After the flowers are paft,
the germen turns to an oval acute-pointed capfule with
four cells, filled with oval comp refled feeds, which ri¬
pen in autumn. 2. The indicum, with trifid lower
leaves, grows naturally in India: this is alfo an annual
plant; the ftalk rifes taller thaa that of the former; the
lower leaves are cut into three parts, which is the only
difference between them.
The firft fort is frequently cultivated in all the eaft-
ern countries, and alfo in Africa, as a pulfe ; and of
late years the feeds have been introduced into Carolina
by the African negroes, where they fucceed extremely
well. The inhabitants of that country make an oil
from the feed, which will keep good many years,
without having any rancid fmell or tafte, but in two
years become quite mild ; fo that when the warm
tafte of the feed, which is in the oil when firft drawn,
is worn off, they ufe it as a falad-oil, and for all the
purpofes of fweet oil. The feeds of this plant are alfo
ufed by the negroes for food ; which feeds they parch
over the fire, and then mix them with water, and ftew
other ingredients with them, which makes an hearty
food. Sometimes a fort of pudding is made of thefe
feeds, in the fame manner as with millet or rice, and
is by fome perfons efteemed, but is rarely ufed for thefe
purpoxes in Europe, This is called benny or bonny in
Carolina. In England thefe plants are preferved in bo¬
tanic gardens as curiofities. Their feeds muft be fown
in the fpring upon a hot bed 1 and when the plants are
come up, they muft be tranfplanted into a freffi hot-bed
to bring them forward. After they have acquired a
tolerable degree of ftrength, they ihould be planted into
pots, and plunged into another hot-bed, managing
them as hath been dire&ed for amaranths; for if thefe
plants are not thus brought forward in the former part
of the fummer, they will not produce good feeds in
this country.
From nine pounds of this feed which came from Ca-
6 roii n a,
S E S [3
Sefeli rolina, there were upwards oF two quarts of oil drawn,
which is as great a quantity as hath been obtained from
' any vegetable whatever. This might occafion its be¬
ing called the oi/y grain.
SESELT, meadow saxifrage, in botany: A ge¬
nus oF plants belonging to the chfs of pentandria, and
to the order of digynia ; and in the natural fyftem
ranging under the 45th order, Umbel!at£. The umbels
are globular; the involucrum confilis of one or two
leaflets ; the fruit is egg-fhaped and ftreaked. There
are 11 fpecies, the pimpine/loides montanumy glaucum, an-
nuum, a mm aides, tortuofum, turbith, hyppomaratkrum, py-
renaum, fax fragum, and datum. The montanum grows
naturally in France and Italy; the glaucum is a native
of France ; the ammoides and tortuofum grow in the
fouth of Europe ; and the hyppomarathrum is a native
of Auflria.
SESOSTRIS, king of Egypt. See Egypt, p.
368.
SESQIJI, a Latin particle, fignifying a whole and
a half ; which, joined with aliera, terza, quarta, See. is
much ufed in the Italian mufic to exprefs a kind of ra¬
tios, particularly feveral fpecies of triples.
Sesqui. Alterat», in geometry and arithmetic, is a ra¬
tio between two lines, two numbers, or the like, where
one of them contains the other once, with the addition
of a half.
Thus 6 and 9 are in a fefqui-alterate ratio ; fmee
9 contains 6 once, and 3, which is half of 6, over ;
and 20 and 30 are in the fame ; as 30 contains 20,
and half 20 or 10.
Sesqui-Duplicate ratio, is when of two terms the great¬
er contains the lefs twice, and half the lefs remains; as
J 5 and 6 ; to and 20.
SESsnu-Tertional proportion, is when any number or
quantity contains another once and one third.
SESSILE, among botanifts. See Botany.
SESSION, in general, denotes each fitting or aflem-
bly of a council, &c.
Session of Parliament, is the feafon or fpace from its
meeting to its prorogation. See Parliament.
Kirk-SRssioN, the name of a petty eccleiiattical court
in Scotland. See Knuc-SeJJion.
Sessions for weights and meafures. In London,
four jultices from among the mayor, recorder, and al¬
dermen (of whom the mayor or recorder is to be one),
may hold a feffion to inquire into the offences of felling
by falfe weights and meafures, contrary to the ftatutes ;
and to receive indi&ments, punifh offenders, &c. Char,
king Charles I.
Court of Session. See Law, Part III. Seft. ii.
Court of Quarter-SESsiONs, an Englifh court that muff
be held in every county once in every quarter of a year;
which, by ftatute 2 Hen V. c. 4. is appointed to be in
the firft week after Michaelmas-day, the firft week after
the epiphany, the firft week after the clofe of Eafter,
and in the week after the tranllation of St Thomas the
martyr, or the 7th of July. It is held before two or
morejuftices of the peace, one of which muft be of the
quorum. The jurifdicftion of this court, by 34 Edw.
III. c. 1. extends to the trying and determining all fe¬
lonies and trefpaffes whatfoever : though they feldom,
if ever, try any greater offence than fmall felonies with¬
in the benefit of clergy; their commiflion providing,
that if any cafe of difficulty arifes, they ftiall not pro-
19 ] s E s
ceed to judgment, but in the prefence of one of the Sefll
juilices of the courts of king’s-bench or common-pleas,
or one of the judges of affize : and therefore murders, ~~Y
and other capital felonies, are ufually remitted for a'
more folemn trial to the affixes. They cannot alfo try
any new-created offence, without exprefs power given
them by the ftatute which creates it. But there are
many offences and particular matters which, by parti¬
cular ftatutes, belong properly to this jurifdi&ion, and
ought to be profecuted in this court; as, the fmall-
er mifdemeanors againft the public or commonwealth,
not amounting to felony ; and efpecially offences rela¬
ting to the game, highways, alehoufes, baftard children,
the fettlement and provilxon for the poor, vagrants, fer-
vants wages, and Popifti recufants. Some of thefe are
proceeded upon by indi&ment: others in a fummary
way, by motion, and order thereupon ; which order
may for the meft part, unlefs guarded againft by parti¬
cular ftatutes, be removed into the court of king’s-bench
by writ of certiorari facias, and be there either quaffed
or confirmed. The records or rolls of the feffions are
committed to the cuftody of a fpecial officer, denomi¬
nated cufos rotulorum, who is always a juftice of the
quorum ; and among them of the quorum (faith Lam-
bard) a man for the moft part efpecially picked out,
either for wifdom, countenance, or credit. The nomi¬
nation of the cujlos rotulorum (who is the principal offi¬
cer in the county, as the lord-lieutenant is chief in mi¬
litary command), is by the king’s lign-manual: and to
him the nomination of the clerk of the peace belongs ;
which office he is exprefsly forbidden to fell for mo¬
ney.
In moft corporation-towns there are quarter-feflions-
kept before juftices of their own, within their refpec-
tive limits ; which have exactly the fame authority aa
the general quarter-feffions of the county, except in a
very few inftances; one of the moft confiderable of
which is the matter oi appeals from orders of removal
of the poor, which, though they be from the orders of
corporation-juftices, muft be to the feffions of the coun¬
ty,.by ftatute 8 and 9 W. III. c. 30. In both corpo¬
rations and counties at large, there is fometimes kept a
fpccial or petty feffion, by a few juftices, for difpatch-
ing fmaller bufinefs in the neighbourhood between the
times of the general feffions ; as for licenfing alehoufes,
palling the account of pariff-officers, and the like-
SES1ERCE, bESTERTius, a lilver coin, in ufe a-
mong the ancient Romans, called alfo limply nummus,
and fometimes nummus fejlertius. The feftertius was the
fourth part of the denarius, and originally contained two
affes and a half. It was at firft denoted by LLS ; the
two L’s fignifying two librse, and the S half. But the
librarii, afterwards converting the two L’s into an H,
expreffed the feftertius by HS. The word fejlertius was
firft introduced by way of abbreviation for femijlertius,
which fignifies two, and a half of a third, or, literally,
only half a third ; for in expreffing half a third, it was
underftood that there were two before.
Some authors make two kinds of feftetces ; the lefs
called feftertius, in the mafeuline gender ; and the great
one, called fejhrtium, in the neuter : the firft, that we
have already deferibed ; the latter containing a thoufand'
of the other. Others will have any fuch diftinftion of
great and little fefteiees unknown to the Romans : fef~
ter tins, fay they, was an adje&ive, and fignifted as fejler.
UWyi
/
S E S V[ 320. ] SET
Seftrr e. tiuj, or two aScs and a half; and when nfed in the plural,
aa jn quinquaginta fejhrtium, or fcjlcrtia, it was only by
way of abbreviation, and there was always underftood
csntena, tnil/ia, &c.
This matter has been accurately Hated by Mr Raper,
in the following manner. The fubftantive to which
• feftertius referred is either tfj, or p«ndm 7LX\d. feJlertius as
is two affes and a half; fejiertium ponclus, two pondera
and a half, or two hundred and fifty denarii. When
* the denarius paffed for ten afies, the feltertius of two alTes
and a half was a quarter of it; and the Romans conti¬
nued to keep their accounts in thefe fefterces long after
the denarius paffed for fixteen affes; till, growing rich,
they found it more convenient to reckon by quarters of
the denarius, which they called nummi, and ufed the
words nummus and fejlertius indifferently, as fynonymous
terms, and fometimes both together, as fejlertius num¬
mus ; in which cafe the word fejlertius, having loft its
original figrufication, was ufed as a fubftantive ; iox fef¬
tertius nummus was not two nummi and a half, but a
fingle nummus of four affes. They called'any fum un¬
der two thoufand fefterces for many fejhrtii in the mafcu-
line gender ; two thoufand fefterces they called duo or
Una fjlertia, in the neuter; fo many quarters making
five hundred denarii, which was twice the feftertium ;
and they faid dena, vkena, &c. fjlertia, till the fum a-
- mounted to a thoufand feftertia, which was a million of
fefterces. But, to avoid ambiguity, they did not ufe the
r-euttv feflertium in the fingular number, when the whole
„ fum amounted to no more than a thoufand fefterces, or
- one feftertium. They called a million of fefterces decks
tiumrr.um, or decks fejlertidm, for decies centena millia num-
■ morum, or fejlertiorum (in the mafculine gender), omit¬
ting centena millia for the fake of brevity. They like-
wife called the fame fum decies fejiertium (in the neuter
gender) for decies centies fjlertiurn, omitting centies for
the fame reafon; or fimply decies, omitting centena millia
jjlertium, or centies fejiertium ; and with the numeral ad¬
verbs decies, vicies, centies, mdhes, and the like, either
centena millia or cenlies was always underftood. Thefe
were their moft ufual forms of expreffion ; though for
bina, dena, vicena fefiertia, they frequently faid bina, dena,
•vicena millia nummum. If the conlular denarius contain-
■ ed 60 troy grains of fine lilver, it was worth fomewhat
more than eight-pence farthing and a half fterling ; and
the as, of 16 to the detiarius, a little more than a half¬
penny. To reduce the ancient fefterces of two affes and
a half, when the denarius paffed for 16, to pounds fter¬
ling, multiply the given number by 5454, and cut off
• fix figures on the right hand for decimals. To reduce
nummi fejlertii, or quarters of the denarius, to pounds
fterling ; if the given fum be confular money, multiply
it by 8727, and cut off' fix figures on the right hand for
decimals; but for imperial money diminifti the faid pro-
dudt by one-eighth of itfelf. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixi.
part ii. art. 48.
To be qualified for a Roman knight, an eftate of
400,000 fejlerces was required ; and for a fenator, of
800,000.
Authors alfo mention a copper fejlerce, worth about
one-third of a penny Englifn.
Sesterce, or fejiertius, was alfo ufed by the ancients
for a thing containing two wholes and an half of ano-
: tlier, as as was taken for any whole or integer.
SESTOS, a noted fartrefs of European Turkey, ft- 3eth**
tuated at the entrance of the Helkfpont or Dardanelles, 1!
24 miles fouth-weft of Gallipoli. This place is famous !:>aacg0<*
for the loves of Hkro and Leander, fung by the poet
Mufaeus.
SESUVIUM, in botany y a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of icofandria, and to the order of trigy-
nia. The calyx is coloured and divided into five parts;
there are no petals; the capfule is egg-fhaped, three-
celled, opening horizontally about the middle, and con¬
taining many feeds. There is only one fpecies, the portu-
lacajlrum, purflane-leaved fefuvium, which is a native of
the Weft: Indies,.
SET, or Sets, a term ufed by the farmers and gar¬
deners to exprefs the young plants of the white thorn
and other fhrubs, with which they ufe to taife their
quick or quick-fet hedges. The white thorn is the heft
of all trees for this purpofe ; and, under proper regula¬
tions, its fets feldom fail of anfwering the farmer’s utmoft
expedlations.
Set-off, in law, is an aft whereby the defendant ac¬
knowledges the juftice of the plaintiff’s demand on the
one hand ; but, on the other, fets up a demand of his
own, to counterbalance that of the plaintiff, either in
the whole, or in part: as, if the plaintiff fues for 10I.
due on a note of hand, the defendant may fet off 9 1.
due to himfelf for merchandife fold to the plaintiff ;
and, in caf| he pleads fuch fet-off, muft pay the remain¬
ing balance into court. This anfwers very nearly to
the combenfatio or ftoppage of the civil law, and depends
upon the ftatutes 2 Geo. II. cap. -2-2. and 8 Geo. II.
cap. 24.
SETACEOUS worm, in natural hfftory, a name
given by Dr Lifter to that long and fiender water-
worm, which fo much refembles a horfe-hair, that it
has been fuppofed by the vulgar to be an animated hair
of that creature. Thefe creatures, fuppofed to be living
hairs, are a peculiar'fort of infedfts, which are bred and nou-
rifhed within the bodies of other infefts, as the worms of
the ichneumon flies are in the bodies of the caterpillars.
Aldrovand deferibes the creature, and tells us it was
unknown to the ancients; but called feta aquatica, and
vermis fetarius, by the moderns, either from its figure
refembling that of a hair, or from the fuppofition of its
once having been the hair of feme animal. We gene¬
rally fuppofe it, in the imaginary Hate of the hair, to
have belonged t© a horfe ; but the Germans fay it was
ence the hair of a calf, and call it by a name fignifying
vitulus aquaticus, or the “ water calf.”
Albertus, an author much reverenced by the common
people, has declared that this animal is generated of
a hair; and adds, that any hair thrown into Handing
water, will, in a very little time,-obtain life and motion.
Other authors have diffented from this opinion, and fup¬
pofed them generated of the fibrous roots of water-
plants ; and others, of the parts of grafshoppers fallen
into the water. This laft opinion is rejeefted by Al¬
drovand as the moft improbable of all. Standing and
foul waters are moft plentifully ftored with them; but
they are fometimes found in the cleareft and pureft
fprings, and fometimes out of the water, on the leaves
of trees and plants, as on the fruit-trees in our gardens,
and the elms in hedges. They are from three to five
inches long, of the thicknefs of a large hair ; and are
brown,
S E V l 321 ] • S E V
Seth brown upon the back, and white under the belly, and
|| the tail is white on every part.
Severance. SETH, the third fon of Adam, the father of Enos,
'was born 3874 B. C. and lived 912 years.,
SETHIANS, in church-hiftory, Chriitian heretics;
fo called becauie they paid divine worfhip to Seth,
whom they looked upon to be Jefus Chrift the fon of
God, but who was made by a third divinity, and fub-
ftituted in the room of the two families o! Abel and
Cain, which had been deftroyed by the deluge. Thefe
heretics appeared in Egypt in the fecond century ; and
as they were addidfed to all forts of debauchery, they
did not want followers; and continued in Egypt above
200 years
SETIMO, a town of Italy, in the province of Pied¬
mont, fituated on the river Po, eight miles north of
T urin.
SETON, in furgery, a few horfe-hairs, fmall threads,
or large packthread, drawn through the Ikin, chiefly the
neck, by means of a large needle or probe, with a view
to reftore or preierve health. «
We find by experience, that fetons are very ufetul in
catarrhs, inflammations, and other diforders, particularly
thofe of the eyes, as a gutta ferena, cataradl, and inci¬
pient fuffufion ; to thefe we may add intenfe headachs,
with ftupidity, drowfinefs, epilepftes, and even the apo¬
plexy itfelf.
SETTEE, in fea-language, a veflel very common in
the Mediterranean with one deck and a very long and
fharp prow. They carry fome two mafts, feme three,
without top-mafts. They have generally two mafts,
equipped with triangular fails, commonly called lateen
Jails. The leaft of them are of 60 tons burden. They
ferve to tranfport cannon and provifions for ihips of war
and the like. Thefe veflels are peculiar to the Medi¬
terranean fea, and are ufually navigated by Italians,
Greeks, or Mahometans.
SETTING, in aftronomy, the withdrawing of a ilar
or planet, or its linking below the horizon. Aftrono-
mers and poets make three different kinds of fetting of
the ftars, viz. the Cosmical, Acronycal, and Heli¬
acal. See thefe articles.
Setting, in the fea-language. To fet the land or
the fun by the compafs, is to obferve how the land
bears on any point of the compafs, or on what point
of the compafs the fun is. Alfo when two fhips fail in
fight of one another, to mark on what point the chafed
bears, is termed fetiing the chace by the compafs.
Setting, among fportfmen, a term ufed to exprefs
the manner of taking partridges by means of a dog
peculiarly trained to that purpofe. See Shooting.
Act of SETTLEMENT, in Britilh hiftory, a
name given to the ftatute 1 2 and 13 W. III. cap. 2.
whereby the crown was limited to his prefent majefty’s
illuftrious houle ; and feme new provilions were added,
at the fame fortunate era, for better fecuring our reli¬
gion, laws, and liberties; which the ftatute declares to
be the birthright of the people of England, according
to the ancient doftrine of the common law.
SEVENTH, in mufic, an interval called by the
Greeks heplcuhordon. See Interval.
SEVERANCE, in law, the fingling or fevering two
or more that join or are joined in the fame writ or ac¬
tion. As if two join in a writ, de hbytateprobanda,
sud the one be afterwards nonfuited} here feverance is
Vol. XVII. Fart I.
permitted, fo as notwithftand'ing the nonfuit the one, Severn
the other may feverally proceed. , II
There is alfo feverance of the tenants inaffize; when
one, two, or more diffeifees appear upon the writ, and
not the other. And feverance in debt, where two exe¬
cutors are named plaintiffs, and the one refufes to pro-
fecute. We alfo meet with feverance of fummons, fe¬
verance in attaints, &c An eftate in joint tenancy may
be fevered and deftroyed by deftroying any of its uni¬
ties. 1. That of time, which refpedts only the original
commencement of the joint eftate, cannot indeed (being
now part) be affected by any fubfequent tranfaftion.
But, 2. The joint-tenants eftate may be deftroyed with¬
out any alienation, by merely difuniting their poffeffion.
3. The jointure may be deflroyed, by deftroying the uni¬
ty of title. And, 4. By deftroying the unity of intereft.
SEVERIA, a province ot the Ruffian empire, with
the title of a duchy, bounded on the north by Smo-
leniko and Mufcovy, on the eaft by Vorotinlhi and the
country of the Coffacks, pn the fouth by the fame,
and on the weft by Zernegovia. It is a country over¬
run with woods, and on the fouth part is a forelt of
great length. Novogrodoc, or Novogorod, is the ca¬
pital town.
St SEVERINA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, and in-Lower Calabria, with an archbiihop’s
fee. It is very well fortified, and feated on a craggy
rock, on the river Neeto; in E. Long. 17. 14. N. Lat.
39- l5'
SEVERING, a town of Italy, in the territory of
the church, and in the Marche of Ancona, with a bi-
Ihop’s fee. It has fine vineyards, and is feated be-
tween two hills on the river Petenza, in E. Long. 13.
6. N. Lat. 43. 16.
SEVERN, a river which rifes near Plimlimmon-
Hili in Montgomery (hire, and before it enters Shrop-
Ihire receives about 30 ftreams, and paffes down to
Laudring, where it receives the Morda, that flows
from Ofweftry. When it arrives at Monford, it re¬
ceives the river Mon, paffing on to Shrewfbury, which
it almoft furrounds, then to Bridgeworth ; afterwards
it runs through the Ikiits of Staffordfliire, enters Wor- Luenmii's
cellerlhire, and paffes by Worcefter ; then it runs to EnSllJb G<‘-
Tewkefbury, where it joins the Avon, and from thence '
to Gloucefter, keeping a north-wefterly courfe, till it
falls into the Briftol Channel. It begins to be naviga¬
ble for boats at Welchpool, in Montgomery (hire, and
takes in feveral other rivers in its courfe, befides thofe
already mentioned, and is the fecond in England. By
the late inland navigation, it has communication with
the rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Der¬
went, Humber, Ihames, Avon, 8cc. which naviga¬
tion, including its windings, extends above 500 miles
in the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lan-
cafter, Weftmoreland, Che iter, Stafford, Warwick,
Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c. A canal from
Stroud-Water, a branch of the Severn, to join the
Ihames, has lately been undertaken, by which great
undertaking of conveying a tunnel 16 feet high and 16
feet wide, under Sapperton Hill and Hayley-Wood
(very high ground), for two miles and a quarter in
length, through a very hard rock, lined and arched
with brick, is entirely completed, and boats paffed
through it the 21 ft of May 1789. By this opening,
a communication is made between the river Severn at
S s Frami-
S K V [ 32
Framiloatl and the Thames near LeehTade, and will be
continued over the Thames near Ingldham, into deep
water in the Thames below St John-Bridge, and fo to
Oxford, &c. and London, for conveyance of coals,
{roods, &c. It is now navigable from the Severn to
Themsford, by way of Stroud, Cirencefter, Crick-
jade, See. being filled with water for that purpofe near
4.0 miles.
SEVERUS (Cornelius), an ancient Latin poet of
the Auguftan age ; whole JElna, together with a frag¬
ment De mnrte Ciceronis, were publifhed, with notes
and a profe interpretation, by Le Clerc, i2mo, Am-
fferdam, 1703. They were before inferted among the
Cataletln Virgil'n publifhed by Scaliger ; whofe notes,
with others, Le Clerc has received among his own.
Severus (Septimus), a Roman emperor, who has
been fo much admired for his military talents, that
fome have called him the molt warlike of the Roman
emperors. Asa monarch he was cruel, and it has been
obferved that he never did an a& of humanity or for¬
gave a fault. In his diet he was temperate, and he
always fhowed himfelf an open enemy to pomp and
fplendor. He loved the appellation of a man of let¬
ters, and he even compofed an hiftory of his own reign,
which fome have praifed for its correefnefs and veracity.
HovVever cruel Severus may appear in his punifhments
and in his revenge, many have endeavoured to exculpate
him, and obferved that there was need of feverity in
an empire where the morals were fo corrupted, and where
no lefs than 3000 perfons were accufed of adultery du¬
ring the fpace of 17 years. Of him, as of Auguftus,
fome were fond to fay, that it would have been better
for the world if he had never been born, or had never
died. See Rome, n° 372.
Sefkrus’s Wall, in Britifh topography, the fourth
and laft barrier erefted by the Romans againft the in-
curfions of the North Britons. See the articles Adri¬
an, and sIntoninus’s Wall.
We learn from feveral hints in the Roman hiftorians,
that the country between the walls of Hadrian and
Antoninus continued to be a feene of perpetual war
and fubjedt of contention between the Romans and Bri¬
tons, from the beginning of the reign of Commodus
to the arrival of the emperor Septimius Severus in Bri¬
tain, A. D. 206. This laft emperor having fubdued
the Maeatac, and repulfed the Caledonians, determined
to eredft a ftronger and more impenetrable barrier than
any of the former, againft their future incurfions.
Though neither Dio nor Herodian make any men¬
tion of a wall built by Severus in Britain for the pro-
teftion of the Roman province, yet we have abundant
evidence from other writers of equal authority, that he
really built fuch a wall. “ He fortified Britain (fays
Spartian) with a wall drawn crofs the Hand from lea
to fea ; which is the greateft glory of his reign. After
the wall was finifhed, he retired to the next ftation
(York), not only a conqueror, but the founder of an
eternal peace.” To the fame purpofe, Aurelius Vidfor
and Orofius, to fay nothing of Eutropius and Cafiiodo-
rus : “ Having repelled the enemy in Britain, he for¬
tified the country, which was fuited to that purpofe,,
with a wall drawn crofs the ifland from £ea to fea.”—
Sl Sevevus drew a great ditch, and built a ftrong wall,
fortified with feveral turrets, from fea to fea, to protedfc
chat part of the iHand which he had recovered from
i ] s e v
the yet uneonquered nations.” As the rfcftdenee ef the
emperor Severus in Britain was not quite four years, it
is probable that the two laft of them were employed in
building this wall ; according to which account, it was
begun A. D. 209, and finifhed A. D. 210.
i his wall of Severus was built nearly on the fame
tradt with Hadrian’s rampart, at the diftance only of a
few paces north. The length of this wall, from Coufins*
houfe near the mouth of the river Tyne on the eaft, to
Boulnefs on the Solway frith on the weft, hath been
found, from two adlual menfurations, t© be a little more
than 68 Englifh miles, and a little lei's than 74 Roman
miles. To the north of the wall was a broad and deep
ditch, the original dimenfions of which cannot now Be
afeertained, only it feems to have been larger than that
of Hadrian. The wall itfelf, which ftood on the fouth
brink of the ditch, was built of free-ftone, and where
the foundation was not good, it is built on piles of
oak ; the interftices between the two faces of this wall
is filled with broad thin (tones, placed not perpendicu¬
larly, but obliquely on their edges ; the running mortar
or cement was then poured upon them, which, by its
great (trength and tenacity, bound the whole together,
and made it firm as a rock. But though thefe mate¬
rials are fufficiently known, it is not eafy to guel's where
they were procured, for many parts of the wall are at
a great diftance from any quarry of free (tone ; and,
though (lone of another kind was within reach, yet it
does not appear to have been anywhere ufed. The
height of this w'all was 12 feetbefides the parapet, and
its breadth 8 feet, according to Bede, who lived only at
a fmall diftance from the eaft end of it, and in whofe time
it was almoft quite entire in many places. Such was the
w'all eredfed by the command and under the direftion of
the emperor Severus in the north of England; and,
confidering the length, breadth, height, and folidity,
it v/as certainly a work of great magnificence and pro¬
digious labour. But the wall itfelf was but a part, and
not the moft extv&ordinary part, of this work. The
great number and different kinds of fortreffes which
were built along the line of it for its defence, and the
military ways with which it w'as attended, are dill more
worthy of our admiration, and come now to be de-
feribed.
The fortreffes which were ere fled along the line of
Severus’s wall for its defence, were of three different
kinds, and three different degrees of (Length; and
were called by three different Latin words, which may
be tranflated Jlations, cajllts, and turrets. Of each of
thefe in their order.
The Jlationes, ftations, were fo called from their (la¬
bility and the dated refidence of garrifons. They
were alfo called cajlra, which hath been converted into
chejlres, a name which many of them dill bear. Thefe
were by far the larged, ftrongelt, and moft magnificent
of the fortreffes which were built upon the wall, and
were defigned for the head-quarters of the cohorts of
troops which were placed there in garrifon, and from
whence detachments were fent into the adjoining baffles
and turrets. Thefe ftations, as appears from the vef-
tiges of them which are dill vifible, were not all exadl-
ly of the fame figure nor of the fame dimenfions ; fome
of them being exaftly fquares, and others oblong, and
fome of them a little larger than others. Thefe varia¬
tions were no doubt occalioned by the difference of ii-
8, tuation
Sevenji,
S E V
Heveru*. tuation and other circumftances.
*v~- fortified with deep ditches and flrong walls, the wall
itfelf coinciding with and forming the north wall of
each ftation. Within the ftations were lodgings for the
officers and foldiers in garrifon; the fmalleft of them
being Efficient to contain a cohort, or 600 men.
Without the walls of each ftation was a town, inhabit¬
ed by labourers, artificers, and others, both Romans
and Britons, who chofe to dwell under the protedion
of thefe fortreffes. The number of the ftations upon
the wall was exadiy 18 ; and if they had been placed
at equal diftaaces, the interval between every two of
them would have been four miles and a few paces: but
the intervention of rivers, marlhes, and mountains; the
conveniency of fituations for ftrength, profped, and
water ; and many other circumftances to us unknown,
determined them to place thefe ftations at unequal dif-
tances. The fituation which was always chofen by the
Romans, both here and everywhere elfe in Britain
where they could obtain it, was the gentle declivity of
a hill,:neara river, and facing the meridian fun. Such
was the fituation of the far greateft part of the ftations
on this wall. In general, we may obferve, that the
ftations flood thickeft near the two ends and in the
[ 323 i ;s E v
The ftations were of them which are ftill vifible, were exad fquares of Severe*.
66 feet every way. They were fortified on every fide
with thick and lofty walls, but without any ditch, ex¬
cept on the north fide ; on which the wall itfelf, raifed
much above its ufual height, with the ditch attending
it, formed the fortification. The cattles were fituated
in the intervals between the ftations, at the diftance of
about feven furlongs from each other ; though parti¬
cular circumftances fometimes occafioned a little vari¬
ation. In thefe cattles, guards were conftantly kept by
a competent number of men detached from the neareft
ftations.
The turns, or turrets, were the third and laft kind
of fortifications on the wall. Thefe w’ere ftill much
fmaller than the cattles, and formed only a fquare of
about 12 feet, Handing out of the wall on its fouth
fide. Being fo fmall, they are more entirely ruined
than the ftations and cattles, which makes it difficult
to difcover their exaft number. They flood in the in¬
tervals between the cattles ; and from the faint veftigea
of a few of them, it is conje&ured that there were four
of them between every two caftles, at the diftance of
about 300 yards from one another. According to this
conjecture, the number of the turrets amounted to 324.
middle, probably becaufe the danger of invafion was They were defigned for watch-towers and places for
greateft in thefe places. But the reader will form a fentinels, who, being within hearing of one another.
clearer idea of the number of thefe ftations, their La¬
tin and Englifh names, their fituation and diftance from
one another, by infpc&ing the following table, than we
can give him with equal brevity in any other way. The
firft column contains the number of the ftation, reckon¬
ing from eaft to weft ; the fecond contains its Latin,
and the third its Englifh name ; and the three laft its
diftance from the next flat ion to the weft of it, in miles,
furlongs, and chains.
N°
Latin Name. | Engliffi Name. M
Sege dunum
Pons iElii
Condercum
Vindobala
Hunnum
Cilurnum
7 j Procolitia
8 [ Borcovicus
9 Vindolana
iEfica
Magna
Coufms’-houfe
Newcaftle
Benwell hill
Rutchefter
Halton-chefters
W alw ick-chefter s
Carrawbrugh
Houfefteeds
Little-chefters
Great-chefteis
i Carrvoran
12! Amboglanna Burdofwald
Petriana
Aballaba
Conga vata
Cambeck
YVatchcrofs
Stanwix
A xelodunum; Brugh
Gabroientum, Brumbrugh
Tunn«celum j Boulnefs
I Length of the wall
F.
5
c
6
9
1
1
5
3
6
1
6
2
6
1
3
o
4
o
could convey an alarm or piece of intelligence to all parts
of the wall in a very little time.
Such weie the ftations, caftles, and turrets, on the
wall of Severus ; and a very confiderable body of troops
was conftantly quartered in them for its defence.
The ufual complement allowed for this fervice was qa
follows:
1. Twelve cohorts* of foot, confifting of 6op
men each, - * 7t200
2. One cohort of mariners in the ftation;at Boul¬
nefs, - - , 600
3. One detachment of Moors,’probably equal to
a cohort, - - 600
4. Four alae or wings of horfe, confiding, at the
lowett computation, of 400 each, - 1,600
10,000
The capita, or caft les, were the fecond kind of for-
tifications which were built along the line of this wall
for its defence. Thefe caftles were neither fo large
nor ftrong as the ftations, but much more numerous,
being no fewer than 81. T.he firapc and dimentions of
the caftles, as appears from the foundations of many
For the conveniency of marching thefe troops from
one part of the wall to another, with the greater eafe
and expedition, on any fervice, it was attended with
two military ways, paved with fquare {tones, in the
molt folid and beautiful .manner. One of thefe ways
was fmaller, and the other larger. The fmaller military
way run clofe along the fouth fide of the wall, from
turret to turret, and cattle to cattle, for the ufe of the
foldiers in relieving their guards and centinels, and luch
fervices. The larger way did not keep fo near the
wall, nor touch at the turrets or caftles, but purfued
the moll direft courfe from one ftation to another, and
was defigned for the conveniency of marching larger
bodies of troops.
It is to be regretted, that we cannot gratify the
reader’s cmioiity, by informing him by what particu¬
lar bodies of Roman troops the feveral parts of this
great work were executed ; as we were enabled to do
with regard to the w’all of Antoninus Pius from in-
fcriptioiis. For though it is probable that there were
S s 2 ftones
§ E V [ 324 ] S E V
ftones with infcriptioris of the fame hind, mentioning'
the feveral bodies of troops, and the quantity of work
performed by each of them, originally inferted in the
face of this Wall, yet none of them are now to be
found. There have indeed been dilcovered, in or near
the ruins ol this wall, a great number of fmall fquare
ftones, with very fhort, and generally imperfeft, infcrip-
tions upon them ; mentioning particular legions, co¬
horts, and centuries ; but without direftly after ting
that they had built any part of the wall, or naming any
number of paces. Oi thefe infcriptions, the reader
may lee no fewer than twenty-nine among the Nor¬
thumberland and Cumberland infcriptions in Mr Horf-
ley’s Britannia Romana. As the ftones on which thefe
infcriptions are cut are of the fame fhape and fize with
the other facing-ftones of this wall, it is almoft certain
that they have been originally placed in the face of it.
It is equally certain, from the uniformity of thefe in¬
fcriptions, that they were all intended to intimate fome
one thing, and nothing fo probable as that the adjacent
wall was built by the troops mentioned in them. This
was, perhaps, fo well underftood, that it was not thought
neceflary to be exprefled ; and the diftance of thefe in¬
fcriptions from one another fhowed the quantity of work
periormed. If this was really the cafe, we know in ge¬
neral, that this great work was executed by the fecond
and fixth legions, thefe being the only legions mention¬
ed in thefe infcriptions. Now, if this prodigious wall,
with all its appendages of ditches, ftations, caftles, tur¬
rets, and military ways, was executed in the fpace of
two years by two legions only, which, when moft com¬
plete, made no more than 1 z,ooo men, how greatly
muft we admire the /kill, the induftry, and excellent
difcipline of the Roman foldiers, who were not only the
valiant guardians of the empire in times of war, but its
moft a&ive and ufeful members in times of peace ?
i his wall of Severus, and its fortreftes, proved an
impenetrable barrier to the Roman territories for near
200 years. But about the beginning of the 5th cen¬
tury, the Roman empire being alfaulted on all Tides,
and the bulk of their forces withdrawn from Britain,
the Masalas and Caledonians, now called Scots and
Pi8s, became more daring; and fome of them break¬
ing through the wall, and others failing round the ends
of it, they carried their ravages into the very heart of
Provincial Britain. Thefe invaders were indeed leveral
times repulfed after this by the Roman legions fent to
the relief of the Britons. The laft of thefe legions,
under the command of Gallio of Ravenna, having, with
the aftifiance of the Britons, thoroughly repaired the
breaches of Severus’s wall and its fortreffes, and exhort¬
ed the Britons to make a brave defence, took their final
farewell of Britain. It foon appeared, that the ftrong-
eft walls and ramparts are no fecurity to an undifcipli-
ned and daftardly rabble, as the unhappy Britons then
■were. The Scots and Pifts met with little refiftance in
breaking through the wall, while the towns and caftles
were tamely abanaoned to their deftruftive rage. In
many places they levelled it with the ground, that it
might prove no obftruftion to their future inroads.—
Prom this time no attempts were ever made to repair
this noble work. Its beauty and grandeur procured
it no refpect in the dark and taftelels ages which fuc-
ceeded. It became the common quarry for more than
a thoufand years, out of which all the towns and vil¬
lages around were built; and is now fo entirely ruined, Sevigne,
that the penetrating eyes of the moft poring and pa- V—-J
tient antiquarian, can hardly trace its vanifhing founda¬
tions. /
SEVIGNE (Marie de Rabutin, Marquifte de), a
French lady, was born in 1626. When only a year
old fhe loft her father, who was killed in the defcent of
the Englifh on the ifle of Rhe, where he commanded a
company of volunteers. In 1644 fhe married the Mar¬
quis of Sevigne, who was flain in a duel by the Cheva¬
lier d’Albret, in 1651. She had by him a fon and a
daughter, to the education of whom fhe afterwards re-
ligioufly devoted herfelf. Her daughter was married
in 1669 to the Count of Grignan, who conduced her
to Provence. Madame de Sevigne confoled herfelf by
writing frequent letters to her daughter. She fell at
laft the vidlim to her maternal tendernefs. In one of
her vilits to Grignan, fhe fatigued herfelf fo much du¬
ring the ficknefs of her daughter, that fhe was feized
with a fever, which carried her off on the 1 4th of Ja¬
nuary 1696. We have two portraits of Madame de
Sevigne; the one by the Compte de Bufii, the other by
Madame de la Fayette. The firft exhibits her defe&s ;
the fecond her excellencies. Buffi defcribes her as a
lively gay coquette, a lover of flattery, fond of titles, ho¬
nour, and diltinftion : M. de la Fayette as a woman
of wit and good fenfe, as poffefled of a noble foul, form¬
ed for difpenhng benefits, incapable of debafing herfelf
by avarice, and blefftd with a generous, obliging, and
faithful heart. Both thefe portraits are in fome mea-
fure juft. That fhe was vain-glorious, appears evident
from her owm letters, which, on the other hand, ex¬
hibit undoubted proofs of her virtue and goodnefs of
heart.
This illuftrious lady was acquainted with all the wits
of her age. It is faid that fhe decided the famous dif-
pute between Perrault and Boileau concerning the pre¬
ference of the ancients to the moderns, thus, “ The an¬
cients are the fineft, and we are the prettieft.” She
left behind her a moft valuable collection of letters, the
belt edition of which is that of 1775, in 8 vols 1 2mo.
“Thefe letters (fays Voltaire) aie filled with anec- Sink de
dotes, written with freedom, and in a natural and amma.-L-uis XIV*
ted ftyle ; are an excellent criticifm upon ftudied letters.tom* u'
of wit, and ftill more upon thofe fictitious letters which
aim at the epiftolary ftyle, by a recital of falfe fenti-
ments and feigned adventures to an imaginary corre-
fpondertt.” It were to be wifhed that a proper felec-
tion had been made of thefe letters. It is difficult to
read eight volumes of letters, which, though inimitably
written, prefent frequent repetitions, and are often
filled with trifles. What makes them in general per¬
haps fo interefting is, that they are in part hiftori-
cal. They may be looked upon as a relation of the
manners, the ton, the genius, the fafhious, the eti¬
quette, which reigned in the court of Louis XIV.
They contain many curious anecdotes nowhere elfe to
be found : But thefe excellencies would be ftill more
ftriking, were they fometimes ftripped of that multi¬
tude of domeftic affairs and minute incidents which
ought naturally to have died with the mother and the
daughter. A volume entitled Sevigniana was publifhed
at Paris in 1756, which is nothing more than a collection
of the fine fentiments, literary and hiftorical anecdotes,
and moral apothegms, featured throughout thefe letters.
SEVILLE,
Seville-
^Toiunf'en£
Travels t
vol. ii.
REV r 325
SEVILLE, a large and populous city of Spain,
{lands on the banks of the Guadalquiver, in the midft
of a rich, and to the eye a boundlefs, plain ; in W.
Long. 50 5' N. Lat. 370 20'. This city is fuppofed
to have been founded by the Phoenicians, who gave it
the name of Hifpalis. When it fell under the power
of the Romansj it was called Julia ; and at lall, after a
variety of corruptions, was called Sebil/a or Sevilla ;
both of which names are retained by the Spaniards. The
Romans embellilhed it with many magnificent edifices ;
of which fcarce any veilige now remains. The Go¬
thic kings for fome time made it their refidence : but
in procefs of time they removed their court to Toledo ;
and Seville was taken by ftorm foon after the viftory
obtained at Xeres over the Gothic king Rodrigo.—
In 1027, Seville became an independent monarchy ;
but was conquered 70 years afterwards by Yufef Al-
moravides, an African prince. At laft it was taken
by Ferdinand III. after a year’s fiege ; and 300,000
Moors were then obliged to leave the place. Not-
writh{landing this prodigious emigration, Seville con¬
tinued to be a great and populous city, and foon after
it was enlarged and adorned with many magnificent
buildings, the chief of which is the cathedral. Seville
arrived at its utmoll pitch of grandeur a little after the
difcovery of America, the reafon of which was, that all
the valuable productions of the Well Indies were carried
thither. Its court was then the moft fplendid in Europe;
but in the courfe of a few years all this grandeur difap-
peared, owing to the impediments in navigating the Gua¬
dalquiver. The fuperior excellence ot the port of Ca¬
diz induced government to order the galeons to be Ra¬
tioned there in time to come.
Seville is of a circular form, and is furrounded by a
wall about five miles and a half in circumference, con¬
taining 176 towers. The ditch in many places is filled
up. The ftreets of Seville are crooked and dirty, and
moft of them fo narrow that two carriages can fcarcely
pafs one another abrealt.
Seville is faid to contain 80,268 fouls, and is divi¬
ded into 30 parifhes. It has 84 convents, with 24 hof-
pitals.
r Of the public edifices of this city the cathedral is
the moil magnificent. Its dimenfions are 420 feet in
length, 263 in breadth within the walls, and 126 feet
in height. It has nine doors, 80 altars, at which 500
maffes are daily celebrated, and 80 windows of painted
glafs, each of which coft: 1000 ducats. At one angle
Hands a tower of Moorifh workmanlhip 350 feet high.
On the top of it is the giralda, or large brazen image,
which, with its palm branch, weighs near one ton and
a half, yet turns as a weather-cock with the flightell
variation of the wind. The whole work is brick and
mortar. The paffage to the top is an inclined plane,
which winds about in the infide in the manner of a fpi-
ral ilaircafe, fo eafy of afeent that a horfe might trot
from the bottom to the top; at the fame time it is fo
wide that two horfemen may ride abreaft. What ap¬
pears very unaccountable, the folid mafonry in the up¬
per half is juft as thick again as that in the lower, tho’
on the outfide the tower is all the way of the fame di¬
menfions. In the opinion of Mr Swinburne, this ca¬
thedral is inferior to Yorkminfter. Its treafures are
ineftimable ; one altar with all its ornaments is folid fil-
ver; of the fame metal are the images of St Ifidore
Seville.
] S E V
and St Leander, which are as large as the life ; and
a tabernacle for the boll more than four yards high, v
adorned with eight and forty columns. Before the
choir of the cathedral is the tomb ol the celebrated
Chriftopher Columbus, the difeoverer of America. His
monument confills of one flone only, on which thefe t
words are inferibed, si Caflella y sirragon otro mundo Bourgianne s
dio Colon ; that is, “ To Callile and Arragon Col urn- v
bus gave another world an infeription fimple and ex-
preffive, the juftnefs of which will be acknowledged by
thofe who have read the adventures of this illuftrious
but unfortunate man. The cathedral was begun by
Don Sancho the Brave, about the clofe of the 13th
century, and finifhed by John Ily about an hundred
years after. To the cathedral belongs a library of
20,000 volumes, collecled by Hernando the fon ot Co¬
lumbus ; but, to the drfgrace of the Spaniards, it has
fcarcely received any addition fince the death of the
founder. The organ in this cathedral is a very inge-^ v ^ ...
nious piece of mechanifmf. “ I was much pleafed (lays^ *
Mr Townfend in his interefting travels) with the con-
itruftion of a new organ, containing 5300 pipes, with
no Hops, which latter, as the builder told me, is 50
more than are in the famous one of Harlem ; yet, lo
ample ar e the bellows, that when ftretched they fupply
the full organ 15 minutes. The mode of filhng them
with air is Angular ; for inftead of working with his
hands, a man walks backwards and forwards along an
inclined plane of about 15 feet in length, which is ba¬
lanced in the middle on its axis ; under each end is a
pair of bellows, of about fix feet by three and an half.
Thefe communicate with five other pair united by a
bar ; and the latter are fo contrived, that when they are
in danger of being over drained, a valve is lifted up, and
gives them relief. Faffing 10 times along the inclined
plane fills all thefe veflels.”
The Canos de Carmone, or great aqueduct of Se- ^vitnbume s
ville, is reckoned by the hiftorians of this city one TraW/*
of the moil wonderful works of antiquity. Mr Swin-!‘ * ^
burne, however, remarks, that it is ugly, crooked, the
arches unequal, and the architefture negledled. The
conduit is fo leaky, that a rivulet is formed by the
walle water. Neverthelefs, it Hill conveys to the city
an ample fupply of water fufficient to turn feveral
mills, and to give almoll every koufe in town the bene¬
fit of it.
Many of the convents are remarkable for the beauty
of their architefture ; but in Seville the eye covets only
piftures, of which there is a wonderful profufion. A-
mong thefe are the works of the famous painter Mu¬
rillo, with many others univerfally admired.
The convent of the Francifcans contains 15 cloifters,
with apartments for 2 GO monks, though, when Mr
Townfend vifited them, they amounted only to 140.
The annual expenditure of thefe, who are all fed on Townfeni-nr
charity, is about L.4000 Sterling. “ In the principal Travels^
cloifter (fays the fame intelligent traveller), which is^
entirely inclofed by a multitude of little chapels, are re-1 J
prefented, in 14 piftures, each called a Jlation, all the
fufferiugs of the Redeemer. Thefe are fo arranged as
to mark given diftances by walking round the eloiller
from the firfl to the fecond, and fo in order to the reft.
Over them is mentioned the number of fteps taken by
our Lord between the feveral incidents of his paffion
in his way to Calvary ; and thefe precifely are the paces
mea-
Seville.
SEV [326] SEW
meafured for the penitents xn their progrefs from one
ftation to another. Over one is the following infcrip-
tion : ‘ This ftation confifts of 1087 fteps. Here the
blefled Redeemer fell a fecond time under the weight
of his crofs, and here is to be gained the indulgence of
feven years and forty quarantines. Mental prayer, the
Paternofter, and the A ve Maria/ This may ferve as
an example for the reft.”
The principal manufa&ure of Seville is fnuff. Mr
Townfend, who paid particular attention to it, informs
us, that the building in which it is carried on is elegant
and fimple in its form, and is about 600 feet by 480,
and not lefs than 60 feet in height, with four regular
fronts, incloling 28 quadrangles. It coft 37,000,000
of reals, or about L. 370,000. At prefent (1787),
no more than 1700 workmen are employed, and 100
horfes or mules ; but formerly 3000 men were engaged,
and near 400 horfes. This falling off is attributed by
Mr Swinburne to a praftice which the directors follow¬
ed, of adulterating the tobacco with the red earth of
Almazarron. When Mr Townfend vilited this manu¬
facture, they had changed their fyftem. From the
year 1780, he informs us, the annual fale of tobacco
from Brazil has been 1,500,000 pounds, purchafed
from the Portuguefe at three reals a pound; and of
ihuff from the produce of their own colonies 1,600,000
pounds, befide cigars (a) to a very confrderable a-
mount. They have lying by them more than 5,000,000
of pounds of fnuff unfold ; but as it will not fuffer by
age, they are not uneafy at this accumulation. Befides
the peculiar kind of fnuff with which Spain was accu-
ftomed to fupply the market, they have lately introdu¬
ced the manulatture of rappee. In this branch alone
are employed 220 perfons, old and young, with 16
mules.
“ All the workmen (continues Mr Townfend) depofit
their cloaks at the door; and when they go out are fo
Itriftly examined, that they have little chance of being
able to conceal tobacco; yet they fometimes venture to
hide it about their perfons. An officer and a guard is al¬
ways attending to take delinquents into cuftody; and that
they may prevent refiftance, no workman is permitted to
enter with a knife. Were it not for this precaution, the
confequence of a dete&ion might be fatal. The whole
bufinels is conducted by a director, with a falary of
40,000 reals a-year, and 54 fuperior officers, affifted by
as many fubordinate to them. For grinding their fnuff,
they have 40 mills, each confifting of a ftone roller,
moved by a large horfe or mule, with the traces faften-
ed to a beam of eight feet in length, in the angle of 45
degrees, confequently lofing precii’ely half his force. ”
Before Mr Townfend left Seville, according to his
ufual pra&ice, which was truly laudable, he enquired
into the prices of labour and proviljons. As a piece of
curious and ufeful information, and as an example to
..other travellers, we prefent them to our readers. They
are as follow :
Day-labourers - 4J reals, about L. O 01 o|
Carpenters from 7 to 11  
Joiners, if goodwork-
men, - 24 —— or -049
Weavers, if good workmen, 15 reals,
about - . L. o 3 o
Bread, for 3 lb. of 16 oz. or 16quartos, or o o 44
 fometiraes 28 quartos, or o o 74
Beef, 30 quartos for 32 oz. per lb. about o o 44
Mutton, 38 do. do. - - 00 544
Kid, 24 do. - - 0034
Pork from 36 to 42 quartos, do. 5" or 0 0 5;nr
( t0 0 0 5tt
The price of wheat has at different periods been very
remarkable. In 1652, it fold at the rate of 15 s. 34d.
the buffiel ; and in J657, it fell fo low as 1 s. 4jd. per
buihel, reckoning the fanega at 1094 lb. and the buffiel
at 70.
SEVUM Minerale, mineral tallow; a fubftance
fomewhat refembling tallow, found on the fea-coafts of
Finland in the year 1736. It burns with a blue flame,
and fmell of greafe, leaving a black vifcid matter which
cannot ealily be confumed. It is extremely light ; be¬
ing only of the fpecific gravity of 0.770 ; whereas tal¬
low is not lefs than 0.969. It is partly foluble in
highly rectified fpirit of wine ; but entirely fo in ex-
preffed oils when boiling. It is met with in fome of
the rocky parts of Perfia, but there it appears to be mix¬
ed with petrolseum. Dr Herman of Strafburg mentions
a fpring in the neighbourhood of that city which con¬
tains a fubftance of this fort diffufed through it, fepa-
rating, and capable of being colledted on ebullition 
A fat mineral matter refembling butter or tallow has
lately been extrafted from peat in Lancafhire. See
Peat.
SEWAURY, a Hindoo word ufed in Bengal, and
fignifying the train of attendants that accompany a na¬
bob or .great man.
SEWER, in the Houfehold, an officer who arranges
on the table the difhes of a king or nobleman.
Sewer is alfo a paffage or gutter made to carry wa¬
ter into the fea or a river, whereby to preferve the land,
&c. from inundations and other annoyances.
Court of Commijf oners of SsirERs in England, a tem¬
porary tribunal, erected by virtue of a eommiffion un¬
der the great feal ; which formerly ufed to be grant¬
ed pro re nata at the pleafure of the crown, but now at
the difcretion and nomination of the lord chancellor,
lord treafurer, and chief juftices, purfuant to the ftatute
23 Hen. VIII. c. 5. Their jurifdidtion is to overlook
the repairs of fea-banks and fea-walls, and the cleanfing
of rivers, public ftreams, ditches, and other conduits,
whereby any waters are carried off; and is confined to
fuch county or particular diftridi as the commiffion fhall
exprefsly name. The commiffioners are a court of re¬
cord, and may fine and imprifon for contempts; and in
the execution of their duty may proceed by jury, or
upon their own view, and may take order for the remo¬
val of any annoyances, or the fateguard and conferva-
tion of the fewers within their commiffion, either ac¬
cording to the laws and cuftoms of Romney-marffi, or
Otherwife at their own difcretion. They may alfo af-
fefs fuch rates or foots upon the owners of lands within
their diftrid as they fhall judge neceffary: and if any
perfon refufes to pay them, the commiffioners may levy
the
Sevum
II
Sewer.
(a) Thefe arc little rolls of tobacco which the Spaniards fmoke without a pipe.
SEW
C 3*7 ]
SEX
*   may. bv'ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. c. 5. fell his freehold- tions acrofs the ftreets, aqd paffed under buildings of •
lands (and by the 7 Ann. c. 10. his copyhold alfo), in the greatelt antiquity. T-his derangement indeed he
order to pay fuch fcots or afleffments. But their con* imputes to the hatty rebuilding of the city after its de-
duft is under the controul of the court of King’s-bench, ftru&iqn by the Gauls ; but hafte, it is probable, would
which will prevent or punifh any illegal or tyrannical have determined the people to build on their old foun--
proceedings. And yet in the reign of King James I. dations, or at lead not to change them fo much as to
(8th Nov. 1616.), the privy-council took upon them crofs the direftion of former (treets.
to order, that no aftion or complaint fhould be profe- SEX, the property by which <yyy animal is male or
cuted againft the commiffioners uniefs before that board; female.
and committed feveral to pnion who had brought fuch Eavater has drawn the following charadtenftic di-
adtions at common law, till they fhould releafe the fame: {tindfions between the male and female oi the human'
and one of the reafons for difcharging Sir Edward Coke fpecies.
from his office of lord chief-juftice, was for countenan- “ 1 he primary matter of which women are conuitu-
cing thofe legal proceedings. The pretence for thefe ted appears to be more flexible, irritable, and elallic,
arbitrary meafures was no other than the tyrant’s plea than that of man. d hey are formed to maternal rruld-
of the necejj'ity of unlimited powers in works of evident nefs and afleftion ; all their organs are tender, yielding,
utility to the public, “ the fupreme reafon above all eafily wounded, fenfible, and receptibie. Among a
reafons, which is the falvation of the king’s lands and thoufand females there is Jcarcely one without the gc-
people.” But now it is clearly held, that this (as well nenc feminine ligns ;■ the flexible, the circular, and the
as all other inferior jurifdidlions) is fubjedt to the dif- irritable.
cretionary coercion of his majefty’s court of King’s- “ ihey are the counterpart of man, taken out or
bench. man, to be fubjedt to man ; to comfort him like angels,-
Fergufons Common Sewers, in Rome, were executed at a great and to lighten his cares. ‘ She fhall be fayed in child-
Roman Hi- expence. It was propofed that they fhould be of fuffi- bearing, if they continue in faith, and chanty, andhoh-
cient dimenfions to admit a waggon loaded with hay. nefs, with fobriety” (1 1 im. ii» xj ) T.his tendernefs,.
When thefe common fewers came to be obitrudfed, or this fenfihillty, this light texture of their fibres and or-
out of repair, under the republic, the cenfors contradl- gans, this volatility of feeling, render them fo cafy to
ed to pay a thoufand talents, or about 193,000!. for condudf and to tempt ; fo ready of fubmiflion to the
clearing and repairing them. They were again in dif- enterpnfe and power of the man ; but more powerful
repair at the aeceffion of Auguflus Csefar, and the re- through the aid of their charms than man, with all his
inflating them is mentioned among the great works of ftrength. The man was not firft tempted, but the wo-
Agrippa. He is faid to have turned the courfe of fe- man, afterward the man by the woman. And, not on-
ven rivers into thefe fubterraneous paffages, to have ly eafy to be tempted, fhe is capable of being formed
made them navigable, and to have actually paffed in to the pureft, noblefl, moft feraphic virtue; to every
barges under the ftreets and buildings of Rome. Thefe thing which can deferve praife or affedtion. Highly
works are ftill fuppofcd to remain ; but as they exceed fenlible of purity, beauty, and fymmetry, fhe does not
the power and refources of the prefent city to keep them always take time to refledf on internal life, internal
in repair, they are quite concealed, except at one or death, internal corruption. ‘ T. he woman law that the
two places. They were in the midft of the Roman tree was good for food, and that it was pleafant to the
greatnefs, and ftill are, reckoned among the wonders of eyes, and a tree to be deftred to make one wife, and fhe
the world ; and yet they are faid to have been works oB took of the fruit thereof.’ (Gen. iii. 6.)
the cider Tarquin, a prince whofc territory did not ex- “ The female thinks not profoundly ; profound
tend, in any dire&ion, above 1.6 miles ; and, on this thought is the power of the man. Women feel more,
fuppofttion, they muft have been made to accommodate Senfibility is the power of woman. They often^ rule
a city that was calculated chiefly for the reception of more effe£!ually, more fovereignly, than man. 1 hey
cattle, herdfmen, and banditti. Rude nations fometimes rule with tender looks, tears, and fighs ; but not witli-
execute works of great magnificence, as fortreffes and paflion and threats ; for if, or when,, they fo rule, they
temples, for the purpofes of war and fuperftition ; but are no longer women but abortions. They are capable
feldom palaces, and ftill more feldom works of mere of the fweeteft fonfibility, the moft profound emotion,
convenience and cleanlinefs, in which for the moft the utmoft humility, and the excefs of enthufiafm. . In
part they are long defeftive. It is not unreafonable, their countenance are the figns of fanftity and inviola-
therefore, to queftion the authority of tradition in re- bility, which every feeling man honours, and the effedts
fpedl to this Angular monument of antiquity, which fo of which are often miraculous. Therefore, by the irri-
greatly exceeds what the heft accommodated city of tability of their nerves, their incapacity for deep inquiry
modern Europe could undertake for its own conveni- and firm decifion, they may eafily from their extreme fen-
ency. And as thofe works are ftill entire, and may Ability become the moft irreclaimable, the moft raptu-
continue fo for thoufands of years, it may be fufpetled rous enthufiafts. 1 heir love, ftrong and rooted as it is,
that they were even prior to the lettlement of Romu- is very changeable ; their hatred almoit incurable, and*
lus, and may have been the remains of a more ancient only to be effaced by continued and artful flattery,
city, on the ruins of which the followers of Romulus Men are moft profound; women are more fublime.
fettled, as the Arabs now hut or encamp on the ruins “ Men moft embrace the whole ; women remark in®
of Palmyra and Balbeck. Livy owns, that the common dividually, and take more delight in feledting the mi*
fewers were not accommodated to the plan of Rome, as nutias which form the whole. Man hears the burfting
thundejy
SEX
Pen, thunder, views the dteftni&ive bolt with ferene afpeft,
-~-v *—^ aiKl ftands ered amklii the fearful majelly of the ilream-
ing clouds. Woman trembles at the lightning, and
the voice of diifant thunder ; and (brinks into herfelf
or links into the arms of man. Man receives a ray of
light •iingle, woman delights to view it through a prifm
in all its dazzling colours. She contemplates the rain¬
bow as the promife of peace ; he extends his inquiring
eye. over the whole horizon. Woman laughs, man
fmiles ; woman weeps, man remains filent. Woman is
in anguilh when man weeps, and in defpair when man
is in anguilh ; yet has lire often more faith than man.
Man without religion, is a difeafed creature, who would
perfuade himfelf he is well, and needs not a phyfician ;
but woman without religion, is raging and monftrous.
A woman with a beard is not fo difgulting as a woman
who ads the freethinker; her fex is formed to piety
and religion ; to them Chriil: firll appeared ; but he was
obliged to prevent them from too ardently, and too
hallily, embracing him : ‘ Touch me not.’ They are
prompt to receive and feize novelty, and become its en-
thubafts. The whole world is forgotten in the emo¬
tion caufed by the prefence and proximity of him they
love. They fink into the mail incurable melancholy,
as they alfo rife to the moll enraptured heights.
“ Male fenfation is more imagination, female more
heart. When communicative, they are more communi¬
cative than man ; when fecret, more fecret. In gene¬
ral they are more patient, long-fuffering, credulous, be¬
nevolent, and modell. Woman is not a foundation on
which to build. She is the gold, filver, precious Hones,
wood, hay, Hubble (i Cor. iii. 12.) ; the materials for
building on the male foundation. She is the leaven, or
more expreflively the oil to the vinegar of man : the fe-
cond part of the book of man.
“ Man fingly is but half man ; at leaH but half hu¬
man ; a king without a kingdom. Woman, who feels
properly what Ihe is, whether Hill or in motion, reHs
upon the man ; nor is man what he may and ought to
be, but in conjunftion with woman : therefore, ‘ it is
not good that man Ihould be alone, but that he Ihould
leave father and mother, and cleave to his wife, and
they two lhall he one flelh.”
They differ alfo in their exterior form and appear¬
ance.
“ Man is the moll firm ; woman the moll flexible.
Man is the flraightefl ; woman the moll bending. Man
Hands fledfafl ; woman gently retreats. Man furveys
and obferves ; woman glances and feels. Man is fe-
rious ; woman is gay. Man is the tailed and broadefl;
woman the frnallefl and weakefl. Man is rough and
hard ; woman fmooth and fott. Man is brown ; wo¬
man is fair. Man is wrinkly ; woman is not. The
hair of man is more flrong and fhort ; of woman mote
long and pliant. The eyebrows of man are compreffed ;
-of woman lets frowning. Man has moll convex lines ;
woman moil concave. Man has mofl Hraight lines;
woman mofl curved. The countenance of man taken
in profile is more feldom perpendicular than that of the
woman. Man is mofl angular; woman moll round.”
FHzefo.me s In determining the comparative merit of the two
Litters. fexes, it is no derogation from female excellency that it
differs in kind from that which diilinguifhes the male
part of our fpecies: and if, in general, it Ihould be
found (what upon an impartial inquiry will moft cer-
S E X
tainly be found) that women fill up their appointed
circle of adlion with greater regularity than men, the
claim of preference cannot juflly be decided in our fa¬
vour. In the prudential and economical parts of life,
it is undeniable that they rife far above us : and if true
lortitude of mind is belt difcovered by a cheerful refig-
nation to the meafures of Providence, we fhall not find
reafon, perhaps, to claim that moll lingular of the hu¬
man virtues as our peculiar privilege. There are num¬
bers of the other fex who, from the natural delicacy of
their conftitution, pafs through one continued fcene of
fuffering from their cradles to their graves, with a firm-
nefs of refolution that would deferve fo many Hatues to
be eredled to their memories, if heroifm were not ef-
teemed more by the fplendor than the merit of ac¬
tions
But whatever real difference there may be between
the moral or intelleftual powers of the male and fe¬
male mind, Nature does not feem to have marked the
diftinflion fo ffrongly as our vanity is willing to ima¬
gine ; and after all, perhaps, education will be found to
conllitute the principal fuperiority. It muff be acknow¬
ledged, at lealt, that in this article we have every ad¬
vantage over the fofter fex that art and indullry can
pofllbly fecure to us. The mofl animating examples
of Greece and Rome are fet before us, as early as we
are capable of any obfervation ; and the nobleff compo-
fitions of the ancients are given into our hands almoll
as foon as we have ffrength to' hold them ; while the
employments of the other lex, at the fame period of
life, are generally the reverfe of every thing that can
open and enlarge their minds, or fill them with jufl and
rational notions. The truth of it is, female education
is fo much worfe than none, as it is better to leave the
mind to its natural and uninffrudled fuggellions, than
to lead it into falfe purfuits, and contrad its views, by
turning them upon the loweff and moff trifling objefts.
We feem, indeed, by the manner in which we fuffer the
youth oi that fex to be trained, to confider women
agreeably to the opinion of certain Mahometan doftors,
and treat them as if we believed they had no fouls :
why elfe are they
Bred @nly, and completed to the taffe
Oi luffful appetence, to ling, to dance,
To drefs, and troul the tongue, and roll the eye.
Milton.
This Hrange negled of cultivating the female mind
can hardly be allowed as good policy, when it is conii-
dered how much the intereff of fociety is concerned in
the reditude of their underltandings. 'That feafon of
every man’s life which is moff fulceptible of the llrong-
eft imprefllons, is neceffarily under iemale diredion ; as
there are few inllances, perhaps, in which that fex is
not one of the fecret fprings which regulates the moll
important movements of private or public tranfadions.
What Cato obferves of his countrymen is in one refped
true of every nation under the fun : “ The Romans
(faid he) govern the world, but it is the women that
govern the Romans.”
If it be true then (as true beyond all peradventure it
is) that female influence is thus extenfive, nothing cer¬
tainly can be of more importance than to give it a pro¬
per tendency, by the afliftance of a well direded edu¬
cation. Far are we Irom recommending any attempts
7 ta
1 3*8 1
SEX T 329 ] SEX
Set to render women learned ; yet furely it is neceflary
’ |1 they fhould be raifed above ignorance. Such a general
Sextiu^. tinfture of the moft ufeful fciences as may ferve to free
T the mind from vulgar prejudices, and give it a relilh
for the rational exercife of its powers, might very juftly
enter into a plan of female erudition. That fex might
be taught to turn the courfe of their refleftions into a
proper and advantageous channel, without any danger
of rendering them too elevated for the feminine duties
of life. In a word, they ought to be confidered as de-
figned by Providence for ufe as well as fhow, and train*
ed up, not only as women, but as rational creatures.
Sf.x of Bees. See Bee.
Sex of Plants* See Botany, p. 448.
SEXAGENARY, fomething relating to the num-
Ber fixty : thus fexagenary or fexagefimal arithmetic is
a method of computation proceeding by fixties ; fuch is
that ufed in the divifion of a degree into fixty minutes,
of the minute into fixty feconds, of the fecond into
fixty thirds, &c. Alfo fexagenary tables are tables of
proportional parts, fhowing the product of two fexage-
naries that are to be multiplied, or the quotient of the
two that are to be divided.
SEXAGESIMA, the fecond Sunday before Lent,
or the next to Shrove-Sunday, fo called as being about
the 60th day before Eafter.
SEXAGESIMALS,or Sexagesimal Fraftions, fac¬
tions whofe denominators proceed in a fexagecuple ra¬
tio ; that is, a prime, or the firll minute, ; a fe¬
cond = T7Vc; a third = ttsVuu* Anciently, there
were no other than fexagefimals ufed in altronomy ; and
they are ftill retained in many cafes, though decimal
arithmetic begins to grow in ufe now in aftronomical
calculations. In thefe fractions, which fome call njlro-
nomical fraftions, the denominator being always 60, or
a multiple thereof, is ufually omitted, and the numera¬
tor only written down : thus, 40, 59', 32", 50'", 16"",
is to be read, 4 degrees, 59 minutes, 32 feconds, 50
thirds, 16 fourths, &c.
SEXTANS,Sextant, a fixth part of certain things.
The Romans having divided their as into 12 ounces or
uncia, the fixth part of that, or two ounces, was the
fextans.—Sextans was alfo a meafure which contained
two ounces of liquor, or two cyathi.
Sextans, in aftr©nomy, a conftellation of the
fouthern hemifphere, made by Heveliusout of unformed
ftars. In Hevelius’s catalogue it contains 11, but in the
Britannic catalogue 41 ftars.
SEXTANT, in mathematics, denotes the fixth part
of a circle, or an arch comprehending 60 degrees.
The word /extant is more particularly ufed for an
aftronomical inftrument made like a quadrant, except¬
ing that its limb only comprehends 60 degrees. The
ufe and application of the fextant is the fame with that
of the quadrant. See Quadrant ; and Navigation,
p. 737, &c. _ .
SEXTILE, fextihs, the pofition or afpect of two
planets when at 60 degrees diftance, or at the diftance
of two figns from one another. It is marked thus (*).
See Aspect.
SEXTIUS (Quintus), a Pythagorean philofopher,
flouriftied in the time of Auguftus. He feemed form¬
ed to rife in the republic; but he fhrunk from civil ho¬
nours, and declined accepting the rank of fenator when
it was offered him by Julius Csefar, that he might have
Vol. XVII. Part I.
time to apply to philofophy. It appears that he wifh- Sexton
ed ta eftablifh a fchool at Rome, and that his tenets, gc][us
though chiefly drawn from the doftrines of Pythagoras, T
in fome particulars refembled thofe of the Stoics.
He foon found himfelf involved in many difficulties.
His laws were tindtured with great feverity ; and in an
early period of his eftablifhment, he found his mind fo
haraffed, and the harfhnefs of the doctrines which he
wifhed to eftablifh fo repuliive to his feelings, that he
had nearly worked himfelf up to fuch an height of de-
fperation as to refolve on putting a period to his ex-
iftence.
Of the fchool of Sextius were Fabianus, Sotion, Fla-
vianus, Graffiti us, and Celfus. Of his works only a
few fragments remain ; and whether any of them form¬
ed a part of the work which Seneca admired fo much,
cannot now be determined. Some of his maxims are
valuable. He recommended an examination of the ac¬
tions of the day to his fcholars when they retired to
reft; he taught, that the road to Heaven (ad ajlra') was
by frugality, temperance, and fortitude. He ufed to
recommend holding a looking-glafs before perfons dif-
ordered with pafiion. He enjoined his fcholars to ab-
ftain from animal food.
SEXTON, a church-officer, thus called by corrup¬
tion of the Latin facrtfta, or Saxon fegerjlone, which de¬
notes the fame. His office is to take care of the veffels,
veftments, &c. belonging to the church ; and to attend
the minifter, churchwarden, &c. at church. He is
ufually chofen by the parfon only. Sextons, as well as
pariih-clerks, are regarded by the common law as per¬
fons who have freehold in their offices; and, therefore,
though they may be punilhed, yet they cannot be de*
prived, by eccleliaftical cenfures.
The office of fexton in the pope’s chapel is appro¬
priated to the order of the hermits of St Auguftine,
He is generally a bifhop, though fometimes the pope
only gives a bilhopric, in partibus, to him on whom he
confers the poft. He takes the title of Prefed of the
Pope's Sacri/iy, and has the keeping the vefftls of gold
and filver, the relics, &c. When the pope fays mafs,
the fexton always taftes the bread and wine firft. If it
be in private he fays mafs, his holinefs, of two wafers,
gives him one to eat; and, if in public, the cardinal,
who affifts the pope in quality of deacon, of three wa¬
fers, gives him two to eat. When the pope is defpe-
rately lick, he adminifters to him the lacrament of ex¬
treme unction, &c. and enters the conclave in quality
of firft conclavift.
The office of a fexton in Sweden is fomewhat lin¬
gular. During M. Outhier’s flay at Stockholm in 1736
he vifited the church of St Clara, and during divine fer-
vice he obferved a fexton going about with a long rod,
waking thofe perfons who had fallen alleep.
SEXTUPLE, in mulic, denotes a mixed fort of tri¬
ple, which is beaten in double time.
SEXTUS Empiricus, a famous Pyrrhonian philo*
fopher, lived in' the fecond century, under the reign of
Antoninus the Debonair. He was a phyfician of the
fedl of the Empirics, and is faid to have been one of
the preceptors of Antoninus the philofopher. There
are Hill extant his Pyrrhonian Inftitutions, and a large
work againft the mathematicians, &c. The belt edition
of Sextus Empiricus is that of Fabricius in Greek and
Latin, printed at Leipficin 1718, folio.
Tt
SEX-
s F O r 330 1 S H A
SexiiaM® SEXUALISTiE, among botanical writers, thofe
II who have e.ftabliihed the clafTes of plants upon the dif-
Sforza. ferences of the fexes and parts of fructification in plants,
>r~ according to the modern method ; as Linnaeus, &c.
SEZAWUL, a Hindoo word, ufed in Bengal to
exprefs an officer employed at a monthly falary to col¬
lect the revenues.
SFORZA (James), was the founder of the illuftri-
ous houfe of Sforza, which afted lo confpicuousa part in
Italy during the 15th and 16th centuries, which gave fix
dukes to Milan, and contrafted alliances with almoft eve¬
ry fovereign in Europe. James Sforza v/as born on the
28th of May 1369, at Catignola, a fmall town in Italy,
lying between Irnola and Faenza. His father was a
day-labourer, or, according to Commines, a fhoemaker.
■ A company of foldiers happening one day to pais
through Catignola, he was feized with the defire of ac¬
companying them to the wars. “ I will go (faid he to
himfelf), and dart my hatchet againft that tree, and if
it ftick faft in the wood, I will immediately become a
foldier.” The hatchet accordingly ftuck fait, and our
adventurer enlifled; and becaufe, fays the Abbe de Choifi,
he had thrown the axe with all his force, he aflumed the
name of Sforza ; for his true name was Giacomuzzo, or
James Attendulo. He rofe rapidly in the army, and
foon became commander of 7000 men. He defended
the caufe of Jane II. queen of Naples for many years,
and was made conftable of her kingdom. He was crea¬
ted Count of Catignola by pope John XXII. by way
of paying a debt of 14000 ducats which the church of
Rome owed him. His exploits became every day more
illuftrious : he obliged Alphonfo king of Arragon to
raife the fiege of Naples; and reduced feveral places
that had revolted inx^bruzzo and Le Labour; but while
in purfuit of his enemies he was unfortunately drowned
in the river Aterno on the 3d January 1424, at the
age of 54 yrears. His heroic qualities and the continual
wars in which he was engaged, did not hinder him from
forming an attachment to the fair fex. In his youth he
fell in love with a woman called Lucia Lrezana, whom
he married after fhe had born him feveral children. He
married afterwards Antoinette Salembini, who brought
him feveral excellent eHates ; fhe bore him Bofio Sfor¬
za, compte of Santa-Flor, a warrior and governor of
Orvietca for Pope Martin V. His third wife was Ca¬
tharine Alopa, filler of Rodolpho, grand chamberlain to
the fovereign of Naples. His laft wife, for he was four
times married, was Mary Marzana, daughter to the
duke of Sella. She bore him Charles Sforza, who was
general of the order of Augultines, and archbifhop of
Milan.
Sforza (Francis), the fon of James Sforza by
Lucia Trezana, was born in 1401, and trained up by
his father to the profeffion of arms. At the age of
23 he defeated the troops of Braccio, who difputed
with him the palfage of the Aterno. In this ac¬
tion his father was drowned, and Francis, though il¬
legitimate, fucceeded him. He fought fuccefsfully a-
gainft the Spaniards, and contributed a great deal both
towards railing the liege of Naples, and to the vi&ory
which was gained over the troops of Braccio near A-
quila in 1425, where that general was killed. After
the death of queen Jane, in 1435, he efpoufed the in¬
ter efts of the duke of Anjou, to whom (he had left her
crown, and by his courage and abilities ably fupported
that unfortunate prince. He made himfelf mafter of
feveral places in Ancona, from which he was driven by l II
pope Eu i'enius IV. who defeated and excommunicated
him ; but he loon reellablilhed his affairs by a victory.
His reputation was now fo great, that the pope, the Ve¬
netians, and the Florentines, chofe him for their gene¬
ral againft the duke of Milan. Sforza had already con-
dufted Venetian armies againft that prince, though he
had efpoufed his daughter. The duke dying in 1447,
the inhabitants of Milan invited Sforza, his fon-in-law,
to lead them againft that duke. But, after fome exer¬
tions in their favour, he turned his arms againft them-
lelves, laid fiege to Milan, and obliged them to re¬
ceive him as duke, notwithftanding the rights of Charles
duke of Orleans, the fon of Valentine of Milan. In
1464, Louis XI. who hated Orleans, gave up to Sfor¬
za the rights which the crown of France had over Ge¬
noa, and even put into his hands Savona, a town be¬
longing to that republic. The duke of Milan foon af¬
ter made himfelf mailer of Genoa. He died in 1466,
with the reputation of a man who was willing to fell
his blood to the bell purchafer, and who was not too
fcrupulous an obferver of his word. His fecond wife
was Blanche Marie, natural daughter of Philip Marie
duke of Milan. She bore him Galeas Marie, and Lu-
dovie Marie, dukes of Milan, Philip Marie count of
Pavia, Sforza Marie duke ol Bari, Afcagne Marie bi-
ffiop of Pavia and Cremona, and a cardinal. He was
taken prifoner by the troops of Louis XII. and confi¬
ned for fome time in the tower of Bourges. He was a
cunning man, and deceived Cardinal d’ Amboife when
that prelate afpired at the papacy. His daughters were
Hyppolita, married to Alphonfo of Arragon, afterwards
king ol Naples; and Elizabeth, married to William
marquis of Montferrat. He had befides feveral natural
children.
SHACK, in ancient cuftoms, a liberty of winter-
pafturage. In the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, the
lord of the manor has lhack, i. e. a liberty of feeding
his Iheep at pleafure in his tenants lands during the
fix winter months. In Norfolk, lhack alfo extends to
the common for hogs, in all men’s grounds, from the
endofharveft till feed-time. Whence to go a-Jhack, is
to feed at k:rge.
SHACKLES, aboard a Ihip, are thofe oblong iron
rings, bigger at one end than at the other, with which
the ports are Ihut faft, by thrufting the wooden bar of
the port through them. There is alfo a fort of lhackles
to lift the hatches up with, of a like figure, but fmaller.
They are faftened at the corners of the hatches.
SHAD, in ichthyology, a fpecies of Clupea.
SHADDOCK, a fpecies of Citrus.
SHADOW, in optics, a privation or diminution of
light by the interpofition ©f an opaque body ; or it is
a plane where the light is either altogether obftrudled*
or greatly weakened, by the interpofition of fome
opaque body between it and the luminary.
Shadow, in painting, an imitation of a real lhadow,
effedled by gradually heightening and darkening the
colours of fuch figures as by their difpofitions cannot
receive any diredl rays from the luminary that is fuppo-
fed to enlighten the piece.
Shadow, in perfpe&ive, the appearance of an opaque
body, and a luminous one, whofe rays diverge (f. gr. a
candle, lamp, &c.), being given j to find the juft ap¬
pearance
S H A [ 33* j S H A
Shadwell pearance of the (hadow, according to the laws of per.
!! fpeftive. The method is this : From the luminous bo-
ghafccflm y. which is here confidered as a point, let fall a per¬
pendicular to the perfpeftive plane or table ; i. e. find
the appearance of a point upon which a perpendicular,
drawn from the middle of the luminary, falls on the per*
ipeftive plane ; and from the feveral angles, or raifed
points ot the body, let fall perpendiculars to the plane.
Thefe points, whereon the perpendiculars fall, connedt
by right lines, with the point upon which the perpen¬
dicular let fall from the luminary falls ; and continue
the lines to the fide oppofite to the luminary. Laftly,
through the raifed points draw lines through the centre
of the luminary, interfedting the former ; the points of
interfedlion are the terms or bounds of the fhadow.
SHAD WELL (Thomas), defcended of an ancient
family in Staffordihire, was born in 1640, and educated
at Caius college, Cambridge. He then was placed in
the Middle Temple to ftudy the laws ; where having
fpent fome time, he travelled abroad. Upon his return
home, he became acquainted with the moft celebrated
perfons of wit in that age. He applied himfelf chiefly
to dramatic writing, in which he had great fuccefs ; and
upon the Revolution was made poet laureat and hifto-
riographer to king William and queen Mary, in the
room ofMrDryden. Thefe employments he enjoyed till
his death, which happened in 1692. Befide his drama¬
tic writings, he compofed feveral other pieces of poetry;
the chief of which are his congratulatory poem on the
prince of Orange’s coming to England ; another on
queen Mary; his tranflation of Juvenal’s 10th fatire,
See. Mr Dryden treats him with great contempt, in
his fatire called Mac-Fieckno. The bell judges of that
age, however, gave their teftimony in favour of his co¬
medies ; which have in them fine ftrokes of humour ;
the characters are often original, ftrongly marked, and
well fuftained. An edition of his works, with fome
account of his life and writings prefixed, was publilhed
in 1720, in 4 vols 8vo.
SHAFT of a Column, in building, is the body
thereof between the bafe and capital; fo called from its
ftraightnefs. See Architecture.
Shaft, in mining, is the pit or hollow entrance into
the mine. In the tin-mines, after this is funk about a
fathom, they leave a little, long, fquare place, which is
called a Jhamlle.
Shafts are funk fome ten, fome twenty fathoms deep
into the earth, more or lefs. Of thefe lhafts, there is
the landing or working {haft, where they bring up the
work or ore to the furface; but if it be worked by a
horle engine or whim, it is called a ivhim-jhnft; and
where the water is drawn out of the mine, it is indif¬
ferently named an engine-Jhafty or the rod-Jhaft. See
Mine.
Shaft, in ornithology. See Trochilus.
SHATTESBURY, a town of Dorfetlhire in Eng-
land, in W. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 51. o. It liaodson
a high hill, and is built in the form of a bow. It en¬
joys a lerene wholefome air, and has a fine profpedt. It
is a good thoroughfare, is governed by a mayor, and
fends two members to parliament. This town is fup-
pofed to have been built in the 8th century, and to have
been enlarged by king A-lfied, and had 1 2 churches, be-
fidts a Benediftine monailery, in the time of the Saxons,
but has now only three. St Edward the martyr was
buried here. It had three mints before the conqueft, Shaftefbury
and, in the reign of Henry VIII. was the fee of a fuf- |j
fragan bifhop. It was incorporated by queen Elizabeth Shake-
and Charles II. and is governed by a mayor, recorder, i>e^le' a
twelve aldermen, bailiffs, and a common-council. It
contains about 320 houfes, many of which are of
free-ftone. Water is fo fcarce, that it ufed to be
fupplied from Motcomb ; but it was obtained £more
commodioufly in 17(8, by means of engines, which
raifed the water above 300 feet perpendicular, and
conveyed it to a large ciftern in the middle of the
town, from the diftance of two miles. Yet even this is
laid afide, and they have dug feveral pits, in which they
preferve the rain-water ; and the poor get their living
to this day by fetching it in pails or on horfes. It
gives the title of earl to the noble family of Cooper.
Shaftesbury (earl of). See Cooper.
SHAG, in ornithology. See Pelicanus.
SHAGREEN, or Chagreen, in commerce, a kind
of grained leather prepared of the flein of a fpecies of
Squalus, much ufed in covering cafes, books, &c.
Manner of preparing Shagreen. The Ikin, being
flayed off, is ftretched out, covered over with multard-
feed, and the feed bruifed on it ; and thus it is expofed
to the weather for fome days, and then tanned.
The bell is that brought from Conftantinople, of a
brownifh colour; the white is the worft. It is ex¬
tremely hard ; yet, when fteeped in water, it becomes
very foft and pliable ; whence it is of great ufe among
cafe makers. It takes any colour that is given it, red,
green, yellow, or black. It is frequently counterfeited
by morocco, formed like lhagreen ; but this lall is di-
ftinguiflied by its peeling off, which the firft does not.
SHAIK properly fignifies an old man. In the call
it is ufed to denote a lord or chief, a man of eminence
and property. See Schiechs.
SHAKE, in finging. See Trill.
SHAKESPEARE or Shakspeare (William),
the prince of dramatic writers, was born at Stratford
upon Avon in Warwickfliire, on the 23d of April
1564. From the regiller of that towm, it appears that
a plague broke out there on the 30th of June follow¬
ing, which raged with great violence ; but fortunately
it did not reach the houfe in which this infant prodigy-
lay. His father, John Shakefpeare, enjoyed a fmall
patrimonial effate, and was a confiderable dealer in
wool; his mother was the daughter and heir of Robert
Arden of Wellingcote. Our illultrious poet being de-
figned for the bufmefs of his father, received no better
education than the inffruftions which the free-fchool
of Stratford could afford. After applying fome time
to the lludy of Latin, he was called home to afihl his
father, who feems by fome accident to have been redu¬
ced in his circumftances. Before arriving at the age
of 19, he married the daughter of Mr Hathawayj a
fnbftantial yeoman in the neighbourhood of Stratford.
This lady was eight years older than her hufband.
Having the misfortune to fall into bad company, he
was feduced into fome profligate aftions, which drew
on him a criminal profecution, and at length forced
him to take refuge in the capital. In concert with
his affociates, he broke into a park belonging to Sir
Thomas Lucy of Charlecote, and carried off fome of
his deer. Every admirer of Shakefpeare will regret
that inch a blemifli Ihould have llaioed his character :
T t 2 hut,
s H A [33
Shalse- but, perhaps, if any thing can extenuate his guilt, we
fpcare. might afcribe it to the opinions of the age, which, per-
baps, as was formerly the cafe in Scotland, might not
diftinguifh the killing of deer by any mark of difgrace,
or any charge of criminality. One thing at leaft is
certain, that Shakefpeare himfelf thought that the pro-
fecution which Sir Thomas raifed againft him was car¬
ried on with too great feverity; an opinion which he
could not have entertained had this aftion been at that
time viewed in the fame criminal light as it is at pre*
fent. Shakefpeare teftified his refentment againft Sir
Thomas, by writing a fatirical ballad, which exafpera-
ted him fo much, that the procefs was carried en with
redoubled violence ; and the young poet, in order to
avoid the punifhment of the law, was obliged to make
his efcape. This ballad would be confidered as a curi¬
ous relidh, on account of its being the firft production
of Shakefpeare ; it would alfo be interefting to perufe
a poem which could irritate the baronet to fo high a
degree. Tradition has preferved the firft ftanza
A parliamente member, a juftiee of peace,
At home a poor fcare-crow, at London an afie.
If lowfie is Lucy, as feme volke mifcalle it,
Then Lucy is lowfie whatever befall it:
He thinks himfelf greate,
Yet an afi'e in his ftate,
We allowe by his ears, but with afies to mate.
If Lucy is lowfie, as fome velke mifcalle it,
Sing lowfie Lucy whatever berall it.
. If the reft of the ballad was of a piece with this
ftanza, it might affift us to form fome opinion of the
irritability of the baronet, but will enable us to form no
idea of the opening genius of Shakefpeare.
Thus expelled from his native village, he repaired to
London, where he was glad to accept a fubordinate of¬
fice in the theatre. It has been faid that he was firft
engaged, while the play was aching, in holding the horfes
of thofe who rode to the theatre ; but this ftory refts
on a flender foundation. As his name is found print¬
ed among thofe of the other players before fome old
plays, it is probable that he was fome time employed
as an aftor ; but we are not informed what charafters
he played; we are only told, that the part which he
ached beft was that of the Ghoft in Hamlet; and that
he appeared in the charadter of Adam in S?s you like
it. If the names of the aftors prefixed to Ben
Jonfon’s play of Every Man in his Humour were ar¬
ranged in the fame order as the perfons reprefented,
which is very probable, Shakefpeare played the part ot
Old Knowell. We have reafon therefore to fuppofe,
as far as we can argue’ from thefe few fafts, that he ge¬
nerally reprefented old men. See Malone’s Chrono¬
logy, in his edition of Shakefpeare.
But though he was not qualified to ftiine as an ac-
, tor, he was now in the fituation which could moft ef-
fedhially roufe thofe latent fparks of genius which af¬
terwards burft forth with fo refplendent a flame. Be¬
ing well acquainted with the mechanical bufinefs of the
theatre and the tafte ot the times ; pofleffed of a know¬
ledge of the characters of men refembling intuition, an
imagination that ranged at large through nature, fe-
leting the grand, the fublime, and the beautiful ; a ju¬
dicious caution, that difpofed him to prefer thofe plots
which had already been found to pleafe j an uncommon
2 ] S H A
fluency and force of expreffion ; he was qualified at ShaVe-
once to eclipfe all who had gone before him. fpeare
Notwithftanding the unrivalled genius of Shake-'’"“■’"V""
fpeare, moft of his plots were the invention of others ;
which, however, he certainly much improved, if he did
not entirely new-model. We are affured, that prior to
the theatrical compofitions of Shakefpeare, dramatic
pieces were written on the following fubjedts, viz.
King John, King Richard II. and III. King Henry
IV. and V. King Henry VIII. King Lear, Antony
and Cleopatra, Meafure for Meafure, the Merchant of
Venice, the Taming of a Shrew, and the Comedy of
Errors.
Among his patrons, the earl of Southampton is
particularly honoured by him, in the dedication of
two poems, Venus and Adonis, and Lucrece; in the
latter efpecially, he exprefled himfelf in fuch terms as
gives countenance to what is related of that patron’s
diftinguifhed generofity to him. In the beginning of
king James I.’s reign (if not fooner) he was one of
the principal managers of the playhoufe, and conti¬
nued in it feveral years afterwards; till, having ac¬
quired fugh a fortune as fatisfied his moderate wifhes
and views in life, he quitted the ftage, and all other
bufinefs, and pafted the remainder of his time in an ho¬
nourable eafe, at his native town of Stratford, where he
lived in a handfome houfe of his own purchafing, to
which he gave the name of New Place ; and he had
the good fortune to fave it from the flames in the dread¬
ful fire that confumed the greateft part of the town in
1614.
In the beginning of the year 1616, he made his
will, wherein he teftified his refpedt to his quondam
partners in the theatre : he appointed his youngeft
daughter, jointly with her hufband, his executors, and
bequeathed to them the beft part of his eftate, which
they came into the poflefllon of not long after. He
died on the 23d of April following, being the 53d year
of his age ; and was interred among his anceftors on
the north fide of the chancel, in the great church of
Stratford, where there is a handfome monument erefted
for him, inferibed with the following elegiac diltich in
Latin :
'Judicio Pyliumy genio Socratem, arte Maronem,
Terra iegity Populus marety Olympus habet.
In the year 1740, another very noble one was raifed to
his memory, at the public expence, in Weftminfter-ab-
bey ; an ample contribution tor this purpofe being made
upon exhibiting his tragedy of Julius Caefar, at the
theatre-royal in Drury-Lane, April 28th 1738.
Nor muft we omit mentioning another teftimony of
the veneration paid to his manes by the public in gene¬
ral, which is, that a mulberry-tree planted upon his
eftate by the hands of this reverend bard, was cut down
not many years ago; and the wood being converted to
feveral domeftic ufes, was all eagerly bought at a high
price, and each Angle piece treafured up by its purcha-
fer as a precious memorial of the planter.
The character of Shakefpeare as a dramatic writer
has been often drawn, but perhaps never with more ac¬
curacy than by the pen of Dr Johnfon : “ Shakefpeare
(fays he) is above all writers, at leaft above all modern
writers, the poet of nature ; the poet that holds up to
his readers a faithful mirror of manners and of life.
c His
S H A
[ 333 1
S II A
Shake* His chara&ers are not modified by the cuftoms ot par-
iptarfi. ticular places, unpradhfed by the reft of the woild ; by
the peculiarities of ftudies or profeffions, which can
operate but upon fmall numbers ; or by the accidents
of tranfient faihions or temporary opinions : they are the
genuine progeny of common humanity, fuch as the
world will always fupply, and cbfervation will always
find. His perfons act and fpeak by the influence of
thofe general paffions and principles by which all minds
are agitated, and the whole fyftem of life is continued
in motion. In the writings of other poets, a charadter
is too often an individual; in thofe of Shakefpeare, it is
commonly a fpecies.
“ It is from this wide extenfion of defign that fo
much inftrudtion is derived. It is this which fills the
plays of Shakefpeare with pradfical axioms and domef-
tic wifdom. It was faid of Euripides, that every verfe
was a precept ; and it may be faid of Shakefpeare, that
from his works may be colledfed a fyftem of civil and
economical prudence. \ et his real power is not fhown
in the fplendor of particular paffages, but by the pro-
grefs of his fable, and the tenor of his dialogue ; and he
that tries to recommend him by feledt quotations, will
fucceed like the pedant in Hierocles, who, when he of¬
fered his houfe to fale, carried a brick in his pocket as
a fpecimen.
“ Upon every other ftage the univerfal agent is love,
by whofe power all good and evil is diftributed, and
every adfion quickened or retarded. But love is only
one of many palfions ; and as it has no great influence
upon the fum of life, it has little operation in the dra¬
mas of a poet who caught his ideas from the living
world, and exhibited only what he faw before him.
He knew that any other paffion, as it was regular or
exorbitant, was a caufe of happinefs or calamity.
“ Charadfers thus ample and general were not eafily
diferiminated and preferved ; yet perhaps no poet ever
kept his perfonages more diftindf from each other.
“ Other dramatifts can only gain attention by hyper¬
bolical or aggravated characters, by fabulous and unex¬
ampled excellence or depravity, as the wi iters of bar¬
barous romances invigorated the reader by a giant and
a dwarf; and he that fhould form his expectations of
human affairs from the play, or from the tale, would
be equally deceived. Shakefpeare has no heroes, his
feenes are occupied only by men, who aCt and fpeak as
the reader thinks that he fhould himfelf have fpoken
or aCted on the fame occafion: Even where the agency
is fupernatural, the dialogue is level with life. Other
writers difguife the moft natural paffions and moft fre¬
quent incidents ; fo that he who contemplates them in
the book will not know them in the world : Shake-
Ipeare approximates the remote, and familiarizes the
wonderful; the event which he reprefents will not hap¬
pen, but if it were pofiible, its effeCts would probably
be fuch as he has affigned ; and it may be faid, that he
has not only fhown human nature as it aCls in real exi¬
gencies, but as it would be found in trials to which it
cannot be expofed.
“ This therefore is the praife of Shakefpeare, that
his diama is the mirror ot life ; that he who has mazed
his imagination, in following the phantoms which other
writers.raife up before him, may here be cured of his
delirious eeftafies, by reading human fentiments in hu¬
man language ; by feenes from which a hermit may eftb
mate the tranfa&ions of the world, and a confefTor pre¬
dict the progrefs of the palfions.”
The learning of Shakefpeare has frequently been a
fubjeCt of inquiry. That he poffeffed much clafiical
knowledge does not appear, yet he was certainly ac¬
quainted with the Latin poets, particularly with Te¬
rence, as Colman has juftly remarked, which appears
from his ufing the word thrafonical. Nor was he un¬
acquainted with French and Italian. We are indeed
told, that the paffages in which thefe languages occur
might be impertinent additions of the players ; but is it
probable, that any of the players fo far furpaffed Shake¬
fpeare ?
That much knowledge is fcattered over his works is
very juftly obferved by Pope ; but it is often fuch
knowledge as books did not lupply. “ There is, how¬
ever, proof enough (fays Dr Johnfon) that he was
a very diligent reader; nor was our language then fo
indigent of books, but that he might very liberally in-
dulge his curiofity without excurfion into foreign lite-’
rature. Many of the Roman authors were tranftated,
and fome of the Greek ; the Reformation had filled the
kingdom with theological learning ; moft of the topics
of human difquifition had found Englifh writers ; and
poetry had been cultivated, not only with diligence,
but fuccefs. This was a ftock of knowledge fufficient
for a mind fo capable of appropriating and improving
it.”
The works of Shakefpeare confift of 35 dramatic
pieces. The following is the chronological order v/hich
Mr Malone has endeavoured to eftablifh, after a minute
inveftigation, in which he has in general been luccefs-
ful:
1. Firft Part of King Henry VI. - *5^9
Second Part of King Henry VI. - i59t
Third Part of King Henry VI. - I591
A Midfummer Night’s Dream - J592
Comedy of Errors - - I595
6. Taming of the Shrew - - *594
7. Love’s Labour Loft - - I594
8. Two Gentlemen of Verona - - I59?
9. Romeo and Juliet - - I59'>
10. Hamlet - - I59<^
11. King John - - J59^
12. King Richard II. - - 597
13. King Richard III. - - T597
14. Firft Part of King Henry IV. - I597
15. Second Part of King Henry IV. - l59&
16. The Merchant of Venice - -
17. All’s Well that Ends Well - I59^
King Henry V. - • *599
Much Ado About Nothing - 1600
As you like it - - 1600
Merry Wives of Windfor - 1601
King Henry VIII. - - 1601
Troilus and Creffida - * 1602
Meafure for Meafure - * 1603
The Winter’s Tale - - 1604
26. King Lear ... 1625
27. Cymbelline - - 1605
28. Macbeth - - - 1606
29. Julius Caefar - - 1607
Antony and Cleopatra - - 160S
Timon of Athens - - 1609
Corioiaaus « - «* 1610
Si-
Shake¬
fpeare.
18.
*9-
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
3°-
3Ii
32,
S H
A
Ph^ke-
li eare
L 334 ] S H A
53. Othello - - - 1611
34 The Tempeft - - 1612
35. Twelfth Night - - 1614
The three firil of thefe, Mr Malone thinks, there is
very Itrong reafon to believe are not the original pro-
duftions of Shakefpeare ; but that he probably altered
them, and added iome new fcenes.
In the firft folio edition in 162 3, thefe plays were en¬
titled “ Mr William Shakefpeare’s Comedies, Hiftories,
and Tragedies.” They have been publifhed by various
editors. The firft folio edition by Ifaac Jaggard and
Edward Blount; the fecond, folio, 1632, by Thomas
Cotes for Robert Allot ; the third, 1664, for P. C. ;
the fourth, 1685, for H. Herringman, E. Brewfter,
and R. Bentley. Rowe publifhed an 8vo edition in
1709, in 7 vols, and a ismo edition in 1714, in
9 vols ; for which he received L. 36, ios. Pope pu¬
blifhed a 4to edition in 1725, in 6 vols, and a
i2mo in 1728, in 10 vols; for which he was paid
E. 2 1 7, 1 2 s. Theobald gave a new edition in 8vo
in 1733, in 7 vols, another in T2mo in 1740, in 8 vols;
and received for his labour L. 652, 10s. Sir Thomas
Hanmer publifhed an edition in 1744,'in 6 vols 410.
Dr Warburton’s 8vo edition came out in 1747, in
8 vols; for which he was paid L. 560. The editions
publifhed fince that time, are Dr Johnfon’s in 1765, in
8 vols 8vo. Stevens’s in 1766, in 4 vols 8vo. Ca-
pell’s in 1 768, in 10 vols, crown 8vo ; for this the au¬
thor was paid L. 300. A fecond edition of Hanmer’s
in 177J, 6 vols. Johnfon’s and Stevens’s in 1773, in
iovols8vo; a fecond edition in 1778; a third by
Reed in 1785; and Malone’s crown 8vo edition in
1 789, in 10 vols.
ft'he moft authentic of the old editions is that of
1623. “At laft (fays Dr Johnfon) an edition was
undertaken by Rowe ; not becaufe a poet was to be
publifhed by a poet, for Rowe feems to have thought
Very little on correftion @r explanation, but that our
author’s works might appear like thofe of his fraterni¬
ty, with the appendages of a life and recommendatory
preface. Rowe has been clamoroufly blamed for not
performing what he did not undertake, and it is time
that juftice be done him, by confeffing, that though he
feems to have had no thought of corruption beyond the
printer’s errors, yet he has made many emendations, if
they were not made before, which his fucceffors have
received without acknowledgment, and whicfr; if they
had produced them, would have filled pages with cen-
iures of the ftupidity by which the faults were com¬
mitted, with difplays of the abfurdities which they in¬
volved, with oftentatious expofitions of the new reading,
and felf-congratulations on the happinefs of difcovering
it.”
The nation had been for many years content enough
with Mr Rowe’s periormance, when Mr Pope made
them acquainted with the true ftate of Shakefpeare’s
text, fhowed that it was extremely corrupt, and gave
reafon to hope that there were means of reforming it.
Mr Pope's edition, however, he obferves, fell below his
own expectations ; and he was fo much offended, when
he was found to have left any thing for others to do,
that he paffed the latter part of his life in a ftate of
hoftility with verbal ciiticifm.
I he only talk, in the opinion of Mr Malone, for
which Pope was eminently and indifputably qualified,
was to mark the faults and beauties of his author.-*
When he undertook the office of a commentator, every
anomaly of language, and every expreffion that was cur¬
rently in ufe, were confidered as errors or corruptions,
and the text was altered or amended, as it was called, at
pleafure. Pope is openly charged with being one of
the great corrupters of Shakefpeare’s text.
Pope was fucceeded by Theobald, who collated the
ancient copies, and redtified many errors. He was,
however, a man of narrow coraprehenfion and of little
learning, and what is worfe, in his reports of copies and
editions, he is not to be trufted without examination.
From the liberties taken by Pope, the edition of Theo¬
bald was juftly preferred, becaufe he profeffed to adhere
to the ancient copies more ftridtly, and illuftrated a few
paffages by extracts from the writers of our poet’s age.
Still, however, he was a confiderable innovator ; and
while a few arbitrary changes made by Pope were de-
tetfted, innumerable fophiftications were filently adopt¬
ed.
Sir ft’homas Hanmer, who comes next, was a man of
critical abilities, and of extenfive learning. His correc¬
tions are commonly juft, but fometimes capricious. He
is cenfurable, too, for receiving without examination al-
moft all the innovations of Pope.
The original and predominant error of Warburton’s
commentary, is acquiefcence in his firft thoughts ; that
precipitation which is produced by confeioufnefs of
quick difcernment; and that confidence which prefumes
to do, by furveying the furface, what labour only can
perform, by penetrating to the bottom. His notes
exhibit fometimes perverfe interpretations, and fome¬
times improbable conjectures ; he at one time gives the
author more profundity of meaning than the fentence
admits, and at another difcovers abfurdities where the
fenfe is plain to every other reader. But his emenda¬
tions are likewife often happy and juft ; and his inter¬
pretation of obfcure paflages learned and fagacious.
It has indeed been laid by his defepdeis, that his great
objeft was to difplay his own learning ; and certainly,
in fpite of the clamour raifed againft him for fubftitu-
ting his own chimerical conceits inftead of the genuine
text of Shakefpeare, his work increaled his reputation.
But as it is of little value as a commentary on Shake¬
fpeare, fince Warburton is now gone, his work will pro¬
bably foon fink into oblivion.
In 1765 Dr Johnfon’s edition, which had long been
impatiently expeCted, was given to the public. His vi¬
gorous and comprehenfive undtrftanding threw more
light on his author than all his piedecelfors had done.
The character which he gave of each play is generally
juft. His refutation of the falfe gloffes of ftftieobald and
Warburton, and his numerous explications of involved
and difficult paflages, entitle him to the gratitude of
every admirer of Shakefpeare.
The laft editor is Mr Malone, who was eight years
employed in preparing his edition. By collating the
moft authentic copies, he has been careful t© purify the
text. He has been fo induftrious, in order to difeover
the meaning of the author, that he has ranfacked many
volumes, and trufts that, befides his additional illulira-
tions, not a fingle valuable explication of any obfeure
pafiage in thefe plays has ever appeared, which he has
not inferted in his edition. He reje&s Titus Andro-
nicus, as well as the three plays formerly mentioned, as
6 not
s H A r 335 I S H A
Shake- not being the authentic produftions of Shakefpeare. To
fpearc wh0le he has added an appendix, and a copious
II gloflary.—Of this work a lefs expenfive edition has been
am ‘ ' publifhed in 7 vols 12010, in which the general intro-
ductory obfervations prefixed to the different plays are
preferved., and the numerous notes abridged.
This judicious commentator has certainly done more
for the elucidation and correction of Shakefpeare than
all who came before him, and has followed with inde¬
fatigable patience the only road which a commentator
of Shakefpeare ought to obferve.
Within 50 years after our poet’s death, Dryden fays
that he was become “ a little obfolete and in the be¬
ginning of the prefent century Lord Shaftelbury com¬
plains of his rude unpolifhed ftyle, and his antiquated
phrafe and wit. Thefe complaints were owing to the
great revolution which the Engliflr language has under¬
gone, and to the want of an enlightened commentator.
Thefe complaints are now removed, for an enlightened
commentator has been found in Mr Malone.
We have only farther to add, that in the year 1790
a copious index to the remarkable pafiages and words
in th^ plays of Shakefpeare was publilhed by the Re¬
verend Mr Ayfeough ; a gentleman to whom the lite¬
rary world is much indebted for feveral very valuable
keys of knowledge. In fine, the admirers of Shake¬
fpeare are now, by the Lhours of feveral eminent men,
furnifhed with every help that can enable them to un-
derftand the fenfe and to talle the beauties of this illu-
flrious poet.
SHAKLES. See Shackles.
SHALE, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of Schistus.
It is a black llaty fubftance, or a clay hardened into a
ftony confidence, and fo much impregnated with bitu¬
men that it becomes fomewhat like a coal. The acid
emitted from fhale, during its calcination, uniting itfelf
to the argillaceous earth of the fhale, forms alum. About
I 20 tons of calcined fhale will make one ton of alum.
The fhale, after being calcined, is fteeped in water, by
which means the alurp, which is formed during the cal¬
cination of the fhale, is diflblved : this diffolved alum
undergoes various operations before it is formed into
the alum of the fhops. Watfon’s Chemical Effays,
vol. ii. p. 315. See Alum.
This kind of flate forms large ftrata in Derbyfhire ;
and that which lies near the furface of the earth is of a
fofter and more fhivery texture than that which lies
deeper. It is alfo found in large flrata, generally above
the coal, in molt coal counties of this kingdom. Dr
Short informs us, that the fhale wades the lead ore near
it, by its drong acid ; and that it corrodes and dedroys
all minerals near it except iron or coal, of whole vitriol
it partakes.
SHALLOP, Shalloop, or Sloop, is a fmalllight
veffel, with only a fmall main-mad, and fore-mad, and
lug-fails, to hale up, and let down, on occafion.—
Shallops are commonly good failers, and are therefore
often ufed as tenders upon men of war.
SHALLOT, or Eschalot. See Allium.
SHAMANS are wizards or conjurers, in high re¬
pute among feveral idolatrous nations inhabiting dif¬
ferent parts of Ruffia. By their enchantments they
pretend to cure difeales, to divert misfortunes, and to
foretel futurity. They are great obfervers of dreams,
by the interpretation of which they judge of their good
or bad fortune. They pretend likewife to chiromancy, SAmNej,
and to foretel a man’s good or ill fuccefs by the lines of Shamois.
his hand. By thefe and fuch like means they have
a very great afcendency over the underdandings, and a
great influence on the conduct, of thofe people.
SHAMBLES, among miners, a fort of niches or
landing-places, left at fuch didances in the adits of the
mines, that the fhovel-men may conveniently throw up
the ore from fhamble to fhamble, till it comes to the top
of the mme.
SHAMOIS, Chamois, or Shammy, a kind of lea¬
ther, either dreffed in oil or tanned, much edeemed
for its foftnefs, pliancy, See. It is prepared from the
fkin of the chamois, or fhamois, a kind of rupicapra,
or wild goat, called alfo ifard, inhabiting the mountains
of Dauphiny, Savoy, Piedmont, and the Pyrenees. Be-
fides the foftnefs and warmth of the leather, it has tin;
faculty of bearing foap without damage ; which renders
it very ufeful on many accounts.
In France, See. fome wear the fkin raw, without any
preparation. Shammy leather is ufed for the purifying
of mercury, which is done by paiTmg it through the
pores of this fkin, which are very clofe. The true
chamois leather is counterfeited with common goat, kid,
and even with fheep fkins, the pra&ice of which makes
a particular piofeffion, called by the French chamoifure.
The lad, though the lead edeemed, is yet fo popular,
and fuch vad quantities of it are prepared, efpeciallv
about Orleans, Marfeilles, and Tholoufe, that it may
not be amifs to give the method of preparation.
Manner ofjhamoijing, or of preparing Jheep, goat, or
kidJkins in oil, in imitation of Jhammy.—The fkins, be¬
ing wafhed, drained, and fmeared over with quicklime
on the flefliy fide, are folded in two length wife, the
wool outwards, and laid on heaps, and fo left to ferment
eight days, or, if they had been left to dry after Haying,
then fifteen days.
Then they are wafhed out, drained, and half dried ;
laid on a wooden leg, or horfe, the wool dripped od'
with a round HafF for that purpofe, and laid in a weak
pit, the lime whereof had been ufed before, and has lod
the greated part of its force.
After 24 hours they are taken out, and left to drain
24 more ; they are then put in another flronger pit.
This done, they are taken out, drained, and put in
again, by turns ; which begins to difpefe them to take
oil; and this practice they continue for fix weeks in
fummer, or three months in winter : at the end where¬
of they are wafhed out, laid on the wooden leg, and the
furface of the fkin on the wool fide peeled off, to render
them the fofter; then made into parcels, fteeped a night
in the river, in winter more, ftretched fix or feven over
one another on the wooden leg, and the knife paffed
ftrongly on the flefh fide, to take off any thing iuper-
fluous, and reader the fkin fmooth. Then they*are
fteeped, as before, in the river, and the fame operation
is repeated on the wool fide ; they are then thrown into
a tub of water, with bran in it, which is brewed amonu-
the fkins till the greated part dicks to them, and then
feparated into diftinft tubs, till they fwell, and rife of
themfelves above the water. By this means the re¬
mains of the lime are cleared out; they are then wrung
out, hung up to dry on ropes, and fent to the mill, with
the quantity of oil neceffary to fcour them : the belt oil
is that of ftock-fifh. Here they are firft thrown in
bundles
S H A [ 336 1 8 H A
Sham6U bundles into tbe river for 1 2 hours, then laid in^ the
!! mill-trough, and fulled without oil till they be well foft-
ban non. , tj1gn 0j}e(i w;t;h the hand, one by-one, and thus
>—~v—£ormej jnto parce]8 0f four fleins each ; which are mill¬
ed and dried on cords a fecond time ; then a third ; and
then oiled again, and dried. This procefe js repeated
as often as neceflity requires ; when done, if there be
any moifture remaining, they are dried in a ftove, and
made up into parcels wrapped up in wool ; after fome
time they are opened to the air, but wrapped up again
as before, till fuch time as the oil feems to have loft all
its force, which it ordinarily does in 24 hours. The
flcins are then returned from the mill to the chamotfer
to be fcoured : which is done by putting them in a lixi¬
vium of wood-afhes, working and beating them in it with
poles, and leaving them to fteep till the ley hath had
its effeft ; then they are wrung out, fteeped in another
lixivium, wrung again ; and this is repeated till all the
greafe and oil be purged out. When this is done, they
are half dried, and palled over a fiiarp edged iron inftru-
ment, placed perpendicular in a block, which opens,
foftens, and makes them gentle. Laftly, they are tho¬
roughly dried, and palled over the fame inftrument
again ; which finifhes the preparation, and leaves them
in form of fhammy.
Kid and goat fleins are ftiamoifedin the fame manner
as thofe of {beep, excepting that the hair is taken off
without the ufe of any lime; and that when brought
from the mill they undergo a particular preparation
called ramallin?, the moft delicate and difficult of all the
others. It conftfts in this, that, as foon as brought
from the mill, they are rteeped in a fit lixivium, taken
out, ftretched on a round wooden leg, and the hair is
feraped off with the knife ; this makes them fmooth,
and in working to caft a kind of fine knap. The dif¬
ficulty is in feraping them evenly.
SHANK, or Shank-Painter, in a Ihip, is a fhort
chain faftened under the foremaft-lhrouds, by a bolt, to
the (hip’s fides, having at the other end a rope faftened
\ to it. * On this ffiank painter the whole weight of the
aft part of the anchor refts, when it lies by the Ihip’s
' fide. The rope, by which it is hauled up, is made fall
about a timber-head.
Shank, in the manege, that part of a horfe’s
fore leg which lies between the knee and the fetlock.
SHANKER, or Chancre, in medicine, a malig¬
nant ulcer, ufually occafioned by fome venereal diforder.
See Medicine, nQ 350.
SHANNON, the largeft river in Ireland, and one
of the fineft in the Britilh dominions, not only on
account of its rolling 200 miles, but alfo of its great
depth in moft places, and the gentlenefs of its current,
by which it might be made exceedingly ferviceable to
the improvement of the country, the communication of
its inhabitants, and confequently the promoting of inland
trade, through the greateft -part of its long courie.
But the peculiar prerogative of the Shannon is its fitu-
ation, running from north to fouth, and feparating the
province of Connaught from Eeiniter and Munfter, and
of confequence dividing the greateft part of Ireland in-
~io what lies on the call and that on the weft ot the ri¬
ver ; watering in its paffage the valuable county of
.Leitrim, the plentiful (hire of Rofcommon, the fruitful
county of Galway, and the pleafant county of Clare ;
the fro all but fine (hire of Longford, the King’s coun¬
ty, and fertile county of Meath in Leinfter, the popu- Shanfcnt
lous county of Tipperary, the fpacious (hire of Lime- ^ li
rick, and the rough but pleafant county of Kerry in .V’f-aT
Munfter ; vifiting 10 counties in its pallage, and having ’ J
on its banks the following remarkable places, viz. Lei-
trim, Jameftown, Lanefborough, Athlone, Clonfert,
Killaloe, and Limerick ; at 20 leagues below the latter
it fpreads gradually feveral miles in extent, fo that fome
have conlrdered its expanfion as a lake. It at laft joins
its waters to the fea, being navigable all that way for
the largeft veffels.
SHANSCRIT, the - language of the Bramins of
Hirfdoftan. See Philology, fe£l. v.
SHARE of a Plough, that part which cuts the
ground; the extremity forwards being covered with a
fharp-pointed iron, called the point of the Jhare, and the
end of the wood behind the tail of the /hare.
SHARK, in ichthyology. See Squalus.
SHARON, a name common to three cantons of Pa-
leftine. The firft lay between mount Tabor and the fea
of Tiberias ; the fecond between the city of Csefarea of
Paleftine, and Joppa; and the third lay beyond Jordan.
To give an idea of perfect beauty, Ifaiah faid, the glory
of Lebanon and the beauty of Carmel mult be joined to
the abundance of Sharon. (Ifaiah xxxiii. 9. xxxi. 2.)
The plains of Sharon are of vaft extent; and, when
furveyed by the Abbe Mariti a few years ago, they
were fown with cucumbers ; and he informs us, that
fuch a number is annually produced, as not only to
fupply the whole neighbourhood, but alfo all the coaits
of Cyprus and the city of Damietta. In the middle
of the plain, between Arfus and Lydda, rifes a fmall
mountain, upon the ridge of which there is a fmall vil¬
lage called Sharon, from the name of the ancient city
whofe king was conquered by Jolhua.
SHARP (James), archbilhop of St Andrew’s, was
born of a good family in Banfflbire in 1618. He de¬
voted himfelf very early to the church, and was educa¬
ted for that purpofe in the Univerfity of Aberdeen.
When the folemn league and covenant was framed in
1638, the learned men in that leminary, and young
Sharp in particular, declared themfelves decidedly againft
it. To avoid the infults and indignities to which he
was fubie&ed in confequence of this conduct, he retired
to England, where he contraAed an acquaintance witii
fome of the moft celebrated divines in that country.
At the commencement of the civil wars he returned to
Scotland. During his journey thither, he accidentally met
with Lord Oxenford, who was fo charmed with his con-
verfation, that he invited him to his houfe. While he reii-
ded with that nobleman, he became known to the earl
of Rothes, who procured him a profefforlhip at St An¬
drew’s. By the intereft of the earl of Crawford he was
foon after appointed minifter of Crail; where he con-
duAed himfelf, it is faid, in an exemplary manner.
Sharp had always inclined to the caufe of royalty,
and had for fome time kept up a correfpondence with
his exiled prince. After the death of the proteAor he
began to declare himlelf more openly, and fee-ms to have
enjoyed a great lhare of the confidence of Monk, who
was at that time planning the reftoration of Charles II.
When that general marched to London, the prefbyte-
rians fent Sharp to attend him in order to fupport their
interefts. At the requeft of general Monk and the
chief prelbyterians in Scotland, Mr Sharp was fo trea-
Sharp.
S H A f 3-
ter Tent over to the king at Breda to procure from him,
if poffible, the eftablifhrnent of prefbyterianifm. On
his return, he affured his friends that “ he had found
the kin r very affeftionate to Scotland, and refolved not
to wrong the fettled government of the church: but he
aoprehended they were miftaken who went about to
eftablHh the prefbyterian government.”
Charles was foon after reftored without any terms.
All the laws paffed in Scotland fince the year 163 3 were
repealed ; the king and his minifters refolved at all ha¬
zards to reftore prelacy. Mr Sharp, who had been
commifikmed by the Scotch prefbyterians to manage
their interefts with the king, was prevailed upon to
abandon the party; and, as a reward for his compliance,
lie was made archbifhop of St Andrew’s. This conduct
rendered him very odious in Scotland ; he was accufed
of treachery and perfidy, and reproached by his old
friends as a traitor and a renegado. The abfurd and
wanton cruelties which were afterwards committed, and
which were imputed in a great meafure to the archbi¬
fhop, rendered h;m ftill more deteftcd. Nor is it pro¬
bable that thefe accufations were without foundation :
the very circumftance of his having been formerly of
the prefbyterian party would induce him, after forfaking
them, to treat them with feverity. Befides, it is certain,
that when after the rout at Pentland-hills he received
an order from the king to ftop the executions, he kept
it for fome time before he produced it to council.
There was one Mitchell a preacher, and a defperate
fanatic, who had formed the defign of taking vengeance
for thefe cruelties by affaffinating the archbifhop. He
fired a piftol at him as he was fitting in his coach ; but
the bifhop of Orkney, lifting up his hand at the moment,
intercepted the ball. Though this happened in the
midft of Edinburgh, the primate was fo much detefted,
that nobody flopped the aflafiin ; who, having walked
leifurely home, and thrown off his difguife, returned,
and mixed ur.fufpefted with the crowd. Some years
after, the archbifhop obferving a man eyeing him with
keennef s, fufpe&ed that he was the affaffin, and ordered
him to be brought before him. It was Mitchell. Two
loaded- piftols were found in his pocket. The primate
offered him a pardon if he would confefs the crime :
the man complied ; hut Sharp, regardlefs of his promife,
conducted him to the council. The council alfo gave
him a folemn promife of pardon if he would confefs his
guilt, and diicover his accomplices. They were much
difappointed to hear that only one man was privy to his
purpofe, who was fince dead. Mitchell was then brought
before a court of juftice, and ordered to make a third
confeffion, which he refnfed. tie was imprifoned for
feveral years, and then tried. His own confeffion was
urged againfl: him. It was in vain for him to plead the
illegality of that evidence, and'to appeal to the promife
Vol. XV11. Part 1.
7 V S H A
of pardon previoufly given. The council took an oath
that they had given no fuch promite; and Mitchell was
condemned. Lauderdale, who at that time governed
Scotland, would have pardoned him, but the primate
infilled on his execution; obferving, that if affaflins were
permitted to go unpunifhed, his life muff be continually
in danger. Mitchell was accordingly executed.
Sharp had a fervant, one Carmichael, who by his
cruelty had rendered himfelf particularly odious to the
zealots. Nine men formed the refolution of waylaying
him in Magus-muir, about three miles from St Andrew’s.
While they were waiting for this man, the primate him¬
felf appeared with very few attendants. This they look¬
ed upon as a declaration of heaven in their favour ; and
calling out, “theLord has delivered him into our hands,”
they ran up to the carriage. They fired at him with¬
out effetl ; a circumflance which was afterwards impu¬
ted to magic. They then difpatched him with their
fwords, regardlefs of the tears and intreaties of his
daughter, who accompanied him (a).
Thus fell archbifhop Sharp, whofe memory is even
at prefent detefted by the common people of Scotland.
His abilities were certainly good, and in the early part
of his life he appears with honour and dignity. But
his condiuft: afterwards was too cruel and infincere to
merit approbation. His treatment of Mitchell was
mean and vindiftive. How far he contributed to the
meafures adopted againft the preftryterians is not certain.
They were equally cruel and impolitic; nor did their ef¬
fects ceafe with the meafures themfelves. The un¬
heard-of cruelties exercifed by the minifters of Cha. II.
againft the adherents of the covenant, raifed fuch a flame
of enthufiafm and bigotry as is not yet entirely extin-
guiflied.
Sharp (Dr John), archbifhop of York, wasdefeend-
ed from the Sharps of Little Norton, a family of Brad¬
ford Dale in Yorkfhire ; and was fon of an eminent
tradefman of Bradford, where he was born in 1644.
He was educated at Cambridge, and in 1667 entered
into orders. That fame year he became domeftic chap¬
lain to Sir Heneage Finch, then attorney general. In
1672 he was collated to the archdeaconry of Berkfhire.
In 1675 he was inftalled a prebendary in the cathedral
church of Norwich ; and the year following was infli-
tuted into the reftory of St Bartholomew near the
Royal Exchange, London. In 1681 he was, by the
intereft of his patron Sir Heneage Finch, then lord high
chancellor of England, made dean of Norwich ; but in
1C86 was fufpended for taking occafion, in fome of his
fermons, to vindicate the doctrine of the church of Eng¬
land in oppofition to Popery. In 1688 he was fworn
chaplain to king James II. being then probably reftored
after his fufpeniron ; for it is certain that he was cha¬
plain to king Charles II. and attended as. a court cba-
U u plain
\
(a) Such is the account given by all our hiftorians of the murder of archbifhop Sharp ; and that he fell by
the hands of fanatics, whom he perfecuted, is certain. A tradition, however, has been preferved in different fa¬
milies defeended from him, which may be mentioned, and is in itfelf certainly not incredible. I he primate, it
feems, wh « when minifter of Crail, was peculiarly fevere in putiifhrrig the fin of forrfication, had, in the plenitude
of his archiepifcopal authority, taken notice of a criminal amour earned on between a nobleman high in office
sind a lady of fome fafliion who lived within his diocefe. This interference was in that licentious age deemed
very impertinent; and the arclibifliop’s defeendants believe that the proud peer inftigated the decided rabble to
murder their anceftor.
S H A r 333 1 S H A ,
•Sharp, plain at the coronation of king James II. In 1689 he
slla^er‘ was declared dean of Canterbury ; but never could be
perfuaded to fill up any of the vacancies made by the
deprived bifhops. Upon the death of Dr Lamplugh,
he was promoted to the fee of York. In 1702 he
preached the fermon at the coronation of queen Anne;
and the fame year was fworn of the privy-council, and
made lord almoner to her majefty. He died at Bath in
1713; and was interred in the cathedral of York, where
a monument is eredted to his memory.—His fermons,
which were colledted after his death and publiihed in
7 vols 8vo, are jultly admired.
SHARP, in mufic. See Interval.
SHASTER, or Bedang, the name of a facred
book, in high eftimation among the idolaters of Hindo-
ftan, containing all the dogmas of the religion of the
bramins, and all the ceremonies of their worlhip ; and
fcrving as a commentaiy on the-Vedam.
1 The term Shajier denotes “ faience” or “ fyflem
and is applied to other works of aftronomy and philo-
fophy, which have no relation to the religion of the In¬
dians. None but the bramins and rajahs of India are
allowed to read the Vedam; the priefts of the Banians,
called Jhuderers, may read the Shaffer; and the people,
in general, are allowed to read only the Paran or Pou-
ran, which is a commentary on the Shaffer.
The Shaffer is divided into three parts: the firff con¬
taining the moral law of the Indians ; the fecond, the
rites and ceremonies of their religion ; and the third,
the diffribution of the people into tribes or claffes, with
the duties pertaining to each clafs.
The principal precepts of morality contained in the
firft part of the Shaffer are the following: that no ani¬
mal be killed, becaufe the Indians attribute fouls to
brute animals as well as to mankind; that they neither
hear nor fpeak evil, nor drink wine, nor eat flefh, nor
touch any thing that is unclean ; that they obferve the
feaffs, prayers, and walkings, which their law preferibes;
that they tell no lies, nor be guilty of deceit in trade ;
that they neither opprefs nor offer violence to one ano¬
ther; that they celebrate the folemn feafts and faffs, and
appropriate certain hours of ordinary fleep to cultivate
a difpofition for prayer; and that they do not ffeal or
defraud one another. ,
The ceremonies contained in the fecond part of the
Shaffer are fuch as thefe : that they wafh often in the
rivers, hereby obtaining the pardon of their fins; that
they mark their forehead with red, in token of their re¬
lation to the Deity ; that they prefent offerings and
prayers under certain trees, fet apart for this purpofe ;
that they pray in the temples, make oblations to their
pagodas, or idols, fing hymns, and make proceffions,
&e. that they make pilgrimages to diffant rivers, and
efpecially to the Ganges, there to wafh themfelves and
make offerings; that they make vows to particular
faints, according to their refpeftive departments ; that
they render homage to the Deity at the firft fight of
the fun ; that they pay their refpeft to the fun and
moon, which are the two eyes of the Deity ; and that
they treat with particular veneration thofe animals that
are deemed more pure than others; as the cow, buffalo,
&c. ; becaufe the fouls of men have tranfmigiated into
thefe animals.
The third part of the Shaffer records the diftribu-
tion of the people into four claffes: the firft being that
of the bramins or priefts, appointed to inftrudf the Shaffer,
people; the fecond, that of the kutteris or nobles, who ——v—«
are the magiftrates ; the third, that of the fhudderis
or merchants; and the fourth, that of the mechanics.
Each perfon is required to remain in the clafs in which
he was born, and to purfue the occupation affigned to
him by the Shaffer. According to the bramins, the
Shaffer was imparted by God himfelf to Brahma, and
by him to the bramins ; who communicated the con¬
tents of it to the people.
Modern writers have given us very different accounts
of the antiquity and importance of the Shaffer. Mr
Holwell, who had made confiderable progrefs in the
tranflation of this book, apprehends, that the mytholo¬
gy as well as the cofmogony of the Egyptians, Greeks,
and Romans, were borrowed from the dodfrines of the
bramins, contained in it, even to the copying of their
exteriors of worfhip, and the diftribution of their idols,
though grofsly mutilated and adulterated. With refpedl
to the Vedam and Shaffer, or feriptures of the Gen-
toos, this writer informs us, that Vedam, in the Mala¬
bar language, fignifies the fame as Shajier in the Shan-
ferit; and that the firft book is followed by the Gen-
toos of the Malabar and Coromandel coafts, and alfo of
the illand of Ceylon. The Shaffer is followed by the
Gentoos of the provinces of Bengal, and by all the
Gentoos of the reft of India, commonly called India
Proper, along the courfe of the rivers Ganges and Jum¬
na to the Indus. Both thefe books (he fays) contain
the inftitutes of their refpedfive religion and worfhip,
as well as the hiftory of their ancient rajahs and princes,
often couched under allegory and fable. Their anti¬
quity is contended for by the partifans of each ; but he
thinks, that the fimilitude of their names, idols, and
great part of their worfhip, leaves little room to doubt,
nay plainly evinces, that both thefe feriptures were ori¬
ginally one. He adds, if we compare the great purity
and chaffe manners of the Shaffer with the great ab-
furdities and impurities of the Vedam, we need not
hefitate to pronounce the latter a corruption of the
former.
With regard to the high original of thefe feriptures,
the account of the bramins is as follows. Brahma
(that is, “ Mighty Spirit”), about 4866 years ago,
affumed the form of man and the government of Indo-
ftan. He tranflated the divine law (defigned for the
refforation of mankind, who had offended in a pre-ex-
iftent ffate, and who are now in their laft feene of pro¬
bation, to the dignity from which they were degraded)
out of the language of angels into the well known Shan-
ferit language, and called his tranflation the Chart ah
Bha.de Shajlab of Birmah, ox the Six Scriptures of Divine
Words of the Mighty Spirit. He appointed the bramins,
deriving their name from him, to preach the word of
God; and the dodfrines of the Shaffer were according¬
ly preached in their original purity 1000 years. About
this time there was publifhed a paraphrafe on the Char-
tah Bhade ; and about 500 years afterwards, a fecond
expofition, called the Aughlorrah Bhade Sha/la, or Eigh¬
teen Books of Divine Words, written in a character com¬
pounded of the common Indoftan and the Shanfcrit.
This innovation produced a fchifm among the Gen¬
toos ; on which occafion, it is faid, thofe of Coroman¬
del and Malabar formed a feripture of their own,
which they pretended to be founded on the Chartah
Bhade
Shaker.
S H A [ 339 1 s H A
afcfifter. Bhade of Bramah, and called it the Vedam of Bir*
v  mah, or Divine I-Vorch of the Mighty Spirit. The ori¬
ginal Chartah Bhade was thrown afidc, and at length
wholly unknown, except to a few families ; who can
ftill read and expound it in the Shanfcrit charafter.
With the eftablifhment of the Aughtorrah Bhade, and
Vedam, which, according to the Gentoo account, is
3366 years ago, their polytheifm commenced ; and the
principles of religion became fo obfcure, and their ce¬
remonies fo numerous, that every head of a family was
obliged to keep a bramin as a guide both in faith and
practice. Mr Hollwell is of opinion, that the Chartah
Bhade, or Original Scriptures, are not copied from any
other fyllem of theology, promulgated to or obtruded
upon mankind. The Gentoos do not attribute them
to Zoroafter; and Mr Holwell fuppofes, that both Zo-
roafter and Pythagoras vifited Indoftan, not to inftruft,
but to be initrudled.
From the account of Mr Dow, we learn, that the
books which contain the religion and philofophy of the
Hindoos are diilinguilhed by the name of Bedas ; that
they are four in number, and, like the facred writings
of other nations, faid to be penned by the Divinity.
Beda, he fays, in the Shanfcrit language, literally fig-
nifies fcience ; and thefe books treat not only of religion
and moral duties, but of every branch of philofophic
knowledge. The bramins maintain, that the Bedas
are the divine laws, which Brimha, at the creation of
the world, delivered for the inltru&ion of mankind ;
"but they affirm, that their meaning was perverted in
the firft age by the ignorance and wickednefs of fome
princes, whom they reprefent as evil fpirits, who then
baunted the earth.
The firft credible account we have of the Bedas is,
that about the commencement of theCal Jug, of which
era the year 1768 was the 4886th year, they were
written, or rather collefted, by a great philofopher and
reputed prophet, called Beafs Muni, or Be'dfs the In-
Jpired.
The Hindoos, fays Mr Dow, are divided Into two
great religious fedls: the followers of the doftrine of
Bedang, which is the original Shatter, or commentary
upon the Bedas 1 and thofe who adhere to the princi¬
ples of the Neaditfen. The original Shatter is called
Bedang, and is a commentary upon the Bedas. This
book, he fays, is erroneoufly called in Europe the FV-
dam. It is afcribed to Beafs Muni, and is faid to have
been revifed fome years after by one Serrider Swami,
fince which it has been reckonedJacred, and not fubjeft
to any farther alterations.
Almoft all the Hindoos of the Decan, and thofe of
the Malabar and Coromandel coafts, are of this feft.
The followers of the Bedang Shatter do not allow that
any phyfical evil exifts ; they maintain that God crea¬
ted all things perfeftly good ; but that man, being a
free agent, may be guilty of moral evil, which may be
injurious to himfelf, but can be of no detriment to the
general fyftem of nature. God, they fay, being per-
feiftly benevolent, never puniffied the wicked otherwife
than by the pain and afflidlion which are the natural
oonfequeaces of evil actions-; and hell, therefore, is no
other than a confcioufnefs of evil.
The Neadirien Shatter is faid to have been written
by a philofopher called Goutam, near four thoufand years
ago. The bramins, from Mr Dow’s account of their
facred books, appear to believe invariably in the unity,
eternity, omnifcience, and omnipotence of God ; and
the polytheifm of which they have been accufed is no
more than a fymholical worffiip of the divine attributes,
which they divide into three clattes. Under the name
of Brimha, they worfhip the wifdom and creative power
of God ; under the appellation of Bi/hen, his providen¬
tial and preferving quality ; and under that of Shibah,
that attribute which tends to deftroy.
As few of our readers may have an opportunity of
perufing the Shatter, we (hall, by way of fpecimen, fub-
join a paflage from it, which, though it contains fome
metaphyftcal myfteries concerning the creation, yet dif-
covers views of God fo enlightened that they would not
difgrace more refined nations. The paflage which we
{hall quote is the firft chapter of the Shatter, which is
a dialogue between Brimha the Wifdom of the Divini¬
ty, and Narud or Reafon, who is reprefented as the fon
of Brimha. Narud defires to be inttrudfed by his fa¬
ther ; and for that purpofe puts the following queftions
to him :
“ Narud. O father ! thou firft of God, thou art faid
to have created the world, and thy fon Narud, aftonifh-
ed at what he beholds, is defirous to be inftrutled how
all thefe things were made.
“ Brimha. Be not deceived, my fon ! do not imagine
that I was the creator of the world, independent of the
Divine Mover, who is the great original eflence and
creator of ail things. Look, therefore, only upon me
as the inftrument of the great will, and a partrof his
being, whom he called forth to execute his eternal de«
figns.
“ Narud. What fhall we think of God ?
“ Brimha. Being immaterial, he is above all concep¬
tion ; being invifible, he can have no form ; but, from
what we behold in his works, we may conclude that he
is eternal, omnipotent, knowing all things, and prefent
everywhere.
“ Narud. How did God create the world ?
“ Brimha. Affection dwelt with God from all eter¬
nity. It was of three different kinds ; the creative, the
preferving, and the deftru&ive. This firft is reprefent¬
ed by Brimha, the fecond by Bifhen, and the third by
Shibah. You, O Narud! are taught to worffiip all
the three in various fhapes and likeneffes, as the Crea¬
tor, the Preferver, and the Deftroyer. The affe&ion of
God then produced power, and power, at a proper con-
jun&ion of time and fate, embraced goodnefs, and pro¬
duced matter. The three qualities then afting upon
matter, produced the univerfe in the following manner:
From the oppofite actions of the creative and deftruc-
tive quality in matter, felt-motion firft arofe. Self-
motion was of three kinds ; the firft inclining to plafti-
city, the fecond to difcord, and the third to reft. The
difcordant actions then produced the Akaflr (a kind of
celeftial element), which invifible element poffeffed the
quality of conveying found ; it produced air, a palpable
element ; fire, a vifible element; water, a fluid element;
and earth, a folid element.
“ The Akafh difperfed itfelf abroad. Air formed
the atmofphere ; fire, collecting itfelf, blazed forth in
the hoft of heaven ; water rofe to the furface of the
earth, being forced from beneath by the gravity of the
latter element. Thus broke forth the world from the
veil of darknefs, in which it was formerly comprehend-
U u a ed
S H A [
Shatter, ed by God. Order rofe over the unlverle. The fevea
“—  ' heavens were formed, and the feven worlds were fixed
in their places; there to remain till the great diffolution,
when all things fhall be abforbed into God.
“ God feeing the earth in full bloom, and that vege¬
tation was ftrong from its feeds, called forth for the fril
time intelleff, which he endued with various organs and
fhapes, to form a diverlity of animals upon the earth.
" He endued the animals with five fenfes; feeling, feeing,
fmelling, tailing, and hearing ; but-to man he gave re¬
flection, to raife him above the beads of the field.
“ The creatures were created male and female, that
they might propagate their fpecies upon the earth.
Every herb bore the feed of its kind, that the world
might be clothed with verdure, and all animals pro-
vided with food-
“ Narud. What doft thou mean, O father! by In¬
tellect ?
“ Jir.mha. It is a portion of the great foul of the
nniverfe breathed into all creatures, to animate them
for a certain time.
“ Narud. What becomes of it after death ?
Brimha. It animates other bodies, or returns, like
a drop, into that unbounded ocean from which it firit
• arofe.
“ Narud. Shall not then the fouls of good men re¬
ceive rewards ? nor the fouls of the bad meet with pu-
»ifhment ?
“ Brimha. The fouls of men are diftinguifhed from
thofe of other animals ; for the flrft are endued with
reafon, and with a confcioufnefs of right and wrong.
If therefore man fhall adhere to the firfl, as far as his
(lowers fliall extend, his foul, when difengaged from the
body by death, fnall be abforbed into the divine effence,
and fhall never more reanimate flefh : But the fouls of
thofe who do evil are not, at death, difengaged from
all the elements. They are immediately clothed with
a body of lire, air, and akafh, in which they are for a
time punifhed in hell. After the feafon of their grief
Is over, they reanimate other bodies ; but till they fhall
arrive at a ftate of purity they can never be abiorbed
into God.
“ Narud. What is the nature of that abforbed flate
which the fouls of good men enjoy after death ?
“ Brimha. It is a participation of the divine nature,
where all paffions are utterly unknown, and where con-
feioufnefs is loft in blifs.
“ Narud. Thou fayeft, O father, that unlefs the
foul is perfectly pure it cannot be abforbed into God:
now, as the aClions of the generality of men are partly
good and partly bad, whither are their fpirits fent im¬
mediately after death ?
“ Brimha. They muft atone for their crimes in hell,
where they muft remain for a fpace proportioned to the
degree of their iniquities ; then they^ rife to heaven to
be rewarded for a time for their virtues; and from
thence they wall return to the world to reanimate other
bodies.
“ Narud. What is time ?
“ Brimha. Time exifted from all eternity with God :
but it can only be eftimated fince motion was produ¬
ced, and only be conceived by the mind, from its own
conftant progyefs.
“ Narud. How long fhall this wmrld remain ?
“ Brimha. Until the four lugs fhall have revolved.
340 1 SHE
Then Rudder (the fame with Shihah> the deftroying
quality of God), with the ten fpirits of diffolution,
fhall roll a comet under the moon, that fhall involve all Sheading,
things in fire, and reduce the world into afhes. God
fhall then exift alone, for matter will be totally annihi¬
lated.”
'1 hofe wdio defire more information on this fubieCl
may confult Dow's Hijlory of Indojtan, and HolweWt
Inter fling Hijlorical Events.
SHAW (Dr Thomas), known to the learned wmrld
by his travels to Barbary and the Levant, was born at
Kendal in Weftmoreland about the year 1692. He
was appointed chaplain to the Englifh conful at Al¬
giers, in which ftation he continued for fever al years ;
and from thence took proper opportunities of travel¬
ling into different parts. He returned in 1733; was
eleCled fellow of the Royal Society ; and pubiiihed the
account of his travels at Oxford, folio, 173K, In 1740
he was nominated principal of St Edmond-hall, which
he railed from a ruinous ffate by his munincence ; and
was regius piofeflbr of Greek at Oxford until his death,
which happened in 1751. Dr Clayton, Bp. ofClogher’
having attacked thefe Travels in his Defcription of
the Eaft, Dr Shaw publifhed a fupplement by way
of vindication, wEich is incorporated into the fecond
edition of his Travels, prepared by himfelf, and publifh-
ed in qto, 1 757,
SHAWLS, are woollen handkerchiefs, an ell wide,
and near two long. The wool is fo fine and filky,
that the whole handkerchief may be contained in the
two hands doled. It is the produce of a Tibet fheep ;
but fome, lay that no wool is employed but that of
lambs torn from the belly of their mother before the
time of birth. The moll beautiful fhawls come from
Caihmire : their price is from 150 livres (about fix
guineas) to 12 :0 livres (or L. 30 Sterling.)
In the TranfaCtions of the Society for Encourainnrr
Arts, Manufactures, &c. for the year 1792, we are in¬
formed that a fhawl counterpane, four yards fquare,
manufactured by Mr T. J. Knights of Norwich, was
prefented to the fociety ; and that, upon examination,
it appeared to be of greater breadth than any goods
of" equal finenefs and texture that had ever before been
preiented to the lociety, or to their knowledge woven
in this country. The fhawls of Mr Knights’s manu%
iaCture, it is faid, can fcarcely be diftinguiihed from In¬
dian fhawls, though they can be afforded at one-twen¬
tieth part of the price. When the fhawl is 16 quarters
fquare, Mr Knights fays it may be retailed at L. 20 ;
if it conlifted of 1 2 quarters, and embroidered as the
former, it will coft L. 15 ; if plain, with a fringe only,
a fhawl of 16 quarters fquare may be fold at L. 8, 8 s.;
if 12 quarters and fringed, at L. 6, 6s.
Mr Knights maintains, that his counterpane of four
yards fquare is equal in beauty, and fuperior in ftrength,
to the Indian counterpanes which are fold at 200 gui¬
neas. The principal confumption of this cloth is in
tratn-drefies for ladies ; as hkewife for long fcarfs, in
imitation of the real Indian fcarfs, which are fold from
L. 60 to L. 80 ; whereas, fcarfs of this fabric are fold
for as many fhillings, and the ladies fquare lhawls in
proportion. ^
SHEADING, a riding, tything, or divifion, in the
I lie of Man ; the whole illand being divided into fix
{headings ; in every one of which is a coroner or chief
2> conltablcj.
S H
Shaw
SHE f 341 ] SHE
Shearbill conllable, appointed by the delivery of a rod at the an¬
il nual convention.
sheep. SHEARBILL, the Rhynchops Nigra of Linnaeus,
J’" the Black Skimmer of Pennant and Latham, and Cut¬
water of Catelby. Its bill is much comprefTt'd 5 the
edpes are fharp; the lower mandible is four inches and
a half long ; the upper only three ; the bafe red ; the
reft is black : the forehead, chin, front of the neck, the
breaft, and belly, are white : the head and whole upper
part of the body are black : the wings are of the fame
colour: the lower part of the inner webs of the pri¬
maries is white : the tail is fhort, and a little forked 5
the middle feathers are dufky ; the others are white on
their fides : the legs are weak and red : the length is
one foot eight inches : the extent is three feet feven
inches. It inhabits America from New York to Gui¬
ana. It fkims nimbly along the water, with its.under
mandible juft beneath the furiace, feeding on the infedts
and fmall fifh as it proceeds. It frequents alfo oyfter-
banks ; its bill being partly like that of the oyfter-
catcher, adapted for preying on thofe fhell-fifh.
SHEATHING) in the fea-language, is the cafing
that part of a fhip which is to be under water with fir-
board of an inch thick ; firft laying hair and tar mixed
together under the boards, and then nailing them on,
in order to prevent worms from eating the fhip’s bot¬
tom.—Ships of war are now generally fheathed with
copper : but copper fheathing is liable to be corroded
by the aft ion of fait water, and fomething is {fill want¬
ing to effeft this purpofe. It is very probable that tar
might anfwer very well.
In the Cornifh mines, copper or brafs pumps are
often placed in the deepeft parts, and are confequently
ejcpofed to the vitriolic or other mineral waters with
which fome of thefe mines abound, and which are known
to have a much ftronger effeft; on copper than fea-wa-
ter. Thefe pumps are generally about fix feet long,
and are {crewed together, and made tight by the inter-
pofition of a ring of lead, and the joinings are after¬
wards tarred. One of thefe pumps was io much cor¬
roded as to render it unfit for ufe ; but the fpots of tar,
which by accident had dropped on it, preferved the
parts they covered from the aftion of the water. Thefe
projefted in fome places more than a quarter of an inch;
and the joints were fo far defended by the thin coat of
tar, that it was as perfeft as when it came from the
hands of the manufafturer. If tar thus effeftually de¬
fends copper from thefe acrimonious waters, can there
remain a doubt of its preferving it from the much mild¬
er waters of the fea ?
SHEATS, in a (hip, are ropes bent to the clews of
the fails ; ferving in the lower fails to haul aft the clews
of the fail; but in topfails they ferve to haul home the
clew of the fail clofe to the yard-arm.
SHEEP, in zoology. See Ovis and Wool.
Amongft the various animals with which Divine Pro¬
vidence has ftored the world for the ufe of man, none is
to be found more innocent, more ufeful, or more valu¬
able, than the fhetp. The fheep fupplies us with food Sheep,
and clothing, and finds ample employment for our
poor at all times and feafons of the year, whereby a ^]lefp
variety of manufaftures of woollen cloth is carried on ferve a
without interruption to dcmeftic comfort and lofs to wonderful'
friendly fociety or injury to health, as is the cafe with variet7
many other occupations. Every lock of wool that pur^°fcs*
grows on its back becomes the means of fupport to
ftaplers, dyers, pickers, fcourers, fcriblers, carders, comb¬
ers, fpinners, fpoolers, warpers, queelers, weavers,
fullers, tuckers, burlers, fhearmen, preffers, clothiers,
and packers, who, one after another, tumble and tofs,
and twift, and bake, and boil, this raw material, till
they have each extrafted a livelihood out of it; and
then comes the merchant, who, in his turn, (hips it (in
its higheft ftate of improvement) to all quarters of the
globe, from whence he brings back every kind of riches
to his country, in return for this valuable commodity
which the fheep affords.
Befides this, the ufeful animal, after being deprived
of his coat, produces another againft the next year j
and when we are hungry, and kill him for food, he
gives us his Ain to employ the fell-mongers and parch¬
ment-makers, who fupply us with a durable material for
fecuring our eftates, rights, and poffeffions ; and if our
enemies take the field againft us, fupplies us with a
powerful inftrument for roufing our courage to repol
their attacks. When the parchment-maker has taken
as much of the {kin as he can ufe, the glue-maker comes
after and picks up every morfel that is left, and there¬
with fupplies a material for the carpenter and cabi¬
net-maker, which they cannot do without, and which-
is effentially neceffary before we can have elegant furni¬
ture in our houfes ; tables, chairs, leoking-glaffes, and a
hundred other articles of convenience : and when the
winter nights come on, while we are deprived of the
cheering light of the fun, the fheep fupplies us with an
artificial mode of light, whereby we preierve every plea-
fure of domeftic fociety, and with whofe affiftance we
can continue our work, or write or read, and improve
our minds, or enjoy the focial mirth of our tables. An¬
other part of the flaughtered animal fupplies us with an
Ingredient neceffary for making good common foap, a
ufeful {tore for producing cleanlinefs in every family,
rich or poor. Neither need the horns be thrown
away ; for they are converted by the button-makers and.
turners into a cheap kind of buttons, tips for bows,
and many ufeful ornaments. From the very trotters
an oil Is extrafted ufeful for many purpofes, and they
afford good food when baked in an oven.
Even the bones are ufeful alfo ; for by a late inven¬
tion of Dr Higgins, they are found, when reduced to
afhes, to be an ufeful and effential ingredient in the com-
pofition of the fineft artificial ftone in ornamental work
for chimney-pieces, cornices of rooms, houfes, &c.
which renders the compofitkm more durable by effec¬
tually preventing its cracking (a).
If it is objefted to the meek inoffenfive creature, that
he
(a) Any curious perfon would be much entertained to fee tire manufaftory of bone-a(h, now carried on by
Mr Minifh of White chapel, New Road, wherein the bones of fheep and cows undergo many ingenious procefles.
1 • There is a mill to break them ; 2. A cauldron to extraft their oil, marrow, and fat; 3. A reverberatory to heat
Ttem red-hot; 4. An oven for thofe bones to moulder to alhes} 5. A ftiU to culled the fumes of the burnt
bones-''
a
Account of
the S[ anifli
fiieep
iQf Sego¬
via,
Sourgo-
anne s Tra¬
vels, vol. i.
jP' S3*
SHE [ 342 ] SHE
he is expcnfive while living, in eating up our grafs,
&c. it may be anfwered that it is quite the contrary;
for he can feed where every other animal has been be¬
fore him and grazed all they could find ; and that if he
takes a little grafs on our downs or in our fields, he
amply repays us for every blade of grafs in the richnefs
of the manure which he leaves behind him. He pro-
tefts the hands from the cold wintry blaft,~by providing
them with the fofteft leather gloves. Every gentle¬
man’s library is alfo indebted to him for the neat bind¬
ing of his books, for the (heath of his fword, and for
cales for his inftruments ; in (hort, not to be tedious in
mentioning the various ufes of leather, there is hardly
any furniture or utenfil of life but the (heep contri¬
butes to render either more ufeful, convenient, or orna¬
mental.
As the fheep is fo valuable an animal, every piece of
information concerning the proper method of managing
it mud be of importance. It will not therefore be ufe-
lefs nor unentertaining to give fome account of the man¬
ner' of managing (heep in Spain, a country famous for
producing the bed wool in the world.
In Spain there are two kinds of (heep : the coarfe-
woolied fheep, which always remain in their native
country, and are houfed every night in winter; and the
fine-wooled (heep, which are always in the open air,
and travel every fummer from the cool mountains of the
northern parts of Spain, to feed in winter on the fouth-
ern warm plains of Andalufia, Mancha, and Edrama-
<lura. Of thefe latter, it appears from accurate com¬
putations, that there are about five millions ( b ) ; and
that the wool and flefh of a flock of 10,000 (heep pro¬
duce yearly about 24 reals a-head, or about the value
of 12 Englifh fixpences, one of which belongs to the
owner, three to the king, and the other eight are al¬
lowed for the expences of padure, tythes, (hepherds,
dogs, fait, (hearing, &c. Ten thoufand (heep form a
flock, which is divided into ten tribes, under the ma¬
nagement of ene perfon, who has abfolute dominion
over fifty (hepherds and fifty dogs.
M. Bourgoanne, a French gentleman, who redded
many years in Spain, and diredfed his inquiries chiefly
to the civil government, trade, and manufaftures, of
that country, gives the following account of the wan¬
dering (heep of Segovia. “ It is (fays he) in the neigh¬
bouring mountains that a part of the wandering (heep
feed during the fine feafon. They leave them in the
month of Odfober, pafs over thofe which feparate the
two Cadiles, crofs New Cadile, and difperfe themfelves
in the plains of Edramadura and Andalufia. For fome
years pad thofe of the two Cadiles, which are within
reach of the Sierra-Morena, go thither to pafs the win¬
ter ; which, in that part of Spain, is more mild: the Sheep.
length of their day’s journey is in proportion to the  •<
padure they meet with. They travel in flocks from
1000 to 1200 in number, under the conduct of two
fhepherds ; one of whom is called the Mayoral, the
other the Zagal. When arrived at the place of their
dedination, they are didribufed in the padures preyi-
oufly affigned them. They return in the month of
April; and whether it be habit or natural indindt that
draws them towards the climate, which at this feafon
becomes mod proper for them, the inquietude which
they manifed might, in eafe of need, ferve as an alma¬
nac to their condudlors.”
Mr Arthur Young, in that patriotic work which he
condutted with great indudry and judgment, the An¬
nals of Agriculture, gives us a very accurate and inte-
reding account of the Pyrenean or Catalonian (heep.
“ On the northern ridge, bearing to the wed, areofctta-
the padures of the Spaniih flocks. This ridge is not, Ionia,
however, the whole ; there are two other mountains,Annals °f
quite in a different fituation, and the (heep travel from (i£rtcul!urti
one to another as the padurage is (hort or plentiful. I p'
examined the foil of thefe mountain padures, and found
it in general dony; what in the wed of England would
be called z. flone brafh, with fome mixture of loam, and
in a few places a little peaty. The plants are many of
them untouched by the (heep ; many ferns, narciffus,
violets, &c. but burnet (poieriutn fanguiforba} and the
narrow-leaved plantain (plantago lanceolata) were eaten,
as may be fuppofed, clofe. I looked for trefoils, but
found fcarcely any : it was very apparent that foil and
peculiarity of herbage had little to do in rendering thefe
heights proper for (heep. In the northern parts of Eu¬
rope, the tops of mountains half the height of thefe
(for we were above fnow in July) are bogs, all are fo
which I have feen in our iflands, or at lead the pro¬
portion of dry land is very trifling to that which is ex¬
tremely wet: Here they are in general very dry. Now
a great range of dry land, let the plants be what they
may, will in every country fuit (heep. The flock is
brought every night to one fpot, which is fituated at
the end of the valley on the river I have mentioned, and
near the port or paffage of Picada: it is a level fpot
flickered from all winds. The foil is 8 or 9 inches deep
of old dung, not at all inclofed : from the freedom from
wood all around, it feems to be chofen partly for fafety
againd wolves and bears. Near it is a very large done,
or rather rock, fallen from the mountain. This the
(hepherds have taken for a (belter, and have built a hut
againd it; their beds are (heep (kins, and their door
fmall that they crawl in. I faw no place for fire ; but
they have it, fince they drefs here the flelh of their (heep,
and
bones into a brown fluid, from whence hartfliorn is made ; 6 Furnaces for making parts thereof into Glauber'#
falls ; 7. A fand heat containing twelve jars, for colle&ing a crydallizing vapour into fal-ammoniac.
(b) Iri the 16th century the travelling (heep were edimated at feven millions: under Philip III. the number
was diminilhed to two millions and a half. Udariz, who wrote at the beginning of this century, made it amount
to four m llions. ( he general opinion is, that at prefent it does not exceed five millions. If to this number the
eight millions of dationary (heep be added, it will make nearly thirteen millions of animals, all managed contrary
to the true intereds of Spain, (or the advantage of a few individuals. For the proprietors of dationary flocks
a o have privileges which greatly refemble thofe of the members of the Meda. According to Arriquebar, Spain
contains eight millions of fine-wooled (heep, ten millions of coarfe-wooled, and live hundred thoufand bulls, oxen,
ana cows. '
SHE f 343 1 SHE
Sheep, and m the night fometimes keep off the bears, by whirl-
—-v ' ing fire-brands: four of them belonging to the flock
mentioned above lie here. I viewed their flock very care¬
fully, and by means of our guide and interpreter, made
fome inquiries of the fhepherds, which they anfwered
readily, and very civilly. A Spaniard at Venafque, a
city in the Pyrenees, gives 6o© livres French (the livre
is lo^d. Englifh) a-year for the pafturage of this flock
of 2000 fheep. In the winter he fends them into the
lower parts of Catalonia, a journey of 12 or 13 days,
and when the fnow is melted in the fpring, they
are conduced back again. They are the whole year
kept in motion, and moving from fpot to fpot, which
is owing to the great range they everywhere have of
pafture. They are always in the open air, never houfed
or under cover, and never talle of any food but what
they can find on the hills.
“ Four fliepherds, and from four to fix large Spanifh
dogs, have the care of this flock: the latter are in France
called of the Pyrenees breed; they are black and white,
of the fize of a large wolf, a large head and neck, arm¬
ed with collars ftuck with iron fpikes. No wolf can ftand
againft them ; but bears are more potent adverfaries:
if a bear can reach a tree, he is fafe; he rifes on his hind
legs, with his back to the tree, and fets the dogs at de¬
fiance. In the night the ihepherds rely entirely on
their dogs ; but on hearing, them bark are ready with
. fire-arms, as the dogs rarely bark if a bear is not at
hand. I wTas furprifed to find that they are fed only
with bread and milk. The head fhepherd is paid 120
livres a-year wages and bread ; the others 80 livres and
bread. But they are allowed to keep goats, of which
they have many which they milk every day. Their food
is milk and bread, except the flefli of fuch fheep or
lambs as accidents give them. The head fhepherd
keeps on the mountain top, or an elevated fpot, from
whence he can the better fee around while the flock tra-
verfes the declivities. In doing this the flieep are ex-
pofed to great danger in places that are ftony ; for by
walking among the rocks, and efpecially the goats,
they move the ftones, which, rolling down the hills,
acquire an accelerated force enough to knock a man
down, and fheep are often killed by them ; yet we faw
how alert they were to avoid fuch ftones, and cautiouf-
ly on their guard againft them. I examined the fheep
attentively. They are in general polled, but fome have
horns ; which in the rams turn backwards behind the
ears and project half a circle forward ; the ewes horns
turn alfo behind the ears, but do not projedt : the legs
white or reddifh; fpeckled faces, fome white, fome
reddifh ; they would weigh fin, I reckon, on an average,
from 15 lb. to 18 lb. a quarter. Some tails fhort, fome
left long. A few black fheep among them : fome with
a very little tuft of wool on their foreheads. On the
whole they refemble thofe on the South Downs ; their
legs are as fhort as thofe of that breed ; a point which
merits obfervation, as they travel fo much and fo well.
Their fhape is very good ; round ribs and flat ftraight
backs; and would with us be reckoned handfome
fheep ; all in good order and flefh. In order to be ftill
better acquainted with them, I defired one of the fhep¬
herds to catch a ram for me to feel, and examine the
wool, which I found very thick and good of the card¬
ing fort, as may be fnppofed. I took a fpecimen of it,
and alfo of a hoggit, or Iamb of lafl: year. In regard Sfeep.
to the mellow foftnefs under the flcin, which, in Mr
Bakewell’s opinion, is a ftrong indication of a good
breed, with a difpofition to fatten, he had it in a much
fuperior degree to many of our Englifh breeds, to the
full as much fo as the South Downs, which are for that
point the beft fhort-woolled fheep which I know in
England. The fleece was on his back, and weighed, as
I guefled, about 8 lb. Englifh; but the average, they
fay, of the flock is- from four to five,Jas I calculated by
reducing the Catalonian pound of 12 oz. to ours of 16*
and is all fold to the French at 30s. the lb. French. This
ram had the wool of the back part of his neck tied clofe,
and the upper tuft tied a fecond knot by way of orna¬
ment ; nor do they ever fhear this part of the fleece for
that reafon : we faw feveral in the flock with this fpe-
cies of decoration. They faid that this ram would fell
in Catalonia for 20 livres. A circumftance which can¬
not be too much commended, and deferves univerfat
imitation, is the extreme docility they accuftom them
to. When I defired the fhepherd to catch one of his
rams, I fuppofed he would do it with his crook, or pro¬
bably not be able to do it at all; but he walked into
the flock, and fingling out a ram and a goat, bid them
follow him, which they did immediately j and he talk¬
ed to them while they were obeying him, holding out:
his hand as if to give them fomething. By this method
he brought me the ram, which I caught, and held with¬
out difficulty.” 5
The beft fort of fheep for fine wool are thofe bred What flieep
in Herefordfhire, Devonfhire, and Worcefterfhire ; but produce the
they are fmall, and black-faced, and bear but a fmallbeft
quantity. Warwick, Leicefterfhire, Buckingham, and
Northamptonfhire, breed a large boned flieep, of the
beft fhape and deepeft wool we have. The- marfhea
of Lincolnfhire breed a very large kind of fheep, but
their wool is not good, unlefs the breed be mended by
bringing in flieep of other counties among them, wdiich
is a fcbeme of late very profitably followed there. la
this county, it is no uncommon thing to give fifty gui¬
neas for a ram, and a guinea for the admiffion of air
ewe to one of thefe valuable males, or twenty guineas
for the ufe of it for a certain number of ewes during
one feafon. Suffolk alfo breeds a very valuable kind of
fheep. The northern counties in general breed fheep
with long but hairy wool: however, the wool which is
taken from the neck and fhoulders of the Yorkfhire fheep
is ufed for mixing with Spanifh wool in fome of their
fineft cloths.
Wales bears a fmall hardy kind of fheep, which has^
the beft tailed flefli, but the worft wool of all. Never-
thelefs it is of more extenfive ufe than the fineft Sego-
vian fleeces ; for the benefit of the flannel manufaSlure
is univerfally knoxfrn. The fheep of Ireland vary like
thofe of Great Britain : thofe of the fouth and eaft be¬
ing large and their flefh rank : thofe of the north and
the mountainous parts fmall and their flefn fweet. The
fleeces in the fame manner differ in degrees of value.
Scotland breeds a fmall kind, and their fleeces arc
coarfe.
But the new Leicefterfhire breed is the moft fafhion-
ahle, and of courfe the moft profitable breed in the
ifland. Jofeph Altom of Clifton, who raifed himfelf
from a plough-boy, was the firft who diftinguifhed l.im-
1 felf
SHE r 344 1 SHE
Sheep,
Telf in the midland counties of England for a fuperior
*■*—w  breed of Iheep. How he improved his breed is not
known ; but it was cuilomary for eminent farmers in his
time to go to Clifton in fummer to choofe and purehafe
ram-lambs, for which they paid two or three guineas.
This man was fucceeded by Mr Bakewell; and it may
reafonably be fuppofed that the breed, by means of Al-
tom’s ftock, had pad'ed the fhft ftage of improvement
before Mr Bakewell’s time. Still, however, it muft be
acknowledged, that the Leicefterfhire breed of iheep
owes its prefent high Hate of improvement to the abi¬
lity and care of Mr Bakewell.
Account of “ manner in which Mr Bakewell raifed his fheep
M- Bake- to the degree of celebrity in which they defervedly Hand,
is, notwithHanding the recentnefs of the improvement,
and its being done in the day of thoufands now living,
a thing in difpute ; even among men high in the pro-
feffionj’ and living in the very diHridi in which the im¬
provement has been carried on !
“ Some are of opinion that he effedled it by a crofs
now it ,s wIth the Wilt (hire breed ; an improbable idea, as their
fuppofed he form altogether contradi&s it : others, that the Rye-
improved land breed were ufed'for this purpofe ; and with fome
(how of probability. If any crofs whatever was ufed,
the Ryeland breed, whether we view the form, the fize,
the wool, the flelh, or the fatting quality, is the molt
probable inHruraent of improvement.
“ Thefe ideas, however, are regiitered merely as mat¬
ters of opinion. It is more than probable that Mr
Bakewell alone is in poffefiion of the feveral minutiae of
improvement ; and the public can only hope that at
a proper time the fafts may be communicated for the
direction of future improvers.
“Whenever this fliall take place, it will moH probably
come out that no crofs with any alien breed whatever
has been ufed ; but that the improvement has been ef-
fefted by feledling individuals from kindred breeds;
from the feveral breeds or varieties of long-woolled fheep,
with which Mr Bakewell was furrounded on almoH
well’s
breed.
JS'Lirjhall's
Midland
Counties)
■vol. i.
P-38“
7.
How it is
every fide, and by breeding, inandin ( c ), with this felec-
tion: folicitoufly feizing the fuperior accidental va¬
rieties produced; affociating thefe varieties; and Hill
continuing to feledt, with judgment, the fuperior indi-
g viduals.
Defcription “ It now remains to give a description of the fuperior
of his ewes dafs of individuals of this breed, efpecially ewes and
and wed- wedders, in full condition, but not immoderately fat.
tiers. rpjie rams w[]j require to be diHinguifhed afterwards.
“ The head is long, fmall, and hornlefs, with ears
fomewhat long, and Handing backward, and with the
nofe fhooting forward. The neck thin, and clean toward
the head; but taking a conical form ; Handing low,
and enlarging every'way .at the bafe ; the fore-end alto¬
gether fhort. The bofom broad, with the fhoulders,
ribs, and chine-extraordinary full. The loin broad, and
the back level. The haunches comparatively full to¬
ward the hips, but light downward ; being altogether
fmall in proportion to the fore-parts. The legs, at
prefent, of a moderate length ; with the bone extreme¬
ly fine. The bone throughout remarkably light. The
carcafe, when fully fat, takes a remarkable form ; much Sheep,
wider than it is deep, .and almoH as broad as it is long.   v-—
Full on the fhoulder, wideH on the ribs, narrowing
with a regular curve towards the tail ; approaching
the form ot the turtle nearer perhaps than any other
animal. The pelt is thin, and the tail fmall. 'lire wool
is fhorter than long wools in general, but much longer
than the middle wools ; the ordinary length of Haple
five to feven inches, varying much in finenefs and
weight.”
This breed furpaffes every other in beauty of form ; Fatten re-
they are full and weighty in the fore quarters ; and are markably
remarkable for fmallnefs of bone. Mr Marfhall, who has welI-
been of fo much benefit to agriculture and his country
by his publications, informs us, in his Rural Economy
of the Midland Counties, that he has feen a rib of a
fheep of this breed contrafted with one of a Norfolk
fheep: the difparity was Hriking; the latter nearly
twice the fize ; while the meat which covered the for¬
mer was three times the thicknefs; confequently the
proportion of meat to bone was in the one incompara¬
bly greater than in the other. Therefore, in this point
of view, the improved breed has a decided preference :
for furely while mankind continue to eat flefh and throw
away bone, the former muH be, to the coniumer at
leaH, the more valuable.
The criterions of good and bad flefh while the ani¬
mal is alive differ in different fpecies, and are not pro¬
perly fettled in the fame fpecies. One fuperior breeder
is of opinion, that if the flefh-is not loofe, it is of courfe
good ; holding, that the flefh of fheep is never found
in a Hate of hardnefs, like that of ill-flefhed cattle :
while others make a fourfold diHinftion of the flelh of
fheep ; as loofenefs, mellownefs, firmnefs, hardnefs:
confidering the firlt and the laH equally exceptionable,
and the fecond and third equally defirable ; a happy mix¬
ture of the two being deemed the point of perfection.
The flefh of fheep, when flaughtered, is well known
to be of various qualities. Some is compofed of large
coarfe grains, interfperfed with wide empty pores like
a fponge : others, of large grains, with wide pores fill¬
ed with fat ; others, of fine clofe grains, with fmaller
pores filled with fat : and a fourth, of clofe grains, with¬
out any intermixture of fatnefs.
The flefh of fheep, when dreffed, is equally well
known to poffefs a variety of qualities : fome mutton is
coarfe, dry, and infipid ; a dry fponge, affording little
or no gravy of any colour. Another fort is fomewhat
firmer, imparting a light-coloured gravy only. A third
plump, fhort, and palatable; affording a mixture of
white and red gravy. A fourth like wife plump and
well-flavoured, but difehargiftg red gravy, and this in
various quantities.
It is likewife obfervable, that fome mutton, when
dreffed, appears covered with a thick, tough, parch-
ment-like integument ; others with a membrane compa¬
ratively fine and flexible. But thefe, and fome of the
other qualities of mutton, may not be wholly owing to
breed, but in part to the age and the Hate of fatnefs
at the time of flaughter. Examined in this light, whe¬
ther
(c) Inandin is a term ufed ia the midland counties of England to exprefs breeding from the fame family.
SHE
Mltfland
Courties,
voi. i.
V- 39?-
lo
How the
rams are
(reared.
ther we confidcr the degree of fatnefa, or their natural
propeniity to a ftate of fatnefs, even at an early age,
the improved breed of Leicdterfhire iheep appear with
many fuperior advantages.
The degree of fatnefs to which the individuals of this
breed are capable of being raifed, will perhaps appear
incredible to thofe who have not had an opp< •• unity of
being convinced by their own obfervation. “ I have feen
wedders (fays Mr Marfhall) of only two {hear (two to
three years old) fo loaded with fat as to be fcarcely
able to make a run ; and whofe fat lay fo much with¬
out the bone, it feemed ready to be fhaken from the ribs
on the fmalleft agitation.
“ It is common for the {heep of this breed to have fuch
a projection of fat upon the ribs, immediately behind
the ihoulder, that it may he eafily gathered up in the
hand, as the flank of a fat bullock. Hence it has gain-
ed, in technical language, the name of the fore-flank ;
a point which a modern breeder never fails to touch in
judging of the quality of this breed of fheep.
“ What is, perhaps, ftili more extraordinary, it is not
rare for the rams, at lead of this breed, to be ‘ cracked
on the back that is, to be cloven along the top of
the chine, in the manner fat {heep generally are upon
the rump: This mark is coniidered as an evidence of
the bell blood.
“ Extraordinary, however, as are thefe appearances
while the animals are living, the fafts are ftili more lin¬
king after they are flaughtered. At Litchfield, in
C 345 ]
SHE
Sheep.
Iharhogs is feen their degree of inclination to fat at an
early age.
_ “ Fatting quality being the one thing needful in gra¬
zing Hock, and being found, in feme conliderable de¬
gree at kail, to be hereditary, the fatteil rams are of
courfe the bed ; though other attachments, well or ill
placed, as to form or fafhionable points, will perhaps
have equal or greater weight in the minds of fome men,
even in this enlightened age. Such {headings as will
not make up fuffioiently as to form and fatnefs,are either
kept on to another year to give them a fair chance,
or are cadrated, or butchered while fharhogs.”
From the fird letting, about 40 years ago, to the whaVfum*
year 1780, the prices kept gradually riling from fifteen Mr Bake-
{hillings to a guinea, and from one to ten. In i78owfilre'
Mr Bakewell let feveral at ten guineas each ; and, whatfc>‘ved for
is rather inexplicable, Mr Parkinfon of Quarndon let thei'nf
one the fame year for twenty-five guineas; a price which
then adonifhed the whole country.
From that time to 1786 Mr BakewelPs dock rofe
rapidly from ten to a hundred guineas ; and that year
he let two thirds of one ram (referving one third of the
ufual number of ewes to himfelf) to two principal breed¬
ers, for a hundred guineas each, the entire lervices of
the ram being rated at three hundred guineas ! Mr
Bakewell making that year, by letting twenty rams on¬
ly, more than a thoufand pounds !
Since that time the prices have been dill riling. Four
hundred guineas have been repeatedly given. Mr Bake-
XT C o r r r r   ’ V. 11^iveil. mr uaKe-
™iarJ J *aw a fore quarter of mutton, fatted well, this year (1789) makes, fays Mr Marfhall, twelve
by Mr rnneep of Croxall, and which meatured upon hundred guineas by three rams (brothers, we believe)•
the ribs tour inches of fat It mud be acknowledged, two thoufand of feven ; and of his whole letting, full
however, that the Leicederftiire breed do not produce three thoufand guineas !
lo much wool as mod other long-woolled dieep.
As the practice of letting rams by the feaibn is now
become profitable, it may be ufeful to mention the me¬
thod of rearing them.
^ “ The principal ram-breeders fave annually twenty,
thirty, or perhaps forty ram lambs; cadration being
feklom applied, in the fird indance, to the produce of a
valuable ram . for in the choice of thefe lambs they are
Jed more by blood, or parentage, than by form ; on
which, at an early age, little dependence can be placed.
Their treatment from the time they are weaned, in Ju¬
ly or Aiuguft, until the time of fhearino, the fird week
in June, confids in giving them every indulgence of
keep, in order to pufti them forward for the fhow ; it
being the common practice to let fuch as are fit to be
let the firft feafon, while they are yet yearhugs—pro-
vineially ‘ (harhogsrP
“ Their fit d padure, after weaning, is pretty generally,
I believe, clover that has been mown early, and has ;rot
a fecor.d time into head ; the heads of clover being con-
fidered as a mod forcing food of iheep. After this goes
off, turnips, cabbages, colewort, with hay, and (report
fays) with corn. But the ufe of this the breeders feve-
r-dly deny, though collectively they may be liable to the
charge.
“ Be this as it may, fomething confiderable depends on
Belide this extraordinary fum made by Mr Bakewell,
there are fix or feven other breeders who make from
five hundred to a thoufand guineas each. The whole
amount of monies produced that year in the Midland
Counties, by letting rams of the modern breed for one
feafon only, is eft {mated, by thofe who are adequate to
the fubjed, at the aimed incredible fum of ten thoufand
pounds.
Rams previous to the feafon are reduced from the The treat-
cumbrous fat date in which they are ftiown. The ufual ment of
time of fending them out is the middle of September.the ra,Tr'
They are conveyed in carriages of two wheels with ^dhc.h°1C<l
fprings, or hung in flings, 2 3 or 30 miles a-day, fome- ewts^
times to the difiance of 200 or 300 miles. They are
not turned loofe among the ewes, but kept apart in a
imall inclofure, where a couple of ewes only are admit¬
ted at once. When the feafon is over every care is taken
to make the rams look as fat and handlbroe as poffible.
In the choice of ewes the breeder is kd by the fame
criterion^ as in the choice of rams. Breed is the fird
objeft of confideration. Excellency, in any fpecies or
variety of live-dock, cannot be attained with any degree
of certainty, let the male be ever fo excellent, unlefs
the females employed likewife inherit a large proportion
of the genuine blood, be the fpecies or variety what it
may. Hence no prudent man ventures to give the
higher prices for the Difhley rams, unlefs his ewes are
Next to
the art of making up, rot lambs only, but rams of all UU1CJ.(S 4
ages. Fat, like charity, covers a multitude of faults; deeply timftured with the Difliley blood,
and befidee, is the bed evidence of their fatting quality breed is flefli, fat, form, acd wool,
wh.ch their owners can produce f/.e. their natural pro- After the lambs are weaned, the ewes are kept in
penhty to a date of fatnefs), while in the fatnefs of the common feeding places, without any alteration of paf-
Vol. XVII. Part I. Xx t£re.
SHE
Sheep, ture, previous to their taking the ram.
are kept on grafs, hay, turnips, and cabbages. As the
heads of the modern breed are much finer than moft
others, the ewes lamb with lefs difficulty.
The female lambs, on being weaned, are put to
good keep, but have not fuch high indulgence ffiown
them as the males, the prevailing pra&ice being to keep
them from the ram the firft autumn.
At weaning time, or previoufly to the admiffion of
the ram, the ewes are culled, to make room for the
thaves or fhearlings, whole fuperior blood and fafliion
intitle them to a place in the breeding flock. In the
work of culling, the ram-breeder and the mere grazier
go by fomewhat different guides. The grazier’s guide
is principally age, feldom giving his ewes the ram after
they are four fhear. The ram-breeder, on the con¬
trary, goes chiefly by merit; an ewe that has brought
him a good ram or two is continued in the flock fo
long as (he will breed. There are xnftances of ewes ha¬
ving been prolific to the tenth or twelfth year ; but in
general the ewes of this breed go off at fix or feven
(hear.
In the pra&ice of fome of the principal ram-breeders,
the culling ewes are never fnffered to go out of their
hands until after they are flaughtered, the breeders not
only fatting them, but having them butchered, on their
premifes. There are others, however, who fell them ;
and fometimes at extraordinary prices. Three, four, and
even fo high as ten, guineas each have been given for
thefe outcafts.
There are in the flocks of feveral breeders ewes that
would fetch at au&ion twenty guineas each. Mr
Bakewell is in pofleffion of ewes which, if they were
now put up to be fold to the heft bidder, would, it is
eftimated, fetch no lefs than fifty each, and perhaps,
through the prefent fpirit of contention, much higher
13 prices.
Inftru&ions The following inftruftions for purchafing fheep, we
*.®r Pl?rcha-hope, will be acceptable to our country readers.—
ng cep. farmer fhould always buy his fheep from a worfe
land than his own, and they fhould be big-boned, and
have a long greafy wool, curling clofe and well. Thefe
fheep always breed the fineft wool, and are alfo the mofl
approved of by the butcher for fale in the market.
For the choice of fheep to breed, the ram muft be
young, and his fkin of the fame colour with his wool,
for the lambs will be of the fame colour with his fkin.
He fhould have a large long body ; a broad forehead,
round, and well rifing; large eyes; and ftraight and
fhort noftrils. The polled fheep, that is, thofe which
have no horns, are found to be the bed breeders. The
ewe fhould have a broad back ; a large bending neck ;
fmall, but fhort, clean, and nimble legs; and a thick,
deep wool covering her all over.
To know whether they be found or not, the farmer
ffiould examine the wool that none of it ibe wanting,
and fee that the gums be red, the teeth white and even,
and the brifket-fldn red, the wool firm, the breath
fweet, and the feet not hot. Two years old is the bed
time for beginning to breed; and their fird lambs fhould
not be kept too long, to weaken them by fuckling, but
be fold as foon as conveniently may be. They will
breed advantageoufly till they are feven years old. The
farmers have a method of knowing the age of a fheep,
as a horfe’s is known, by the mouth. When a fheep
[ 346 ] SHE
In winter they is one fhear, as they exprefs it, it has two broad teeth Sheep.
before y when it is two (hear, it will have four; when ■—
three, fix; and when four, eight. After this their
mouths begin to break.
The difference of land makes a very great difference
in the fheep. The fat padures breed draight tall fheep,
and the barren hills and downs breed fquare fhort ones ;
woods and mountains breed tall and flender fheep ; but
the bed of all are thofe bred upon new-ploughed land
and dry grounds. On the contrary, all wet and moid
lands are bad for fheep, efpecially luch as are fubjetl to
be overdowed, and to have fand and dirt left on them.
The fait marfhes are, however, an exception to this
general rule, for their faltnefs makes amends for their
moidure ; fait, by reafon of its drying quality, being of
great advantage to fheep.
As to the time of putting the rams to the ewes, the \^hen ram,
farmer mud confider at what time of the fpring his grafs ought to
will be fit to maintain them and their lambs, and whe- be.a<!mit-
ther he has turnips to do it till the grafs comes ; for c'v ^° c ie
very often both the ewes and lambs are dedroyed by
the want of food ; or if this does not happen, if the
lambs are only dinted in their growth by it, it is an
accident that they never recover. The ewe goes 20
weeks with lamb, and according to this it is cafy to
calculate the proper time. The bed time for them to
yean is in April, unlefs the owner has very forward
grafs or turnips, or the fheep are field fheep. Where
you have not inclofures to keep them in, then it may be
proper they fhould yean in January, that the lambs
may be drong by May-day, and be able to follow the
dam over the fallows and water-furrows; but then the
lambs that come fo early mud have a great deal of care
taken of them, and fo indeed fhould all other lambs at
their fird falling, elfe while they are weak the crows
and magpies will pick their eyes out.
When the fheep'are turned into fields of wheat or
rye to feed, it mud not be too rank at fird, for if it be,
it generally throws them into fcourings. Ewes that ai e
big fhould be kept but bare, for it is very dangerous to
them to be fat at the time of their bringing forth their
young. They may be well fed, indeed, like cows, a
fortnight beforehand, to put them in heart. Morti-r
mer’s Hufbandry, p. 243.
The feeding fheep with turnips is one great advan*
tage to the farmers. When they are made to eat tur¬
nips they foon fatten, but there is fome difficulty in
bringing this about. The old ones always refufe them
at fird, and will fometimes fad three or four days, till
almod famifhed ; but the young lambs fall to at once*
The common way, in fome places, of turning a flock
of fheep at large into a field of turnips, is very difad-
vantageous, for they will thus dedroy as many in a
fortnight as would keep them a whole winter. There are
three other ways of feeding them off this food, all of
which have their feveral advantages. j
The fird way is to divide the land by hurdles, and Tjie
allow the fheep to come upon fuch a portion only at a way 0f
time as they can eat in one day, and fo advance the feeding
hurdles farther into the ground daily till all be eaten. ^
This is infinitely better than the former random me* UU1 f ‘
thod; but they never eat them clean even this way, but
leave the bottoms and outfides fcooped in the ground :
the people pull up; thefe indeed with iron crooks, and
lay them before the fheep again,.but they are common-
3 ‘
SHE
[ 347 3
SHE
She<?P'
16
The (e-
eyjui.
17
The third,
which is
the belt.
18
Difenfes of
fheep.
19
The rot.
Jy fp fouled with the creature’s' dim,? and urine, and
with the dirt from their feet, that they do not care for
them ; they eat but little of them, and what they do
eat does not nourifh them like the frefh roots.
The fecond way is by incloixng the {beep in hurdles,
as in the former; but in this they pull up all the turnips
which they fuppofe the Iheep can eat in one day, and
daily remove the hurdles over the ground whence they
have pulled up the turnips : by this means there is no
walle, and lefs expence, for a perlon may in two hours
pull up all thofe turnips ; the remaining fhells of which
would have employed three or four labourers a-day to
get up with their crooks out of the ground trodden
hard by the feet of the fheep ; and the worft is, that as
in the method of pulling up ftrft, the turnips are eaten
up clean ; in this way, by the hook, they are wafted,
the fheep do not eat any great part of them, and when
the ground comes to be tilled afterwards for a crop of
corn, the fragments of the turnips are feen in fuch
quantities on the furface, that half the crop at leaft
feems to have been wafted.
The third manner is to pull up the turnips, and re¬
move them in a cart or waggon to fome other place,
fpreading them on a freih place every day ; by this me¬
thod the iheep will eat them up clean, both root and
leaves. The great advantageof this method is,when there
is a piece land not far off which wants dung more than
that where the turnips grew, which perhaps is alfo too
wet for the iheep in winter, and then the turnips will,
by the too great moifture and dirt of the fail, fometimes
fpoil the iheep, and give them the rot. Yet fuch ground
will often bring forth more and larger turnips than
dry land, and when they are carried off, and eaten by
the fheep on ploughed land, in dry weather, and on
green fward in wet weather, the fheep will fucceed much
better; and the moift foil where the turnips grew uot
being trodden by the fheep, will be much fitter for a
crop of corn than if they had been fed with turnips
on it. The expence of hurdles, and the trouble of
moving them, are faved in this cafe, which will coun¬
terbalance at leaft the expence of pulling the turnips
and carrying them to the places where they are to be
eaten. They muft always be carried off for oxen.
The difeafes to which fheep are fubjeft are thefe,
rot, red-water, foot-rot and hoving, fcab, dunt, rickets,
fly-ftruck, flux, and burfting. Of each of thefe we fhall
give the beft defcription in our power, with the molt
approved remedies.
The mt, which is a very pernicious difeafe, has of
late engaged the attention of fcientific farmers. But
neither its nature nor its caufe has yet been fully af-
certained. Some valuable and judicious obfervations
have, however, been made upon it, which ought to
be circulated, as they may perhaps, in many cafes,
furnifh an antidote for this malignant diftemper, or be
the means of leading others to fome more efficaci¬
ous remedy. Some have fuppofed the rot owing to
the quick growth of grafs or herbs that grow in wet
places. Without premiling, that all-bounteous Provi¬
dence has given to every animal its peculiar tafte, by
which it diftinguiihes the food proper for its preferva-
tion and fupport, if not vitiated by fortuitous circumftan-
ces, it feems very difficult to difcover on philofophical
principles why the quick growth of grais fhould render
it noxious, or why any herb Ihould at one feafon pro¬
duce fatal effedftis, by the admilfion of pure water only S>ie?p.
into its component parts, winch at other times is
perfectly innocent, although brought to its utmolt
rtrength and maturity by the genial influence of the
fun. Befides, the conilant practice of moft farmers
in the kingdom, who with the greateft fecurity feed
their meadows in the fpring, when the grafs {hoots
quick and is full of juices, militates dire&ly againft this
opinion.
Mr Arthur Young, to whom agriculture fs much in¬
debted, afcribes this difeafe to moifture. In confirma.
tion of this opinion, which has been generally adopted, ,
we are informed, in the Bath Society papers*, by a cor- * Voh f.
tefpondent, that there was a paddock adjoining to his^ x^v'*
park which had for feveral years caufed the rot in moft
of the flteep which were put into it. In 1769 he
drained it, and from that time his fheep were free
from this malady. But there are faifts which render it
doubtful that moifture is the foie caufe. We are told,
the dry limed land in Derbyfhire will produce the rot
as well as water meadows and ftagnant marfhes ; and
that in fome wet grounds fheep fuftain no injury for
many weeks. 30
Without attempting to enumerate other hypothefes Its caufe,
which the ingenious have formed on this fuhjedt, we
fhall purfue a different method in order to difcover the
caufe. On diffedting fheep that die of this diforder, a
great number of infedts called flukes (fee Fasciola)
are found in the liver. That thefe flukes are the caufe
of the rot, therefore, is evident; but to explain how
they come into the liver is not fo eafy. It is probable
that they are fwallowed by the fheep along with their
food while in the egg ftate. The eggs depofited in
the tender germ are conveyed with the food into the
ftomach and inteftines of the animals, whence they are
received into the ladteal veffels, carried off in the chyle,
and pafs into the blood ; nor do they meet with any
obftrudlion until they arrive at the capillary veffels of
the liver. Here, as the blood filtrates through the ex¬
treme branches, anfwering to thofe of the 'vena porta
in the human body, the fecerning veffels are too minute
to admit the impregnated ova, which, adhering to the
membrane, produce thofe animalculae that feed upon
the liver and deftroy the fheep. They much referable
the flat fifh called plaice, are fometimes as large as a fil-
ver two-pence, and are found both in the liver and in
the pipe (anfwering to that of the vena cava) which
conveys the blood from the liver to the heart.
The common and moft obvious obje&ion to that
opinion is, that this infeft is never found but in the li¬
ver, or in fome parts of the vifcera, of flteep that are
difeafed more or lefs; and that they muft therefore be
bred there. But this objeftion will lofe its force, when
we confider that many infefts undergo feveral changes,
and exift under forms extremely different from each other-
Some of them may therefore appear and be well known
under one fhape, and not known to be the fame under
a fecond or third. The fluke may be the laft ftate of
fome aquatic animal which we at prefent very well
know under one or other of its previous forms.
If this be admitted, it is eafy to conceive that ftieep
may, on wet ground efpecially, take multitudes of
thefe ova or eggs in with their food; and that the fto¬
mach and vifcera of the ftieep being a proper nidus for
them, they of courfe hatch, and appearing in their fluke
X x 2 or
SHE
[ 348 1
S H E
Sheep,
it
And mod
h,, icvtd in
12
Hed-wa-
ttr.
Foot-rot.
»4
Stab.
cr laft ftate, feed on the liver of the animal, and occa-
fion this diforder.
It is a fingular fa£f, “ that no ewe ever has the rot
while flie has a lamb by her fide.” The reafon of this
may be, that the impregnated ovum pailes into the
milk, and never anives at the liver. The rot is fatal to
fheep, hares, and rabbits, and fometiraes to calves ; but
never infelfs animals of a larger hze.
Miller fays that parfley is a good remedy for the rot
fhetp. Perhaps a ftrong decodtion of this plant, or
the oil extracted from its feeds, might be of fervice.
Salt is alfo a itfeful remedy. It feems to be an ac¬
knowledged fa ft that fait mar flies never produce the
rot. Salt indeed is pernicious to moll infects. Com¬
mon fait and water expel worms from the human body;
and fea-weed, if laid in a garden, will drive away infecta ;
but if the fait is feparated by fteeping it in the pureft
fpring-water for a few days, it abounds with aninialculae
of various fpecies.
Life, in his.book of hufbandry, informs us of a far¬
mer who cured his whole flock of the rot by giving
each fheep a handful of .Spanish fait for five or fix morn¬
ings fucceflively. The hint was probably taken from
the Spaniards, who frequently give their fheep fait to
keep them healthy. On fome farms perhaps the ut-
moit caution cannot always prevent this ddordcr. In
wet and warm feafons the prudent farmer will remove
his fheep from the lands liable to rot. Thofe who
have it not in their power to do this may give each
fhetp a fpoonful of common fait, with the fame quan¬
tity of flour, in a quarter of a pint of water, once or
twice a-week. When the rot is recently taken, the
fame remedy given four or five mornings fucceffively
will in all probability effeft a cure. The addition of
the flour and water (in the opinion of Mr Price of
Salifbury, to whofe excellent paper in the Bath Socie¬
ty’s Tranfaftions we own ourfelves much indebted)
will not only abate the pungency of the fait, but dii-
pofe it to mix with the chyle in a more gentle and effi¬
cacious manner.
A farmer of a confiderable lordfhip in Bohemia vi-
fiting the hot-wells of Carlfbad, related how he prefer¬
red his flocks of fheep from the mortal diftemper which
raged in the wet year 1 769, of which fo many pet ifhed.
His prefervative was very Ample and very cheap : “ He
fed them every night, when turned under a filed, cover,
or ftables, with hafhed fodder flraw ; and, by eating it
greedily, they all efcaped.”
“ Reil-wattr is a diforder moil prevalent on wet
grounds. I have heard (fays Mr Arthur Young) that
it has fometimes been cured by tapping, as for a drop-
£y. This operation is done on one fide of the belly to¬
wards the flank, juft below the wool.
“ The foot-rot and hoving, which is very common on
low fenny grounds, is cured by keeping the part clean,
and lying at reft in a dry pafture.”
The fcab is a cutaneous difeafe owing to an impuri¬
ty of the blood, and is moft prevalent in wet lands or
in rainy feafons. It is cured by tobacco-water, brim-
I— y
ftone, and alum, boiled together, and then rubbed over
the fheep. If only partial, tar and greafe may be iut-
ftcient. But the ftmplelt and moft efficacious remedy
for this dileafe was communicated to the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, &c. by Sir Joleph Banks.
Take one pound of quickfilver, half a pound of RemedYre..
Venice turpentine, half a pint of oil of turpentine, andcoramend-
lour pounds of hogs lavd ( c). Let them be rubbed in a
mortar till the quickfilver is thoroughly incorporated
with the other ingredients ; for the proper mode of do¬
ing which, it may be proper to take the advice, or even
the affiftance, of fome apothecary or other perfon ufed
to make fnch mixtures.
“ The method of ufing the ointment is this : Begin¬
ning at the head of the fheep, and proceeding from be¬
tween the ears along the back to the end of the tail,
the -wool is.to be divided in a furrow tilt the fkin can
be touched ; and as the furrow is made, the finger
(lightly dipped in the ointment is to be drawn along the
bottom of it, where it will leave a blue ftain on the
fkin and adjoining wool : from this furrow fimihr oret
muft be drawn down the fhoulders and thighs to the
legs, as far as they are w'oolly ; and it the anitnctl is
much infefted, two more fhould be drawn along each
fide parallel to that on the back, and one down each
fide between the fore and hind legs
“ Immediately after being drefled, it is ufuai to turn
the fheep among other flock, without any fear of the
infeftion being communicated ; and there is fcarcely an
inftance of a fheep fuffering any injury from the appli¬
cation. In a few days the blotches dry up, the itch¬
ing ceafes, and the animal is completely cured : it is ge¬
nerally, however, thought proper not to delay the ope¬
ration beyond Michaelmas.
“ The hippvbofca irwktf,called in Lincolnfhireflieep fnggv
an animal well known to all fhepherds, which lives a-
mong the wool, and is hurtful to the thriving of flieep’
both by the pain its bite occafions and the blood it
fucks, is deftroyed by this application, and the wool is
not at all injured. Our wool-buyers purchafe the fleeces
on which the ftain of the ointment is viiible, rather in
preference to others, from an opinion that the ufe of
it having preferved the animal from being vexed either
with the icab or faggs, the wool is Ids liable to the de-
fefts of joints or knots ; a fault obferved to proceed
from every balden flop in the thriving of the animal*
either b om want of food or from diieaie.
“ This mode of curing was brought into that part
of Lincolnfhire where my property is lituated about 1 2
years ago, by Mr Stephenfon of Mareham, and is now
fo generally received, tliat the fcab, which ufed to be
the terror of the farmers, and which frequently deter¬
red the more careful of them from taking the advan¬
tage of pafturing their fheep in the fertile and exten-
five commons with which that diftrift abounds, is no
longer regarded with any appreheniion : by far the moft
of them have their flock anointed in autumn, when
they return from the common, whether they fhow any
fymptons of fcab or not; and having done fo, conclude
them
(c) By fome unaccountable miftake the laft ingredient, the four pounds of hogs lard, is omitted in the re¬
ceipt publifhed in the Tranfaftions of the Society ; a circumftance that might be produftive of bad effeds.-—
The leaf which contained the receipt has fmee been cancelkd, and a new one printed.
!!ke«P
56
The dunt,
»7
Rickets,
58
FJy-iiruck,
*9
flux,
. 30
And burft-
SHE r :
them ftfe for fome time from either frivinf or reeeivW
infedion. 'I'hare are people who employ themfelves
in t!ie bu fine is, and contract to anoint our large fhetp
at five (hillings a fcore, infuting for that price the fiue-
cefs of the operation ; that is, agreeing, in cafe manv of
the fineep break out afrefh, to repeat the operation gra¬
tis even fome months afterwards ”
The dunt is a diitemper caufed by a bladder of wa¬
ter gathering in the head. No cure for this has yet
been difeovered.
The rlcLfti ia a hereditary difeafe for which no anti¬
dote is known. The firfl fymptom is a kind of light-
beadedneis, which makes the affetted fheep appear wild¬
er than ufual when the Ihepherd or any perfon an-
proaches him. He bounces up fuddenly from his lare,
and runs to a diftance, as though he were purfued by
dogs. In the fecond llage the principal fymptom is
the Iheep’s rubbing himfelf againft trees, &c. with fuch
fiu;y as to pull off his wool and tear away his flefh.
‘‘ The diftreffed animal has rtow a violent itching in his
fkin, the effect of an highly inflamed blood ; but it does
not appear that there is ever any cutaneous eruption or
falutary critical difeharge. In fhort, from all circwn-
ftances, the +'ever appears, now to be at its height.” 
1 he laft ft aye of this difeafe “ feems only to be the pro-
grefs of diffolution, after an unfavourable crifis. The
poor animal, a? condemned by Nature, appears ftupid,
walks irregulai-ly (whence probably the name rickets),
(generally lies, and cats little: thefe fymptoms increafe in
degree till death, which follows a general confiimption,
as appears upon diffe&ion of the carcafe ; the juices
and even folids having fuffered a general diffolution.”
In order to difeover the feat and nature of this dif¬
eafe, fheep that die of it ought to be differed. This
is fat’d to have been done by one gentleman, Mr Beal;
and he found in the brain or membranes adjoining a
maggot about a quarter of an inch long, and of a
brownifh colour. A few experiments might ealily de¬
termine this faft.
The fly./buck is cured by clipping the wool off as
far as infected, and rubbing the parts dry with lime or
V’ood-afhes ; curriers oil will heal the wounds, and pre¬
vent their being ffruck any more ; or they may be cu¬
red with care, without clipping, with oil of turpentine,
which will kill all the vermin where it eroes • but the
former is the fureft way. *
The flux is another difeafe to which fheep are fub-
je&. The beft remedy is laid to be, to houfe the fiheep
immediately when this diftemper appears, to keep them
very warm, and feed them on dry hay, giving them fre¬
quent ghfters of warm milk and water. The caufe of
that diftemper is either their feeding on wet lands, or
on grafs that is become rnoffy by the lands havino-
been fed many years without being ploughed. When
the farmer perceives his fheep-walks to become moffy,
or to produce bad grafs, he ftiould either plough or ma-
puie with hot lime, making kilns either very near or
in the ftieep walks, becaufe the hotter the lime is put
on, the fweeter the grafs comes up, and that early in
the year. 1
Burfling, or as it is called in fome places the blafl, at.
tacKs fheep when driven into frefh grafs or youncr cl0.
ver. They overeat themfelves, foam at the mouth,
Jwe 1 exceedingly, breathe very quick and fhort, then
jump up, and inftantly fall down dead. In this cafe,
S49 ] S II E
the only chance of favlng their life is by ftabbing them ^httv.
in the maw with an inftniment made for the purpofc,
( he inftrument is a hollov/ tube, with a, pointed wea- --
pon palling through it. A hole is made with the
pointed weapon; which is immediately withdrawn, and
the hole is kept open by infecting the tube till the wind
is difeharged. *
Sheep are infefted with worms in therr nofe called Account of
cr/lnss eves, and produced from the egg of a large two- the nofe*
wunged fly. The frontal linufes above the Hole in fheep ^™in.
and other animals are the places where thefe worms live fell fheep',
and attain their full growth. Thefe fmufes are alw’ays
full of a foft white matter, which fnrniflies thefe worms
w itli a proper nounfhment, and are iufflciently larg'e
for their habitation; and when they have here acouired
their deftined growth, in which they are fit to undergo
their changes for the fly-ftate, they leave their old habi¬
tation, and, falling to the earth, bury themfelves there ;
and when thete are hatched into flies, the female, vvhea
fhe has been impregnated by the male, know>s that the
nofe of a fheep or other animal is the only place for her
to depolit her eggs, in order to theii coming to maturi¬
ty. Mr "Vallifiueri, to whom the world owes fo many
difeoveries in the infea clafs, is thediift who has given
any true account of the origin of thefe worms. But
though their true hiitory had been till that time un¬
known, the creatures themfelves were very early difeo-
vered, and many ages fince were efteemed great medi¬
cines in epilepfies.
. 1 % produced from this worm has all the time of
its Ike a very lazy difpofition, and does not like to
make any ufe either of its legs or wings. Its head and
corielet tog ".her are about as long as’ its body, which
is competed of five rings, itreaked on the back ; a pale
yellow and brown are there diipoied in irregular fpots ;
the belly is of the fame colours, but they are there mere
regularly diipofed, for the brown here makes three lines,
one in the middle, and one on each fide, and all the "
intermediate fpaces are yellow. The wings are nearly of
the fame length with the body, and are a little inclined
m their pofition, fo as to lie upon the body : they do
not, however, cover it ; but a naked ipace is left between
them. I he ailerons or petty wings which arc found un¬
der each of the wings are of a whitifh colour, and per-
fcflly cover the balancers, fo that they are not to be
feen without lifting up thefe.
i he fly will live two months after it is firft produ¬
ced, but will take no nourifitment of any kind ; and pof-
fibly it may be of the fame nature with the butterflies,
which never take any food during the whole time of
their living m that ftate. Reaumur, Hut. Inf. vol iv.
p. 552, See.
To find a proper compofition for marking fheep is
a matter of great importance, as great (quantities of wool tion for
are every year rendered ulelefs by the pitch and tar markh1S
with which they are ufually marked. The requifite
qualities for fueh a compofition are, that it be cheap,
that the colour be ftrong and lading, fo as to bear the
changes of weather, and not to injure the wool. Dr
.Lewis recommends for this purpofe melted tallow, with
io much charcoal in fine powder llirred into it as is fuf-
ficient to make it of a full black colour, and of a thick
confiftence. This mixture, being applied warm with a
marking iron, on pieces of flannel, quickly fixed or har¬
dened, bore moderate rubbing, refilled the fun and rain.
SHE t 350 1
and yet conld be wafted out freely with foap, or ley, it had a c&Hle
. . tr 1 j   J **. iXill r\ f 11 V*q1^ 1
or Hale urine. In order to render it {till more durable,
and prevent its being rubbed off, with the tallow may
be melted an eighth, fixth, or fourth, of its weight of
tar, which will readily wafh out along with k from the
wool. Lewis’s Com. Phil. Techn. p. 361.
SHKFF-Stealing. See Iheft. * ,
SHEERING, in the fea-language. When a (hip is
ipot fleered fteadily, they fay fhe fheers, or goes flieer-
rjng ; or when, at anchor, fhe goes in and out by means
of\he current of the tide, they alfo fay fhe fheers. .
SHEERNESS, a fort in Kent, feated on the point
where the river Medway falls into the Thames. It was
built by king Charles II. after the infult of the Dutch,
who burnt the men of war at Chatham. The buildings
.belonging to it,in which the officers lodge, make a pretty
little neat town ; and there is alio a yard and a dock,
a chapel and a chaplain. Mr Lyons, who faded with
the Honourable Captain Phipps in his voyage towards
the pole, fixed the longitude of Sheeraefs to o. 48 . E.
-its latitude 510 25', . . J
SHEERS, a name given to an engine ufed to hoitt
or difplace the lower malls of a fhip. The fheers em-
ployed for this purpofe in the royal navy are compofed
of fevcral long mails, whole heels reft upon the fide of
the hulk, and having their heads declining outward
from the perpendicular, fo as to hang oyer the veffel
whofe mails are to be fixed or difplaced. The tackles,
which extend from the head of the mail to the fheer-
heads, are intended to pull in the latter toward the maft-
head, particularly when they are charged with the
weight of a mad after it is raifed out of any fhip,
which is performed by ftrong tackles depending from
the fiieer-heads. The effort of thefe tackles is produced
by two capfterns, fixed on the deck for this purpofe.
In merchant fhips this machine is compofed of two
malls or props, ereded in the fame veffel wherein the
mall is to be planted, or from whence it is to be remo¬
ved. The lower ends of thefe props reft on the oppo¬
site fides of the deck, and their upper parts are fallen-
cd acrofs, fo as that a tackle which hangs from the m-
terfe&ion may be almoft perpendicularly above the
ilation of the maft to which the mechanical powers are
applied. Thefe fheers are fecured by flays, which ex¬
tend forward and aft to the oppofite extremities ©f the
veffel.
SHEET-Lead. See Plumbery.
Sheet, in fea-language, a rope fattened to one or
both the lower corners of a fail, to extend and retain it
in a particular flation. When a fhip fails with a lateral
wind, the lower corner of the main and fore fail are faf-
tened by a tack and a fheet; the former being to wind¬
ward, and the latter to leeward ; the tack, however, is
entirely diffufed with a Hern wind, whereas the fail is
never fpread without the affiflance of one or both of the
ffieets. The ftay-fails and ftudding-fails have only one
tack and one fheet each : the flay-fail tacks aie always
fattened forward, and the fheet drawn aft; but the ttud-
ding-fail tack draws the under clue of the fail to the ex¬
tremity of the boom, whereas the fheet is employed to
extend the inmoft.
SHEFFIELD, a town in the weft riding of
Yorkfhire, about 162 miles from London, is a large,
thriving, populous town on the borders of Derbyfhire;
has a fine ftone bridge over the Don, and another over
jhe Sheaf, and a church built in the reign of Henry I.
S H E
built in the reign of Henry III. in Sheffield
which, or elfe in the manor-houfe of the Park, Mary ~
Q_neen of Scots was prifoner 1 6 or 17 years ; but after
the death of Charles L it was, with feveral others, by
order of parliament demolifhed. In 1673 an hofpital
was erefited here, and endowed with 200I. a-year. There
is a charity-fchool for 30 boys, and another for 30 girls.
This town has been noted feveral hundred years for cut¬
lers and fmiths manufactures, which were encouraged
and advanced by the neighbouring mines of iron, parti¬
cularly for files and knives, or whittles ; for the laft of
which efpecially it has been a flaple for above 300 years;
and it is reputed to excel Birmingham in thefe wares,
as much as it'Is furpaffed by it in locks, hinges, nails, and
polifhed fteel. The firlt mills in England for turning
grindftones were alfo fet up here. The houfes look
black from the continual fmoke of the forges. Here
are 600 mailer cutlers. Incorporated by the ftyle of the
Cutlers of Hallamjhire (of which this is reckoned the chief
town), who employ' not lefs than 40,000'perf°ns in
the iron manufaftures ; and each of the mailers gives a
particular itamp to his wares. There is a large market
on Tuefday for many commodities, but efpecially for.
corn, which is bought up here for the whole Weft Ri¬
ding, Derbyfhire, and Nottinghamfhire. It has fair#
on Tuefday after Trinity-Sunday, and November 2S.
In the new market-place, ere&ed by the Duke of Nor¬
folk, the fhambles are built upon a moft excellent plan,
and ftrongly inclofed. There are feveral other new good
buildings, fuch as a large and elegant oftagon chapel
belonging to the hofpital or almshoufes ; likewife a good
affembly-room and theatre. We mull not omit the large
fleam-engine, lately finifhed, for the purpofe of poltih-
ing and grinding the various forts of hardware. The
pariffi being very large, as well as populous, Mary I.
incorporated 12 of the chief inhabitants, and their
fucceffors for ever, by the flyle of the Twelve Capital
Burgeffes of Sheffield, empowering them to ele£t and
ordain three priefls to affift the vicar, who were to be
paid out of certain lands and rents which fhe gave out
of the crown ; and fince this fettlement two more cha¬
pels have been built in two hamlets of this parifh,
which are ferved by two of the affiftants, while the
third, in his turn, helps the vicar in his parifh-church,
James I. founded a free grammar-fehool here, and ap¬
pointed 13 fchool burgeffes to manage the revenue, and
appoint the mailer and uffier. A new chapel was built
lately by the contributions of the people of the town
and of the neighbouring nobility and gentry. Water
is conveyed by pipes into Sheffield, whofe inhabitants
pay but a moderate rent for it. In the neighbourhood
there are fome mines of alum. The remains of the Ro¬
man fortification between this town and Rotheram,
which is fix miles lower down the river, are flill vifible,;
and here is alfo the famous trench of five miles long,
by fome called Devil's or Dane's Bank, and by others
Kemp Bank and Temple's Bank. W. Long. 1. 29- N.
Lat. 53. 20.
Sheffield (John), duke of Buckinghamfhire, an
eminent writer of the laft' and prefent century, of
great perfonal bravery, and an able minifter of Hate,
.was born about 1650. He loft his father at nine
years of age; and his mother marrying lord Ofiul-
flo,n, the care of his education was left entirely to a
governor, who did not greatly improve him in his
Indies. Finding that he was deficient in many parts
of
SHE
Sheffield,
gheffiel.
dia.
of literature, he rcfolved to devote a certain number
of hours, every day to his ftudies; and thereby im-
— proved himfelf to the degrree of learning he afterwards
attained. Though poflefied of a good eftate, he did
not abandon himfelf to pleafure and indolence, but
entered a volunteer in the fecond Dutch war; and
accordingly was in that famous naval engagement
where the duke of York commanded as admiral: on
which occafion his lordfhip behaved fo gallantly, that
he was appointed commander of'the Royal Catharine.
He aftet w ard made a campaign in the b rench fervice
under M. de Turenne. As I angier was in danger of
being taken by the Moors, he offered to head the
forces which were fent to defend it ; and accordingly
was appointed to command them. He was then earl
of Mulgrave, and one of the lords of the bed-chamber
to king Charles II. The Moors retired on the ap¬
proach of his majefty’s forces ; and the refult of the ex¬
pedition was the blowing up of Tangier. He continu¬
ed in feveral great pods during the fhort reign of king
James II. till that unfortunate prince was dethroned.
Lord Mulgrave, though he paid his refpe&s to king
William before he was advanced to the throne, yet
did not accept of any poft in the government till fome
years after. In the iixth year of William and Mary
he was created marquis of Normanby in the county of
Lincoln. He was one of the mod a&ive and zealous
oppofers of the bill which took away Sir John Fen¬
wick s life ; and exerted the utmod vigour in carrying
through the Treafon Bill, and the bill for Triennial Par¬
liaments. He enjoyed fome confiderable pods under king
William, and enjoyed much of his favour and confidence!
In 1702 he wasfworn lord privy-feal; and in the fame
year was appointed one of the commiffioners to treat of
an union between England and Scotland. In 1703 he
was created duke of Normanby, and foon after duke of
Buckinghamfhire. In 1711 he was made deward of her
majefly s houfehold, and prefident of the council. Durino-
queen Anne’s reign he was but once out of employ!
ment; and then he voluntarily refigned, being attached
to what were called the Tory principles. Her majefty
offered to make him lord-chancellor; but he declined the
office.. He was indrumental in the change of the mi-
r.idry in 1710.. A circumdance that refle&s the high-
ed honour on him is, the vigour with which he aifted in
favour of the unhappy Catalans, who afterward were fo
inhumanly facrificed. He was furvived by only one le¬
gitimate fon (who died at Rome in 173 <;) ; but left fe¬
veral natural children. His word enemies allow that
he lived on veiy good terms with his lad wife, natural
daughter to king James IL the late duchefs of Buck¬
ingham, a lady who always behaved with a dignity fuit-
able to the daughter of a king. He died in 1721.
He was admired by the poets of his age ; by Dryden,*
Prior, and Garth. His Effay on Poetry was. applauded
by Addifon, and his Rehearfal is dill read with pleafure.
His writings were fplendidly printed in 1723, in-two
volumes 410 ; and have dace been reprinted in 1729, in
two vols 8vo. The fird contains his poems on various
iubjects : the fecond, his profe works ; which confift of
r.oncal memoirs, fpeeches in parliament, chara&ers,
dialogues, critical obfervations, effiays, and letters. It
may be proper to obferve, that the edition of 1729 is,
cadrated ; iome particulars relathig to the revolution in
tuat of 1723 having given offence.
SHEFFIELDIA, in botany ; a genus of plants
1 351 1
SHE
Sheik
II
Shell.
belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and to tlie order
of monogynia. The corolla is bell-ffiaped; the fila¬
ments are 10, of which every fecond is barren. The 
capfule confifts of one cell, which has four valves. There ^
is only one fpecies, the repens.
SHEIK, in the oriental cudoms, the perfon who
has the care of the mofques in Egypt; his duty is the
lame as that of the imams at Condantinople. There
are more or fewer of thefe to every mofque, according
to its fize or revenue. One of thefe is head over the
red, and anfwers to a parifh-prieft with us; and has
under him, in large mofques, the readers, and people
vyho cry out to go to prayers; but in fmall mofques
the iheik is obliged to do all this himfelf. In fuch it
is their bufmefs to open the mofque, to cry to prayers,
and to begin their fhort devotions at the head of the
congregation, who Hand rank, and file in great order,
and make all their motions together. Every Friday
the iheik makes an harangue to his congregation.
SHEiK-Be/let, the name of an officer nTthe Oriental
nations. In Egypt the fheik-bellet is the head of a
city, and is appointed by the pacha. The bufmefs of
this officer is to take care that no innovations be made
which may be prejudicial to the Porte, and that they
lend no orders which may hurt the liberties of the
people. But all his authority depends on his credit
and intereft, not his-office : for the government of Egypt
is of fuch a kind, that often the people of the leail pow¬
er by their polls have the greatefl influence ; and a" caia
of the janizaries or Arabs, and fometimes one of their
meaneft officers, an oda-bafha, finds means, by his part*
an* abilities, to govern all things.
SHEILDS. See Shields.
SHEKEL, the name of a weight and coin current
among the ancient Jews. Dr Arbuthnot makes the
weight of the fhekel equal to 9 pennyweights 2j- grains
I roy weight; and the value equal to 2 s. 3|d. Ster¬
ling. The golden fhekel was worth L. 1 : 16: 6.
SHELDRAKE, in ornithology. See Anas.
SHELF, among miners, the fame with what they-
otherwife call faft ground ox faft country ; being that
part of the internal ftruaure of the earth which they
find lying even and in an orderly manner, and evidently-
retaining its primitive form and fituation.
SFIELL, m natural hiftory, a hard, and, as it were,
irony covering, with which certain animals are defend¬
ed, and thence called Jhell-fiJh.
The Angular regularity, beauty, and delicacv in the* 1 -
ftruaure of the fhelh of animals, and the variety and^ET
brilliancy in the colouring of many of them, at the
lame time that they ftrike the attention of the moft in¬
curious obfervers, have at all times excited philofophers
to inquire into and detea, if poffible, the caufes and.
manner of their formation. But the attempts of natu-
rahlts, ancient and modern,. to difeover this procefs
have conftantly proved unfitccefsful. M. de Reaumur
hitherto appears alone to have given a plaufible.account,
at lealt, of the formation of the. fheJl of the garden-fnail
m particular, founded on acourfe of very ingenious ex¬
periments,.related in the Paris Memoirs He ther^# o
endeavours to ffiow, that this fubftance is produced
merely by the perfpirable matter of the animal condemn 1709,
fmg and afterwards hardening on its furfaee, and accord-P- 475-
mgly taking the figure of its body, which has perform- *
ed the office of a mould to it; in ihort, that the ffiell in ^moV
cf a Inail, and, as he fuppofed, of all other aaimals pof,
feffed
Shell,
Are com-
yofed of
an earthy
anvl an ani-
rnal fub-
ftance.
3
Thtir
membra¬
nous ftruc-
ture pro¬
duces i!?reat
variety of
colours.
SHE r .15
fefTed of {Mis, was only the produft of a viscous tra'nf-
udation from the body of the animal^ containing earthy
particles united by mere juxtapofition. This hypo-
theSs, however, is liable to very great and infur-
mountable difficulties, if we apply it to the formation
of fome of the moft common ffiells: for how, accord-
ing to tins fyftem, it may be afked, can the oyifer,
for inftance, confidered fimply as a mould, form to it-
felf a covering fo much exceeding its own body in di-
menlions ? f
M. Heriffant, in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences for 1766, has difeovered the ftrufture of (hells
to be organical. In the numerous experiments that
he made on an immenfe number, and a very great va¬
riety, of animal (hells, he conftantly found that they
were compcfed ot two ditfindf fubftances ; one o( which
is a cretaceous or earthy matter; and the other ap¬
peared, from many experiments made upon it by
burning, diftillation, and otherwife, to be evidently of
an animal nature. Thefe two fubifances he dexteroui-
ly feparated from each ether by a very eafy chemical
analylis ; by the gentle operation of which they were
exhibited diilindly to view, without any material alte¬
ration from the adtion of the folvent, or inftrument em¬
ployed for that purpofe. On an entire (hell or a
fragment of one, contained in a glafs vcdel, he poured
a fufficient quantity of the nitrous acid, conhderably
diluted either with water or ipirit of wine. After the
liquor has diffolved all the earthy part of the (hell
(which maybe collefted after precipitation by a fixed
or volatile alkali), there remains floating in it a i®ft fub-
ftance, confiding of innumerabk membranes of a rcti-
ferm appearance, and difpofed, in different (hells, in a
variety of pofitions, which conditutes the animal-part
of it. This, as it has not been affe&ed by the folvent,
retains the exact figure of the (hell; and, on being 'view¬
ed through a microfcope, exhibits fatvsfaAory proofs of
a vafcular and organical ftruedure. He (hows that this
membranous fub(lance is an appendix to the body of the
animal, or a continuation of the tendinous fibres that
compote the ligaments by which it is fixed to its (hell;
and that this lad owes its hardnefs to the earthy par¬
ticles conveyed through the veflels of the animal, which
fix themfelves into, and incrud, as it were, the mefhes
formed by the reticular filaments of which this mem¬
branous fiibdance is compofed. In the (hell called por-
celaine, in particular, the delicacy of thefe membranes
was fo gieat, that he was obliged to put it into fpirit
of wine, to which he had the patience to add a fingle
drop of fpirit of nitre day by day, for the (pace of two
months ; led the air generated, or kt k>ofe by the ac¬
tion of the acid on the earthy tubilance, ihould tear the
compares of its fine membranous ftrufture into Tat¬
ters ; as it certainly would have done in a more hady
and lefs gentle diffolution. ’I he delicate reticulated
film, left after this operation, had all the tenuity of a
Ipider’s web ; and accordingly he does not attempt to
delineate its organization. In other (hells he employed
even five or fix months in demon drafting the complica¬
ted membranous ftrufture of this animal-fubftance by this
kind of chemical anatomy. In general, however, the
procefs does not require much time.
Of the many lingular configurations ai\d appearances
of the membranous part of different (hells, which are
deferibed in this memoir, and are delineated in feveral
well executed plates, we (hall mention only, as a fpe-
2 ] SHE
cimen, the curiam membranous ftrufture obferved jr»
She!!.
the laminae of mother-of-pearl^ and other fhell'3 of the
fame kind, after having been expofed to the operation
of the author’s folvent. Befide the great variety of
fixed or permanent colours with which he found the
animal filaments of thefe (hells to be adorned, it is
known, that the (hell icfelf prefents to the view a iuc-
ceffion of rich and changeable colours, the produftion
of which he eafily explains from the configurations of
their membranes. Nature, he obierves, always
nificent in her defigns, but Angularly frugal in the exe¬
cution of them, produces thefe brilliant decorations at
a very fmall expence. The membranous fubftance a-
bove-mentioned is plaited and rumpled, as it were, in
fuch a manner, that its exterior laminae, incrufted with
their earthy and femi-tranfparent matter, form an infi¬
nite number of little pnfms, placed in all kinds of direc¬
tions, which refraft die rays of light, and produce all
the changes of colour obfervable in thefe fiicils.
With re fpe ft to the figures and colours of (bells, it
is obferved, that river (hells have not fo agreeable or di-
verfified a colour as the land and fea (hells; but the va¬
riety in the figure, colours, and other charafters of fea
(hells, is almoft infinite, l he number of diftinft fpecies
we find in the cabinets of the curious is very great; and
doubtkfs the deep bottoms of the fea, and the ffiorea
vet unexplored contain multitudes (till unknown to us.
Even the fame fpecies differ in fome degree in almoft
every individual; fo that it is rare to find any two ftiells
which are alike in all refpefts, . .
This wonderful variety, however, is not all the P™-\vhei,cQ
duce of one fea or one country ; the different parts of-he m a
the world afford us their different beauties. Bonamheauufui
obierves, that the moft beautiful (hells we are acquaint-
ed with come from the Eaft Indies and from the Red
fea. This is in fome degree countenanced by what is
found to this day; and from the general obfervations of
the curious, it (eons, that the fun, by the great heat
that it gives to the countries near the line, exalts the
colours of the (hells produced there, and gives them a
luftre and brilliancy that thole of colder climates always
want: and it may be, that the waters of thole vail eas,
which are not fubjeft to be weakened by freffi rivers,
give a nouriftrment to the fiffi, that may add to the ->nl-
iiancy of their ftiells. . „ . 5
The (bores of Afia furniffi us with the pearl-oyftera shfll«
and fcalloos in great perfeftion. About Amboy naare found in
found the"moft beautiful fpecimens of the cabbage-fhell, Aua.
the armfoir, the ducal mantle, and the coral oyiters, or
echinated oyfters. Here alfo are found a great variety
©f extremely beautiful mufeks, tellina*, and volutie;
fome fine bnecinums, and the Ihell called the Ethiopian
crown, in its greateft perfeftion. I he doha, the mu-
rices, and the caftandne, are alfo found on thefe coaiis
in great beauty. Many elegant fnails and (crew-(hells
are alfo brought from thence ; and finally, the ferapion
and ipider-ftiells. The Maidive and Philippine iftands,
Bengal, and the coaft Malabar, abound with the moft
elegant of all the i'pecies of binds, and furniffi many other
kinds of (hells in great abundance and perfeftion. China
abounds in the fineft (peck, of porcelain ffiells, and has
alfo a great variety of beautiful fnails. Japan furmffies
us with all the thicker and larger bivalves ; and foe ilk
of Cyprus is famous above all other parts of the world
for the beauty and variety of the patella or limpet
found there. Africa
SHE
Shell*.
In Africa
3
in fome
Elands of
;he Medi-
:erraiiean
ind the
oafts fur.
ounding
America affords many very elegant ffells, but neither
in fo great abundance nor beauty as the fhores of Afia.
Panama is famous for the cylinders or rhombi, and we
have befide, from the fame place, fome good porcelains,
and a very fine fpecies of dolium, or concha globofa, call¬
ed from this place the Panama purple Jhell. One of the
moft beautiful of the cylinders is alfo known among our
naturalifts under the name of the Panama /hell. About
Brafil, and in the gulf of Mexico, there are found mu-
rices and dolia of extreme beauty ; and alfo a great va¬
riety of porcelains, purpuras, pe&ens, neritae, bucardiae
f 3S3 1
SHE
or heart-fhells, and elegant limpets. The ifle of Cay
enne affords one of the moft beautiful of the buccinum
kind, and the Midas ear is found principally about this
place. Jamaica and the ifland of Barbadoes have their
fhores covered with porcelains, chamas, and buccina ;
and at St Domingo there are found almoft all the fame
Ipecies of fhells that we have from the Eaft Indies; only
they are lefs beautiful, and the colours more pale and
dead. The pearl-oyfter is found alfo on this coaft, but
fmaller than in the Perfian gulf. At Martinico there
are found in general the fame (hells as at St Domingo,
but yet lefs beautiful. About Canada are found the
violet chamas, and the lakes of that country abound
with mufcles of a very elegant pale blue and pale
red colours. Some fpecies of thefe are remarkably
light and thin ; others are very thick and heavy. The
Great Bank of Newfoundland is very barren in (hells:
the principal kind found there are mufcles of feveral
fpecies, fome of which are of confidetable beauty. A-
bout Carthagena there are many mother-of-pearl (hells,
but they are not of fo brilliant colours as thofe of the
Perfian gulf. The ifland of Magellan, at'the fouthern
point of America, furniihes us with a very remarkable
fpecies of mufcle called by its name ; and feveral very
elegant (pecies of limpets are found there, particularly
the pyramidal,
. In Africa, on the coaft of Guinea, there is a prodi¬
gious quantity' of that fmall fpecies of porcelain which
is ufed there as money ; and there is another fpecies of
porcelain on the fame coaft which is all over white:
the women make bracelets of thefe, and the people of
the Levant adorn their hair with them. The coaft of
Zanguebar is very rich in (hells: we find there a vaft
variety of the large porcelains, many of them of great
beauty ; and the nux marts or fea-nut is very frequent
there. Befide thefe, and many other (hells, there are
found on this coaft all the fpecies
which are very beautiful. The
with a vaft variety of the murices
good (hells; and we have from Madeira great va¬
riety of the echini or fea-eggs different from thofe of
the European feas. Several fpecies of mufcles are alfo
common there, and the auris marina is nowhere more
abundant. The Red fea is beyond all other parts of
the world abundant m fnells, (carce anyr kind is want-
ing there; but what we principally have from thence
are the purpuras, porcelains, and echini marini.
Phe Mediterranean and Northern ocean contain a
great variety o( (hells, and many of very remarkable ele¬
gance and beauty ; they are upon the whole, however,
greatly inferior to thofe of the Eaft Indies. The Me¬
diterranean abounds much more in (hells than the O-
cean. 1 he gulf of I arentum affords great variety of
purpura, of porcelains, nautili, and elegant oyftersj the
coafts of Naples and Sardinia afford alio the fame, and
Vol. XVII. Fart. I.
with them a vail number of the folens of all the known Shelf#,
fpecies. 1 he ifland of Sicily is famous for a very ele-
gant kind of oyfter which is white all over; pinnae ma-
rinae and porcelains are alio found in great plenty there,
with tellinae and chamas of many fpecies, and a great
variety of other beautiful (hells. Corfica is famous,
beyond all other places, for vaft quantities of the pinna*
marinas; and many other very beautiful (hells are found
there. (Lifter, Haft. Conchyl.) About Syracufe are
found the gondola (hell, the alated murex, and a great
variety of elegant fnails, with fome of the dolia and ne-
ntas. The Adriatic fea, or gulf of Venice, is lefs fur-
nifhed with fhells than almolt any of the feas there¬
about, Mufcles and oyfters of feveral fpecies are how¬
ever found there, and fome of the cordiform or h^art-
(hells; there are alfo fome tellins. About Ancona
there are found vaft numbers of the pholades buried in
(lone ; and the aures marinas are particularly frequent
about Puzzoli. fBonani, Recreat. iVIent. et Ocui). $
I he ports of Marfeilles, Foulon, and Antibes, are^1*^
full of pinnae marinae, mufcles, tellinae, and chamae. cR0dfl:
The coatts of Bretagne afford great numbers of the C<S
conchas anatiferas and pouffepieds; they are found on
old lotten boards, on fea fubftances, and among du¬
ffers of fponges. The other ports of France, as
Rochelle, Dunkirk, Breft, St Maloes, and others, ftir-
mfh oyfters excellent for the table, but of the com¬
mon kind, and of no beauty in their (hells ; great
numbers of mufcles are alio found there ; and the com¬
mon tellinae, the onion-peel oyfters, the folens, and
conchas anatiferas, are alfo frequent there. At Gran¬
ville, in Lower Normandy, there are found very beau-
ti ul pedens, and fome of the cordiform or heart-
(hells.
Our own Englifh coafts are not the lead fruitful in Of Britain,
(hells, tho’ they do not produce fuch elegantly painted
ones as the Indies. About Plymouth are found oyfters,
mufcles, and folens, in great abundance; and there, and
on moft of our other (bores, are numbers of the aures ma-
rmae and dentalia, with pedens, which are excellent food-;
and many elegant fpecies of the chamte and tellinte are’
fifhed up in the fea about Scarborough and other places. \
Ireland affords us great numbers of mufcles, and feme
very elegant Icallop-ftells in great abundance, and the
pholades are frequent on molt of our (bores. We have
alio great variety of the buccina and cochlete, fome vo-
... „ *u*a:’ on the Guernfey coaft, a peculiarly beauti-
of nautili, many of ful fnail, called thence the Guernfey-fnail
Canary dies abound The coafts of Spain and Portugal afford much the Of SpLn
and (ome other fame fpecies of (hells with the Eaft Indies, but they areaid Porftu
of much fainter colours, and greatly inferior in beauty. SaI> &c>
I here are, according to Tavernier and others, fome ri¬
vers m Bavaria in which there are found pearls of a fine
water. About Cadiz there are found very large pinme
marina;, and fome fine buccina. The ifles of Maiorca
and Minorca afford a great variety of extremely elegant
(hells. The pinnae marinas are alfo very numerous
there, and their fiik is wrought into gloves', dockings
and other things. The Baltic affords a great many
beautiful fpecies, but particularly an orange-coloured
peften, or fcallop-lhell, which is not found in any other
part of the world. 1
The fiefli water (hells are found much more fre- Freff wa-
quent.y, and _ in much greater plenty than the fea ter (hells,
kinds; there is fcarce a pond, a ditch, or a river of
freflt water in any part of^ the world in which there
^ 7 are
Shells.
*3.
Art of po-
lifhing
Ihells.
SHE
are not found vaft numbers of thefe (hells
fifh living in them. All thefe (hells are fmall, and
they are of very little beauty, being ufually of a plain
greyifh or browniib colour. Our ditches afford us
rhamae, buccina, neritae, and fome patellae ; but the
Nile? and fome other rivers, furnifhed the ancients with
a (pecies of tellina which was large and eatable, and fo
much fuperior to the common fea telhna in flavour,
that it is commonly known by the name of teliina regia,
« royal tellina.” We have a fmall fpecies of bucci-
num common in our fre(h waters, which is very ele-
oant, and always has its operculum in the manner of
the larger buccina ; a fmall kind of mufcle is alfo vety
common, which is fo extremely thin and tender, that it
can hardly be handled without breaking to pieces, the
larye frefh water mufcle, commonly called in England
theborfe-mufcle, is too well known to need a defcnption;
and the fize fuffxciently diffinguifhes it from all other
frefh wrater (hells. _ . .r , , ,
In colle&ing (hells, it is mod advifable, whenever
it can be done, to get thofe which have in them the li¬
vin'* animals ; becaufe we (hall thus obtain the natural
hiitory of the animals, and the (hells themfelves in their
natural beauty, and the full glow of their colouis.
Shells fheuld be alfo procured from the deeper parts
of their reforts, and immediately after (forms on the
fea beaches and (hores; becaufe, by being much expofed
to the fun, their colours fade, and they are liable to
other accidents that injure them. In order to kill the
fifli that inhabits them, Mr Da Coda advifes to give
them a quick dip in boiling water, and when they are
cooled, to lay them in cold water till they are cleaned;
and in this operation they fhould not be touched with
aquafortis, or any other acid, nor expofed to the heat
of the fire and fun. # .
The art of polifhing (hells arrived but lately at its
prefent date of perfedion ; and as the love of (ea-(hells
is become fo common among us, it may not be difagree-
able to the reader to find fome indrudions in executing
fo pleafing a method of adding to their natural beauty,
the rules for which are at prefent fo little known, though
the effed of them be fo much edeemed.
Among the immenfe variety of ihells which we are
acquainted with, fome are taken up out of the fea, or
found on its (hores in all their perfedion and beauty;
their colours being all fpread by nature upon the fur-
face, and their natural polilh fuperior to any thing that
art could give. Where nature is in herielf thus perfed,
it were madnefs to attempt to add any thing to her
charms: but in others, where the beauties are latent
and covered with a -coarfer outer (kin, art is to be caded
in ; and the outer veil being taken off, all the internal
beauties appear.
Among the (hells which are found naturally polifhed
are the porcelains, or cowries; the caffanders ; the do-
lia, or conchas globoise, or tuns; fome buccina, the vo¬
lutes, and the cylinders, or olives, or, as they are gene¬
rally though improperly called, the rhombi; excepting
only two or three, as the tiara, the plumb, . and the
butter-tub rhombus, where there is an unpromifing film
on the furface, hiding a very great (hare of beauty with¬
in. Though the generality of the (hells of thefe genera
are taken out of the fea in all their beauty, and in their
utmoil natural polifh, there are feveral other genera, in
which all or mod of the fpecies are taken up naturally
rough and foul, and covered with an epidermis, or coarfe
[ 354 ]. . .. s H E
with the outer (kin, which is in many rough and downy or hairy.
The tellime, the mufcles, the cochleae, and many others, ^
are of this kind. The more nice colleftors, as natura-
lifts, inlift upon having all their (hells in their native
and genuine appearance, as they are found when living
at fea ; but the ladles, who make collections, hate the
difagreeable outfides, and will have all fuch poliflied.
It would be very- advilable, however, for both kinds of
collectors to have the fame (hells in different fpecimens
both rough and poliihed: the naturalift would by this
means, befides knowing the outfide of the (hell, be
better acquainted with its internal characters than he
otherwife could be, and the lady would have a pleafure
in comparing the beauties of the (hell, in its wrought
(late, to its coarfe appearance as nature gives it. How
many elegancies in this part of the creation muft be
wholly loft to us, if it were not for the afliftance of an
art of this kind ! Many (hells in their native (late are
like rough diamonds ; and we can form no juft idea of
their beauties till they have been polifhed and wrought
into form.
' Though the art of poliihing (hells is a very valuable
one', yet it is very dangerous to the (hells ; for without
the utmoft care, the means ufed to polilh and beautify
a (hell often wholly deftroy it. When a (hell is to be
polifhed, the firft thing to be examined is whether it
have naturally a fmooth furface, or be covered with tu¬
bercles or prominences.
A (hell which has a fmooth furface, and a natural
dull polifh, need only be rubbed with the hand, or with
a piece of chamoy leather, with fome tripoli, or fine
rotten (lone, and will become of a perfectly bright and
fine polifh. Emery is not to be tiled on this occafion,
becaufe it wears away too much of the fhell. This
operation requires the hand of an experienced perfon,
that knows how fuperficial the work muft be, and where
he is to flop ; for in many of thefe (hells the lines are
only on the furface, and the wearing away ever fo little
of the (hell defaces them. A (hell that is rough, foul,
and crufty, or covered with a tartareous coat, muft be
left a whole day deeping in hot water: when it has im¬
bibed a large quantity of this, it is to be rubbed with
rough emery on a (lick, or with the blade or a knife,
in order to get of!' the coat. After this, it may be
dipped in diluted aquafortis, fpirit of fait, or any other
acid; and after remaining a few moments in it, be again
plunged into common water. This will add greatly to
the (peed of the work. After this it is to be well
rubbed with linen cloths, impregnated with common
foap ; and when by thefe feveral means it is made per-
fe&ly clean, the polifhing is to be finifhed with fine
emery and a hair-brufh. If alter this the (hell when
dry appears not to have fo good a polifti as was defired,
it muft be rubbed over with a folution of gum arabic ;
and this will add greatly to its glofs, without doing it
the fmalleft injury. The gum-water muft not be too
thick, and then it gives no fenfible coat, only heighten¬
ing the colours. The white of an egg anfwers this
purpofe alfo very well; but it is fubjeft to turn yellow.
If the (hell has an epidermis, which will by no means
admit the poliftiing of it, it is to be dipped feveral times
in diluted aquafortis, that this may be eaten off; and
then the (hell is to be polifhed in the ufual way with,
putty, fine emery, or tripoli, on the hair of a fine bru(h.
When it is only a pellicle that hides the colours, the
(hells muft be fteeped in hot water, and after that the
rj (kin
Shell*.
Shells
S H E
worked off by degrees with an oM file.
the cafe with feveral of the cylinders, which have not
the natural polifh of the reft.
When a iheli is covered with a thick and fatty epi¬
dermis, as is the cafe with feveral of the mufcles and
tellina;; in this cafe aquafortis will do no fervice, as it
will not touch the fkin: then a rough brufh and coarfe
emery are to be ufed ; and if this does not fucceed,
feal-fkin, or, as the workmen call it, JiJh-Jhn and pu¬
mice-ji one, are to be employed.
When a ibeil has a thick cruft, which will not give
way to any of thefe means, the only way left is to
plunge it feveral times into ftrong aquafortis, till the
ftubborn cruft is wholly eroded. The limpets, auris
marina, the helmet-lhells, and feveral other fpecies of
this kind, muft have this fort of management; but as
the defign is to fhow the hidden beauties under the
cruft, and not to deftroy the natural beauty and polifh
of the infide of the Ihell, the aquafortis muft be ufed in
this manner : A long piece of wax muft be pro¬
vided, and one end of it made perfectly to cover the
whole mouth of the ftiell; the other end will then ferve
as a handle, and the mouth being flopped by the wax,
the liquor cannot get in to the infide to fpoil it ; then
there muft be placed en a table a veffel full of aquafortis,
and another full of common water.
The fhell is to be plunged into the aquafortis ; and
after remaining a few minutes in it, is to be taken
out, and plunged into the common water. The pro-
grefs the aquafortis makes in eroding the furface is
thus to be carefully obierved every time it is taken
out: the point of the Ihell, and any other tender parts,
are to he covered with wax, to prevent the aquafortis
from eating them away ; and if there be any worm-
holes, they alfo muft be flopped up with wax, other-
wife the aquafortis would foon eat through in thofe
places. When the repeated dippings into the aqua¬
fortis fhow that the coat is fufficiently eaten away,
then the fhell is to be wrought carefully with fine
emery and a brufh ; and when it is polifhed as high as
can be by this means, it muft be wiped clean,^ and
rubbed over with gum-water or the white of an egg.
In this fort of work the operator muft always have the
caution to wear gloves; otherwife the leaft touch of the
aquafortis will burn the fingers, and turn them yellow ;
and often, if it be not regarded, will eat off the fkin
and the nails.
Thefe are the methods to be ufed with fhells which
require but a moderate quantity of the furface to be
taken off; but there are others which require to have a
larger quantity taken off, and to Ire uncovered deeper:
this is called entirely fealing a fhell. This is done by
means of a horizontal wheel of lead or tin, impreg¬
nated with rough emery; and the fhell is wrought down
in the fame manner in which ftones are wrought by the
lapidary. Nothing is more difficult, however, than the
performing this work with nicety: very often fhells are
cut down too far by it, and wholly fpoiled ; and to
avoid this, a coarfe vein muft be often left Handing in
fome place, and taken down afterwards with the file,
when the cutting it down at the wheel would have
fpoiled the adjacent parts.
After the ffiell is thus cut down to a proper degree,
it is to be polifhed with fine emery, tripoli, or rotten
ttone, with a wooden wheel turned by the fame machine
J 355 1 S H E
This is as the leaden one, or by the common method of work¬
ing with the hand with the fame ingredients. When a
fhell is full of tubercles, or protuberances, which muft
he preferved, it is then impoffible to ufe the wheel: and
if the common way of dipping into aquafortis be at¬
tempted, the tubercles being harder than the reft of
the fhell, will he eat through before the reft is fuffici¬
ently fealed, and the fhell will be fpoiled. In this cafe,
induflry and patience are the only means of effe&ing a
pohfh. A camel’s-hair pencil muft be dipped in aqua¬
fortis ; and with this the intermediate parts of the fhell
muft he wetted, leaving the protuberances dry : this is
to be often repeated; and'after a few moments the fhell
is always to be plunged into water to flop the erofiont
of. the acid, which would otherwife eat too deep, and
deftroy the beauty of the fhell. When this has fuffici¬
ently taken off the foulnefs of the fhell, it is to he po¬
lifhed with emery of tire fineft kind, or with tripoli, by
means of a fmall flick, or the common polifhing-ftone
uled by the goldfmiths may he ufed.
. This is a very tedious and troublefome thing, efpe-
cially when the echinated oyfters and muriejes, and
fome other fuch fhells, are to be wrought: ami what is
worfl of all is, that when all this labour has been em¬
ployed, the bufinefs is not u'dl done ; for there Hill re¬
main feveral places which could not be reached by any
inflrument, lo that the fliell muft neceffarily be rubbed
over with gum-water or the white of an egg afterwards,
in order to bring out the colours and give a glofs; in
fome cafes it is even neceffary to give a coat of varnifh.
Shells.
14
 J O VZA v tn 1111 Ji. J
Ihefe are the means ufed by artifls to brighten tlieSome ffe,fs
I 1 ^.J . J a.. ^ 1 _ 1 . f * /"V vv — . y'' 11*v ivv 11 /-
colours and add to the
beauty of fhells ; and the^" fo ,m,uch
changes produced by poliffiing in this manner are fo hy poliffi-
great, that the fhell can fcarcely be known afterwards in^ as not
to be the fame it was ; and hence we hear of new fhellsco be
in the cabinets of colledors, w hich have no real exiftence kn ’wn»
as feparate_ fpecies, but are fhells well known, difgui- 35
fed by polifhing. To caution the reader againft er¬
rors of this kind, it may he proper to add the moll re¬
markable fpecies thus ufually altered. 15
The onyx-fhell or volute, called by us the purp/e orThe
violet-tip, wftiich in its natural flate is of a fimple palelhe11'
brown, when it is wrought flightly, or polifhed with
juft the fuperficies taken off, is of a fine bright yellow;
and when it is eaten away deeper, it appears of a fine
milk-wffiite, with the kwer part bluifh : it is in this
flate that it is called the onyx-Jbell ; and it is preferved
in many cabinets in its rough Hate, and in its yellow'
appearance, as different fpecies of fhells. iff
The violet Jhells, lo common among the curious, isvio'et
a fpecies of porcelain, or common cowry, which does
not appear in that elegance till it has been polifhed;
and the common auris marina fhows itfelf in two or
three different forms, as it is more or lefs deeply
wrought. In its rough Hate it is dufky and coarfe, of
a pale brown on the outfide, and pearly wuthin ; when
it is eaten down a little way below the furface, it fhows
variegations of black and green ; and when ft ill farther
eroded, it appears of a fine pearly hue within and
without.
The nautilus, when it is polifhed down, appears all
over of a fine pearly colour; but when it is eaten
aw'ay but to a Imall depth, it appears of a rine yellowdfh
colour with dulky hairs. The burgau, when entirely
cleared of its coat, is of the moil beautiful pearl-co-
Y y 3 lour 5
17
Nautilus.
Shells
T8
Jurquil-
qhama
19
The affes-
car fhelL
40
Dutch me¬
thod of £0
Jifhing
fedls.
SHE < I 356
lour 5 but when but flightly eroded, tt appears of a
variegated mixture of green and red ; whence it has
been called the parroquet Jhell. The common helmet-
fhell, when wrought, is of the colour or the fined;
agate ; and the mufcles, in general, though very plain
fhells in,their common appearance, become very beauti¬
ful when polilhed, and fhow large veins of the molt ele¬
gant colours. The Perlian {hell, in its natural Hate, is
all over white, and covered with tubercles ; but when it
has been ground down on a wheel, and polilhed, it
appears of a grey colour, with fpots and veins of a
very bright and highly polifhed white. 1 he limpets, in
general, become very different when poliihed, moll of
them fhowing very elegant colours ; among thefe the
tortoife-fhell limpet is the principal; it does not appear
at all of that colour or tranfparence till it has been
wrought.
That elegant fpecies of Ihell called the junquil-chama,
which ha" deceived fo many judges of thefe things in¬
to an opinion ol its being a new fpecies, is only a white
chama with a reticulated furface ; but when this is po¬
lilhed, it loi'es at once its reticular work and its colour,
and becomes periedtly fmooth, and of a fine bright
yellow. The violet-coloured chama of New Eng¬
land, when worked down and polilhed, is of a fine
milk-white, with a great number of blue veins, diipo-
fed like the variegations in agates.
The ajf s-ear Jhell, when polilhed after working it
down with the file, becomes extremely gloffy,^ and ob¬
tains a fine role-colour all about the mouth. Thefe are
fome of the molt frequent among an endlefs variety of
changes wrought on Ihells by poliihing ; and we find
there are many of the very greateft beauties oi this part
of the creation which mult have been loll but for this
method of fearching deep in the fubltance of the Ihell
for them.
The Dutch are very fond of Ihells, and are very
nice in their manner of working them : they are under
no rellraint, however, in their works; but ufe the molt
SheH»»
21
Imperfec¬
tions of
] SHE
Shells are fuhjeft to feveral imperfeftions | fome of
which are natural and others accidental. The natural
defetts are the effect of age, or ficknefs in the filh. The
greatell mifehief happens to Ihells by the filh dying in tic ...
them. The curious in thefe things pretend to be al-ftielbna-
ways able to diftinguilh a Ihell taken up with the filhtur^ ancl
alive from one found on the Ihores : they call the gr^accluenta *
a living, the feeond a dead Ihell ; and lay that the co¬
lours are always much fainter in the dead Ihells. When
the Ihells have lain long dead on the Ihores, they
are fubjedt to many injuries, of which the being eaten
by fea-worms is not the leall: age renders the fineft
Ihells livid or dead in their colours.
Befides the imperfections a riling from age and fick¬
nefs in the filh, Ihells are fubje£t to other deformities,
fuch as morbid cavities, or protuberances, in parts
where there Ihould be none. When the Ihell is va¬
luable, thefe faults may be hid, and much added to. the
beauty of the fpecimen, without at all injuring it as
an object of natural hiltory, which Ihould always be the
great end of collecting thefe things. The cavities may
be filled up with mattic, diffolved in fpirit of wine, or
with ifinglafs : thefe fubftances mult be either coloured
to the tinge of the Ihell, or elfe a pencil dipped in wa¬
ter-colours mull finilh them up to the refemblance of
the reft ; and then the whole Ihell being rubbed over
with gum-water, or with the white of an egg., fcarce
any eye can perceive the artifice : the fame fubllances
may alfo be ufed to repair the battered edge of a Ihell
provided the pieces chipped off be not too large. And
when the excrefcences of a Ihell are faulty, they are to
be taken down with a fine file. If the lip of a fhell be
fo battered that it will not admit of repairing by any ce¬
ment, the whole mult be filed down or ground on the
wheel till it become even.
FoJJ'il Shells. Thole found buried at great depths
in the earth.
Of thefe fome are found remaining almolt entirely
in their native Hate, but others are varioully altered by
no renraim, nowevci, m mtn     ....   , . , • , r a 1 r
violent methods, fo as often to deltroy all the beauty of being impregnated with particles of Itone and of other
  , -> 11 r- 1 1 r*  _ * 4-1^ *-.1^,-.^ »c frvnnn mere itnnf*
the Ihell. 't hey file them down on all fides, and often
take them to the wheel, when it mult deltroy the very
charafters of the fpecies. Nor do they Hop at this :
but, determined to have beauty at any rate, they are
for improving upon nature, and frequently add fo.me
lines and colours with a pencil, afterwards covering
them with a fine coat of varnifh, fo that they feem the
natural lineations of the Ihell : the Dutch cabinets are
by theie means made very beautiful, but they are by no
means to be regarded as inllruftors in natural hiltory.
There are lome artificers of this nation who have a way
of covering ihells all over with a different tinge from
that which nature gives them ; and the curious are of¬
ten enticed by thefe tricks to purchafe them for new
fpecies.
There is another kind of work bellowed on certain
fpecies of Ihells, particularly the nautilus; namely, the
engraving on it lines and ciicles, and figures of liars,
and other things. This is too obvious a work of art
to fuffer any one to fuppofe it natural. Buonani has
figured feveral of thefe wrought Ihells at the end of his
work ; but this was applying his labour to very little
purpofe; the fhells are fpoiled as objects of natural hiltory
by it, and the engraving is feldom worth any thing.-—
They are princrpally done in the Ealt Indies.
foffifs ; in the place of others there is found mere Itone
or.fpar, or fome other native mineral body, exprelfmg all
their lineaments in the molt exaft manner, as having been
formed wholly from them, the fhell having been firlt de-
pofited in fome folid matrix, and thence diffolved by very
flow degrees, and this matter left in its place, on the
cavities of Itone and other folid fubltances, out of
which Ihells had been diffolved and walhed away, be¬
ing afterwards filled up lefs flowly with thefe different
fubllances, whether fpar or whatever elfe : thefe fub¬
llances, fo filling the cavities, can neceffarily be of no
other form than that of the Ihell, to the abfence of
which the cavity was owing, though all the nicer li¬
neaments may not be fo exa&ly expreffed. Befides
thefe, we have alfo in many places maffes of Hone
formed within various Ihells ; and thefe having been
received into the cavities of the Ihells while they were
perfectly fluid, and having therefore nicely filled alii
their cavities, mult retain the perfedt figures of the in¬
ternal part ©f the Ihell, when the Ihell itfelf Ihould be
worn away or perilhed from their outfide. The va¬
rious fpecies we find of thefe are, in many genera, as
numerous as the known recent ones ; and as we have in
our own ifland not only the Ihells of our own (hores,
but thofe of many other very diftant ones, fo we have
g alfo
S H E . [ 3S
Shells, alfo many fpecies, and thofe in great numbers, which
>—~ are in their recent hate, the inhabitants of other yea
unknown or unfearched Teas and fhores. The cockles,,
mufcles, oyfters, and the other common bivalves of
our own feas, are very abundant : but we have alio an
amazing number of the nautilus kind, particularly of
the nautilus grascorum, which though a (hell not found
living in our own or any neighbouring feas, yet is
found buried in all our clay-pits about London and
elfewhere ; and the moft frequent of all foffil (hells in
feme of our counties are the conchas anormas, which
yet we know not of in any part of the world in their
recent ftate. Of this fort alfo are the cornua ammo-
nis and the gryqphitae, with leveral of the echinitae and
others.
The exacf fimilitude of the known (hells, recent and
foffil, in their feveral kinds, will by no means fuffer us
to believe that thefe, though not yet known to us in
their living Hate, are, as fome have idly thought, a fort
of lufus natural. It is certain, that of the many known
(hores, very few, not even thoie of our own ifland,
have been yet carefully fearched for the fhell-fifli that
inhabit them ; and as we fee- in the nautilus grtecortim
an inftance of (hells being brought from very diftant
parts of the world to be buried here, we cannot won¬
der that yet unknown (hores, or the unknown bottoms
of deep feas, (hould have furnilhed us with many un¬
known (liell-fifh, which may have been brought with
the red ; whether that were at the time of the general
deluge, or the effect of any other cataftrophe ot a like
kind, or by whatever other means, to be left in the yet
unhardened matter of our llony and clayey ilrata.
Shells, in gunnery, are hollow iron balls to throw
out of mortars or howitzers, with a fufe-hole of about
an inch diameter, to load them with powder, and to
receive the fufe. The bottom, or part oppofite to the
fufe, is made thicker than the reil, that the fufe may
fall uppermoft. But in imall elevations this does not
always happen, nor indeed is it neceffiary ; for, let the
ihell fall as it will, the fufe fets fire to the powder with¬
in, which burfts the (hell, and caufes great devaftation.
The (hells had much better be of an equal thicknefs ; for
then they burlt into more pieces.
Mejfage Shells, wtz nothing more than howitz-(hells,
in the infidfe of which a letter or other papers are put;
the fufe hole is Hopped up with wood or cork, and the
ffiells are fired out of a royal or howitz, either into a
garrifon or camp. It is (uppoied, that the perlon to
whom the letter is fent knows the time, and according¬
ly appoints a guard to look out for its arrival.
Suhi.L-FiJh. Thefe animals are in general ovipa¬
rous, very few inftances having been found of fuch as
are viviparous. Among the oviparous kinds, anato<-
mills have found that fome fpecies are of difierent fexes,
in the different individuals of the fame fpecies; but others
are hermaphrodites, every one being in itfelf both male
and female. In both cafes their increafe is very nume¬
rous, and fcarce inferior to that of plants, or of the
moff fruitful of the infect clafs. The eggs are very
Imall, and are hung together in a fort of duffers by
means of a glutinous humour, which is always placed
about them, and is of the nature of the gelly of frog’s
fpawn. By means of this, they are not only kept to¬
gether in the parcel, but the whole duller is fattened
to the rocks, Ihells, or other folid fubffances j and thus
7 ] SHE
they are prefervedfrom being driven on fhore by the waves, Shejtts
and left where they cannot fucceed. See Te stage a. shenftoiic.
Shell-GoM. Sec Gold. .-y'■■w
SHELT1E, a fmall but ffrong kind of horfe, fo
called from Shetland, or Zetland, where they are pro-
duced.
SHELVES, in fea-language, a general name given
ta any dangerous (hallows, fand banks, or rocks, lying
immediately under the furface of the water, fo as to-
intercept any (hip in her paffage, and endanger her de-
Hrudion.
SHENAN. See Dying of Leather, vol. ix. p.-
750, foot-note.
SHENSTONE (William), an admired Englifh
poet, the eldeff fon of a plain country gentleman, who
farmed his own effate in Shropfhire, -was born in No¬
vember 1714. He learned to read of an old dame,.
whom his poem of the “ School miff refs” has deliver¬
ed to pofterity ; and foon received fuch delight from
books, that he was always calling for new entertain¬
ment, and expected that, when any of the family went
to market, a new book fhould he brought him, which,
when it came, was in fondnefs carried to bed, and laid
by him. It is laid, that when his requeff had been ne-
glecled, his mother wrapped up a piece of wood of the
fame form, and pacified him for the night. As he
grew older, he went for a while to the grammar-fehool
in Hales-Owen, and was placed afterwards with Mr
Crumpton, an eminent fchool-matter at Solihul, where
heBdiffingui(hed himfelf by the quicknefs of his progrefs.
When he was young (June 1724), he was deprived of his
father; and foon after (Auguft 1726) of his grandfa¬
ther; and was, with his brother, who died afterwards
unmarried, left to the care of his grandmother, who
managed the ettate. From fchool he was fent, in i732»
to Pembroke college in Oxford, a fociety which for half
a century has been eminent for Enghfh poetry and ele¬
gant literature. Here it appears that he found delight
and advantage ; for he continued his name there ten
years, though he took no degree. After the iirft four-
years he put on the civilian’s gown, but without (bow¬
ing any intention to engage in the profeffiom About
the time when he went to Oxford, the death of his
grandmother devolved his affairs to the care of the
reverend Mr Dolman, of Brome,- in Staffordfhirc,
whole attention he always mentioned with gratitude.
— At Oxford he applied to Engliih poetry ; and,
in 173'', publifhed a fmall Mifcellany, without his
name. He then for a time wandered about, to ac¬
quaint himfelf with life, and was fometimes at Lon¬
don, fometimes at Bath, or any place of public refort ;
but he did not forget his poetry. He publifhed, in
1740, his “ Judgment of Hercules,” addreffed to
Mr Lyttleton, whofe intereft he fupported with great
warmth at an eleftion ; this was two years afterwards
followed by the “ School miftrefs.” Mr Dolman, to
whofe care he was indebted for his eafe and leifure, died
in 1745, and the care of his fortune now fell upon
himfelf. He tried to efcape it a while, and lived at
his houfe with his tenants, who were diftantly related ;
but, finding that imperfeft poffeffion inconvenient, he
took the whole eftate into his own. hands, an event
which rather improved its beauty than increafed its pro¬
duce. Now began his delight in rural pleafures, and
his paflfoa of rural elegance ; but in time his expences
occaffoned’
SHE [ 3J8 ] SHE
Sher ftonc occafioned clamours that overpowered the lamb’s bleat
II and the linnet’s fong, and his groves were haunted
Sherbet. beings very different from fawns and fairies. He
fpent his eftate in adorning it, and his death was
probably haftened by his anxiebes. He was a lamp
that fpent its oil in blazing. It is faid, that if he
had lived a little longer, he would have been affilled
by a penfion ; inch bounty could not have been more
properly beftowed, but that it was ever alked is not
certain ; it is too certain that it never was enjoyed —
He died at the Leafowes, of a putrid fever, about five
on Friday morning, Feb. 11. 1763; and was buried
by the fide of his brother, in the churchyard of Flales-
Owen.
In his private opinions, our author adhered to no
particular ledl, and hated all religious dilputes. Ten-
dernefs, in every fenie of the word, was his peculiar
charaderiitic ; and his friends, ciomeftics, and poor
neighbours, daily experienced the effeds of his benevo¬
lence. This virtue he carried to an excefs that ieemed
to border upon weaknefs; yet if any of his friends
treated him ungeneroufly, he was not eafily reconciled.
On iuch occafions, however, he ufed to fay, “ I never
will be a revengeful enemy; but I cannot, it is not in
my nature, to be half a friend.” He was no economill ;
for the generality of his temper prevented his paying a
proper regard to the ufe 6f money: he exceeded there¬
fore the bounds of his paternal fortune. But, if we
confider the perfed paradife into which he had con¬
verted his eftate, the hofpitality with which he lived,
his charities to the indigent, and all out of an eftate that
did not exceed $00 1. a-year, one fhould rather wonder
, that he left any thing behind him, than blame his want
of economy : he yet left more than fufficient to pay all
his debts, and by his will appropriated his whole eftate
to that purpofe. I hough he had a high opinion of
many of the fair fex, he forbore to marry. A paf-
fion he entertained in his youth was with difficulty fur-
mounted. The lady was the fubjed of that admirable
paftoral, in four parts, which has been fo univerfally
and fo juftly admired, and which, one would have
thought, mull have foftened the proudeft and moft ob¬
durate heart. His works have been publilhed by Mr
Dodfley, in 3 vols Bvo. The firft volume contains his
poetical works, which are particularly diftinguifhed by
an amiable elegance and beautiful limplicity ; the fecond
volume contains his profe works; the third his let¬
ters, &c. Biographical DiBionary.
SHEPPEY, an ifland at the mouth of the river
Medway, about 20 miles in circumference. It is fepa-
rated from the main land by a narrow channel, and has
a fertile foil, which feeds great flocks of flieep. The
borough-town of Queenborough is leated thereon ; be-
fides which it has feveral villages.
bHERARDIA, in botany : A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 47th or¬
der, Stel/ata;. The calyx is fmall, quadridentate; the
corolla monopetalous, long, and funnel-flxaped. The
two feeds are naked, and crowned with the calyx.
There are three ipecies, viz. 1. Arvenlis ; 2. Muralis ;
3. Fruticofa.
SHERBE 1, or Sherbit, a compound drink, firft
In ought into England from Turkey and Perfia, confift-
mg of water, lemon-juice, and fugar, in which are dif-
folved perfumed cakes made of excellent Damafcus fr uit, Sheridan,
containing an infufion of fome drops of role water. ——v—
Another kind of it is made of violets, honey, juice of
raifins, &c,
SHERIDAN ( Thomas), D. D. the intimate friend
of Dean Swift, is faid by Shield, in Cibber’s “ Lives of
the Poets,” to have been born about 1684, in the
county of Cavan, where, according to the fame autho-
rityr, his parents lived in no very elevated ftate.- They
are deferibed as being unable to afford their fon the ad- •
vantages of a liberal education; but he, being obferved
to give early indications of genius, attra&ed the notice
of a friend to his family, who fent him to the college of
Dublin, and contributed towards his fupport while he
remained there. He aftewards entered into orders, and
fet up a fchool in Dunlin, which long maintained a
very high degree of reputation, as well for the attention
beftowed on the morals of the fcholars as for their pro¬
ficiency in literature. So great was the eftimation in
which this feminary was held, that it is afferted to
have produced in fome years the fum of L 1000. It
does not appear that he had any confiderable prefer¬
ment; but his intimacy with Swift, in procured
for him a living in the fouth of Ireland worth about
L. (50 a-year, which he went to take poffeffion of,
and, by an a<ft of inadvertence, deftroyed all his future
expectations of riling in the church ; for being at Corke
on the 1 ft of Auguft, the anniverfary of King George’s
birth-day, he preached a lermon, which had for its text,
“ Sufficient for the day is the evil thereof.” On this
being known, he was ftruck out of the lift of chaplains
to the lord lieutenant, and forbidden the caltle.
1 his living Dr Sheridan afterwards changed for that
of Dunboyne, which, by the knavery of the farmers,
and power of the gentlemen in the neighbourhood, fell
fo low as L. 80per annum. Fie gave it up for the free
fchool or Cavan, where he might have lived well in lo
cheap a country on L. 80 a-year falary, befides his
fcholars ; but the air being, as he faid, too moill and
unwholefome, and being dilgufted with lome perfons
who lived there, he fold the fchool for about L. 400 ;
and having foon fpent the money, he fell into bad
health, and died Sept. jo. 1738, in his ^Jth year.
Lord Corke has given the following character of him:
“ Dr Sheridan was a fchool-mafter, and in many in-
ftances perfe&ly well adapted for that ftation. He was
deeply verfed in the Greek and Roman languages, and
in their cuftoms and antiquities. He had that kind of
good nature which abferice of mind, indolence of bo¬
dy, and careleffnefs of fortune, produce ; and although
not over ftribt in his own conducft, yet he took care of
the morality of his fcholars, whom he fent to the univer-
fity remarkably well founded in all kinds of claffical
learning, and not ill inftru&ed in the focial duties of
life. He was flovenly, indigent, and cheerful. Lie
knew books much better than men ; and he knew the
vahufof money leaft of all. In this fituation,' and with
this diipoiition, Swift faftened upon him as upon a prey
with which he intended to regale himfelf whenever his
appetite fhould prompt him.” His Lordfhip then
mentions the event of the unlucky fermon, and adds :
“ This ill-ftarred, good-natured, improvident man,, re¬
turned to Dublin, unhinged from all favour at court,
and even baniflred from the caftle. But ftill he remain¬
ed a punfter, a quibbler, a fiddler, and a wit. Not a
day
SHE [ 359 ] SHE
Sheridan, JUy pafTc’d without a rebus, an anagram, or a madrigal.
His pen and his fiddleftick were in continual motion ;
' and yet to little or no purpofe, if we may give credit
to the following verfes, which fhall ferve as the conclu-
lion of his poetical character :
“ With mafic and poetry equally blefs’d,
“ A bard thus Apollo moft humbly addrefs’d ;
“ Great author of poetry, muhc, and light,
“ Inltrufted by thee, I both fiddle and write ;
“ Yet unheeded I fcrape, or I fcribble all day,
“ My tunes are negledted, my verfe flung away.
“ Thy fubltitute here, Vice-Apollo difdains
“ To vouch for my numbers, or lift to my ftrains.
“ 1’hy manual fign he refufes to put
“ To the airs I produce from the pen or the gut :
“ Be thou then propitious, great Phcebus, and grant
“ Relief, or reward, to my merit or want.
“ I ho’ the Dean and Delany tranfcendently Ihine,
“ O ! brighten one folo or fonnet of mine:
“ Make one work immortal, ’tis all I requeft.
“ Apollo look’d pleas’d, and refolving to jeft,
“ Replied — Honeft friend, I’ve confider’d your cafe,
Nor diflike your unmeaning and innocent face.
“ Your petition I grant, the boon is not great,
“ Your wrorks fhall continue, and here’s the receipt,
“ On rondeaus hereafter your fiddle-ftrings fpend,
“ Write verfes in circles, they never fhall end.”
“ One of the volumes of Swift’s mifcellanies confxfts
almoft entirely of letters between him and the Dean.
He publifhed a profe tranflation of Perfius; to which
he added the beft notes of former editors, together with
many judicious ones of his own. This work was print¬
ed at London, 1739, in i2mo. Biographical Dictionary.
Sheridan (Mrs Frances), wife to Thomas Sheri¬
dan, M. A. was born in Ireland about the year 1724,
I but defcended from a good Englifh family which had
removed thither. Her maiden name was Chamberlaine,
and fhe wras grand-daughter of Sir Oliver Chamberlaine.
The firft literary performance by which fire diftinguifh-
ed herfelf was a little pamphlet at the time of a violent
party-difpute relative to the theatre, in which Mr She¬
ridan had newly embarked his fortune. So well-timed
a work exciting the attention of Mr Sheridan, he by
an accident difcovered his fair patronefs, to whom he
was foon afterwards married. She was a peifon of the
moft amiable character in every relation of life, with the
moft engaging manners. After lingering fome years
in a very weak itate of health, fhe died at Blois, in the
fouth of France, in the year 1767. Her “ Sydney
Biddulph” may be ranked with the firft produdfions of
that clafs in ours or in any other language. She alfo
wrote a little romance in one volume called Nourjahadt
in which there is a great deal of imagination produdlive
of an admirable moral. And fhe was the authorefs of
two comedies, “ The Difcovery” and “ The Dupe.”
WaclJU>nt's SHERIFF, an officer, in each county in England,
norni'nate(i by the king invefted with a judicial and
^ 23^ ' minifterial power, and who takes place of every noble¬
man in the county during the time of his office.
The fheriff is an officer of very great antiquity in
this kingdom, his name being derived from two Saxon
words, flgnifying the reeve, bailiff, or officer of the
fhire He is called in Latin vice-comes, as being the
deputy of the earl or comes, to whom the cuftody of
the fhire is find to have been committed at the firft di- Sheriff,
vifion of this kingdom into counties. But the earls, in —
procefs of time, by reafon of their high employments
and attendance on the king’s perfon, not being able to
tranfadt the bufmefs of the county, were delivered of
that burden ; referving to themfelves the honour, but
the labour was laid on the fheriff. So that now the fhe¬
riff does all the king’s bufinefs in the county ; and tho’
he be ftill called vice-comes, yet he is entirely indepen¬
dent of, and not fubjedt to, the earl; the king, by his
letters patent, committing cujlodiam comitatus to the fhe¬
riff, and to him alone.
Sheriffs were formerly chofen by the inhabitants of
the feveral counties. In confirmation of which it was
ordained, by ftatute 28 Edw. I. c. 8. that the people
fhould have an eledlion of fheriffs in every fhire where the
fhrievalty is not of inheritance For anciently in fome
counties the fheriffs were hereditary ; as we apprehend
they were in Scotland till the ftatute 20 Geo. II c. 43
and ftill continue in the county of Weftmoreland to this’
day ; the city of London having alfo the inheritance of
the fhrievalty of Middlefex veiled in their body by char¬
ter. The reafon of thefe popular ele&ions is affigned
m the lame ftatute, c. 13. '* that the commons mLht
choofe fuch as would not be a burden to them.” And
herein appears plainly a ftrong trace of the democrati-
cal part of our conftitution ; in which form of govern¬
ment it is an indifpenfable requifite, that the people
fhould choofe their own magiftrates- This eledion
was in all probability not abfolutely veiled in the com¬
mons, but required the royal approbation. For in the
Gothic conftitution, the judges of their county-courts
(which office is executed by the fheriff) were eleded
by the people, but confirmed by the king; and the
form of their eledion was thus managed ; the people,,
or incola territorii, chofe twelve eledors, and they no¬
minated three perfons, ex quibus rex unum conjirmabat^
But, with us in England, thefe popular eledions, grow¬
ing tumultuous, were put an end*to by the ftatute 9
Edw. II. ft. 2. which enaded, that the fheriffs fhould
from thenceforth be affigned by the chancellor, trea-
furer, and the judges; as being perfons in whom the
fame truft might with confidence be repofed. By fla-
tutes 14 Edw. III. c. 7. 23 Hen. VI. c. 8. and 21
Hen. VIII. c. 20. the chancellor, treafurer, prefident
of the king’s council, chief juftices, and chief baron,
are to make this eledion ; and that on the morrow of
All Souls, in the exchequer. And the king’s letters
patent, appointing the new fheriffs, ufed commonly to-
bear date the lixth day of November. The ftatute of
Cambridge, 12 Ric II. c. 2. ordains, that the chan¬
cellor, treafurer, keeper of the privy leal, fteward of the
king s hou!e, the king’s chamberlain, clerk of the rolls,
the juftices of the one bench and the other, barons of
the exchequer, and all other that fhall be called to or¬
dain, name, or make juftices of the peace, fheriffs, and
other officers of the king, fhall be fworn to ad indiffe¬
rently, and to name no man that fueth to be put in of¬
fice, but fuch only as they fhall judge to be the beft
and moft fufficient. And the cuttom now is (and has.
been at lealt ever fmee the time of Fortefcue, who wa?
chief juftice and chancellor to Henry the fixth), that
all the judges, together with the other great officers,,
meet in the exchequer chamber on the morrow of All'
Souls yearly, (which day is now altered to the morrow
■off
Sheriff-
SHE t 360 1 SHE
of St Martin by the laft ad for abbreviating Michael- tinue in their office no longer than one year; and yet it Sheriff,
mas term), and then and there propofe three perfons to hath been faid that a fheriff may be appointed durante '—^
the king/who afterwards appoints one of them to be beneplacito, or during the king’s pleafure ; and fo is the
{heriff. This cuftom of the twelve judges propofing form of the royal writ. Therefore, till a new fheriff be
three perfons feems borrowed from the Gothic confti- named, his office cannot be determined, unlefs by his
tution before-mentioned : with this difference, that own death, or the demife of the king ; in which laft cafe
among the Goths the 12 nominors were firft ele&ed by it was ufual for the i'ucceffor to fend a new writ to the
the peoole themfelves. And this ufage of ours, at its old fheriff; but now, by ftatute 1 Anne ft. 1. c. 8. all
firft introdudion, there is reafon to believe, was found- officers appointed by the preceding king may hold their
ed upon fome ftatute, though not now to be found offices for fix months after the king’s demife, unlefs
among our printed laws ; firft, becaufe it is materially fooner difplaced by the fucceffor. We may farther ob-
different from the di'redion of all. the ftatutes before- ferve, that by ftatute j Ric. II. c. 11. no man that has
mentioned ; which it is hard to conceive that the judges ferved the office of ffieriff for one year can be compelled
would have countenanced by their concurrence, or that to ferve the fame again within three years after.
Fortefcue would have inferted in his book, unlefs by the We ffiall find it is of the utmoft importance to have
authority of fome ftatute ; and alfo, becaufe a ftatute the fheriff appointed according to law, when we confi-
is exprefsly referred to in the record, which Sir Ed- der his power and duty. Thefe are either as a judge,
ward Coke .tells us he tranfcribed from the council-book as the keeper of the king’s peace, as a miniderial officer
of 3d March, 34 Hen. VI. and which is in fubftance of the fuperior courts of juftice, or as the king’s
as follows. The king had of his own authority ap- bailiff.
pointed a man fheriff of Lincolnfhire, which office he In his judicial capacity he is to hear and determine
refufed to take upon him ; whereupon the opinions of all caufes of 40 {hillings value and underpin his county-
the judges were taken, what fhould be done in this be- court: and he has alfo a judicial power in divers other
half/ And the two chief juftices, Sir John Fortefcue civil cafes. He is likewife to decide the eledions of
and Sir John Prifot, delivered the unanimous opinion of knights of the fhire, (fubjeA to the controul of the
them all; “ that the king did an error when he made a Houle of Commons), of coroners, and of verderors;
perfon fheriff that was not chofcn and prefented to him to judge of the qualification of voters, and to return
according to the ftatute ; that the perfon refilling was fuch as he ffiall determine to be duly elefted.
liable to" no fine for difobedience, as if he had been As the keepers of the king’s peace, both by corn-
one of the three perfons chofen according to the te- . mon law and fpecial commiffion, he is the firft man in
nor of the ftatute ; that they would advife the king to the county,_ and fuperior in rank to any nobleman
have recourfe to the three perfons that were chofen accord- therein, during his office. He may apprehend, and
ing to the ftatute, or that fome other thrifty man be in- commit to prilon, all perfons who break the peace, or
treated to occupy the office for this year ; and that, the attempt to break it; and may bind any one in a recog-
nextyear, to efchew fuch inconveniences, the order of the nizance to keep the king’s peace. He may, and is
dlatUte in this, behalf made be obferved.” But,-notwith- bound, ex officio, to purfue and take all traitors, mur-
ftanding this unanimous refolution of all the judges of derers, felons, and other mifdoers, and commit them
Emriand, thus entered in the council-book, and the ftatute to gaol for fate cuftody.. He is alio to defend his coun-
34'and 35 Hen. VIII. c. 26. § 61. which exprefsly ty again!! any of the king’s enemies when they come
recognizes this to be the law of the land, fome of our into the land ; and for this purpofe, as well as for
writers have affirmed, that the king, by his prerogative, keeping the peace and purfuing felons, he may com-
mav name whom he pleafes to be ffieriff, whether cho- maud all the people of his county to attend him; which
-fen" by the judges or not. This is grounded on a very is called the poffie'comitatus, or power of the county;
particular cafe° in the fifth year of queen Elizabeth, which fummons, every perfon above f <; years old, and
when, by reafon of the plague, there was no Michael- under the degree of a peer, is bound to attend upon
mas term kept at Weftminfter ; fo that the judges could warning, under pain of fine and imprifonment. But
not meet there in crajlino animarum to nominate the ffie- though the ffieriff is thus the principal confervator of
riffs : whereupon the queen named them herfelf, with- the peace in his county, yet, by the exprefs dire&ions
out fuch previous affembly, appointing for the mod part of the great charter, he, together with the con liable,
one of two remaining in the laft year’s lift. And this coroner, and certain other officers of the king, are for-
cafe, thus circumftanced, is the only authority in our bidden to hold any pleas of the crown, or, in other
books for the making thefe extraordinary ffieriffs. It words, to try any criminal offence. For it would be
is true, the reporter adds, that it was held that the queen highly unbecoming, that the executioners of j all ice
by her prerogative might make a Iheriff without the ffiould be alfo the judges ; ffiould impofe, as well as levy,
election of the judges, won objlante aliquoJiatuto in contra- fines and amercements ; ffiould one day condemn a man.
rium; but the do&rine of non objlante, which fets the to death, and perfonally execute him the next. Neither
prerogative above the laws, was effectually demoliffied may he aft as an ordinary juftice of the peace during
by the bill of rights at the revolution, and abdicated the time of his office; for this would be equally incon-
Weftminfter-hall when king James abdicated the king- fiftent, he being in many reipeds the fervant of the juf-
dom. However, it muft be acknowledged, that the tices.
pradice of occafionally naming what are called pocket- In his minifterial capacity, the ffieriff is bound to ex-
Jberiffs, by the foie authority of the crown, hath uni- ecute all procefs iffuing from the king’s courts of juf-
formly continued to the reign of his prefent majetiy ; tree. In the commencement of civil caufes, he is to
in which, it is believed, few°(if any) inftances have oc- ferve the writ, to arrelt, and to take bail; when the
curred. caufe comes to trial, he muft fummon and return the
Sheriffs, by virtue of fevcral old ftatutes, are to con- jury ; when it is determined, he muft fee the judgment
of
S H E f 361 ] S H E
' of th«f eowt carried into execution. In criminal mat-
“ftherlock. ter8j air0 arrefts and imprifon*, he returns the jury,
he has the cufltidy of the delinquent, and he executes
the fentence of the court, though it extend to death itfclf.
As the king’s bailiff, it is his bufmefs to prelerve the
rights of the king within his bailiwick ; for fo his coun¬
ty is frequently called in the writs : a word introduced
by the princes of the Norman line ; in imitation of the
French, whofe territory is divided into bailiwicks, aS
that of England into counties. He muff feize to the
king’s ufe all lands devolved to the crown by attainder
or efeheat; mull levy all fines and forfeitures, muff feize
and keep all waifs, wrecks, eftrays, and the like, unlefs
they be granted to fome fuv je6t; and muff alfo collect
the king’s rents within his bailiwick, if commanded by
procefs from the exchequer.
To execute thefe various offices, the fheriff has'under
him many inferior officers; an under-fheriff, bailiffs,
and gaolers, who muff neither buy, fell, nor farm their
offices, on forfeiture of 5001.
The under-fheriff ufually performs all the duties of
the office ; a very few only excepted, where the per-
fonal prefence of the high-fheriff is neceffary. But no
under-fheriff fhall abide in his office above one year;
and if he does, by flatute 23 Hen. VI. c. 8. he for¬
feits 200I. a very large penalty in thofe early days. And
no under-fheriff or fheriff’s-officer fhall praftifeas an at¬
torney during the time he continues in fuch office : for
this would be a great inlet to partiality and oppreffion.
But thefe falutary regulations are fhamefully evaded, by
praftifing in the names of other attorneys, and putting
in fham deputies by way of nominal under-fheriffs : by
reafon of which, fays Dalton, the undet-fheriffs and bai¬
liffs do grow fo cunning in their feveral places, that they
are able to deceive, and it may well be feared that ma¬
ny of them do deceive, both the king, the high-fheriff,
and the county.
Sheriff, in Scotland. See Law, Part iii. fe£b 3.
SHERLOCK (William), a learned Englifh divine
in the 17th century, was born in 1641, and educated
at Eaton febool, where he diftinguifhed himfelf by the
vigour of his genius and his application to ftudy.
Thence he was removed to Cambridge, where he took
his degrees. In 1669 he became reftor of the parifh
of St George, Botolph-lane, in London; and in 1681
was collated to the prebend of Pancras, in the cathedral
of St Paul’s. He was likevvife chofen mafter of the
Temple, and had the reftory of Therfield in Hertferd-
Ihire. After the Revolution he was fufpended from
his preferment, for refufing the oaths to king William
and queen Mary ; but at lad he took them, and public¬
ly juftified what he had done. In 1691 he was inftal-
led dean of St Paul’s. His Vindication of the Doftrine
of the Trinity engaged him in a warm controverfy with
Dr South and others. Bifhop Burnet tells us, he was
“ a clear, a polite, and a ftrong writer ; but apt to af-
fume too much to himfelf, and to treat his adverfaries
with contempt.” He died in 1 707. His works are
very numerous ; among thefe are, 1. A Difcourfe con¬
cerning the Knowledge of Jefus Chrift, againft Dr
Owen. 2. Several pieces againft the Papifts, the So-
cinians, and Diffenters. 3. A practical Treatife on
Death, which is much admired. 4. A pra&ical Dif¬
courfe on Providence. 5. A practical Difcourie on the
future Judgment; and many other works.
Vol. XVII. Part I.
Sherlock (Dr Thomas), bifhop of London, was SherWIt,
the fon ot the preceding Dr William Sherlock, and Shernffe.
was born in 1678. He was educated in Catharine-hall, T
Cambridge, where he took his degrees, and of which
he became mafter : he was made mafter of the Temple
very young, on the refignation of his father ; and it is
remarkable, that this mafterftiip was held by father and
ion fucceffively for more thatr 70 years. He was at
the head of the oppofition againft Dr Hoadley bifhop
of Bangor ; during which conteft he publiihed a great
number of pieces. He attacked the famous Collins’s
“ Grounds and Reafons of the Chriftian Religion,” in
a courfe of fix fennons, preached at the Temple church,
which he intitled “ The Ufe and Intent of Prophecy in
the feveral Ages ofthe World.” In 1728, Dr Sherlock
was promoted to the biihopric of Bangor ; and was
tranflated to Salifbury in 1734. In 1747 he refufed
the archbiihopric of Canterbury, on account of his ill
ftate of health ; but recovering in a good degree, ac¬
cepted the fee of London the following year. On oc-
cafion of the earthquakes in 1 750, he publiihed an ex¬
cellent Paftoral Letter to the clergy and inhabitants
of London and Weftminiter : of which it is-faid there
were printed in 4to, 5000 ; in 8vo, 20,000 ; and ia
i2mo, about 30,000 ; befide pirated editions, of which
not ‘ lefs than 50,000 were fuppofed to have been fold.
Under the weak ftate of body in which he lay for feveral
years, he revifed and publiihed 4 vols of Sermons in 8vo,
which are particularly admired for their ingenuity and
elegance. He died in 1762, and by report worth
150,000!. “ His learning,” fays Dr Nicholls, “ was '
very extenfive : God had given him a great and an un-
derftanding mind, a quick compreheniion, and a folid
judgment. Thefe advantages of nature he improved by
much induftry and application. His ikill in the civil
and canon law wras very confiderable ; to which he had
added fuch a knowledge of the common law of England
as few clergymen attain to. This it was that gave him
that influence in all caufes where the church was con¬
cerned ; as knowing precifely what it had to claim from
its conftitutions and canons, and wffiat from the com¬
mon law of the land.” Dr Nicholls then mentions his
conftant and exemplary piety, his warm and fervent zeal
in preaching the dpties and maintaining the doftrines of
Chriftianity, and his large and diffulive munificence and
charity ; particularly by his having given large funis of
money to the corporation of clergymens fons, to feveral
of the hofpitals, and to the fociety for propagating the
gofpel in foreign parts : alfo his bequeathing to Catha-
rine-hall in Cambridge, the place of his education, his
valuable library of books, and his donations for the
founding a librarian’s place and a fcholarfhip, to the a-
mount of feveral thoufand pounds.
SHERRIFFE of Mecca, the title of the defeen-
dants of Mahomet by Haffan Ibn Ali. Thefe are di¬
vided into feveral branches, of which the family of Ali
Bunemi, confiftingat leaftof three hundred individuals,
enjoy the foie right to the throne of Mecca. The Ali
Bunemi are, again, fubdivided into two fubordinate
branches, Darii Sajid, and Darii Barkad; of whom
fometimes the one, fometimes the other, have given l"o-
vereigns to Mecca and Medina, when thefc were fepa-
rate ftates.
Not only is the Turkiih Sultan indifferent about the
order of fucceffion in this family, but he feems even to
Z z . foment
Shernffe.
SHE [ 362 1 SHE
foment the diffenfions which arife among them, and fa¬
vours the ftrongeft, merely that he may weaken them
all. As the order of fucceffion is not determinately
f.xed, and the therriffes may all afpire alike to the fo-
vereign power, this uncertainty of right, aided by the
intrigues of the Turkifh officers, occalions frequent re¬
volutions. The grand ffierriffe is feldom able to main¬
tain himfelf on the throne ; and it ftill feldomer happens
that his reign is not difturbed by the revolt of his near-
eft relations. There have been inftances of a nephew
fucceeding his uncle, an uncle fucceeding his nephew;
andtometimes of a perfon, from a remote branch, coming
in the room of the reigning prince of the ancient houfe.
When Niebuhr was in Arabia, in 1763, the reigning
Sherriffe Mefad had fitten fourteen years on the throne,
and, during all that period, had been continually at war
with the neighbouring Arabs, and with his own near eft
relations fometimes. A few years before, the Pacha of
Syria had depofed him, and raifed his younger brother
to the fovereign dignity in his {lead. But after the
departure of the caravan, Jafar, the new ffierriffe, not
being able to maintain himfelf on the throne, was obli¬
ged to refign the fovereignty aqain to Mefad. Achmet,
the fecond brother of the Iherriffe, who was much belo¬
ved by the Arabs, threatened to attack Mecca while Nie¬
buhr was at Jidda. Our traveller was foon after informed
of the termination of the quarrel, and of Achmet’s re¬
turn to Mecca, where he continued to live peaceably in
a private charafter.
Thefe examples (how that the Muftulmans obferve
not the law which forbids them to bear arms againft
their holy places. An Egyptian Bey even prefumed,
a few years fince, to plant fome fmall cannons within
the compafs of the Kaba, upon a fmall tower, from
vrhich he fired over that facred manfion, upon the pa¬
lace of Sherriffe Mefad, with whom he was at variance.
The dominions of the fherriffe comprehend the cities
of Mecca, Medina, Jambo, Taaif, Sadie, Ghunfude,
Hali, and thirteen others lefs confiderable, all fituated in
Hedjas. Near Taaif is the lofty mountain of Gazvan,
which, according to Arabian authors, is covered with
fnow in the midft of fummer. As thefe dominions
are neither opulent nor extenfive, the revenue of their
fovereign cannot be confiderable.
He finds a rich refource, however, in the impofts le¬
vied on pilgrims, and in the gratuities offered him by
Muffulman monarchs. Every pilgrim pays a tax of from
ten to an hundred crowns, in proportion to his ability.
The Great Mogul remits annually fixty thoufand rou-
pees to the fherriffe, by an affignment upon the govern¬
ment of Surat. Indeed, fince the Engliffi made them-
felves mafters of this city, and the territory belonging
to it, the Nabob of Surat has no longer been able to
pay the fum. The Iherriffe once demanded it of the
Englifh, as the poffdTors of Surat.; and, till they ffiould
fatisfy him, forbade their captains to leave the port of
Jidda. But the Englifn difregarding this prohibition,
the ffierriffe complained to the Ottoman Porte, and they
communicated his complaints to the Englifh ambaffa-
dor. He at the fame time opened a negociation with
the nominal Nabob, who refides in Surat. But thefe
fteps proved all fruitlefs : and the fovereign of Mecca,
feems not likely to be ever more benefited by the con¬
tribution from India.
The power of the fherriffe extends not to fpiritual
matters ; thefe are entirely managed by the heads of the
clergy, of different feels, who are refident at Mecca-
Rigid Muffulmans, fuch as the Turks, are not very fa¬
vourable in their fentiments of the fherriffes, but fufpedt
their orthodoxy, and look upon them as fecretly attach¬
ed to the tolerant fe£t of the Zeidi.
SHETLAND, the name of certain iflands belong¬
ing to Scotland, and lying to the northward of Orkney.
There are many convincing proofs that thefe ifiands
were very early inhabited by the Pitls, or rather by
thofe nations who were the original poffeffors of the
Orkneys ; and at the time of the total deffrudlion of
thefe nations, if any credit be due to tradition, their
woods were entirely ruined (a). It is highly probable
that the people in Shetland, as well as in the Orkneys,
floimfhed under their own princes dependent upon the
crown of Norway ; yet this feems to have been rather
through what they acquired by fifhing and commerce,
than by the cultivation of their lands. It may alfo be
reafonably prefumed, that they grew thinner of inhabi¬
tants after they were annexed to the crown of Scotland;
and it is likely that they revived again, chiefly by the
very great and extenfive improvements which the Dutch
made in the herring-fifhery upon their coafts, and the
trade that the crews of their buffes, then very numerous,
carried on with the inhabitants, neceffarily refulting from
their want of provifions and other conveniences, which
in thofe days could not be very confiderable.
There are many reaLns which may be affigned why
tbefe iflands, though part of our dominions, have not
hitherto been better known to us. They were com¬
monly placed two degrees too far to the north in all the
old maps, in order to make them agree with Ptolemy’s
defeription of Thule, which he afferted to be in the la¬
titude of 63 degrees ; which we find urged by Camden
as a reafon why Thule muft be one of the Shetland ifles,
to which Speed alfo agrees, though from their being
thus wrong placed he could not find room for them in
his maps. Another, and that no light caufe, was the
many falfe, fabulous, and impertinent relations publifli-
ed concerning them (b), as if they were countries in-
hofpitable and uninhabitable ; and laftly, the indolence,
or rather indifference, of the natives, who, contenting
themfelves
(a) The tradition is, that this was done by the Scots when they deftroyed the Pi&s; but is more probably
referred to the Norwegians rooting out the original poffeflbrs of Shetland.
(b) They reprefented the climate as intenfely cold ; the foil as compofed of crags and quagmire, fo barren
as to be incapable of bearing corn ; to fupply which, the people, after drying fifh-bones, powdered them, then
kneaded and baked them for bread. The larger fifh-bones werefaid to be all the fuel they had. Yet, in fo dreary
a country, and in fuch miferable circumftances, they were acknowledged to be very long-lived, cheerful, and con¬
tented.
Shetland.
-—v——^
SHE [ 363 I SHE
Gte#tUn<!. tliemfelvea with thofe neccffaries and conveniences pro-
w-”” cured by their intercourfe with other nations, and con¬
ceiving themfelves neglected by the mother country^
have feldom troubled her with their applications.
'j’here are few countries that have gone by more
names than thefe iflands; they were called in Iflandic,
Hialtlandia, from hialt, the “ hilt of a fword this
might be poflibly corrupted into HetJand, Hitland, or
JHethlandy though fome tell us this hgnifies a “ high
land.” They have been likewife, and are ftill in fome
maps, called Zetland and Zealand, in reference, as has
been fuppofed, to their fituation. By the Danes, and
by the natives, they are ftyled Tealtaland ; and not-
withftanding the oddnefs of the orthography, this dif¬
fers very little, if at all, from their manner of pronoun¬
cing Zetland, out of which pronunciation grew the mo¬
dern names of Shetland and Shetland.
The illands of Shetland, as we commonly call them,
are well fituated for trade. The nearell continent to
them is Norway ; the port of Bergen lying 44 leagues
eaft, whereas they lie 46 leagues north north-eail from
Buchannefs ; eait north-eaft from Sanda, one of the
Orkneys, about 16 or 18 leagues; fix or feven leagues
north-eaft from Fair Me ; 58 leagues eaft from the Fer-
roe iflts; and at nearly the fame diftance north-eaft from
Lewis. The fouthern promontory of the main land,
called Sumlurgh Head, lies in 59 degrees and 59 minutes
©f north latitude ; and the northern extremity of Unft,
the moft remote of them all, in the latitude of 61 de¬
grees 15 minutes. The meridian of London pafles
through this laft ifland, which lies about 2 degrees 30
minutes weft from Paris, and about 5 degrees 15 mi¬
nutes eaft from the meridian of Cape Lizard. Accord¬
ing to Gifford’s “ Hiftorical Defcription of Zetland,”
the inhabited iflands are 33, of which the principal is
ftyled Main Land, and extends in length from north to
fouth about 60 miles, and is in fome places 20 broad,
' though in others not more than two.
It is impoffible to fpeak with precifion ; but, accord¬
ing to the beft computation which we have been able to
form, the Shetland ifles contain near three times as
much land as the Orkneys : they are confidered alfo
as equal in fize to the ifland of Madeira ; and not
inferior to the provinces of Utrecht, Zealand, and all
the reft of the Dutch iflands taken together; but of
climate and foil they have not much to boaft. The
longeft day in the ifland of Unft is 19 hours 15 mi¬
nutes, and of confequence the fliorteft day 4 hours and
45 minutes. The fpring is very late, the fummer very
fliort; the autumn alfo is of no long duration, dark,
foggy, and rainy; the winter fets in about November,
and lafts till April, and fometimes till May. They have
frequently in that feafon ftorms of thunder, much
rain, but little froft or fnow. High winds are indeed
very frequent and very troublefome, yet they feldom
produce any terrible effefts. The aurora borealis is as
common here as in any of the northern countries. In
the winter feafon the fea fwells and rages in fuch a
manner, that for five or fix months their ports are inac-
ceflible, and of courfe the people during that fpace have
no correfpondence with the reft of the world.
The foil in the interior part of the main land, for the
moft part, is mountainous, moorifti, and boggy, yet not
to fuch a degree as to render the country utterly im-
paffable j for many of the roads here, and in fome of
the northern ifles, are as good as any other natural ShetlhKd.
roads, and the people travel them frequently on all oc- ~-
cafions- Near the coaft there are fometimes for miles
together flat pleafant fpots, very fertile both in pafture
and corn. The mountains produce large crops of very
nutritive grafs in the fummer ; and they cut confider-
able quantities of hay, with which they feed their cattle
in the winter. They might with a little attention bring
more of their country into cultivation : but the people
are fo much addufted to their fifliery, and feel fo little
neceflity of having recourfe to this method for fubfift-
ence, that they are content, how ftrange foever that
may feem to us, to let four parts in five of their land
remain in a ftate of nature.
They want not confiderable quantities of marie in
different iflands, though they ufe but little ; hitherto
there has been no chalk found; limeffone and freeftone
there are in the louthern parts of the main land in great
quantities, and alfo in the neighbouring iflands, parti¬
cularly Fetlar ; and confiderable quantities of flate, very
good in its kind. No mines have been hitherto wrought,
though there are in many places vilible appearances of
feveral kinds of metal. Some folid pieces of filver, it is
laid, have been turned up by the plough. In fome
of the finaller ifles there are ftrong appearances of iron;
but, through the want of proper experiments being
made, there is, in this refpedt at leaft, hitherto nothing
certain. Their meadows are inclofed with dikes, and
produce very good grals. The little corn they grow
is chiefly barley, with fome oats ; though even in
the northern extremity of Unit the little land which
they have is remarkable for its fertility. The hills
abound with medicinal herbs ; and their kitchen-gar¬
dens thrive as well, and produce as good greens and
roots, as any in Britain. Of late years, and fince this
has been attended to, fome gentlemen have had even
greater fuccefs than they expefted in the cultivating^ of
tulips, roles, and many other flowers. They have no trees,
and hardly any flirubs except juniper, yet they have a tra¬
dition that their country was formerly overgrown with
woods; and it feems to be a confirmation of this, that
the roots ot timber-trees have been, and are ftill, dug
up at a great depth; and that in fome, and thofe too
inacceffible, places, the mountain alh is ffill found grow¬
ing wild. That this defeeft, viz. the want of wood at
prefent, does not arife entirely from the foil or climate,
appears from feveral late experiments ; fome gentlemen
having raffed afh, maple, horfe-chefnuts, &c. in their
gardens. Though the inhabitants are without either
wood or coals, they are very well fupplied with fuel,
having great plenty of heath and peat. The black
cattle in this country are in general of a larger fort
than in Orkney, which is owing to their having more
extenlive pailures; a clear proof that ffill farther im¬
provements might be made in refpe<ft to fize. Their
horfes are fmall, but ftrong, ftout, and well fliaped, live
very hardy, and to a great age. They have likewife a
breed of fmall fwine, the flefli of which, when fat, is
efteemed very delicious. They have no goats, hares, or
foxes ; and in general no wild or venomous creatures of
any kind except tats in fome few iflands. They have
no moor-fowl, which is the more remarkable, as there
are everywhere immenfe quantities of heath ; but there
are many forts of wild and water fowl, particular¬
ly the dunter-goofe, clack-goofe, folan-goofe, fwans,
Z z 3 ducks,
S . H E [ 364 ] SHI
Shetland ducks, tea!, vvhaps, foifls, lyres, kittiwaiks, maws, plo-
vers, cormorants, &c. There is likewife the ember-goofe,
which is laid to hatch her egg under her wing. Eagles
and hawks, as alto ravens, crows, mews, &c. abound here.
All thefe klands are well watered ; for there are eve¬
rywhere excellent fprings, fome of them mineral and
medicinal. They ha^e indeed no rivers ; but many plea-
fant rills or rivulets, which they call burns, of different
fizes; in fome of the largeft they have admirable trouts,
fome of which are of 15 and even of 20 pounds weight.
They have likewife many frefh-water lakes, well ftored
with trout and eels, and in molt of them there are alfo
large and fme flounders; in fome very excellent cod.
Thefe frefli water lakes, if the country was better peo¬
pled, and the common people more at their eafe, are
certainly capable of great improvements. The fea-
coafts of the main land of Shetland, in a ftraight line,
are 5 9 leagues ; and therefore there cannot be a coun¬
try conceived more proper for eftablifhing an extenfive
fifliery. What the inhabitants have been hitherto able
to do, their natural advantages confidered, does not de-
ferve that name, notwithftanding they export large quan¬
tities of cod, tuflt, ling, and fkate, infomuch that the
bounty allowed by adls of parliament amounts from
L. 1400 to L. 2000 annually. They have, belides,
haddocks, whitings, turbot, and a variety of other
fifh. In many of the inlets there are prodigious quan¬
tities of excellent oyfters, lohfters, mufcles, cockles,
and other fliell-fifh. As to amphibious creatures, they
have multitudes of otters and feals; add to thefe, that
amber, ambergris, and other fpoils of the ocean, are fre¬
quently found upon the coafts.
The inhabitants are a flout, well-made, comely peo¬
ple ; the lower fort of a fvvarthy complexion. The
gentry are allowed, by all who have converfed with
them, to be moft of them polite, fhrewd, fenfible,
lively, aftive, and intelligent perfons ; and thefe, to
the number of 100 families, have very handfome,
ftrong, \£ell-built houfes, neatly furnifhed ; their tables
well ferved, polifhed in their manners, and exceedingly
hofpitable and civil to ftrangers. Thofe of an inferior
rank are a hardy, robuft, and laborious people, who,
generally fpeaking, get their bread by fifhing in all
weathers in their yawls, which are little bigger than
Gravefend wherries; live hardily, and in the fummer
feafon moftly on fifh ; their drink, which, in reference
to the Britifh dominions, is peculiar to the country, is
called b/anJ, and is a fort of butter-milk, long kept, and
very four. Many live to great ages, though not fo
long as in former times. In refpeft, however, to the
bulk of the inhabitants, from the poornefs of living,
from the nature of it, and from the drinking great
quantities of corn-fpirits of the very worft fort, multi¬
tudes are afflifted with an inveterate feurvy; from
which thofe in better circumflances are entirely free,
and enjoy as good health as in any other country in
Europe. As they have no great turn to agriculture,
and are perfuaded that their country is not fit for it,
they do not (though probably they might) raife corn
enough to fupport them for more than two-thirds of the
year. But they are much more fuccefsful in their paf-
ture-grounds, which are kept well inclofed, in good or¬
der, and, together with th«ir commons, fupply them
plentifully with beef and mutton. They pay their
rents generally In butter at Lammas, and in money at Shew*
Martinmas. As to manufa&ures, they make a ftrong brejcl,
coarfe cloth for their own ufe, as alfo linen. They shlc^‘
make likewife of their own wool very fine itockings.
They export, befides the different kinds of fifh already
mentioned, fome herrings, a confiderable quantity of but¬
ter and traiq-oil, otter and feal fkins,and no inconiiderable
quantity of the fine ftockings juft mentioned* Their chief
trade is to Leith, London, Hamburgh, Spain, and to the
Straits. They import timbers, deals, and fome of their
beft oats, from Norway; corn and flour from the Ork¬
neys, and from North Britain ; fpirits and fome other
things from Hamburgh ; cloths and better fort of linen
from Leith; grocery, houfehold furniture, and other
neceffaries, from London. The fuperior-duties to the
earl of Morton are generally let in farm j and are paid
by the people in butter, oil, and money. The remains
of the old Norwegian conftitution are ft ill viiible in the
divifion of their lands ; and they have fome udahnen or
freeholders amongfl them. But the Scots laws, cuftoms,
manners, drefs, and language, prevail; and they have a
fheriff, and other magiftrates for the adminiftration ofjuf-
tice, as well as a cuftomhoufe, with a proper number of
officers. In reference to their ecclefiaftical concerns, they
have a prefhytery, 12 minifters, and an itinerant for Foula,
Fair Ifland, aad the Skerries. Each of thefe minifters
has a ftipend of between 40 and 50 pounds, befides a
houfe and a glebe free f rom taxes. The number of fouls
in thefe Hands may be about 20,000.
SHEW-br ead, the loaves of bread which the prieil
o’f the week put every Sabbath-day upon the golden-
table in the fandtuary, before the Lord, in the temple
of the Jews. They were twelve in number, and were of¬
fered to God in the name of the twelve tribes of Ifrael.
They were fliaped like a brick, were ten palms long and
five broad, weighing about eight pounds each. They
were unleavened, and made of line flour by the Levites.
The priefts fet them on the table in two rows, fix in a
row, and put frankincenfe upon them to preferve them
from moulding. They were changed every Sabbath,
and the old ones belonged to the prieft upon duty. Of
this bread none but the priefts might eat,, except in
cafes of neceffity. It was called the bread of faces,
becaufe the table of the ihew-bread, being almoft over-
againft the ark of the covenant, the loaves might be faid
to be fet before the face of God. The original table
was carried away to Babylon, but a new one was made
for the fecond temple. It was of wood overlaid with
gold. This, with the candleftick and fome other fpoils,
was carried by Titus to Rome.
SHIELD, an ancient weapon of defence, in form of
a light buckler, borne on the arm to fend off lances,
darts, &c. The form of the fhield is reprefented by
the efcutcheon in coats of arms. The ffiield was that
part of the ancient armour on which the perfons of di-
itin&ion in the field of battle always had their arms
painted ; and moll of the words ufed at this time to
exprefs the fpace that holds the arms of families are
derived from the Latin name for a feutum. The
French efeu znd.efcuJftonr and the Englilh word efcutcheon,
or, as we commonly fpeak fcutchcon, are evidently from
this origin ; and the Italian feudo lignifies both the
fhield of arms and that ufed in war. The Latin name
clypeus, for the fame thing, feerae alfo to be derived from
the
S H' I r 365 1 S H I
Shield, tbe Greek word to tngrave; and It had this
—v  name from the feveral figures engraved on it, as marks
of difiin&ton of the perlon who wore it.
The flutld in war, among the Greeks and Romans,
was not only ufeful in the defence of the body, but it
'was alio a token, or badge of honour, to the wearer ;
and he who returned from battle without it was always
treated with infamy afterwards. People have at all
times thought this honourable piece of the armour the
properdt place to engrave, or figure on the figns of dig¬
nity of the poffeflbr of it ; and hence, when arms came
to be painted for families in aftertimes, the heralds al¬
ways'chofe to reprcfent them upon the figure of a
fhield, but with feveral exterior additions and orna¬
ments ; as the helmet, fupporters, and the reft.
The form of the fhield has not only been found diffe¬
rent in various nations, but even the people of the fame
nation, at different times, have varied its form extreme¬
ly ; and among feveral people there have been fhields
of feveral forms and fixes in ufe, at the fame period of
time, and fuited to different occafions. The moft an¬
cient and univerfal form of fhields, in the earlier ages,
feems to have been the triangular. This we fee inftan-
ces of in all the monuments and gems of antiquity : our
own moft early monuments flrow it to have been the
nioft antique fttape alfo with us, and the heralds have
found it the moft convenient for their purpofes, when
they had any odd number of figures to reprefent ; as if
three, then two in the broad bottom part, and one in
the narrow upper end, it held them veiy well; or if five,
they flood as conveniently, as three below, and two
above. The other form of a fhield, now universally
isfed, is fquaie, rounded, and pointed at the bottom :
this is taken from the figure of the Samnitic fhield ufed
by the Romans, and fince copied very generally by the
Englifh, French, and Germans.
The Spaniards and Portuguefe have the like general
form of fhields, but they are round at the bottom with¬
out the point; and the Germans, befide the Samnite-
ihield, have two others pretty much in ufe: thefe are,
j. The bulging fhield, diftinguifhed by its fwelling or
bulging out at the flanks; and, 2. The indented fliield,
or ftiield chancree, which has a number of notches and
indentings all round its fides. The ufe of the ancient
fhield of this form was, that the notches ferved to reft
the lance upon, that it might be firm while it gave the
thruff ; but this form being lefs proper for the recei¬
ving armorial figures, the two former have been much
more ufed in the heraldry of that nation.
Befide this different form of the fhields in heraldry,
we find them alfo often diftinguifhed by their different
pofitions, feme of them flanding eredl, and others flant-
ing various ways, and in different degrees ; this the he¬
ralds exprefs by the word pendant, “ hanging,” they
feeming to be hung up not by the centre, but by the
right or left corner. The French call thefe ecu pendant,
and the common antique triangular ones*?™ anaen. ft he
Italians call this feuto pendente ; and the reafon given for
exhibiting the fhield in thefe figures in heraldry is, that
in the ancient tilts and tournaments, they wdio were to
juft at thefe military exercifes, were obliged to hang up
theirfhields with their armories, or coats of arms on them,
out at the windows and balconies of the houfes near the
place; or upon trees, pavilions, or the barriers of the
ground, if the exercife was to be performed in the Sfidd
field.
Thofe who were to fight on foot, according to Co- 16 3*
lumbier, had their fhields hung up by the right corner, ^
and thofe who were to fight on horfeback had theirs
hung up by the left. This pefition of the fhields in
heraldry is called couche by fome writers, though by the
generality pendant.
It was very frequent in all parts of Europe, in arms
given between the iith and 14th centuries; but it is
to be obferved, that the hanging by the left corner,
as it was the token of the owner’s being to fight on
horfeback, fo it was efteemed the moft honourable and
noble fituation ; and all the pendant fnields of the fons
of the royal family of Scotland and England, and of our
nobility at that time, are thus hanging from the left
corner. The hanging from this corner was a token of
the owner’s being of noble birth, and having fought in
the tournaments before ; but no fovereign ever had a -
fhield pendant any way, but always ere61, as they ne¬
ver formally entered the lifts of the tournament.
The Italians generally have their fhields of arms of
an oval form; this feems to be done in imitation of
thofe of the popes and other dignified clergy : but their
herald Petro Saudio feems to regret the ufe of this fi¬
gure of the fhield, as an innovation brought in by the
painters and engravers as moft convenient for holding
the figures, but derogatory to the honour of the poffef-
for, as not reprefenting eitfier antiquity or honours won
in war, but rather the honours of fome citizen or per¬
lon of learning. Some have carried it fo far as to fay,
that thofe who either have no ancient title to nobility, or •
have fullied it by any unworthy adlion, cannot any long¬
er wear their arms in fhields properly figured, but were
obliged to have them painted in an oval or round
Ihield.
In Flanders, where this author lived, the round and
oval fhields are in the dil’repute he fpeaks of; but in
Italy, befide the popes and dignified prelates, many of
thfc firft families of the laity have them.
'The fecular princes, in many other countries, alfo
retain this form of the fhield, as the moft ancient and
truly expreffive of the Roman clypeus.
Shield, in heraldry, the efcutcheon or field on which
the bearings of coats of arms are placed. See Heraldry.
SHIELD RAKE, in ornithology.- See Anas.
SHIELDS, North and South, two fea-port towns,
the one north of the Tyne in Northumberland, the
other ®n the fouth of the Tyne in the county of Dur¬
ham. South Shields contains above 200 falt-pans, and
on both banks of the river are many convenient houfes
for the entertainment of feamen and colliers, moft of
the Newcaftle coal-fleet having their ftation here ufually
till their coals are brought down in the barges and
lighters from Newcaftle. A very large Roman altar, -
of one entire Hone, was found fome years ago near this
place, and put into the hands of the learned Dr Lifter,
who, in his account of it fent to the Royal Society,
fays it was creeled to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Ca-
racalla, when he took upon him the command of the
empire and the whole army (after his father’s death at
York), for hisfafe return from his fuccefsful expedition
agauiil the Scots and Pi6ls. W. Long. 1. 12. N. Lat.
55* 44-
k SHIFTERS,
SHI [ 366 ] SHI
Shifter?
.11
Shiling,
SHIFTERS, on board a man of war, certain men
wbo are employed by the cooks to fhiit and change the
water in which the flefh or tilh is put, and laid for fome
time, in order to fit it for the kettle.
SHIFTING a tackle, in fea language, the a£I of
removing the blocks of a tackle to a greater di(lance
from each other, on the objedl to which they are ap*
plied, in order to give a greater fcope or extent to their
purchafe. This operation is otherwife called fleeting.
Shifting the helm denotes the alteration of its pofition,
by pnfhing it towards the oppofite fide of the (hip.
Shifting the voyal, fignifies changing its pofition on the
capflern, from the right to the left, and vice verfa.
SHILLING, an Englifh filver coin, equal to twelve
pence, or the twentieth part of a pound.
Freherus derives the Saxon fcilling, whence our (hil-
Ung, from a corruption of Jiliqua; proving the deriva¬
tion by feveral texts of law, and, among others, by the
26th law, De annuls legatis. Skinner deduces it from
the Saxon fetid “ fhield,” by reafon of the efcutcheon
of arms thereon.
Bifirop Hooper derives it from the Arabic fchec/e, fig-
nifying a weight ; but others, with greater probability,
deduce it from the Latin Jtcilicus, which fignified in that
language a quarter of an ounce, or the 48th part of a
Roman pound. In confirmation of this etymology it
is alleged, that the (hilling kept its original fignification,
and bore the fame proportion to the Saxon pound as
ficilicus did to the Roman and the Greek, being exadl-
ly the 48th part of the Saxon pound; a difeovery
* Exflicath-which wc owe to Mr Lambarde*.
V-lborum in ■^owever5 the Saxon laws reckon the pound in the
Leg. Sax. r0llncl number at 50 (hillings, but they really coined
««£. Libra, out of it only 48 5 the value of the (hilling was five-
pence ; but it was reduced to fourpence above a centu¬
ry before the conqueft ; for feveral of the Saxon laws,
made in Athelilan’s reign, oblige us to take this efti-
mate. Thus it continued to the Norman times, as one
of the Conqueror’s laws fufficiently afeertains ; and it
feems to have been the common coin by which the
Englifh payments were adjufted. After the conqueft,
the French Jolldus of twelvepence, which was in ufe
among the Normans, was called by the Engliftr name of
(hilling; and the Saxon (hilling of fourpence took a
Norman name, and was called the groat, or great coin,
becaufe it was the largeft Engliftr coin then known in
England.
It has been the opinion of the bilhops Fleetwood and
Gibfon, and of the antiquaries in general, that, though
the method of reckoning by pounds, marks, and flril-
lings, as well as by pence and farthings, had been in
conftant ufe even from the Saxon times, long before
the Norman conqueft, there never was fuch a coin in
England as either a pound or a mark, nor any drilling,
till the year 1504 or i5°5? when a few filver (hillings
or twelve-pences were coined, which have long fince
been (olely confined to the cabinets of collectors.
Mr Clarke combats this opinion, alleging that fome
coins mentioned by Mr Folkes, under Edward I. were
probably Saxon (hillings new minted, .and that arch-
4 Gram. biihop Aelfric exprefsly faysf, that the Saxons had
Saxon, three names for their money, viz. mancufes, (hillings,
J>* S1, and pennies. He alfo urges the different value of the
Saxon (hilling at different times, and its uniform pro¬
portion to the pound, as an argument that their dril¬
ling vyas a coin ; and the teftimony of the Saxon gof-
pels, m which the word we have tranflated feces of liL
ver is rendered Jhillings, which, he fays, they would
hardjy have done, if there had been no fuch coin as a
(hilling then in ufe. Accordingly the Saxons expreffed
their (hilling in Latin by flclus and argenteus. He far-
thci adds, that the Saxon (hilling was never expreded
by folidus till after the Norman fettlements in Eng¬
land ; and howfoever it altered during the long period
that elapfed from the conqueft to the time of Hen¬
ry VII. it was the moft conftant denomination of mo¬
ney in all payments, thouuh it was then only a foecies
of account, or the twentieth part of the pound"Ster¬
ling : and when it was again revived as a coin, it le(Ten-
ed gradually as the pound Sterling leftened, from the
28th of Edward III. to the 43d of Elizabeth.
In the year 1560 there was a peculiar fort of (hil-
h'ng ft ruck in Ireland, or the value of ninepence Enf-
h(h, which palled in Ireland for twelvepence. The
motto on the reyerfe was, pofui Deum adjutorem
rneum. Eighty-two of thefe (hillings, according to Ma-
1}nes, went to the pound ; they therefore weighed 20
grains, one-fourth each, which is fomewhat heavier in
proportion than the Englidi (hilling of that time, 62
whereof went to the pound, each weighing qz grains
feven-eighths ; and the Iridv dulling being valued at the
Tower at ninepence Englifh, that is, one-fourth part
lefs than the Enghfh dulling, it (hould therefore pro-
portionably weigh one fourth part lefs, and its full
weight be fomewhat more than 62 grains ; but fome
of them found at this time, though much worn, weighed
69 grains. In the year 1598, five different pieces
of money of this kind were (truck in England for the
fervice of the kingdom of Ireland. Thefe were (hil-
lings to be current in Ireland at twelvepence each ; half
(hillings to be current at fixpence, and quarter (hillings
at threepence. Pennies and halfpennies were alfo (truck
of the fame kind, and fent over for the payment of the
army in Ireland. 1 he money thus coined was of a
very bafe mixture of copper and fiber ; and two years
after there were more pieces of the fame kinds (truck
for the fame fervice, which were (till worfe; the former
being three ounces of fiber to nine ounces of copper;
and thefe latter only two ounces eighteen pennyweights
to nine ounces two pennyweights of the alloy.
1 he Dutch, Hemifh, and Germans, have hkewife
their (hilling, called fchehn, fchilling, fcalin, See. but thefe
not being of the fame weight or finenefs with the Eng¬
lidi (hilling, are not current at the fame value. The
Englidi (hilling is worth about 23 French Cols; thofe
of Holland and Germany about 11 fols and an half}
thofe of Flanders about nine. The Dutch (hillings are
alfo called fols de gros, becaufe equal to twelve gros.
The Danes have copper diillings worth about one-
fourth of a farthing Sterling.
SHILOH is a term tamous among interpreters
and commentators upon Scripture. It is found (Gen.
xlix. 10.) to denote the Meffiah. The patriarch Ja¬
cob foretels his coming in thefe words; “ The feeptre
(hall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from be¬
tween his feet, until Shiloh come; and unto him (hall
the gathering of the people be.” The Hebrew text
reads, nbw id' ony until Shi/oh come. All Chriftian com¬
mentators agree, that this word ought to be underftood
of the Meffiah, or Jefus Chrift j but aH arc not agreed
about
Selling
Shiloh.
Sh'loh.
de Dieu.
^ Le Clerc
in Genef.
SHI [ 367
abou? its literal and grammatical fignification. St Jerome,
who trandates it by Qui mlttendus ejl, manifeftly reads Shi-
loach “ fent,,} inllead of Shiloh. The Septuagint have it
Eof «v txS'H to. aTroHii/JLwa. aura; or, E»f av ea.^m a avoy-UTCti,
(as if they had read l1^ inftead of nbiy), ■}. e. “ Until
the coming of him to whom it is referved ©r, “ Till
we fee arrive that which is referved for him.”
It muit be owned, that the fxgnincation of the He¬
brew word Shi/oh is not well known. Some trandate,
“ the fceptre fhall not depart from J udah, till he comes
to whom it belongs Fib'S1 or inftead of ibx 'b Q-
thers, “ till the coming of the peace-maker or, “ t1>e
pacific or, “ of profperity,” rtrv prof per atus eft. Sha-
lah figniftes, “ to be in peace, to be in profperity
others, “ till the birth of him who fhall be born of a
wroman that fhall conceive without the knowledge of a
^Arab- LuJ man,” biir or x'bu/ fecundina, fluxus-\ ; otherwife, “ the
fceptre fhall not depart from Judah, till its end, its ruin ;
till the downfal of the kingdom of the Jews,” bxii' or
nbif it has ceaftd, it has JiniJhed Some Rabbins have
taken the name Siloh or Shiloh, as if it dignified the city
of this name in Paleftine : “ The fceptre fhall not be
taken away from Judah till it comes to Shiloh ; till it
fhall be taken from him to be given to Saul at Shiloh.”
But in wdiat part of Scripture is it faid, that Saul was
acknowledged as king or confecrated at Shiloh ? If we
would underftand it of Jeroboam the fon of Nebat, the
matter is ftill as uncertain. The Scripture mentions no
adcmbly at Shiloh that admitted him as king. A more
modern author derives Shiloh from Fibw, fatigare, which
fometimes fignifies to le 'weary, to fujfer ; “ till his la¬
bours, his fufferings, his paffion, fhall happen.”
But not to amufe ourfelves about feeking out the
grammatical fignification of Shiloh, it is fufficient for
us to fhow, that the ancient Jews are in this matter
agreed with the Chriftians: they acknowledge, that
this word ftands for the MeJJiah the King. It is thus
that the paraphrafts Onkelos and Jonathan, that the an¬
cient Hebrew commentaries upon Genefis, and that the
Talmudifts themfelves, explain it. If Jefus Chrift and
his apoftles did not make ufe of this paffage to prove
the coming of the Meffiah, it was becaufe then the com¬
pletion of this prophecy was not fufficiently manifeft.
The fceptre ftill continued among the Jews ; they had
ftill kings of their own nation in the perfons of the He-
rods ; but foon after the fceptre was entirely taken
away from them, and has never been reftored to them
fince.
The conceited Jews feek in vain to put forced mean¬
ings upon this prophecy of Jacob ; faying, for example,
that the fceptre intimates the dominion of ftrangers, to
which they have been in fubjeftion, or the hope of fet¬
ing one day the fceptre or fupreme power fettled again
among themfelves. It is eafy to perceive, that all this
is contrived to deliver themfelves out of perplexity. In
vain likewife they take refuge in certain princes of the
captivity, whom they pretend to have fubfifted beyond
the Euphrates, exercifing an authority over their nation
little differing from abfolute, and being of the race of
David. This pretended fucceffion of princes is per-
fedily chimerical; and though at certain times they
could fhow a fucceffion, it continued but a fhyrt time,
and their authority was too obfeure, and too much li¬
mited, to be the objedi of a prophecy fo remarkable as
this was.
1 , , s H 1
SHINGLES, in building, fmall pieces of wood, or
quartered oaken boards, fawn to a certainfcantling, or,
as is more ufual, cleft to about an inch thick at one
end, and made like wedges, four or five inches broad,
and eight or nine inches long.
Shingles are ufed inftead of tiles or Hates, efpecially
for churches and fteeples ; however, this covering is
dear ; yet, where tiles are very fcarce, and a light co¬
vering is required, it is preferable to thatch; and where
they are made of good oak, cleft, and not fawed, and
well feafoned in water and the fun, they make a fure,
light, and durable covering.
The building is firft to be covered all over with
boards, and the fhingles nailed upon them.
SHIP, a general name for ail large veffels, particu¬
larly thofe equipped with three mafts and a bowfprit j
the mafts being compofed of a lowermaft, toprnaft, and
top-gallant-maft : each of thefe being provided with
yards, fails, See. Ships, in general, are either employ¬
ed for war or merchandize.
Ships of IVat are veffels properly equipped with ar¬
tillery, ammunition, and all the neceffary martial wea¬
pons and inftruments for attack or defence. They are
diftinguifhed from each other by their feveral ranks or
claffes, called rates, as follows : Ships of the firft rate
mount from 100 guns to 110 guns and upwards ; fe-
cond rate, from 90 to 98 guns ; third rate, from 64 to
74 guns; fourth rate, from 50 to 60 guns ; fifth rate,
from 32 to 44 guns ; and fixth rates, from 20 to 28
guns. See the article Rate. Veffels carrying lefs than 20
guns are denominated floops, cutters, fire-Jhips, and bombs.
It has lately been propofed to reduce the number of
thefe rates, which would be a faving to the nation, and
alio produftive of feveral material advantages.
In Plate CCCCL. is the reprefentation of a firft:
rate, with rigging, &c. the feveral parts of which are
as follow ;
Parts of the hull.—A, The cathead ; B, The fore¬
chain-wales, or chains; C, The main-chains; D, The
mizen-chains ; E, The entering port; F, The hawfe-
holes ; G, The poop-lanterns ; H, The chefs-tree ; I,
The head ; K, The item.
1, The bowfprit. 2, Yard and fail. 3, Gammon¬
ing. 4, Manrop. 5, Bobftay. 6, Spritfail-ftieets.
7, Pendants. 8, Braces and pendants. 9, Halliards.
10, Lifts. 11, Clue-lines, j 2, Spritfail-horfes. 13,
Buntlines. 14, Standing lifts. 15, Bowfprit-ffiroud.
16, Jib-boom. 17, Jibftay and fail. 18, Halliards.
19, Sheets. 20, Horfes. 21, Jib-guy. 22, Spritfail-
topfail yard. 23, Horfes. 24, Sheets. 25, Lifts.
26, Braces and pendants. 27, Cap of bowfprit. 28,
Jack ftaff. 29, Truck. 30, Jack flag.— ^ 1, Fore-
maft. 32, Runner and tackle. 33, Shrowds. 34,
Laniards. 35, Stay and laniard. 36, Preventer-ftay
and laniard. 37, Wooldmg of the mail. 38, Fore¬
yard and fail. Llories. 40, Top. 41, Crowfoot.
42, Jeers. 43, Yard-tackles. 44, Lifts. 45, Braces
and pendants. 46, Sheets. 47, Foretacks. 48, Bow¬
lines and bridles. 49, Fore bunt-lines. 50, Fore leech¬
lines. 51, Preventer-brace. 52, Futtock-fhrouds.—.
53, Foretop-majl. 54, Shrouds and laniards. 57, Fbre-
top-fail yard and fail. 56, Stay and fail. 57, Runner.
58, Back-ftays. 59, Halliards. 60, Lifts. 61, Braces
and pendants. 62, Horfes. 63, Clew-lines. 64, Bow¬
lines and bridles. 65, Reef-tackles. 66, Sheets. 67,
6 Buntlines.
S H I
r 368 1
s h 1
‘hip. Bunt-lines. Crofs trees. Cap. 7°* Bnvetop-
gallant-maft. 71, Shrouds. 72, Yard and fail. 73,
Backltays. 74> Stay- 7?> Ltfts. 7^, Ckw-hnes. 77,
Braces and pendants. 78, Bowlines and bridles- 79,
Flag-ftaff. 80, Truck. 8.1, Flag-ftay-ftaff. 82, Flag
of the lord high admiral,—83, Mammaji. 84, Shrouds.
85, Laniards. 86, Runner and tackle. 87, Futtock-
ihrouds. 88> Top-lantern. 89, Crank of ditto. 90,
Stay. 91, Freventer flay. 92, 'Stay-tackles. 93,
Woolding of the mall. 94, Jeers. 95, \ ard-tackles.
96, Lifts. 97, Braces and pendants. 98, Horfes.^ 99,
Sheets. 100, Tacks. 101, Bowlines and bridles.
502, Crow-foct. 103, Cap. 104,1 op. 105, Bunt¬
lines. 106, Leech lines. 107, Yard and fail.—108,
Main-topmajl. 109, Shrouds and laniards. 1 10, \ard
and fail. 111, 'Futtock fhrouds. 112, Backftays.
113, Stay. 114, Stay fail and halliards. 115, lye.
116, Halliards. 117, Lifts. 118, Ciewdines. 119*
Braces and pendants. 120, Horfes. 121, Sheets. 122,
Bowlines arid bridles. 123, Buntlines. 124, Reef-
tackles. 1 25>_Crofs-trees. 126, Cap.— \ 27, Main-top-
gallant-mnjl. 128, Shrouds and laniards. I29,.'lt'ard
and fail. 130, Backftays. 13!, Stay. 132, Stay-
fail and halliards. 133, Lifts. _ 134, Braces and pen¬
dants. 13^, Bowlines and bridles. 136, Clew-lines.
137, Flagftaff. 138, Truck. 139, FlagHaff-ftay. 140,
Flag ftandard.—141, Mizen-maji. 142, Shrouds and
I45»
Pen-
laniards. 143, Cap. I44> Yard and fail.
Block for fignai halliards. 146, Sheet. 147
dant lines. "148, Peck-brails. 149, Stayfail. 150,
Stay. 15(, Derrick and fpan. 132, Top. 153,
Crois jack-yard. 154, Crofs-jack lifts. 155, Crofs-
jack braces. 156, Crofs jack flings. —157, Mizen-top-
maft. 158, Shrouds and laniards. 159, Yard and fail.
160, Backftays, x61, Stay. 162, Halliards. 163,
Lifts. 164, Braces and pendants. 165, Bowlines
and bridles. 166, Sheets. 167, Clew-lines. 168,
Stayfail. x 69,-Crofs-trecs. 170, Cap. 171, Flag-
itaff. 172, Flagftaff-ftay. 173, Truck. 174. Flag,
union. 173, Enfign-ftaff. 176, Truck. 177, En-
fign. X78, Stern ladder. 179, Bower cable. .
Fig. 2. Plate CCCCLI. is a vertical longitudinal
fettion of a firft rate fhip of war, with references to the
principal parts : which are as follow':
A, Is the head, containing,— 1, The ftem ; 2, The
knee of the head or cutwater. ; 3, The lower and^up¬
per cheek ; 4, The trail-board ; 5, The figure ; 6, The
gratings; 7, The brackets; 8, The falfe ftem ; 9, The
breaft hooks; 10, The haufe holes ; TJ, The bulkhead
■vforward ; 12, The cat-head : x 3, The pat-hook ; 14,
NeceFary feats; 15, The manger within board; 16,
The bowfprit.
B, Upon the forecattle—17, The gratings ; 18, The
partners of the mail ; 19, The gunwale ; 20, The bel¬
fry ; 2 1, The funnel for fmoke ; 22, The gangway go¬
ing off the forecaftle ; 23, The forecaftle guns.
’ °C, In the forecaftle—24, The door of the bulkhead
forward ; 25, Officers cabins; 26, Staircafe ; 27, Fore¬
top-fail ffieet bits; 2'8, The beams 529, The callings.
D, The middle gundeck forward—30, The fore-
jeer bits ; 31, The oven and furnace of copper ; 32, The
captain’s cook room,; 33, The ladder or way to the
forecaftle.
E, The lower gun-deck forward—34, The knees fore
rind aft; 35, The fpirketings, or the firft ftreak next
to each deck, the next under the beams being called
clamps; 36, The beams of the middle gun deck fore and ■“
aft; 37, The callings of the middle gun deck fore and
aft; 38, The fore-bits; 39, The after or main bits ;
40, The hatchway to the gunner’s and boatfwain’s
ftore-rooms ; 41, The jeer capftan.
F, The orlop—4 2, 43, 44, The gunner’s, boatfwain’s,
and carpenter’s ftore-rooms ; 47, The beams of the
lower gun-deck ; 46, 47, The pillars and the riders,
fore and aft; 48, The bulkhead of the ftore-rooms.
G, The hold—49, 50, 51, The foot-hook rider, the
•floor rider, and the ftanctard, fore and aft ; 52, The
pillars ; 53, The ftep of the foremaft ; 54, The kdfon,
or falfe keel, and dead riling ; 55, The dead-wood.
H, At midfhips in the hold —56, The floor-timbers ;
57, The keel; 58, The well ; 59, The chain-pump ;
60, The ftep of the mainmaft ; 61, 62, Beams and car-
lings of the orlop, fore and aft.
I, The orlop amidfhips—63, The cable tire ; 64, The
main hatchway.
K, The lower gun-deck amidffiips—65', The ladder
leading up to the middle gun-deck; 66, The lower tire
of ports.
L, The middle gun-deck amidfhip—67, The middle
tire of ports ; 68, The entering port ; 69, The main
jeer bits ; 76, Twilled pillars or ftanchions ; 71, The
capftan; 72, Gratings; 73, The ladder leading to the
upper deck.
M, The upper gun-deck amidfhips—74, The maintop-
fail-lheet bits ; 7 5, The upper partners of the mainmail;
76, The gallows on which fpare topmafts &c. are laid ;
77, The forefheet blocks ; 78, T he rennets ; 79, The
gunwale; 80, The upper gratings ; 81, The drift
brackets; 82, The pifs dale; 83, The capftan pall.
N, Abaft the mainmaft—84, The gangway off the
quarterdeck; 85, The bulkhead of the coach; 86, The
ftaircafe down to the middle gun-deck ; 87, The beams
of the upper deck ; 88, The gratings about the main¬
maft ; 89, The coach or council-chamber; 90, The
ftaircafe up to the quarterdeck.
O, The quarterdeck —91, The beams.; 92, The car-
lings ; 93, The partners of the mizenmaft ; 94. The
gangway up to the poop; 95»’ I'lie bulkhead of the
cuddy.
P, The poop—96, The trumpeters cabin ; 97, The
tafforel.
Q, The captain’ii cabin.
R, The cuddy, ufually divided for the mafter and fe-
cretary’s officers.
S, The Itate-room, out of which is made the bed¬
chamber and other conveniences for the commander in
chief; 98, The entrance into the gallery; 99, The
bulkhead of tire great cabin; 100, The Hern lights and
after galleries.
T, The ward-room, allotted for the lieutenants and ma¬
rine officers : 101, The lower gallery ; 102, The fteer-
age and bulkhead of the wardroom ; 103, The whip-
ftaff, commanding the tiller; 104, The after ftaircafe
leading down to the lower gun-deck.
V, Several officers cabins abaft the mainmaft, where
the foldiers generally keep guard.
W, The gun-room— 105, The tiller commanding the
rudder; 106, The rudder; .107, The ftern-pofl; 108,
The tiller-tranfom ; 109, The feveral tranfoms, viz. 1,
2, 3, 4, 5.; 1x0, The gun-room parts, or ftem-chafe^
r MI*
Ship.
9
') /3< ////rtri. /lu/- r fry/^n/oi -/■< ■//.
Plate GCCOL
&
Ship
&/■</' . //■+/. t/re/ftfor frrrf
SHI [ 369
Ship, in, The tread-room fcuttle, out of the gun-room;
—\  112j The main capftan ; 111, The pall ol the capllan ;
114, The partner ; 115. The bulkhead of the bread-
room.
X, The bread-room.
Y, The fteward’s room, where all proviilons are
wet«hed and ferved out.
Z, The cockpit, where are fubdiviiions for the purfer,
the furgeon, and his mates.
A A, The platform or orlop, where provifion is made
for the wounded in the time of fervice ; 116, ! he hold
$baft the main-mail; 1 f 7) The ftep of the mizen-matl;
118, The kelfon, or falfe keel; 11 9, l he dead wood,
or riling. ,
Ships of war are fitted out either at the expence ot
the ftate or by individuals. Thofe fitted out at the
public expence are called King’sJJoips, and are divided
into Jhlps of the line, frigates, Jloops, &c. For ^an
account of each of thefe, fee the reipedlive articles.
Ships of war fitted out by individuals are called
teers. See the article Privateer.
drmed-SmP. See AuMRU-Ship.
Boml-Smp. See BoMB-VeJfels.
Double- Ship. See S pi ip-Building.
Fire-Snip. See Fipn-Ship.
Hofpital Ship, a veflel fitted up to attend on a fleet
of men of war, and receive their fick or wounded ;
for which purpofe her decks fliould be high, and her
1
S H I
ports fufficiently large. Her cables ought alto to run
upon the upper deck, to the end that the beds or cra¬
dles may be more commodiowfiy placed between decks,
and admit a free paflage of the air to diiperfe that
which is offenfive or corrupted
Merchant-Snip, a veflel employed in commerce to
•carry commodities of various forts from one port to
another.
The largeft merchant (hips are thofe employed by
the different companies of merchants who trade to the
Eadl Indies. They are in general larger than our 40
gun {hips ; and are commonly mounted with 20 guns
on their upper-deck, which are nine pounders ; and fix
on their quarter-deck, which are fix pounders.
Regi/ier-Snip. See Reg STRR-Ship.
Store-Ship, a veflel employed to carry artillery or
naval {lores for the ufe of a fleet, fortrefs, or garrifon.
Tranfport-Snip, is generally ufed to condudl troops
from one place to another.
Befides the different kinds of {hips abovementioned,
which are denominated from the purpofe for which
they are employed, veffcls have alfo, in general, been
named according to the different manner of rigging
them. It would be an endlefs, and at the fame time an
unneceffary talk, to enumerate all the different kinds of
veffels with refpe£l to their rigging ; and therefore a
few only are here taken notice o!'. Fig. Plate
CCCCLI. is a phip which would be converted into a
larh by {tripping the mizen mad of its yards and the
fails belonging to them. If each mail, its correfponding
topmaft and topgallant-maft, inftead of being compofed
of fenarate p'eces of wood, were all of one continued
piece, then this vefiel with very little alteration would
be a pohcre. Fig. 4. reprdents a fnow ; fig. 5. a bi-
Pkte lander 1 fig. 6- a brig ; fig. 7 a letch ; fig. b. tx fchoon-
CCUCLU. er y fig. q. zjl op : fig. 10. a zebec ; fig. 1 . a galliot;
fig. s:. a dodger ; fig. 13. galley under fail; fig- 14’
ditto rowing.
Vol. XVII. Part I.
'Tranfu
Ships are alfo fometimes named according to the dif¬
ferent modes of their conftrudlion. I bus vve fay, a cat-
built fhip, &c.
To Ship, is either ufed actively, as to embark any
perfon or put any thing aboard fhip : or paffively, to
receive any thing into a fhip ; as) “ we {hipped a hea¬
vy fea at three o’clock in the morning.”
To Ship, alfo implies to fix any thing in its place ;
as, to {hip the oars, that is, to put them in their row-
locks ; to fhip the fwivel guns, is to fix them in their
fockets ; to (hip the handfpokes, &c.
Machine for drawing Bolts out of Ships, an inftru-
ment invented by Mr William Hill for this purpofe.
His account of which is as follows*.
“ Firft, The ufe of this machine is to draw the kel-^Y^*
fon and dead wood bolts out, and to draw the knee of,/je E„cou.
the head bolts.—Secondly, The heads of the kelfon bolts ragemint of
heretofore were all obliged to be driven thro’ the kelfon, e'i'ts, &.c.
floor-timbers, and keel, to get them out: by this means'0 ’ x>
the kelfon is often entirely deftroyed, and the large hole
the head makes materially wounds the floors ; and fre¬
quently, when the bolt is much corroded, it fcarfs, and
the bolt comes out of the fide of the keel.—Thirdly,
1 he dead-wood bolts that are driven with two or three
drifts, are feldom or never got out, by which means the
dead-wood is condemned, when fome of it is really ler-
viceable. — Fourthly, In drawing the knee of the head-
bolts, fametimes the knee Harts off, and cannot be got
to again, but furs up, and with this machine may be
drawn in ; for it has been proved to have more power
in flarting a bolt than the maul.”
In fig. 1. “ A, A, reprefent two ftrong male fcrews, piate
working in female fcrews near the extremities of theCCCCLIUo
cheeks, againll plates of iron E, E. C C is the bolt
to be drawn ; which, being held between the chaps of
the machine at DD, is, by turning the fcrews by the
lever B, forced upwards out of the wood or plank of
the fhip. E, F, are two dogs, with hooks at their low¬
er extremities; which, being driven into the plank, ferve
to fupport the machine till the chaps have got faff hold
of the bolt. At the upper patt of thefe dogs are rings
pafiing thro’ holes in a collar, moveable near the heads
of the fcrews. Fig. 2. is a view of the upper fide of the
cheeks when joined together; a, a, the holes in which
the fcrews work; b, the chaps by which the bolts arc
drawn. Fig. 3. The under fide of the cheek : a, a,
the holes in which the fcrews work ; b, the chaps by
which the bolts are drawn, and where the teeth that
gripe the bolt are more diftinftly fhown. Fig. 4. One
of the cheeks feparated from the other, the letters refer¬
ring as in fig. 2. and 3.
This machine was tried in his majefty’s yard at Dept¬
ford, and was found of the greatell utility.—“ Firft, it
drew a bolt that was driven down fo tight as only to
go one inch in fixteen blows with a double-headed
maul, and was well clenched below : the bolt drew the
ring a confiderable way into the wood, and wire drew
itfelf through, and left the ring behind. Secondly,
it drew a bolt out of the Venus’s dead-wood that could
not be got out by the maul. That part of it which
went through the keel was bent clofe up to the lower
part of the dead-wood, and the machine drew the bolt
ffraight, and drew it out widi cafe. It alio drew a kelfon
bolt out of the Stanley Weft Indiaman, in Meffrs
Wells’s yard, Deptford ; which being a bolt of two
drifts, could not be driven out.
3 A Management
SHI
[ 37° 3
S H I
'* Taylor's
InJlruFiisns
to Young
JVlariners
Hiding at
Anchor in
moderate
Weather.
When the
ihip will
Isaci.,
Management of Shits at Jtngle anchor, is the method
of taking care of a (hip while riding at fingle anchor in
a tide-way, by preventing her from fouling her anchor,
Sec. The following rules for this purpofe, with which
we have been favoured by Mr Henry Taylor* of North
Shields, will be found of the utmoft confequence.
Riding in a tide-way, with a frefh-of-wind, the fhip
fliould have what is called a fhort or nutnd’ward fervice,
fay 45 or 50 fathoms of cable, and always fheered to
windward (a), not always with the helm hard down,
but more or lefs fo according to the ftrength or weak-
nefs of the tide. It is a known fad!, that many (hips
fheer their anchors home, drive on board of other fhips,
and on the fands near which they rode, before it has
been difcovered t'hat the anchor had been moved from
the place where it was let go.
When the wind is crofs, or nearly crofs, off fhore, or
in the oppofite direction, (hips will always back. This
is done by the mizen-topfail, affifted, if needful, by the
mizen-ftayfail; fuch as have no mizen-topfail com¬
monly ufe the main-topfail, or if it blows Irefh, a top¬
gallant-fail, or any fuch fail at the gaff.
In backing, a fhip fhould always wind with a taught
cable, that it may be certain the anchor is drawn round.
In cafe there is not a fufficiency of wind for that pur¬
pofe, the (hip fhould be hove apeak.
Riding with the wind afore the beam, the yards
yards ou^ht fhould be braced forward; if abaft the beam, they are
ced 6 ke braced all aback.
4 ‘ 3 If the wind is fo far aft that the fhip will not back
Riding (which fhould not be attempted if, when the tide eafes,
windward the fhip forges ahead, and brings the buoy on the lee
tu}e in dan qUarter) {he mult be fet ahead : if the wind is far aft,
and blows trefh, the utmolt care ana attention is necel-
fary, as fhips riding in this fituation often break their
fheer, and come to windward of their anchors again.
It fhould be obferved, that when the fhip lies in this
ticklifh fituation, the after-yards mult be braced for¬
ward, and the fore-yards the contrary way : fhe will lay
fafe, as the buoy can be kept on the lee quarter, or fup-
pofe the helm is aport, as long as the buoy is on the
larboard quarter. With the helm thus, and the wind
right aft, or nearly fo, the flarboard main and fore bra¬
ces fhould be hauled in. This fuppofes the main braces
to lead forward.
"r When the fhip begins to tend to leeward, and the
leeward buoy comes on the weather-quarter, the hrit thrng to
when the be done is to brace about the fore-yard ; and when the
fhip mu ft win(j CC)mes near the beam, fet the fore-ftayfail, and
be fet a •
bead.
a
How the
ger of
breaking
her Iheer.
keep it Handing until it fhakes; then brace all the yards Ship-
fharp' forward, elpecially if it is likely to blow ftrong. ~ —
If laying in the aforefaid pofition, and firebreaks her [-jov/to
fheer, brace about the main-yard immediately; iHhe manai<e
recovers and brings the buoy on the lee or larboard quar- when the
ter, let the main-yard be again braced about; but if fhe break*
come to a fheer the other way, by bringing the buoy ier ‘eer*
on the other quarter, change the helm and brace the
fore-yard to. 5
Riding leeward tide with more cable than the wind- When a
ward fervice, and expecting the fhip will go to wind-for¬
ward of her anchor, begin as foon as the tide eafes to °af*
fhorten in the cable. This is often hard work ; but it lg
is neceffary to be done, otherwife the anchor may be ly to to
fouled by the great length of cable the fhip has to draw windward,
round ; but even if that could be done, the cable would
be damaged againft the bows or cut-water. It is to
be obferved, that when a fhip rides windward tide the
cable fhould be cackled from the fhort feryice towards
the anchor, as far as will prevent the bare part touch¬
ing the fhip.
When the fhip tends to windward and muft be fet a-
head, hoitl the fore-ftayfail as foon as it will ftand, and
when the buoy comes on the leequarter, haul down the
fore-ftayfail, brace to the fore-yard, and put the helm
a-lee j tor till then the helm muft be kept a-weather and
the yards full.
When the fhip rides leeward tide, and the wind in* How-to
creafes, care fhould be taken to give her more ca- manage in
ble in time, otherwife the anchor may ftart, and pro-a
bably it will be troublefome to get her brought up a-
gain ; and this care is the more neceffary when the fhip
rides in the haufe of another fhip. Previous to giving
a long fervice it is ufual to take a weather-bit, that is,
a turn of the cable over the windlafs end, fo that in
veering away the fhip will be under command. The
fervice ought to be greafed, which will prevent its cha¬
fing in the haufe.
If the gale continues to increafe, the topmafts fhould
be ftruck in time ; but the fore-yard fhould feldom, if
ever, be lowered down, that in cafe of parting the fore-
fail may be ready to be fet. At fuch times there fhould
be more on deck than the common anchor-watch, that
no accident may happen from inattention or falling a-
fleep.
In a tide-way a fecond anchor fhould never be let
go but when abfolutely neceffary ; for a fhip will fome-
times ride eafter and fafer, efpecially if the lea runs high,
with a very long fcope of cable and one anchor, than with
y lefs
(a) It has been thought by fome theorifts, that fhips fhould be fheered to leeward of their anchors ; but expe¬
rience and the common praftice of the beft informed feamen are againft that opinion : for it is found, that when a
fhip rides leeward tide and fheered to windward, with the wind two or three points upon the bow, and blowing
hard in the interval between the fqualls, the fheer will draw her towards the wind’s eye ; fo that when the next
fquall comes, before fhe be preffed aftream of her anchor, it is probable there will be a lull again, and the fpring
which the cable got by the fheer will greatly cafe it during the fquall.
Every feaman knows that no fhip without a rudder, or the helm left loofe, will wear; they always in fuch fi-
tuations fly to : this proves that the wind preffing upon the quarter and the helm alee, a fhip will be lefs liable
to break her fheer than when the helm is a-weather. Befides, if the helm is a-lee when fhe breaks her fheer, it
will be a-weather when the wind comes on the other quarter, as it ought to be until fhe either fwing to leeward,
orbring the buoy on the other quarter. Now if the fhip breaks her fheer with the helm a-weather, it throws her
head to the wind fo fuddenly as fcarce to give time to brace the yards about, and very probably fhe will fall aver
frer anchor before the fore-ftayfail can be got up.
\r
»
S H I
Ship.
I 371 3
S H I
s
Caution
refpedling
mate
lefs length and two cables; however, it isadvifable, ae a
preventive, when fhips have not room to drive, and the
night is dark, to let fall a fecond anchor under foot, with
a range of cable along the deck. If this is not thought
neceffary to be done, the deep-fea lead (hould be thrown
overboard, and the line frequently handled by the watch,
that they may be allured ihe rides fall.
If at any time the anchor-watch, prefuming on their
the arc tor own knowledge, fhould wind the (hip, or fuffer her to
watch. break her (heer without calling the mate, he Ihould im¬
mediately, or the very tirft opportunity, oblige the crew
to heave the anchor in fight ; which will prevent the"
commiilion of the like fault again; for befides the lhare of
trouble the watch will have, the reft of the crew will
9 blame them for negledling their duty.
The parti- Prudent mates feldom lie a week in a road-ftead
cfthe chief w‘t^out heaving their anchor in fight; even though they
have not the leaft fufpicion of its being foul. There
are other reafons why the anchor {hould be looked at;
fometimes the cable receives damage by fweeping wrecks
or anchors that have been loft, or from rocks or ftones;
and it is often neceffary to trip the anchor, in order to
take a clearer birth, which Ihould be done as often as
any fhip brings up too near.
Method for the fafe removal of fuch Ships as have been
driven on Jloore. For this purpofe empty calks are ufu-
ally employed to float off the veffel, efpecially if Ihe is
fmall, and at the fame time near the port to which it is
propofed to conduft her. In other cafes, the following
Philtfophi- method adopted by Mr Barnard * will anfwer.
84 On January I. 1779 (fays Mr Barnard), inamoft
dreadful (form, the York Fall Indiaman, of eight hun¬
dred tons, homeward bound, with a pepper cargo, part¬
ed her cables in Margate roads, and was driven on (bore,
within one hundred feet of the head and thirty feet of
the fide of Margate pier, then drawing twenty-two feet
fix inches water, the flow of a good fpring tide being
only fourteen feet at that place.
“ On the third of the lame month I went down, as a
ihip-builder, to affift, as much as lay in my power, my
worthy friend Sir Richard Hotham, to whom the (hip
belonged. I found her perfectly upright, and her Ihere
(or fide appearance) the fame as when firft built, but
funk to the twelve feet water-mark fore and aft in a bed
of chalk mixed with a ftiff blue clay, exaftly the fliape
of her body below that draft of water ; and from the
rudder being torn from her as Ihe (truck coming on
fhore, and the violent agitation of the fea after her be¬
ing there, her Item was fo greatly injured as to admit
free accefs thereto, which filled her for four days equal
to the flow of the tide. Having fully informed myfelf
of her fituatxon and the flow of Ipring-tides, and being
clearly of opinion (he might be again got off, I recom¬
mended, as the firft neceffary ftep, the immediate dif-
charge of the cargo ; and, in the progrefs cf that bufi-
nefs, 1 found the tide always flowed to the fame height
on the ftiip ; and when the cargo was half dilcharged,
and I knew the remaining part Ihould not make her
draw more than eighteen .feet water, and while I was
obferving the water at twenty-two feet fix inches by the
fhip’s marks, (he inftantly lifted to feventeen feet eight
inches ; the water and air being before excluded by her
preffure on the clay, and the atmofphere adting upon
her upper part equal to fix hundred tons, which is the
<al Tranf-
aiiions,
voL ixx.
part r.
weight of water difplaced at the difference of thefe two
drafts of water.
48 The moment the fhip lifted, I difeovered (hehad
received more damage than Was at firft apprehended, her
leaks being fuch as filled her from four to eighteen feet
water in an hour and a half. As nothing effedlual was
to be expedled from pumping, feveral fcuttles or holts
in the {hip’s fide were made, and valves fixed thereto,
to draw off the water at the loweft ebb of the tide, to
facilitate the difeharge of the remaining part of the car¬
go ; and, after many attempts, I fucceeded in an exter¬
nal application of Iheep-lkins fewed on a fail and thruft
under the bottom, to flop the body of water from ruffl¬
ing fo furioufly into the fhip. This bufinefs effected,
moderate pumping enabled us to keep the Ihip to about
fix feet water at low water, and by a vigorous effort we
could bring the fhip fo light as (when the cargo Ihould
be all difeharged) to be eafily removed into deeper water.
But as the external application might be difturbed by
fo doing, or totally removed by the agitation of the
fhip, it was abfolutely neceffary to provide fome per¬
manent fccurity for the lives of thofe who were to na¬
vigate her to the river Thames. I then recommended
as the cheapeft, quickeft, and moft effe&ual plan, to lay
a deck in the hold, as low as the water could be pump¬
ed to, framed fo folidly and fecurely, and caulked fo tight,
as to fwim the fhip independent of her own leaky bottom.
“ Beams of fir-timber twelve inches fquare were pla¬
ced in the hold under every lower-deck beam in the
Ihip, as. low as the water would permit ; thefe were in
two pieces, for the conveniency of getting them down,
and alfo for the better fixing them of an exaft length,
and well bolted together when in their places. Over
thefe were laid long Dantzic deals of two inches and
an half thick, well nailed and caulked. Againft the
Ihip’s fide, all fore and aft, was well nailed a piece of
fir twelve inches broad and fix inches thick on the low¬
er and three inches on the upper edge, to prevent the
deck from rifing at the fide. Over the deck, at every
beam, was laid a crofs piece of fir timber fix inches deep
and twelve inches broad, reaching from the pillar of
the hold to the fhip’s fide, on which the fliores were to
be placed to relift the preffure of the water beneath.
On each of thefe, and againft the lower-deck beam, at
equal diftances from the fide and middle of the fhip, was
placed an upright fhore, fix inches by twelve, the lower
end let two inches into the crofs piece. From the foot
of this firore to the fhip’s fide, under the end of every
lower deck beam, was placed a diagonal fhore fix inch¬
es by twelve, to eafe the ftiip’s deck of part of the ftrain
by throwing it on the fide. An upright fhore of three
inches by twelve was placed from the end of every crofs
piece to the lower deck beams at the fide, and one of
three inches by twelve on the midflrip end of every crofs
piece to the lower deck beam, and nailed to the pillars
in the hold. Two firm tight bulkheads or partitions
were made as near the extremes of the Ihip as poffible.
The ceiling or infide plank of the fhip was very fecurely
caulked up to the lower deck, and the whole formed a
complete ihip with a flat bottom within fide, to fwim the
outlide leaky one ; and that bottom being depreffed fix
feet below the external water, refifted the ftiip’s weight
above it equal to five hundred and eighty-one tons, and
fafely conveyed her to the dry-dock "at Deptford.”
shi
3 A 3
SHIP-
C 372 1
1
Definition.
Biilory.
S H I P-B U I L DING.
SHIP-BUILDING, or Naval Architecture,
is the art of ccnflrufHng a {hip fo as to anfwer a
particular purpofe either of war or merchandife. ^ _
Towhcm the world is indebted for the invention of {hips,
Is, like all other things of equal antiquity, uncertain.
A very fmall portion of art or contrivance was feen
in the firft {hips : they were neither ftrong nor durable;
but confifted only of a few planks laid together, with¬
out beauty or ornament, and juft, fo cornpadled as to
keep out the water. In fome places they were only the
hulks or {locks of trees hollowed, and then confifted
only of one piece ol timber. Nor was wood alone ap¬
plied to this ufe ; but any other buoyant materials, as
the Egyptian reed papyrus ; or leather, of which the
primitive {hips were frequently compofed ; the bottom
and fides being extended on a frame of thin battens or
fcantlings, of flexible wood, or begirt with wickers,
fuch as we have frequently beheld amongft the Ameri¬
can favages. In this manner they were often navigated
upon the rivers of Ethiopia, Egypt, and Sabaean Aiabia,
even in latter times. But in the ftrft of them, we find
no mention of any thing but leather or hides fewed to¬
gether. In a veffel of this kind, Dardanus fecured his
retreat to the country afterwards called Troas, when he
was compelled by a terrible deluge to forfake his former
habitation of Samothrace- According to Virgil, Cha¬
ron’s infernal boat was of the fame compofition.
But as the other arts extended their influence, naval
archite&ure likewife began to emerge from the gloom
of ignorance and barbanfm ; and as the fhips of thofe
ages were increafed in bulk, and better proportioned
for commerce, the appearance of thofe floating citadels
of unufual form, full of living men, flying with feemingly
expanded wings over the furface of the untravelled ocean,
firuck the ignorant people with terror and aftoniflrment:
and hence, as we are told by Ariftophanes, aroie the
fable of Perfeus flying to the Gorgons, who was aftu-
ally carried thither in'a {hip ! Hence, in all probability,
the famous ftory of Triptolemus riding on a winged
dragon is deduced, only becaufe he failed from Athens,
in the time of a great dearth, to a more plentiful country,
to fupply the neceffities of his people. The fidftion of
the flying horfe Pegafus may be joined with thefe, who,
as feveral mythologifts report, was nothing but a {hip
with fails, and thence faid to be the offspring of Nep¬
tune the fovereign of the fea ; nor does there appear
any other foundation for the ftories of griffins, or of
ffips transformed into birds and fifties, which we fo
often meet with in the ancient poets. So acceptable to
the firft ages of the world were inventions of this nature,
that whoever made any improvements in navigation or
naval archite&ure, building new {hips better fitted for
ftrength or fwiftnefs than thofe ufed before, or rendered
the old more commodious by additional contrivances,
or difcovered countries unknown to former travellers,
were thought worthy of the greateft honours, and often
affociated into the number of their deified heroes. Hence
we have in aftronomy the figns of Aries and Taurus,
which were no other than two ftiips *, the former trans¬
ported Phryxus from Greece to Colchos, and the lat- Hiftory,
ter Europa from Phoenicia to Crete. Argo, Pegafus, ——
and Perfeus, were likewife new fhips of a difterent
fort from the former, which being greatly admired by
the barbarous and uninftrucfted people of thofe times,
were tranflated amongft the ftars, in commemoration of
their inventors, and metamorphofed into conftellations
by the poets of their own and of fucceeding ages.
The chief parts, of which ftiips anciently confifted,
were three, viz. the belly, the prbw, and theftern: thefc
were again compofed of other fmaller parts, which {hall
be briefly defcribed in their order. In the deicription,
we chiefly follow Scheffer, who hath fo copioufly treat*
cd this fubjeft, and with fuch induftry and learning col-
■le£ted whatever is neceffary to illuttrate it, that very
little room is left for enlargement by thofe who incline
to purfue this inveftigation.
i. In the belly, or middle part of the fhip, there was
rpow/c, carina, or the “ keel,” which was compofed of
wood : it was placed at the bottom of the {hip, being
defigned to cut and glide through the waves, and there-
fore was not broad, but narrow and {harp ; whence it
may be perceived that not all {hips, but only the
which {hips of war were called, whofe bellies were
llraight and of a fmall circumference, were provided
with keels, the rdl having ufually flat bottoms. Around
the outfide of the keel were fixed pieces ol wood, to pre¬
vent it from being damaged when the {hip was firft
launched into the water, or afterwards ftruck on any
rocks ; thefe were called xiXiV'Jf'-a-Ta-, in Latin cunei.
Next to the keel was the “ pump-well, or
well-room,” within which was contained the avrMov, or
“ pump ;” through which water was conveyed out of
the {hip.
After this, there was ^ vTfpu rpwi?, or the “ fecond
keel,” fomewhat refembling what is now called the .
keif on ; it was placed beneath the pump, and called
hiaGcrr, ^axxuvE, x.Kutoixo£iw $ by fome it is falfely fuppo-
fed to be the fame with ?«xxk.
Above the pump wras an hollow place, called by He¬
rodotus T»r '"1°!’ by Pollux and yavpa, becaufe
large and capacious, after the form of a belly ; by the
Latins, tejlmio This was formed by crooked ribs, with
which it was furrounded, which were pieces of wood
rifing from the keel upwards, and called by Hefychius
vopcnc, and by others, erxo<x<a, the belly of the ftfip be¬
ing contained within them: in Latin, cojla; and in Eng-
li!h, Umbers. Upon thefe were placed certain planks,
which Ariftophanes calls ivTipavaac, or "ryuviSx
The latera, or “ fides” of the {hip, encom-
paffed all the former parts on both hands; thefe were
compofed of large ratters extended from prow to ftern,
and called and becaufe by them the
whole fabric was begirt or furrounded.
In both thefe fides the rowers had their places, call¬
ed T 'X.01 and in Latin fori and tranjlra, placed
above one another; the loweft was called and
thofe that laboured therein »*<•'»< the middle,
and the men ; the uppermoft Spam, whence the
rowers
S H I P - B U
Hiflory. j-owevs were termed In thefe apartments were
~v {paces through which the rowers put their oars : thefe
were fometimes one continued vacuity from one end to
the other, called but more ufually diftinft holes,
each of which was defigned for a tingle oar ; thefe
were ftyled Tpvy.a.1?., rfuCTH/cara, as alfo o<pt)a\um} becaufe
hot unlike the eyes of living creatures. All of them were
by a more general name termed synua-a, from containing
the oars; but feems to have been another thing,
fignifying the fpaces between the banks of oars on each
fide, where the paffengers appear to have been placed.
On the top of all there was a paffage or place to walk,
■ called CTapaJ'of, and as joining to the
or uppermoft bank of oats.
2. the “ prow or fore-deck,” whence h is
fometimes called and commonly diltinguifhed
by other metaphorical titles taken from human faces.
In feme fbips there is mention of two ptows, as alfo
two fterns ; fuch was Danaus's fhip adorned by Miner¬
va when he fled from Egypt. It was ufual to beautify
the prow with gold and various forts of paint and co¬
lours ; in the primitive times red was mod in ufe ;
whence Homer’s fhips were commonly dignified with
the titles of ^KTo-aa^o^ and ioi-nY.oxzu.fnn, or “ red faced;”
the blue likewife, or fky-colour, was frequently made
ufe of, as bearing a near refemblance to the colour of
the fea; whencewe find {hips called by Homer ^vuvozzpapot,
by Ariflophanes Yvuviy.£o\oi. Several other colours were
alfo made ufe of; nor were they barely varnifhed over
with them, but very often annealed by wax melted in
the fire, fo as neither the fun, winds, nor water, were
able to deface them. The art of doing this was called
from the wax Y-npoypxpia, from the fire which
is deferibed by Vitruvius, and mentioned in Ovid.
 Pi3a colorilus ujl'is
Ccsruleam matrem concava puppis halet.
The painted fhip with melted wax anneal’d
Had Tethys for its deity 
In thefe colours the various forms of gods, animals,
plants, &c. were ufually drawn, which were likewife
often added as ornaments to other parts of the fhips, as
plainly appears from the ancient monuments prefented
to the world by Bayfius.
The fides of the prow were termed ^hpu, or “ wings,”
and xzapiv, according to Scheffer, or rather xzupnai ; for
fmee the prow is commonly compared to a human face,
st will naturally follow that the fides fhould be called
cheeks. Thefe are now called bows by our mariners.
3. rifuuxn, « ^e hind-deck or poop,” fometimes called
•'f-7, the “ tail,” becaufe the hindmoltpart of the fhip ;
it was of a figure more inclining to round than the
prow, the extremity of which was fharp, that it might
cut the waters ; it was alfo built higher than the prow,
and was the place where the pilot fat to fteer ; the
outer-bending part of it was called answering
to our term quarter.
They had various ornaments of feuipture on the
prow ; as helmets, animals, triumphal wreaths, &c.—
The ftern was more particularly adorned with wings,
fhields, &c. Sometimes a little maft was erefted where¬
on to hang ribbands of divers colours, which ferved in*
ftead of a flag to diftinguifh the fhip ; and a weather¬
cock, to fignify the part from whence the wind blew.
I L D 1 N G.
On the extremity of the prow was placed a tound
piece of wood, called the xzlvyjc, from its bending ; and
fometimes the “ eye” of the fhip, becaufe fix¬
ed in the fore-deck ; on this was inferibed the name of
the fhip, which was ufually taken from the figure paint¬
ed on the flag. Hence comes the frequent mention of
fhips called Pegajt, SryJ/a, bulls, rams, tigers, &c. which
the poets took the liberty to teprefent as living crea¬
tures that tranfported their riders from one country u>
another.
The whole fabric being completed, it was fortified
with pitch, and fornetimes a mixture of rofin, to fecure
the wood from the waters; whence it comes that Ho¬
mer’s fhips are everywhere mentioned with the epithet
of ju.(\our«i, or “ black.” The firft that made ufe of
pitch were the inhabitants of Phseacia, fmee called Cor-
fica; fometimes wax was employed in- the fame ufe;
whence Ovid,
.373
Hiftory.
Ceerulea ccratas accipil undo, rates.
The azure waves receive the waxed fhips.
After all, the fhip being bedecked with garlands'
and flowers, the mariners alfo adorned with crowns, fhe
was launched into the fea with loud acclamations and
other expreffions of joy ; and being purified by a prielt
wfith a lighted torch, an egg and brimftone, or after
fome other manner, was confecrated to the god whofe
image fhe bore.
The fhips of wrar of the ancients wrere diftinguifhed
from other kinds of veffels by various turrets and accef-
(ions of building, fome to defend their own foldiers, and
others to annoy the enemy ; and from one another, ia
latter ages, by feveral degrees or ranks of oars, the moft
ufual number of which was four or five, which appear
not to have been arranged, as fome imagine, on the
fame level in different parts of the fhip; nor yet, as
others have fuppofed, direftly above one another’s
heads ; but their feats being placed one behind another,
afeended gradually, like itairs. Ptolemy Philopater,
urged by a vain-glorious defire of exceeding all the
w'orld betides in naval architedlure, is faid to have far¬
ther enlarged the number of banks to 40 ; and the fhip
being otherwife in equal proportion, this raifed her to
fuch an enormous bulk, tfiat fhe appeared at a diftance
like a floating mountain or ifland ; and, upon’ a nearer
view, like a prodigious caftle on the ocean. She was
280 cubits long, 38 broad, and 48 high (each cubit be¬
ing 1 Englifh foot 5^ inches), and carried 400 rowers,
400 failors, and 3000 foldiers. Another which the
fame prince made to fail on the Nile, we are told, w'as
half a fladium long. Yet thefe were nothing in compa-
rifon of Hiero’s fhip, built under the diredtion of Ar¬
chimedes ; on the itrudture whereof Mofchion wrote a.
whole volume. There was wood enough employed in
it to make 50 galleys ; it had till the variety of apart¬
ments of a palace ; »uch as banqueting-rooms, galleries,
garden!, fifh-ponds, ftables, mills, baths, and a temple to
Venus. 1 he floors of the middle apartment wet e all
inlaid, and reprefented in various colours the flories of
Homer’s Iliad. The ceilings, windows, and all other
parts, were finifhed with wonderful art, and embellifhed
w'ith all kinds of ornaments. In the uppermoft apart¬
ment there was a fpacious gymnafium, or place for ex-,
ercife, and water was conveyed to the garden by pipes,,
foms-
374
Hillory
fjedera,
^ol. ii.
P‘943*
Jb. vol.
§). 664.
S H I P - B U
• fome of hardened clay, and others of lead. The floors
- 0f the temple of Venus were inlaid with agates and
other precious (tones ; the infide lined with cyprefs
wood ; the windows adorned with ivory paintings and
fmali ftatues. d here was likewife a library. T his vef-
Tel was adorned on all (ides with fine paintings. It had
20 benches of otirs, and was encompafied with an iron
rampart, eight towers, with walls and bulwarks, furnifli-
ed with machines of war, particularly one which threw
a (tone of 300 pounds, or a dart 12 cubits long, the
fpace of half a mile, with many other particulars related
by Athenseus. Caligula likewife built a veffel adorned
w ith jewels in the poop, with fails of many colours, and
furniihed with large porticoes, bagnios, and banquet-
ing-rooms, befides rows of vines, and fruit-trees of va¬
rious kinds. But thefe, and all fuch mondrous fabrics,
ferved only for (how and oftentation, being rendered by
their vaft bulk unwieldy and unfit for fervice. Athe-
rueus informs us, the common names they were known
by, were Cyclades, or /Etna, i. e. “ iflands, or moun¬
tains,” to which they feemed nearly equal in bignefs;
confiding, as fome report, of as many materials as
would have compofed 50 triremes, or (hips of three
'banks.
The vefiels employed by the northern nations appear
to have been dill more imperfeft than thofe of the Ro¬
mans ; for a law was enafted in the reign of the em¬
peror Honorius, 24th September, A. D. 4.18, infliff-
ing Capital puniflrment on any who (hould indruft the
barbarians in the art of (hip-building ; a proof at once
of the great edimation in which this fcience was then
held, and of the ignorance of the barbarians with re¬
gard to it.
The fleet of Richard I. of England, when he
weighed anchor for the holy war from Medina, in Si¬
cily, where he had paffed the winter, A. D. 1190-1,
is faid to have confided of 150 great (hips and 53 gal-
leys, befides barks, tartans, &c. What kinds of (hips
thefc were is not mentioned. To the crufades, however
pernicious in other refpe&s, this fcience (eems to owe
fome improvements; and to this particular one we are
indebted for Richard’s marine code, commonly called
the Law; of Oleron, from the name of a fmali ifland on
the coad of France, where he compofed them, and
which mod of the nations in Europe have made the ba-
fis of their maritime regulations. Thofe (hips, if they
merited the name of (hips, were probably very fmall,
as we find that fo long after as the time of Edward I.
anno 1 304, 40 men were deemed fufficient to man the
iv. bed and larged vefiels in England ; and that Edward
the Third, anno 1335, ordained the mayor and (heriffs
of London to “ take up all (hips in their port, and all
other ports in the kingdom, of the burden of 40 tons
and upwards, and to furnifh the fame with armed men
and other neceflaries of war, againd the Scots his ene¬
mies, confederated with certain pCrfons of foreign na¬
tions.” Edward the Third’s fleet before Calais, anno
1347, confided of 738 EngliCh (hips, carrying 14,956
mariners, being on an average but 20 men to each (hip ;
15 (hips and 459 mariners, from Bayonne in Guienae,
being 30 men to each (hip; 7 drips and 184 men from
Spam, which is 26 men to each (hip ; one fiom Ireland,
carrying 25 men; 14 from Flanders, with 133 men.
I L D T N G.
being fcarcely 10 men to each (hip ; and one from Guel-
derland, with 24 mariners. Fifteen of thefe were call¬
ed the king’s own (hips, manned with 419 mariners,
being fomewhat under 17 to each (hip.
Flidorians reprefent the veflels of Venice and Genoa
as the larged and the bed about this time, but they
were focn exceeded in iize by the Spaniflr veflels called
carrichs, fome of which carried cannon ; and thefe again
wrere exceeded by the veflcls built by the northern peo¬
ple, particularly thofe belonging to the Hanfe-towns.—
In the 14th century, the Hanfiatics were the lovereigns
of the northern feas, as wrell without as within the Bal-
Hiflory.
tic ; and their (hips were fo large, that foreign princes
often hired them in their w'ars. According to Hak¬
luyt, an Englifh drip from Newcadle, of 200 tons bur¬
den, was feized in the Baltic by thofe of Wifmar and
Rodock, anno 1394 ; and another Englifli veflel of the JW,™,
fame burden was violently feized in the port of Li(bon,tfal- v*u.
anno 1412. P-7*7-
Soon after (hips of a much larger fize were con-73. vol. *i,
ftru&ed. It is mentioned that a very large (hip wasr* l38-
built, anno 1449, by John Taverner of Hull ; and in lb. vol. xi,
the year 1455, king Henry IV. at the requed of p. 364.
Charles king of Sweden, granted a licence for a Swedifh
(hip of the burden of a thoufand tons or under, laden
with merchandize, and having 120 perfons on board, to
come to the ports of England, there to difpofe of their
lading, and to relade back with Englifli merchandize,
paying the ufual cufloms. The infeription on the tomb
of William Canning, an eminent merchant, who had
been five times mayor of Bridol, in Ratclitf-church at
Bridol, arim 1474, mentions his having forfeited the
king’s peace, for which he was condemned to pay 300
merks ; in lieu of which film, king Edward IV. took
of him 2470 tons of (hipping, amongd wdiich there
was one (hip of 900 tons burden, another of 500 tons,
and one of 400 tons, the red being fmaller.
In the year 1506, king James IV. of Scotland
built the larged (hip which had hitherto been Been, but
which was led in her way to France in the year 1512,
owing probably to a defe&ive condruftion, and the un-
(kilfulnefs of the crew in managing fo large a (hip.—
About this time a very large (hip was likewife built
in France. In the fleet fitted out by Henry VIII,
anno 1512, there was ©ne (hip, the Regent, of icoo
tons burden, one of 500, and three of 400 each. A
(hip dill larger than the Regent was built foon after,
called Henri Grace Dieu ! In the year 1522 the fird
voyage round the globe was finiflied.
The Englifli naval hidorians think that (hips carried
cannon on their upper decks only, and had net gun-
ports before the year 1545 : and it is certain that many
of the larged (hips in former times were fitted out from
harbours, where (hips of a moderate fize now would
not have water enough to float them. In 1575 the
whole of the royal navy did not exceed 24 (hips, and
the number of merchant (hips belonging to England
amounted to no more than 135 veflels above 100 tons,
and 656 between 40 and 100 tons. At queen Eliza-
beth’s death, anno 1603, there were not above four^JJ^
merchant-fliips in England of 400 tons burden each. — ? ^94!
The larged of queen Elizabeth’s (hips of war was icoo
tons burden, carrying but 340 men, and 40 guns, and
the
S H I P - B U
Hiflory. tlie fmalleft 6co tons, carrying 150 men and 30 guns.
Smaller veflels were oecafionally laired by her from pri¬
vate owners.
In the memorable fea-fight of Lepanto between the
^ urks and Chriltians, anno 1 110 velfels were em¬
ployed but galleys ; and it would appear from the car-
cafes of fome of them, which are ftill preferved in the
arfenal at Venice, that even theie were not fo large or
fo well conftruded as thofe of our times. The Invin¬
cible Armada, as Spanifh vanity ftyled it, once the
terror and admiration of nations, in the pompous and
exaggerated deferiptions of which the Spanilh authors
of thofe times dwelt with io much apparent pleafure,
confided of 130 fhips, near 100 of which were the
ftatelieft that had yet been feen on the ocean. The lar¬
ged of thefe, however, would be no more than a third
rate veflel in our navy, and they were fo ill conftrufted,
that they would neither move eafily, fail near the wind,
nor be properly worked in tempeftuous weather. The
whole of the naval force collected by Queen Elizabeth
to oppofe this formidable fleet,, including hired veffels,
tenders, ftore-lhips, &c. amounted to no more than
I4V.
Ship-building began now to make a confiderable pro-
grefs in Britain. Both war and trade required an in-
creafe of flopping ; fo that, in the year 1670, the an¬
nual charge or the navy was reported to be L. 5:0,000;
and in 1678 the navy confided of 83 fhips, of wdiich
58 were of the line. At this time the exports amount¬
ed to ten millionsannum ; and the balance of trade
was two millions. In 1689 there were 173 fliips, great
and fmall, in the royal navy, and it has been condant-
ly increafing; fo that in 1761 the fliips in the navy
amounted to 372, of which 129 were of the line; and
in the beginning of the year 1795, the total amount
was above 430.
As fliips of the common conftru&ion are found to
be very defeftive in many particulars, various methods
tnon form J^ve therefore from time to time been propofed to re-
fea!ivede" move *'ome of the bacl tliey poffefled. As it
4 ’ would be an endlefs tafk to enumerate the different in-
And im- ventions for this purpofe, therefore a few of them only
provements will be mentioned.
propofed. jn Sir William Petty conftrufted a double fhip,
Double or lather a Angle fhip with a double bottom, which was
fliips in- found to fail confiderably falter than any of the fhips with
troduced^ which it had an opportunity of being tried. Herfird
I lam* Petty voyaS>e was from Dublin to Holyhead; and in her return
European ’ “ turned into that narrow harbour againd wind and
Magazine tide, among rocks and fliips, with fuch dexterity as many
forAiiguft ancient feamen confeffed they had never leen the like.”
This veflel with 70 more were lod in a dreadful tempeft.
^ . This fubjeft was again revived by Mr Gordon, in his
ropoied'11 Pi-inciples of Naval Archite&ure, printed at Aberdeen
anno 1784; where, having delivered his ientiments on
the conftrudtion of large mads, he fays: “ Thefe ex-
. 3
Ships of
the com-
by Mr
Gordon,
54-
I L D I N G. 375
periments likewife point out to us methods by which Hifu ry.
two veffcls may be laterally conne&ed together, though ——'Nr—'"'
at a confiderable diitance from each other, in a manner
fufficiently drong, with very little increafe of weight or
expence of materials, and without expoiing much fur-
face to the adlion or influence of the wind or the waves,
or obfirutding their motion in any confiderable denree,
and conlequtntly without being much oppofed by them
on that account under any circumdances ; and if veflels
are judicioufly condrudled with a view to fuch a junc¬
tion, it would be no eafy matter to enumerate all the
advantages that may be obtained by this means.” He
then enumerates the advantages that double vefi’els
would have over thofe of the common condruftion. jat >
Soon after double fliips were a&ually built by Mr Mil-conftrudtedc
ler of Dalfwintoi^. byMrMU-
Another plan was propofed by Mr Gordon to make pr;
a fliip fail fall, draw little water, and to keep a goodnf "Naval
wind. For this purpofe, “ the bottom (he fays) {hovX&Arcbitc*-
be formed quite flat, and the tides made to rife perpen-#“^» P- 7*5.
dicular from it, without any curvature ; which would 8. „
not only render her more fteady, as being more oppofed wlter pr,?-
to the water in rolling, but likewife more convenient forpofe lto be
dowage, &c. while the fimplicity of the form would d>miniflied
contribute greatly to the cafe and expedition with111 <',r.der t£>
which fhe might be fabricated. Though diminifhing^"1
the draught of water is, cateris paribus^ undoubtedly *'
the mod effeftual method of augmenting the velocity |nconyC
with which veflels go before the wind ; yet, as it pro- foency of
portionally diminiflies their hold of the water, it ren- this plan,
ders them extremely liable to be driven to leeward, and 10.
altogether incapable of keeping a good wind. Thisfemedied
deleft may, however, be remedied, in a fimple and ef- minting
feftual manner, by proportionally augmenting the.the depth
depth of keel, or, as fo large a keel would be inconve-0^the
nient on many accounts, proportionally increafing their^1.
number; as, in place of adding a keel eight feet deepcrcafing*
to a veffel drawing fix feet water, to affix to different the num~.
parts of her flat bottom, which would be well adapted ^
for receiving them, fix different keels of two feet deepkeel8*
each at equal didances from each other, with proper
intervals between ; which will be found equally ef¬
fectual for preventing thefe pernicious effefts. Four
fuch, indeed, Would have anfwered the purpofe as well,
as the eight feet keel, were it not for the fuperior pref-
fure or refidanee of the lower water (a).
Thus then it appears, that a veflfel drawing eight feet
water only, keels and all, may be made to keep "as good
a wind, or be as little liable to be driven to leeward, a&.
the {harped built vefiel of the fame length drawing ^
nay 20 or upwards, if a few more keels, are added, at
the fame time that die would be little more refided in
moving in the line of the keels than a veffel drawing-
fix feet water only. Thefe. keels, belides, would
drengthen the veffel confiderably, would render her*
more deady, and lefs liable to be overfet, and thereby
enable;
(a) This is frequently repeated on the authority of Mr Gordon and others. Theory fays otherwife ; and the
experiments of Sir Ifaac Newton fliow in the mod unexceptionable manner, that the refiflance of a ball de-»
feending through the water is the fame at all depths ; nay, the heaping up of the water on the bow, occafionin^r
a iiydrodatical preffure m addition to the real refidance, will make the whole oppofition to an equal furface=>
but of greater horizontal dimenfions, greater, becaufe it bears a greater proportion to the refiftance.
»
xz
The plan
farther im¬
proved by
the adap¬
tion of Hi¬
ding keels.
13
The utility
of Aiding
keels pro¬
ved by ex¬
periment.
T4
And adlu-
ally put in
practice
upon a
larger fca!e
s H I P-B U
enable Tier to carry more fall; and Mr Gordon then
enumerates the feveral advantages that a hup of this
conftrudtion will poffefs. . • u r1
This plan has lately been put into execution by Cap¬
tain Schank, with this difference only, that inftead of
the keels being fixed as propofed by Mr Gorelon, Cap¬
tain Schank conffruded them fo as to Hide down to a
certain depth below the bottom, or to be drawn up
within the fhip as occafion might require. _
Captain Schank having communicated his plans to
the Navy Board, two veffels were in confequence or¬
dered to be built of 13 tons each, and fimilar in dimen-
fions, one on the old conftru&ion, and the other flat-
bottomed, with fliding keels. In179° a compara¬
tive trial in prefence of the commiffioners of the navy
was made on the river Thames, each having the fame
quantity of fail; and although the veffel on the old
conflrudion had leeboards, a greater quantity of bal¬
lad and two Thames pilots aboard, yet Captain
Schank’s veffel with three fliding keels beat the other
veffel, to the afloniihment of all prefent, one halt of the
whole diftance failed; and no doubt fhe would have
beat her much more had fire been furmfhed with a
Thames pilot. t 1 • .?
This trial gave fo much fatisfachon, that a king s
cutter of 120 tons was immediately ordered to be built
on the fame conftru&ion, and Captain Schank was re-
quefted to fuperintend its building. This veffel was
launched at Plymouth in 1791, and named the Trial.
The lenoth of this veffel is 66 feet, breadth 21 feet,
and depth of the hold feven feet : her bottom is quite
flat and draws only fix feet water, with all her guns,
ftores, &c. whereas all other veffels of her tonnage on
the old conftruaion draw 14 feet ; fo that fhe can go
with fafety into almoft any harboffr or creek. She has
three fliding keels inclofed in a cafe or well; they are
each 14 feet in length ; the fore and the after keels are
three feet broad each, and the middle keel is fix feet
broad. The keels are moveable by means of a winch,
and may be let down feven feet below the real keel;
and they woik equally well in a ftorm as in ftill wa¬
ter Her hold is divided into feveral compartments, all
water tight, and fo contrived, that ihould even a plank
or two ftart at fea in different parts of the veffel, fhe
may be navigated with the greateft fecunty to any
place. If fbe fhould be driven on flrore in a gale of
wind* fbe will not foon become a wreck, as her keels
will be driven up into their cafes, and the fhip being
flat-bottomed, will not be ealily overfet ; and bring
able to go into fuch fballow water, the crew may all be
cafily faved. By means of her fliding keels Ibe is kept
fteady in the greateff gale ; fbe is quite eafy in a great
fea, does not ftrain in the leaft, and never takes in wa¬
ter on her deck ; and when at anchor, fhe rides mote
upright and even than any other fbip can do : fbe fails
very faff either before or up >n a wind ; no veffel fhe
has ever been in company with, of equal hze, has been
able, upon many trials, to beat her in failing ; and yet
her fails feem too fmall. ,
It has alfo been propofed to conflruT veflels of other
materials than wood ; and lately a veffel was built whole
bottom, inftead of bring plank, was copper.
I L D I N G.
Book I.
Book I. Containing the Method of delineating tfThips?*
the feveral Sections of a Ship.   v”””*
Chap I. Of the Properties of Ships.
A s h 1 p ought to be conftrufted fo as to anfwer the par- General
ticular purpofe for which {he is intended. It would be an principles
eafy matter to determine the form of a fhip intended to
fail by means of oars ; but, when fails are ufed, a fhip ' 'l 1
is then a£led upon by two elements, the wind and wa¬
ter : and therefore it is much more difficult than is com¬
monly imagined to afeertain the form of a fhip fo as to
anfwer in an unfavourable as well as a favourable wind ;
the fhip at the fame time having a cargo of a certain
weight and magnitude. l6
Every fhip ought to fail well, but particularly when properties
the wind is upon the beam ; for this purpofe aconfider- chat a (hip
able length in proportion to the breadth is neceffary, V°f-
and the plane of refiftance fhould be the leaft poffible.
The main frame fhould alfo be placed in a proper fitua- er>
tion ; but according to the experiments of Mr Chap¬
man *, its plane is variable with the velocity of the* Trait e de
fhip : the mean place of the main frame has, however,
been generally eitimated to be about one twelfth of the '"j* “ ^
length of the keel before the middle. Without a fufv *
ficient degree of (lability a fhip will not be able to car¬
ry a prefs of fail: a great breadth in proportion to the
length and low upper-works will augment the liability.
The following particulars being attended to, the above
property will be gained, and the fhip will alfo fleer
well. The wing tranfom fhould be carried pretty high;
the fafnion-pieces well formed, and not full below the
load water-line : the lower part of the flem to be a por¬
tion of a circle, and to have a confiderable rake: the
fternpoft to be nearly perpendicular to the keel; and all
the upper works kept as low as poffible.
Many fliips from conflrudlion are liable to make much p0 make
leeway. This may in a great meafure be avoided by gi-a ftiip keep
ving the fhip a long keel, little breadth, and a confider-a g0O(i
able depth in the hold : whence the bow will meet with Wlli *
little refiftance in comparifon to the fide, and therefore
the {hip will not fall much to the leeward. _ jg
Another very great retardation to the velocity of a And to fail
fhip is her pitching. The principal remedy for this is to fmexithly
increafe the length of the keel and floor, to diminifh^^
the riling afore and abaft, and to conftrurit the hull in jiard- 5
fuch a manner that the contents of the fore-body
may be duly proportioned to the contents of the after-
body. t n*-9 f
In a fhip of war the lower tier of guns ought to be 01
of a fufficient height above the water, otherwife it will j^er deck
be impoffible to work the lee-guns when it blows hard, guns to be
This property will be obtained by giving her a longfufficiet tly
floor-timber, little rifing, a full midfbip frame, light up-
per works, and the wing tranfom not too high : A nd
in every fhip the extreme breadth ought always to be
higher afore and abaft than at midfhips. ao
A merchant fh;p, befides being a fall failer, ought Propertiss
to carry a confiderable cargo in proportion to its°fam',r;
length, to fail with little ballaft, and to be navigatedLhant ^
with few hands. _ aj
That a fhip may take in a conftderable cargo, it To take in
8 A fhoulda car
\nd to
ive fta-
nlity.
Principles
of hat) il
Architec¬
ture, p. 100
*3
Advanta¬
ges of a
fhip of a
fma'.l
d rau a
water.
Book!. S H I P-B U
Proper ties{h(3»Jd have 2 ^rer.t breadth and depth in proportion to
rf Ships. ;ts ien^th, a full bottom, and a long and flat floor.
But a (hip of this conitruftion will neither fail fait, nor
carry much fail.
If a lliip be filled out much towards the line of float¬
ation, together with low upper works, file will require
little ballatl : and that drip which is flirf from conftruc-
tion is much better adapted for failing fait than one
which, in order to carry the fame quantity of canvas,
is obliged to be loaded with a much greater weight :
for the reliitance is as the quantity of water to be re¬
moved, or nearly as the area of a tranfverie fection of
the immerfed part of the body at the midfhip frame ;
and a body that is broad and fhallow is much differ
than one of the fame capacity that is narrow' and deep.
“ The advantages (fays Mr Gordon) are numerous,
important, and obvious. For it is evident, that by en¬
larging, perhaps doubling, the breadth of velfels, and
forming their bottoms fiat and well furnilhed with
keels, they mud, in the firjl place, become much hea¬
dier, roll little, if •any,, and be enabled to carry greatly
more fail, and that in a better direction, at the fame
I'ma'.l ^ tjme t]iat they would be in no danger of being dilmad-
draught if ^ Qr over(et> unlefs the mads were of a mod extraor¬
dinary height indeed. Secondly, They would have little
or no occafion tor ballad, and d any was ufed, could
incur lefs danger from its Ihifting. Thirdly, That there
would be much more room upon deck, as well as ac¬
commodation below' ; tne breadth being fo much in-
Creafed without any diminution of the height above the
load-water line. Foutthly, 1 hat they would deviate
much lefs from the intended courfe, and penetrate the
water much eafier in the proper dire&ion ; for doubling
the breadth, without any increafe of weight, would di-
minifh the depth or draught of w’ater one had ; and
though the extent of the direftly oppofmg furtace
would be the fame as before, yet the veflel in moving
would meet with half the former reliftance only : for io
great is the difference between the preffure, force, or
reaftion, of the upper and the under water. Fifthiy.
That they would by this means be adapted for lying
tmfupported in docks and harbours when dry, be icn-
dered capable of being navigated in fhallaw w'ater, and
of being 'benefited by all the advantages attending that
very important circumilance ; and it is particularly to
be obferved, that making veffels which may be naviga¬
ted in (hallow water, may, in many refpeds, juftly be
regarded as a matter of equal importance with increa-
fmg the number of harbours, and improving them, as ha¬
ving identically the fame effects with regard to navi ra¬
tion ; at the fame time, that the benefits which would re-
fult from fueh circumftances are obtained by this means
without either expence, trouble, or inconveniency : be-
fides, it would not only enable veffels to enter many ri¬
vers, bays, and creeks, former!)' inaccefiible to (hips of
burden, but to proceed to fuch places as are moft
land locked, where they can lie or ride moft fecure,
and w'ith leaft Sixpence of men and ground tackle. As
(hips of war would carry their guns w'ell by being lo
Heady, there could be but little occalion for a high
top.fide, or much height of hull above w'ater ; and as
. little or no ballaft would be required, there would be
bo neceffity, as in other veffels, for increafmg their
weight on’ that account, and thereby preffing them
deeperinto the w'ater. Thefe are very important civcum-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
I L D I N G. 377
fences, and would contribute much to improve the failing ‘>‘'ore !1C8
of fuch veffels.’, f rom whence it appears, that there u ~/ 'y
would be united, what has hitherto been deemed irrecon-
cileable, the greateft pofiibie {lability, which is nearly as
the area of a tranverie lettion of the immerfed part of
the body at the midfhip frame : and a body that is broad
and fhallow is much ftiffer than one of the fame capa¬
city that is narrow and deep. A (hip of this conftruc-
tion may take in a confiderahle cargo in proportion to
her fize ; but if deeply loaded will not iail fail, for then
the area of a fedtion of the immerfed part at the mid¬
fhip frame will be very confiderable -, and as the fails of
fuch a fhip mull neceflarily be large, moie hands will
therefore be required. ' _ 24
The lefs the breadth of a fhip, the fewer hands will And ti be
be neccffary to work her; as in that cafe the quantity
of fail will be lefs, and the anchors alio of lefs weight. i,antis.
We fhall gain much (fays M. Bouguer) by making the Traitc du
extreme breadth no more than the fifth or fixth part Nwite.
of the length, if, at the fame time, we diminilh the
depth proportionally ; and likewife this moft iurprifing
circumilance, that by diminiihing thele two dimeniions,
or by increafirg the length, a fhip may be made to go
fometimes as fall as the wind.
In order to obtain the pieceding properties, very op-rmpofllMe^
pofite rules mull be followed ; and hence it appears to'f ^
be impoffible to conftrudt a (hip fo as to be poffefled °f
them all. 'The body, however, mult be fo formed, thatfanie
as many of thefe properties may be retained as polTible,
always obferving to give the preference to thole which
are moft required. If it is known what particular trade,
the ftiip is to be employed in, thofe qualities are then
principally to be adhered to which are molt efientiaily
neceffary for that employment. if.
It may eafily be demon ft rated that fmall fh'ps will 'mall fiiips
not have the fame advantages as large ones of a iimilar i::^r!or !f*
form, when employed in the fame trade; f°r a latffe ,n point of
fnip will not only iail fafter than a fmall one of a lirai- failing,
lar form, but will alfo require fewer hands to work her.
Hence, in order that a fmall fliip may poffefs the fame
advantages as a large one, the correfponding dimenfions
wall not be proportional to each other. rl he reader will
lee in Chapman’s Architeilura Navails Mircatorva
ample tables of the feveral dimeniions of Bops, of dix-
fereht claffes and lizes, deduced from theory combined
with experiment. Tables of the dimeniions of the
principal Bips of the Britifb navy, and of other Bip >,
are contained in the Ship builder’s Repohtory, and in
Murray’s Treatife on Ship-building.
Chap. II. Of the different Plans cf a Ship.
When it is propofed to build a Bip, the propor¬
tional fuze of every part of her is to be laid down ; from
whence the form and dimeniions of the timbers, and of
every particular piece of wood that enters i-ito the eon-
ftrudlion, is to be found. As a Bip has length,
breadth, and depth, three different plans at lead are
neeceffary to exhibit the form of the feveral parts of a
Bip : c-hefe are uHally denominated the Jheer plan, the
half breadth and tody plans. ^
T£\\t fleer flan ox draught, otherwife called the plan beer
of elevation, is that fedfion of the Blip which is made B aught, of
by a vertical plane ’ palling through the keel. Upon eitVa'lon*
this plan are laid down the length of the keel; the
height and rake of the ilem and iternpou ; the fituation
3 B and
378
D iferent
Plans of a
Ship.
SHIP-BUILDING.
a8
Half
breadth
{dan or
lorizon-
tal plane.
Body plan
or pr-uiec-
taon.
30
The vari¬
ous lines
laid down
on thele
plans.
and height of the midfhip and other frames; the place
of the malts and channels ; the projection of the head
and quarter gallery, and their appendages ; and in a fhip
of war the polition and dimenfions of the gun-ports.
Several imaginary lines, namely, the upper and lower
height of breadth lines, water line's, &c. are alfo drawn
in this plan.
1 he halj breadth or Jloor plan, or, as it is frequently
called, the horizontal plane, contains the feveral half-
breadths of every frame of timbers at different heights ;
ribbands, water lines, &c. are alfo defcribed on this
plane.
j he body plan, or plane of projection, is a feCtion of
the fhip at the midfhip frame or broadeft place, perpen¬
dicular to the two former. The feveral breadths, and the
particular form of every frame of timbers, are defcribed
on this plane. As the two iides of a fhip are fimilar to
each other, it is therefore unneceffary to lay down both;
hence the frames contained between the main frame and
the Item are defcribed on one fide of the middle line,
commonly on the right hand frde, and the after frames
are deicibed on the other fide of that line.
Several lines are defcribed on thefe planes, in order
the more readily to affilt in the formation of the tim¬
bers ; the principal of which are the following :
The top-timber line, is a curve limiting the height of
the fir ip at each timber.
The top-timber half breadth tine, is a .feaion of the
ffiip at the height of the top-timber line, perpendicular
to the plane of elevation.
The height of breadth lines, are two lines named the
upper' and lower heights of breadth. Thefe lines are
defcribed^ on the plane of elevation to determine the
height of the broadeft part of the fhip at each timber ;
and being defcribed in the body plan, limits the height
and breadth of each frame at its broadeft part.
Mam half breadth, is a fetfion of the fhip at the
broadeft part, perpendicular to the fheer plan, and
reprefents the greateft breadth at the outiide of every
timber.
Water lines, are lines fuppofed to be defcribed on the
bottom of a fhip when afloat by the furface of water ;
and the uppermoft of thefe lines, or that defcribed by
the water on the fhip’s bottom when fufficiently load¬
ed, is called the load water line. According as the
fhip is lightened, fhe will rife higher out of the water ;
and hence new water lines will be formed. If fhe be
lightened in fuch a manner that the heel may prcferve
the fame inclination to the furface of the water, thefe
lines will be parallel to each other ; and if they are pa¬
rallel to the keel, they will be reprefented by ftraight
lines parallel to each other in the body plan ; otherwife
by curves. In the half breadth plan, thefe lines are
curves limiting the half breadth of the fhip at the height
of the correlponding lines in the fheer plan. In or-
der to diftinguiflj thefe lines, they are ufually drawn in
green.
Ribband lines, are curves on a fhip’s bottom by the in-
terfedtion of a plane inclined to the plane of elevation ;
and are denominated diagonal or horizontal, according
a.s the7 are meafured upon the diagonal, or in a direc¬
tion perpendicular to the plane of elevation. Both
ttiele anfwer to the fame curve on the fhip’s bottom,
’Ut give very different curves when defcribed on the
naif breadth plan.
r . . . „ , B°ok r.
r rames, are circular pieces of timber bolted toge- Different
ther, and railed upon the keel at certain diftances, and to ^ans of a
which the planks are faftened. A frame is compofed 6hift
Oi one floor-timber, two or three futtocks, and a top- v
timber on each fide : which being united together, form F. aine?
a circular incloiure, and that which inclofes the greateft CornP°*
fpace is called the midfhip or main frame. The arms*^ °^a
of the floor-timber of this frame form a very obtufej^f""1*
angle ; but in the other frames this angle decreafes with tocks^aruj
the diilance of the frame from midfhips. Thofe floor liniber,
timbers vyhich form' very acute angles are called
crutches. The length of the midftiip floor timber is in
general about half the length of the main frame. - 32
A frame of timbers is commonly formed by archesS'vecFs
of circles called fweeps. There are generally fivethe fevml
fweepsy \jl, V\\t floor fweep ; which is limited by a line &
in the body plan perpendicular to the plane of eleva- *
tion, a little above the keel; and the height of this line
above the keel at the midfhip frame is called the dead
nfing. The upper part of this arch forms the head of
the floor timber. . id. The lower breadth fweep ; the
centre of which is in the line reprefenting the lower
height of breadth. 31/, The reconciling fweep. This
fweep joins the two former, without interfering ei¬
ther ; and makes a fair curve from the lower height of
breadth to the rifing line. If a ftraight line is drawn
from the upper edge of the keel to touch the back of
the floor fvveep, the form of the midfhip frame below
the lower height of breadth will be obtained. rpthr
The upper breadth fweep; the centre of which is in the
line reprefenting the upper height of breadth of the
timber. This fweep delcribed upwards forms the lower
part of the top timbers gth. The top timber fweep is
that which forms the hollow of the top timber. This
hollow is, however, very often formed by a mould, io
placed as to touch the upper breadth fweep, and pafs
through the point limiting the half breadth of the top
timber. r
The main frame, or as it is ufually called dead fat, is Names of
denoted by the charadler (J). The timbers before dead-frames.
fLt aie maiked A, B, C, &c. in order ; and thofe abaft
dead-flat by the figures 1, 2, 3, &c. The timbers ad¬
jacent to dead-flat, and of the fame dimenfions nearly,
are diflinguifhed by the charadeis (A), (B), &c. and
(O’ (O’ ^iic* -1 hat part of the fhip abaft the main
frame is called the after body ; and that before it the
fore body.
All timbers are perpendicular to the half breadth
plan, i hofe timbers whofe planes are perpendicular to
the fheer plan, are called Jquare timbers; and thofe
whofe planes are inclined to it are called canted timbers.
The rifing line, is a curve drawn in the fheer plan, at
the heights of the centres of the floor fweeps in the
body plan. As, however, this line, if drawn in this
manner, would extend beyond the upper line of the fi¬
gure, it is therefore ufually fo drawn that its lower part
may touch the upper edge of the keel. This is per¬
formed by taking the heights of each of the centres in the
body plan, from the height of the centre of the fvveep of
dead-flat, and fetting them off on the correfponding
timbers in the fheer plan from the upper edge of the
keel. . >~
Half breadth of the rifing, is a curve in the floor
plan, which limits the diftances of the centres of the
floor fweeps from the middle line of the body plan.
1 The
Pla te C C C C LM1
, ' .K-f'Cy. i .~.
Book I. S H I P-B U
Prelimina-are frames, including the main and ftern frames. Up-
rr on ME defcribe the equilateral triangle MSE, and draw
blemt- Hnes from the vertex S to each point of divilion ; then
' 'r^~' the line SM will be that anfwering to the main frame,
and SEthat correfponding to the poft ; and the other
lines will be thofe anfwering to the intermediate frames
in order.
Let fig. 23. be the proje&ion of part of the ftern on
the plane of elevation, together with the eighth and
ninth frames. From the points L, N, G, (fig. 2J.)
draw the lines LO, NP, GQ^, perpendicular to the
plane of the upper edge of the keel. Make AB (fig.
23 ) equal to AF (fig. 21.), and draw the water line
BCD. Draw the line BC (fig. 22.) fo that it may be
parallel to the bafe of the triangle, and equal to CD
(fig, 23.), which produce indefinitely towards H. Make
BD equal to BC (fig. 23.), and draw the dotted line
SD (fig. 22.) The ribband FC (fig. 21.) is to be ap¬
plied to the triangle, fo that it may be parallel to the
bafe, and contained between the line MS and the dot¬
ted line SD. Let r/ reprefent this line ; then transfer
the feveral divifions from r/ to the ribband CF (fig. 21.),
and number them accordingly. Agam, make EF (fig.
23.) equal to LO (fig. 21.), and draw the waterline
FGH; make BF (fig. 22.) equal to FG (fig. 23.),
and draw the dotted line SF; apply the fecond ribband
LK to the triangle, fo that the extremity K may be
on the line SM, and the other extremity L on the dot-
ted line SF, and making with SM an angle of about
624 degrees. Let/7 be this line, and transfer the divi¬
fions from it to the ribband KL. In like manner make
IK (fig. 23.) equal to NP (fig. 21.), and dravwthe wa¬
ter line KLM. Make BG (fig. 22.) equal to KL (fig.
23.), and draw the dotted line SG ; then the ribband
MN is to be applied to the triangle in fuch a manner
that its extremities M and N may be upon the lines
SM, SG refpedtively, and that it may make an angle
of about 68 degrees with the line’ SM; and the divi¬
fions. are to be transferred from it to the ribband MN.
The fame procefs is to be followed to divide the other
ribbands, obferving to apply the fourth ribband to the
triangle, fo that it may make an angle of 86 degrees
with the line SM ; the fifth ribband to make an angle
of 6 3 degrees, and the fixth an angle of 60 degrees with
the line SM.
The quantities ef thefe angles are, however, far from
being precifely fixed. Some conftruftors, in applying
the ribbands to the triangle, make them all parallel to
its bafe ; and others vary the meafures of thefe angles
according to fancy. It may alfo be remarked, that a.
different method of dividing the bafe of the triangle is
ufed by fome. It is certainly proper to try different
methods; and that is to be preferred whichbeft; anfwers
the intended purpofe.
Befide the frames already mentioned, there are other
two laid down by fome conftru&ors in the feveral plans,
called balance frames. The after balance frame is placed
at one fourth of the length oi the fhip before the ttern-
poft • and the other, commonly called the loof frame, at
one fourth of the fhip’s length aft of a perpendicular to
Vol-XVII. Part I.
I L D I N G. 3S5
the keel from the rabbet of the ftem. Let the dotted Prebnuna-
line at X, between the fifth and fixth frames, (fig. 23.) ^lemr""
be the place of the after balance frame in the plane of
elevation. Then, in order to lay down this frame in the
plane of proie&ion, its reprefentation muff be previoufly
drawn in the triangle. To accompliih this, draw the
line SV (fig. 22.) fo that the interval 5V may have the
fame ratio to 5 6 (fig. 22.) that 5 X_ has to_ 5 6 (fig.
23.) (d). Then the feveral points in the ribbands in
the plane of projedtion anfwering to this frame are ta
be found by means of the triangle in the fame manner
as before.
The loof frame is nearly of the fame dimenfions as
the after balance; frame, or rather of a little greater ca¬
pacity, in order that the centre of gravity of that part
of the fiiip may be nearly in the plane of the midfhip
frame. Hence the loof frame may be eafily drawn in ,
the plane of projeftion, and hence alfo the other frames
in the fore body may be readily deferibed.
Prob. X. To defcribe the frames in the fore body.
Draw the middle line of the ftem AB (fig. 24.) ;
make AC, BD each equal to half the thicknefs of the
ftem, and draw the line CD ; defcribe alfo one half of
the main frame CEFGHI. Let eE, fF,gG, ^H, be
water lines at the heights of the ribbands on the main
frame ; alfo let a be the termination of the floor ribband,
and b that of the breadth ribband on the ftem. Divide
the interval a b into three equal parts in the points c, 7,
and draw the ribbands tfE, cF, r/G, and £H. Make
e i, fh, gl, hm (fig. 24.) equal to ei, f k, g l, bm
(fig. 21.) refpeftively, and draw the curve Ciklm,
which will be the proje&ion of the loof frame. Or fince
it is neceffary that the capacity of the loof frame fiiould
be a little greater than that of the after balance frame,
each of the above lines may be increafed by a propor¬
tional part of itfelf, as one-tenth or one-twentieth, as
may be judged proper.
Conflrud the triangle (fig. 25.) in the fame manner
as fig. 22. only obferving, that as there are fewer frames
in the fore than in the after body, its bafe will therefore
be divided into fewer parts. Let there be eight frames
in the fore body, then there will be eight divifions in
the bafe of the triangle befide the extremes.
Let fig. 26. reprefent the ftem and part of the fore¬
body in the plane of elevation, and let O be the place
of the loof frame. Divide the interval 4, 5 (fig. 25.)
fo that 4, 5 may be to 4Z as 4, 5 to 4, o (fig. 26. )*
and draw the dotted line SZ, which will be the line de¬
noting the loof frame in the triangle.
Draw the lines AB, CD, EF, GH (fig. 26.) paral¬
lel to the keel, and whofe perpendicular diftances there¬
from may be equal to C a, Cr, C 7, C b, (fig. 24.) the
interfeftions of thefe lines with the rabbet of the ftem,
namely, the points I, K, L, M will be the points of
termination of the feveral ribbands on the ftem in the
plane of elevation. Divide 8 A (fig. 25.) fo that 8B,
8 C, 8 D, and 8 E, may be refpe&ively equal to BI,
DK, FL, and HM (fig. 26.), and draw the dotted
lines SB, SC, SD, SE (fig. 25.) Apply the edge of
a flip of card to the firft ribband (fig. 24.), and mark.
3 C thereon
(d ) It is evident, from the method ufed to divide the bafe of the triangle, that this proportion does not agre«
exactly with, the conftru£lion : the difference, however, being fmall, is therefore neglected in practice.
386 S H I P - B U
Prf.Hmit.a tliereftn the extrerriitics of the ribband a* E, and alfo
the point of interfedfion of the loof frame. Then ap.-
ply this flip of card to the triangle in fnch a manner
that the point a may be on the dotted line SB, the
point E on the line SM, and the point anfwering to the
loof frame on the dotted line SZ ; and mark upon the
>card the feveral points of interlediion of the lines Si,
S 2, &c. Now apply the card to the ribband «E (fig.
24.) as before, and transfer the feveral points of divi-.
fion from it to the ribband. In like manner proceed
with the other ribbands ; and lines drawn through the
correfponding points in the ribbands will be the projec¬
tion of the lower part of the frames in the fore body.
The projections of the top-timbers of the ieveral frames
may be taken from the half breadth plan ; and hence
-each top-tiipber may be eafily defcribed.
In large (hips, particularly in thofe of the French
navy, a different method is employed to.form the top*
timbers in the fore body, which is as follows :
"Plate ^ BI (fig. 27.) be one fourth of the breadth of
CCCCLIX.jd^ fhip, and draw IK parallel to AB. Take the
height of the foremoft Ffame from the plane of eleva¬
tion, and lay it off from A to B : from the point B
draw BH perpendicular to AB, and equal to half the
length of the wing tranfom. Let E be the place of
the breadth ribband on the main frame, and F its place
On the ftem at the height of the wing tranfom. With
a radius equal to five-fixths of half the greateft breadth
of the fhip defcribe the quadrant EFG (fig. 28.) :
Make EH equal to FG (fig. 27.), the point F being
at the height of the wing tranfom. Through H draw
HO perpendicular to EH, and interfefting the circum¬
ference in O ; then draw OE parallel to HE, and EL
parallel to HO. Divide EL into as many equal parts
as there are frames in the fore body, including the main
frame, and from thefe points of divifion draw the per¬
pendiculars 1 r, 22, &c. meeting the circumference as
in the figure. Take the diftance U, and lay it off
from G (fig. 27.) towards F to the point 1 ; and from
the fame point G lay off towards F the feveral per¬
pendiculars contained between the ftraight line and the
curve to the points 2, 3, &c. and through thefe points
draw lines parallel to EG.
Take any line AB (fig. 29.) at pleafure : divide it
equally in two in the point 8 ; divide 8 B in two parts
in the point 7, and continue this method ot divifion un¬
til there are as many points as there are frames in the
fore body, including the main frame. Upon AB con-
ftruA the equilateral triangle ACB, and draw the lines
C8, C7, &c. Place a flip of card on the parallel
K 8 (fig. 27.), and mark thereon the points oppofite
to a, K, and 8 ; and let them be denoted accordingly.
Then apply this flip of card to the triangle, fo that the
point a, which is that anfwering to the rabbet of the
ftem, may be on the line AC ; that the point anlwer-
ing to K may be on C 8, and the extremity 8 on the
line CB ; and mark on the card the points of interfec-
tion of the lines C 7, C6, &c. and number them ac¬
cordingly. Now apply this flip of card to the ieventh
parallel (fig. 23.), the point a being on the line CD,
and mark on this parallel the point of interfe&ion 7 ;
flide the card down to the fixth parallel, to which tvanf-
fer the point n° 6. In like manner proceed with the
-ether parallels.
The point K, at the interfedtion of the line IK with
I L D I N G. Book I,
the eighth parallel, is one point through which the Prdimina*
eighth fiame paffes. From this point upwards a curve ry 1>ro- "
is to be defcribed fo as to reconcile with the lower part
of this frame already defcribed, and the upper part,
forming an inverted arch, which is to terminate at FI.
This top-timber may he formed by two fweeps, whofe
radii and centres are to be determined partly from cir-
cumftances and partly according to fancy. It how¬
ever may be more readily formed by hand.
Let LM (fig, 27.) he the line of the fecond deck
at the main frame, and let LN be the difference of the
draught of water, if any. Make GN (fig. 28.) equal
to LN ; draw NM perpendicular to GN, meeting the
circle in M ; and through the points G and M draw
the parallels GV and MV ; divide GN as before, and
from the ieveral points of divifion draw perpendiculars
terminating in the curve. Transfer thefe perpendicu¬
lars from L upwards (fig. 27^), and through the point*
thus found draw the lines 1 r, 7i, &c. parallel to LM.
Apply a flip of card to the eighth parallel, and mark
upon it the point anlwering to the ftem, the eighth and
main frames : carry this to the triangle, and place it fo
that thefe points may be on the correfpondirig lines.
Then the points of interfe&ion of the lines C 7, C 6,
&c. are to be marked on the card, which is now to be
applied firft to the eighth parallel (fig. 27.), then to
the feventh, &c. transferring the feveral points of divi¬
fion in order as before.
Draw the line HO (fig. 27.) ; mark its length on a
flip of card, and apply it to the triangle, fo that it may
be parallel to its bafe, and its extremities one on the
eighth and the other on the main frame : mark on the
card the points of interledlion of the feveral intermedi¬
ate lines as before ; then apply the card to HO, and
transfer the divifions.
There are now three points determined through
which each top-timber mult pafs, namely, one in the
breadth ribband, one in the fifth, and one in the upper
ribband. Through thefe curves are to be defenbed,
fo as to reconcile with the lower part of the frame, and
partake partly of the curvature of the eighth frame,
and partly of that of the main frame, but mod of that
of the frame to which ft is neareft : and hence the
plane of projection is fo far finifhed, that it only re¬
mains to prove the feveral frames by water lines.
Another method of deferibing the frames in the
body plan is by fweeps. In this method it is neceffary,
in the firft place, to defcribe the height of the breadth
lines, and the rifing of the floor, in the plane of eleva¬
tion. The half breadth lines are next to be defcribed in
the floor plan. The main frame is then to be deferi-
bed by three or moie fweeps, and giving it fuch a form
as may be molt fuitable to the fervice the Ihip is deilgn-
ed for. The lower, upper, and top-timber heights of
breadth, and the rilings of the floor, are to be fet upon
the middle line in the body plan, and the feveral half
breadths are then to be laid off on lines drawn through
thefe points perpendicular to the middle line. A mould
may then be made for the main frame, and laid upon
the feveral rifings, as in whole mouldings, explained in
Chapter V. with this difference, that here .an under
breadth fweep is defcribed to pafs through the point
which limits the half breadth of the timber, the centre
of which will be in the breadth line of that timber.
The proper centres for all the frames being found, and
the.
SHIP i MG
Plate CCCCPVin.
1
/
V
(
l
it
Book I.
S H I P-B U
biems.
I'xelimina. the fii'chas defcribed, the bend mould mult be fo pla-
ry i'ro- ce(^ on J.j;ie r;fing line Qf the floor, that the back of it
_ may touch the back of the under breadth fweep. But
the general practice is, to defcribe all the floor fweeps
with compafl’es, as well as the under breadth fweeps,
and to reconcile theie two by a mould which is an arch
of a circle, its radius being the fame with that of the
reconciling fweep by which the midihip frame was
formed. It is ufual for all the floor fweeps to be of
the fame radius ; and in order to find their centres a line
is formed on the floor plan for the half breadth of the
floor. As this line cannot be defcribed on the furface
of a Ihip, it is therefore only an imaginary line. In-
llead of it fome make uic of a diagonal in the body
plane to limit the half breadth of the floor upon every
riling line, and to eredl perpendiculars at the ieveral in-
terfetfions, in the fame manner as for the midfhip
frame.
After the fwTeeps are all defcribed, recpurfe is had to
moulds, or fome fuch contrivance, to form the hollow of
the timbers, much in the lame manner as in whole
moulding ; and when all the timbers are formed, they
mull be proved by ribband and water lines, and altered,
it neceflary, to make lair curves.
The preceding methods of defcrihing the feveral
planes or iedtions of a Ihip being well underftood, it
will be a very eafy matter to conftrutl draughts for
any propofed Ihip : and as the above planes were de¬
fer ibed feparately and independent of each other, it is
therefore of little confequence which is firfl: defcribed.
In the following application, however, the plane ol ele¬
vation will be liril drawn, then part of the floor plan,
and laftly the body plan : and in connecting thefe
plans the moll rational and Ample methods will be
employed.
Chap. IV. application of the foregoing Rules to
the ConJlruEhon of Ships.
Sect. I. Tb conjlmd. a Ship intended to carry a confi-
deruble Barden in Proportion to her general l)imerfitnst
and to dram little IVater.
Dimensions.
Length between the wing tranlom and a perpendicular
from the rabbet of the idem at the height F. In.
of breadth line - - Boo
Main half breadth moulded - no
Half breadth at the height of breadth line at
the Hern - - 1 &
Top-timber half breadth - lo 6
Height of the Item above the upper edge of
the keel - - 17 O
Height of the breadth line at the flem 13 6
Height of the breadth line at the ftern - 123
Upper height of breadth at the main frame 7 4
Lower height of breadth - - 5 10
Height of middle line of wales at the ftem 10 o
Height of middle line of wales at the main
frame - - -610
Height of middle line of wales at the ftern 10 6
Breadth of the wales - - 1 9
Height of top-timber at midlhips 140
     at ftern » j 8 o
I L D I N G. 387
Draw the line a l (fig. 30.) equal to 80 feet, from Applxation
a convenient icale : divide it into as many equal parts'^ ^ore'
plus one as there are to be frames, which let be 16,
and through each point of divifion draw perpendiculars, ftruilion of
Make be equal to 17 ieet, the perpendicular height of Ahips.
the top of the item above the upper edge of the keel,  v
and defcribe the Item by Prob. II. Make a d equal cc£ht£;g
to lo-l- feet, the height of the middle line of the wales
at the item, and a e equal to the propofed rake of the
poll, which may be about 2 feet ; join d e ; and draw
the line Jg reprelenting the aft-fide of the poll. De¬
fcribe the counter and item by Problem VI. and VII.
Make 0 h equal to 14 leet, the top-timber height at
the main frame, and i k equal to 18 feet, the height at
the (tern ; and through the three points r, A, i, defcribe
the curve limiting the top-timbers by Problem I. Make.
b d equal to 1 o- ieet, the height of the middle line of
the wales at the (tern, and ®H equal to 6 feet 10
inches, the height at the main frame ; and the curve
d H d being defcribed will reprefent the middle line of
the wales. At the diftance of loj- inches on each fide
of this line draw two curves parallel thereto, and the
wales will be completed in this plan. Make b l equal
to i 31 feet, the height of the breadth line at the fte*n ;
« m equal to 1 2^ feet, the height at the ftern ; and I®
K® equal to 5 feet xo inches and 7 feet 4 inches re»
fpeCftively ; and draw the upper breadth line l Km and
lower breadth line /1 m. From, the line ab lay down¬
wards the breadth of the keel, which may be about
one foot, and draw the line L t parallel to a t.
I^et the line I. r, which is the lower edge of the keel,
reprefent alfo the middle line of the floor plan. Pro¬
duce all the perpendiculars reprefenting the frames :
make ® M (fig. 31.) equal to 11 feet, the main half
breadth at midlhips ; through m (fig. 30.) draw the
line m N perpendicular to a b, and make p N equal to.
7i feet, and draw the main hall breadth line NM r by
Problem IV. Deicribe alio the top-timber half breadth
line PO r, vf) O being equal to to^ ieet, and form the
projedling part of the ftem q r s t.
In order that the top-timber line may look fair on
the bow, and to prevent the foremoft top-timbers from
being too ft.ort, it is neceflary to lift or raife the Iheer
from the round of the bow to the ftem. For this pur-
pofe the following method is ufually employed : Pro¬
duce the circular fheer before the ftem in the plane of
elevation at pleafure ; then place a batton to the round
of the bow in the half breadth plan, and mark on it the
ftations of the fquare timbers and the fide of the ftem ;
apply the batton to the fheer plan, and place it to the
fheer of the {hip,, keeping the ftations of the timbers on.
the batton well with thole on the fheer plan for feve¬
ral timbers before dead-flat, where they will not alter;,
then mark the other timbers and the Item on the fheer
line produced ; through thefe points draw lines parallel
to the keel, to interfedt their correfponding timbers
and the ftem in the fheer plan : then a curve defcribed.
thefe laft points will be the Iheer of the fhip round
the bow, lilted as required : and the heights of the tim¬
bers thus lengthened are to be transferred to the body
plan as before.
Draw the line AB (fig. 32.) equal to 22 feet, the
whole breadth ; from the middle of which draw the
perpendicular CD : make CF equal to half the thicknefs
3 G 2 o£
388 S H I P - B U
.Aprlkationof the poll, and CF equal to half that of the ftein, and
of the fore from tjie p0{nts A, E, F, B, draw lines parallel to CD.
to The c“ “ Make AG, BG each equal to 14 feet, the height at
ftriofbon >fthe main frame, and draw the line GG parallel to AB.
Ships. Make GH, GH each equal to half a foot, the difference
‘"“-v— be tween the main and top timber half breadths. From
A and B fet up the heights of the lov/er and upper
breadth lines to 1 and K, and draw the ftraight lines
IK, IK. Let CL be the riling at the main frame, and
fj), 0 the extremities of the floor timber. Hence, as
there are now five points determined in each half of
the main frame, it may be very eafily deferibed.
Make CM equal to L0, join M0, and draw the
other ribbands NO, PQ^ In order, however, to fim-
plify this operation, the redlilineal diltance fj^I was
trife&ed, and through the points of divifion the lines
NO, PQ were drawn parallel to the floor ribband
M®.
Take the diftance be (fig. 30.), and lay ;t off from
F to (fig. 32.); alfo make F^ (fig. 32.) equal to
Vu (fig. 30.) ; through b draw be parallel to AB, and
equal to FR (fig. 31)* In like manner take the
heights of each top-timber from fig. 30. and lay them
off from C towards D (fig. 32) ; through thefe points
draw lines parallel to AB, and make them equal each to
each, to the correfponding half breadth lines taken from
the floor plan; Then through the feveral points <7, c,
&c. thus found, draw a line a c H, which will be the
projeftion of the top-timber line of the fore body in the
body plan. Proceed in the fame manner to find the
top-timber line in the after body.
Transfer the height of the main-breadth line on the
Item bl (fig. 30.) from F to ^ (fig. 3:). Transfer alfo
the heights of the lower and upper breadth lines at
timber F (fig. 30.), namely, FW, FX, from F to 1?
iu.l f (fig. 32.) ; through which draw the parallels
fh ; make them equal to FS (fig. 31.), and draw the
flraiglit line g h. In this manner proceed to lay down
the portions of the extreme breadth at each frame, both
in the fore and in the after body in the body plan, and
draw the upper and lower breadth lines d h K, dg I in
the fore body and K /, I i in the after body. Hence
the portions of the feveral top-timbers contained be¬
tween the top-timber and main breadth lines may be
t’afily. ’deferibed. It was before remarked that their
forms were partly arbitrary. The midfhip top-timber
has generally a hollow, the form of which is left entire¬
ly to the artiif, though in fome {hips, efpecially fmall
ones, it has none. It is the common practice to make
a mould for this hollow, either by a fweep or fome
other contrivance, which is produced conliderably above
the top-timber line, in a ftraight line »r very near one;
The midfhip top-timber is formed by this mould, which
is to placed that it breaks in four with tire back of the
tipper breadth fweep. The other top-timbers are farm¬
ed by the fame mould, obferving to place it fo that the
ftraight part of it may be parallel to the ftraight part
of the midfhip timber, and moved up or down, ftill
keeping it in that direction till it juft touches the back
of the upper breadth fweep. Some conftruftors begin
at the after timber, after the mould is made for the mid¬
ihip top-timber, becaufe they think it eafier to keep
the ftraight part of the mould parallel to this than to
the midfhip timber j and by this means the top fide is
kept from winding. Others, again, make a mark upon
I L D I N G, Book F.
the mould where the breadth line of the midfhip tim- Application
her croffes it, and with the fame mould they form the of di' fore, i
after timber : this will occafion the mark that was inade^0'”? Ru,rS
on the mould when at the main frame to fall below the
breadth line of the after timber, and therefore another Ships. |
mark is made at the height of the breadth line at the  v——'
after timber ; the ftraight part of tire mould is then kid
obliquely acrofs the breadth lines of the top-timbers, in
fuch a manner that it may interfedt the breadth line of
the midftrip timber at one of thefe marks and the
breadth line of the after timber at the other mark ;
then the feveral interfeftions of the breadth lines of the
timbers are marked upon the mould ; which muft now
be fo placed in forming each timber, that the proper
mark may be applied to its proper breadth, and it mult
be turned about fo as juft to touch the upper breadth
fweep. Any of thefe methods may make a fair fide,
and they may be eafily proved by forming another in¬
termediate half breadth line.
The remaining parts of the frames may be deferibed
by either of the methods laid down in Problems IX.
and X. In order, however, to illuftrate this ftill far¬
ther, it is thought proper to fubjoin another method of
forming the intermediate frames, the facility of which
will recommend it.
Take FZ (fig. 30.), and lay it from F to ^ (fig.
32.) ; then deferibe the lower part of the foremofl
frame, making it more or lefs full according as pro-
pofed ; and interfering the ribbands in the points
/, m, n. Deferibe alfo the aftermoft frame 0, p, q.
Make <*-P> (fig. 30.) equal to F r (fig. 32.), and pro¬
duce it to a (fig. 31.) ; alfo draw and £ f (fig. 30.)
equal to Er and E j (fig. }2.) refpeftivtly ; and pro¬
duce them to b and c : Make F e, Ff, FR (fig. 31.)
equal to M/, Not, Pn (fig. 32.) each to each. Let
alfo ®t, ®/', and 9/, 9 ot, (fig. 31.) be
made equal to M 0, NO, PQ^_ and Mo, N y, Vp
(fig. 32 ) ; then through thefe points trace the curves
a e nh lb, rfime, and rKknp, and they will be the
projections of the ribbands in the floor plane. Now
transfer the feveral intervals of the frames contained be¬
tween the middle line and the ribbands (fig. 31.) to
the correfponding ribband's in the body plan (fig. 32).
Hence there will be five points given in each frame,
namely, one at the lower breadth line, one at each rib¬
band, and one at the keel; and confequently thefe
frames may be eafily deferibed. In order to exemplify
this, let it be required to lay down the frame E in the
plane of projection. Take the interval E n (fig. 31.),
and lay it from M to u (fig. 32). Lay off alfo E v,
Ef (fig. 31.) from N to s; and from P to » (fig*
32 ) ; then through the points F, u, v, n and the
lower breadth line delcribe a curve, and it will be the
reprefentation of the frame E in the body plan. In
like manner the other frames may be deferibed.
The ribbands may now' be transferred from the body
plan to the plane of elevation, by taking the feveral
heights of the interfeCtion of each ribband with the
frames, and laying them off on the correfponding
frames in the floor plan ; and if the line drawn through,
thefe points make a fair curve, it is prefumed that the
curves of the frames are rightly kid down in the body
plan. Only one of thefe ribbands, namely, the firft, is
kid down in fig. 30. Thele curves may alfo be far¬
ther proved, by drawing water lines in the plane of ele-
3 vation.
SHIP-B UlLDIM G
Plate CCCCLXX
' '
Book I. s H I P-B u
Application vation, and in thebodyplan, at equal diftances from the
of the fir e- Upper edge of the keel. Then the diftances between the
te the c'oil-1ntddle line of the body plan, an4- the feveral points of
ftr,(ftiou of interfeftion of thcfe lines with the frames, are to belaid
Ships, off from the middle line in the floor plan upon the
correfponding frames; and if the line drawn through
thefe points form a fair curve, the frames are truly
drawn in the body plan.
In figs. 30. and 32. there are drawn four water lines
at any equal diftances from the keel, and from each other.
Thefe lines are then transferred from fig. 32. to fig. 31.;
and the lines paffing through thefe points make fair
curves. f
The tranfoms are defcribed by Problem VIII. it is
therefore unheceffary to repeat the procefs. A rifing
line of the floor timbers is commonly drawn in the plane
of elevation.
As this is intended only as an introduftory example,
feveral particulars have therefore been omitted ; which,
however, will be exemplified in the following feftion.
Sect. IV. To defcribe the feveral Plans of a Ship of
War propofed to carry 80 Guns upon two Decks.
As it is propofed in this place to (how the method
of defcribing the plans of a fhip of a very confiderable
fize, it therefore feems proper to give the dimenfions of
every particular part neceffary in the delineation of thefe
plans. The feveral plans of this fhip are contained in
Plate CCCCLXI. figs 33, and 34. But as it would
very much confufe the figures to have a reference to every
operation, and as the former example is deemed a fuf-
ficient illuftration, the letters of reference are upon thefe
accounts omitted in the figures.
Ship built?*
tr'j Rtpc*
fitery.
4
Principal Dimensions.
Lengths.—Length on the gun or lower deck F. In.
from the aft part of the rabbet of the ftem
to the aft part of the rabbet of the poll 182 o
Length from the foremoft perpendicular to
dead flat - - 63 11|-
Length from the foremoft perpendicular to
timber Y - - - 40
Length from after perpendicular to tim¬
ber 37 - * - 3
Room and fpace of the timbers - 2
Length of the quarter-deck from the aft part
of the ftern - - " 95 0
Length of the forecaftlc from the fore part of
the beak-head - - 49 Q
Length of round-houfe deck from the aft part
of the ftern . - 51 8
Heights.—Height of the gun or low-er deck
Irom the upper edge of the keel to the
under fide of the plank at dead flat 24 O
Height of the gun or lower deck from the
upper edge of the keel to the under fide of
the plank at foremoft perpendicular 26 3
Height of the gun or lower deck from the
upper edge of the keel to the under fide of
the plank at after perpendicular - 26 3
Height from the upper fide of the gun-deck
plank to the under fide of the upper deck
plank, all fore aad aft - - 7 <3
I L D I N G.
Height from the upper fide of the"!
upper deck plank to the under fide > a^apt
of the greater deck plank J
Height to the under fide of foreeaftle plank,
afore and abaft
Height from the upper fide of the! f
quarter-deck plank to the under fin.
fide of the round-houfe plank ^ a a
Height of the lower edge of the main wales
at foremoft perpendicular
Height of the lower edge of the main wales
at dead flat
Height of the lower edge of the main wales
at after perpendicular
Height of the lower edge of the channel
wales at foremoft perpendicular
Height of the lower edge of the channel
wales at dead flat
Height of the lower edge of the channel wales
at after perpendicular
Height of the upper fide of the wing tran-
fom ...
Height of the touch of the lower counter at
the middle line
Height of the touch of the upper counter at
the middle line
Height of the top-timber line at the after part
of the ftern timber
Breadths.—Main wales in breadth from lower
to upper edge - =
Channel wales in breadth from lower to up¬
per edge - - -
Waift rail in breadth
Diftance between the upper edge of the chan¬
nel wales and the under edge of the waift
rail ...
Sheer rail in breadth
Diftance between the (beer rail and the rail
above from timber 13 to the ftern
Dittance between the flieer rail and the rail
above from timber 7 to timber x 1
Diftance between the fheer rail and the rail
above from timber C to the forepart of
beak-head
And the faid rail to be in breadth
Plank fheer to be in thicknefs
Centres of the majls.—From the foremoft per¬
pendicular to the centre of the mainmaft on
the gun-deck
From the foremoft perpendicular to the centre
of the forenuft on the gun-deck
From the after perpendicular to the centre of
the mizenmaft on the gun-deck
Stem.—The centre of the fweep of the ftem
abaft timber P
Height of ditto from the upper edge of the
keel
Stem moulded
Foremoft part of the head afore the perpen¬
dicular
Height of ditto from the upper edge of the
keel
Stern-poJl.—A.i{. part of the rabbet afore the
F. In.
6 10
6 xi
6 6
6 9
6 10
24 6
20 o
26 6
32 6
29 o
34 o
389
28
33
26
1
36 2
44 7
4 ^
2 9
o 6
2 5
1 4
103 2
20 5
28 6
° 4
Application
of the fore¬
going Rule*
to the Con-
ftrinftion of
Ships.
2
6
2 r
2 4
38 3
per-
S H I P - B
perpendicular on the upper edge of the F.
3<3°
Application
of the fore- ked
feoiv g Kul?S A r r , 1 r 1
to the Con- Att P3rt °‘ tiie Fort abaft the rabbet at the
(lru(51 ion of upper edge of the keel
iillips. Aft part of the port abaft the rabbet at the
^ t. ■ yr~—. w;ng tranfoin
Stern-port fore and aft on the keel
Ditto fquare at the head
Counter*.—The touch of the lower counter
at the middle line, abaft the aft part of the
■ wing tranfom
Round aft of the lower counter
Round up of the lower counter
The touch of the upper counter at the middle
line, abaft the aft part of the win or tran¬
fom ...
Round aft of the upper counter
Round up of the upper counter
Aft part of* the ftern-timber at the middle
line, at the height of the top-timber line,
abaft the aft part of the wing tranfom
Round aft of the wing tranfom
Round up of the wing tranfom
u
In.
4
2 6
^7 afore
' ^ abaft
I 2
O
o
9
3t
io
6
6
5^
I L D I N G.
Draught of water.—Load draught of'
water from the up Ar edge of the
keel
Channels.—Foremoft end of the fore chan¬
nel afore timber R -
The channel to be in length .
And in thicknefs at the outer edge
The dead eyes to be 12 in number and in
diameter «
Foremolt end of the main channel afore tim¬
ber 9 - .
The channel to be in length
And in thicknefs at the outer edge -
I he dead eyes to be 14 in number and in
diameter
Foremolt end of the mizen-channel abaft tim¬
ber 27 - .
The channel to be in length
And in thicknefs at the outer edge
The dead eyes to be 7 in number and in dia¬
meter
Book F,
F. In. Application
of the f< r p.
20 5 going Rulei
e to the Con.
ftrtuftion of
Ships.
20
37 °
o 44.
i 6
o 10
38 o
o 4*-
2 4
20 o
o 4
Dimensions of the feveral Party of the Bodies.
Fore Body.
Lower height of breadth
Upper height of breadth
Height of the top-timber line
Height of the rifing line *
Height of the cutting down
Main half breadth
Top-timber half breadth
Half breadth of the riling
Length of the lower breadth fvveeps
Firft diagonal line
Second ditto
Third ditto
Fourth ditto
Fifth ditto
Sixth ditto . -
Seventh ditto .
Timbers Nanies.
©
Ft. In. | Ft. In.
22 6 22 6
24 IO
37 5
o o
2 si
24 5»
20 11
8 7
19
7
13
120
23 4i
24 8
4 10
37 7
° it
2 3?
24 St
20 10
8 4
18 9
7 8
!3 8
19 11
23 4?
24 8
24 1*24 if
Ft.
22
*4
38
3
2
24
20
6
18
7
'3
T9
23
24
24
In.
7
10
o
IQ.
3t
4r
9
5i
7
4i
2
o
4i
T
Ft. In.
23 O
24 I Of
38 5
9 10
2 8
24 of
20 6
Ft. In. j Ft. In.
23 11 I25 7
25 3t26 4i
23 5t
23 9
59 i
18 6
3 10
23 2f
20 o
5 7
Outfide
15 11
6 3
10 3
‘5 1
18 11
21 2f
22 10
39 10
6
20
18
'4
3
7
11
14 84
17 1
W
Ft. In.
2d 10
27 4l
40 4
17 o
17 10
12 7
4 6
8 3i
11 5
13 8f
20 1 of 18 61
Ft. In.
28 8
29 o
40 9
11 of
16 6*
12
3 4i
6 o
7 11
14 7
* Rifing height n feet 10 inches at dead flat, from which all the other rifings mull be fet off.
Baotr,
SHIP-BUILDING.
After ScJy
Lower height of breadth
Upper ditto
Height of the top-timber line
Height of the cutting down
Height of the rifmg
Main half breadth
Half breadth of the riling
Top-timber half breadth
Topfides half breadth
Length of lower breadth fweeps
Firft diagonal
Second ditto
Third ditto
Fourth ditto
Fifth ditto
Sixth ditto
Seventh ditto
'Timbers Names.
39-t
Ft. In,
22 6
24 IO
37 5
2 3i
O
24 5i
8 6
20 11
19 2
7 9
T3 9
Ft. In.
22 6
24 IO
5
3f
8^
37
2
o
24 4
8 3
20 10
19 2
7 8?
13 8f
20 o 119 1
23 ^>3 3
24 8 |2 4 7
22
24
37
2
I
24
7
20
19
7
T3
'9
2?
24
In.
6
10
6
3i
9f
9
J3
Ft.
22
24
37
2
3
24
6
9120
o j8
7 7
6 13
7i !9
if 22
6 24 if23
In.
7:
I I
IO
3:
6j
3a:
I of
9
7
5
1
o
6f
17
Ft.
22
25
38
2
6
24
5
20
17
7
12
18
21
Ft.
23
25
38
2
10
23
2
20
r9
16
6
11
_ 16
11 I20
6f 22
In.
9
1
3f
4
o
1
3'
7
1
2f
6
1
21
25
In. Ft.
of 23
4 125
II
7i
1
8f
8
3
7
o
7
2
6
3
39
3
17
23
2
r9
18
H
5
9
J4
18
3f 20
I23 9^23
In.
7i
8
8
5
o
Of
6
S
4
5
9
7
2
of
6f
29
Ft. In. Ft.
24 6 |25
2(5 3 ,'27'
40 6 [41
5 8
21 10
Outfide
18 2
4
7
11
lS
18
33
In.
10;
I
5
7
o
5
7
7
5
Sii11
2 114
r8
21 8f20
35
37
8
10
1 of
1 o
8]
8f
4
4
8f
o
Ft.
26
27
42
In'. Ft.
91 28
28
42
15 tof
14 I I
7 n
8f
J5 of
*4 3
18 11
4 »
o 7
o 11
2
4
7
1 r
J7
if
64:
o
8
Diagonal Dines for both the Tore and Aeter Bodies.
Fore and After Bodies.
Height up the middle line
Dillance from the middle line on the bafe line
Height up the fide line
Names of the Diagonal Lines.
2d
Ft. In.
ir 4
9 1
3d
Ft. In.
16 5t
15 6
4th
Ft. In.
20 8
5th
Ft. In.
2 3 Si
6th
Ft. In.
27 5
12 Pf
7 th
Ft. In.
43 9
32 8f
L &f the Sheer Draught or Plane of Elevation.
Draw a ftraight line (fig. 33d to reprefent the up¬
per edge of the keel, erect a perpendicular on that end
to the right, and from thence fet off 18 2 feet, the length
on the gun-deck, and there eredl another perpendicular;
that to the right is called the/ormo/? perpendicular, and
the other the after one : upon thefe two perpendiculars
all the foremoft and aftermoft heights muff be fet off,
which are expreffed in the dimenfions.
Then fet off the diftance of the main frame or dead
fiat from the foremoft perpendicular, and at that place
ereft a third perpendicular, which mull be diftinguiflied
by the charafter ©. From dead flat the room and
foace of all the timbers muft be fet off; but it will on¬
ly be neceffary to eretf a perpendicular at every frame
timber ; which in the fore body are called chad fat, A,
C, E, &c. and in the afterbody (2), 1, 3, 5, &c. :
hence the diftance between the frame perpendiculars will
be double the room and fpace exprefled in the dimen¬
fions. Then fet off the heights of the gun-deck afore
at midfhip or dead flat, and abaft from the upper fide
of the keel ; and a curve deferibed through thefe three
points will be the upper fide of the gun-deck. Set off
the thicknefs of the gun-deck plank below that ; and
another curve being drawn parallel to the former, the
gun-deck will then be deferibed at the middle line of
the fheer plan.
The centre of the ftem is then to be laid down by
means of the table of dimenfions ; from which centre
with an extent equal to the neareft diflance of the nope?
edge of the keel, deferibe a circle upwards: deferibe
alfo another circle as much without the former as the
ftem is moulded. Then fet off the height of the'head
ofthe item, with the diftance afore the perpendicular,
and there make a point; and within that fet off the
moulding of the ftem, and there make another point •
from this laft mentioned point let a line pafs downwards!
interiedting the perpendicular at the height ofthe gun-
deck, and breaking in fair with the inner circle, and
the after part ofthe ftern is drawn. Draw another line
from the foremoft point downwards, parallel to the for.
mer, and breaking in fair with the outer circle ; then
the whole ftem will he formed, except the after or low.
er end, which cannot be determined till hereafter.
The ftern-poft muft be next formed. Set off "on the
upper edge of the keel a> fpot for the aft part of the
rabbet ta^en from the dimenfions, and from that for¬
ward fet off another point at the diftance of the thick
neft of the plank of the bottom, which is indies :
and from this laft mentioned point draw a line upwards
interfering the perpendiculars at the height ofthe lower
392 S H I P-B U
Application £eck ; then fet up the perpendicular the height of the
of the (ore w;ng tranfom, and draw a level line, and where that
fo’the (.ton- ^ne interfedls, the line firft drawn will be the aft fide of
ftru&ion of the wing tranfom ; on the upper part of the middle line
ship*, fet off from that place the diitance of the aft tide of the
f*-" y""*- ftein-poft ; fet off alfo the diftance of the after part from
the rabbet on the upper edge of the keel, and a line
drawn through thefe two points will be the aft fide of
the poll. A line drawn parallel to the firlt drawn line
at the diftance of inches, the thicknefs of the plank
on the bottom, will be the aft fide of the rabbet : and
hence the ftern-poft is defcribed, except the head,
which will be determined afterwards.
From the dimenfions take the feveral heights of the
upper deck above the gun-deck, afore, at midihip, and
abaft, and fet them off accordingly; through thefe
points defcribe a curve, which will be the under fide of
the upper deck ; defcribe alfo another curve parallel
thereto, at the diftance of the thicknefs of the plank,
ant! the upper deck will be then reprefented at the
middle line of the ffiip.
Set off the height of the lower counter, at the mid'
die line, from the upper edge of the keel, and draw a
horizontal line with a pencil; then on the pencil line
fet off the diftance the touch of the lower counter is
abaft the aft fide of the wing tranfom: from this point
to that where the fore part of the rabbet of the ftern-
poft interfefts the line drawn for the ujlper part of the
wing tranfom, draw a curve at pleafure, which curve
will reprefent the lower counter at the middle line.
The height of the upper counter is then to be fet off
from the upper edge of the keel, and a horizontal line
is to be drawn as before, fetting off the diftance the
touch of the upper counter is abaft the aft fide of the
wing tranfom ; and a curve defcribed from thence to
the touch of the lower counter will form the upper
counter at the middle line.
Both counters being formed at the middle line, the up¬
per part of the ftern timber above the counters is to be
defci ibed as follows : On the level line drawn for the up¬
per fide of the wing tranfom fet off the diftance of the
aft fide of the ftern timber at the middle line from the
aft fide of the wing tranfom, at the height of the top-
timber line, and ere£t a perpendicular: then upon this
perpendicular, from the upper edge of the keel, fet off
the height at the middle line of the top-timber line at
the after fide of the ttern timber ; through this point
draw a ftraight line to the touch of the upper counter,
and the upper part of the ftern timber will be defcribed.
As the ffern rounds two ways, both up and aft, the
ffern timber at the fide will confequently alter from
that at the middle line, and therefore remains to be re¬
prefented. Take the round up of the upper counter
from the dimenfions, and fet it below the touch at the
middle, and with a pencil draw a level line ; take alfo
the round aft, and fet it forward from the touch on the
touch line, and fqnare it down to the pencil line laft
drawn, and the point of interfcdlion will be the touch
of the upper counter at the fide. In the fame manner
find the touch of the lower counter; and a curve, fi-
xnilar to that at the middle line, being defcribed from
the one touch to the other, will form the upper counter
at the fide.
'lake the round up of the wing tranfom, and fet it
©ff below the line before drawn for the height of the
I L D I N G, Book I.
wing tranfom, and draw another horizontal line in pen- Apnlication
cil: then take the round aft of the wing tranfom, and0f fore,
fet it forward on the upper line from the point iepre-l?r>!n^ R;l!e,
fenting the aft fide of the wing tranfom ; fquare it dwwn
to the lower line, and the interfeftion will be the touch ships,
of the wing tranfom: then a curve, fimilar to that at
the middle line, being drawn from the touch of the
wing tranfom to the touch of the lower counter at the
fide, will be the lower counter at the fide. Draw a
line from the upper counter upwards, and the whole
ftern timber at the fide will he reprefented. But as the
ftraight line drawn for the upper part of the fide tim¬
ber fhould not be parallel to that at the middle line, its
rake is therefore to be determined as follows.
Draw a line at pleafure, on which fet off the breadth
of the ftern at the upper counter ; at the middle of this
line fet off the round aft of the upper counter, then
through this point and the extremities of the ftern de¬
fcribe a curve. Now take the breadth of the ftern at
the top-timber line, and through the point where that
breadth will interfeft the curve for the round aft of the
ffern draw a line parallel to that ftrft drawn, and the di¬
ftance from the line laft drawn to the curve at the mid¬
dle of the line is the diftance that the fide timber muff
be from the middle line at the height of the top-tiinber
line.
The fheer is to be defcribed, which is done by fet¬
ting off the heights afore, at midfhips, and abaft, and
a curve defcribed through tbrefe three points will be the
fheer. Butxin order that the fheer may correfpond
exactly with the dimenfions laid down, it will be necef-
fary to proceed as follows : The perpendicular repre-
fenting timber dead flat being already drawn, fet off
from that the diltances of the other frame timbers,
which is double the room and fpace, as the frames are
only every other one ; and ereft perpendiculars, writing
the name under each : then on each of thefe perpen¬
diculars fet off the correlponding heights of the top-
timber line taken from the table of dimenfions for con-
ftrufxing the bodies ; and through thefe points a curve
being defcribed, will reprefent the fheer of the fhip or
top timber line agreeable to the dimenfions.
The quarter-deck and forecaftle are next to be de¬
fcribed, which may be done by taking their refpeftive
heights and lengths from the dimenfions, and deferibing
their curves. In the fame manner alfo, the round- '
houfe may be drawn. The decks being defcribed re-
prefenting their heights at the middle, it is then ne-
ceffary to reprefent them alfo at the fide. For this
purpofe take the round of the decks from the dimen-
lions, and fet them off below the lower line drawn for
the middle, and a curve defcribed both fore and aft, ob-
ferving to let it be rather quicker than the former, will
be the reprelentation of the decks at the fide.
The ports come next under confideration. In the
placing of them due attention muff be paid, fo as to
preferve ftrength.; or that they fhall be lo difpofed as
not to weaken the fhip in the leaft, which is often done
by cutting off principal timbers, placing them in too
large openings, having too fliort timbers by the fide of
them,. &c. The frames reprefented by the lines al¬
ready drawn muff be firft confulted. Then with a
pencil draw two curves, for the lower and upper parts
of the lower deck polls, parallel to the line reprefent-
ing the lower deck; the diftances of thefe lines from.
the
w
f
\
SHIP-BUILDING.
Plate CCCCUV.
riKCES of tie HTTli J..
v .
FRAME Sofa SHIP.
Book T.
S H I P - B U
JDiffereJit
Flans of a
Ship.
. 34
Principal
Thu rtfing of th floor, is a curve drawn in the fheer
plan, at the height of the ends of the floor timbers.
It is limited at the main frame or dead flat by the dead
riling, and in flat (hips is nearly parallel to the keel lor
fome timbers afore and abaft the midihip frame ; for
which reafon thefe timbers are called fiats : but in (harp
Ihips it rifes gradually from the main frame, and ends on
the Item and poll:.
Cutting down line, is a curve drawn on the plane of
elevation. It limits the depth of every floor timber at
the middle line, and alfo the height of the upper part of
the dead wood afore and abaft.
Timber and room, or room and [pace, is the diftance
between the moulding edges of two timbers, which mull
always contain the breadth of two timbers and an inter¬
val of about two or three inches between them. In
forming the timbers, one mould ferves for two, the fore-
lide of the one being fuppofed te unite with the aftfide
of the other, and fo make only one line, which is called
the joint of the timbers.
ieces"that or^er to hhiftrate the above, and to explain more
compile a Particularly the principal pieces that compofe a (hip, it
e Hup. will be necefl'ary to give a defeription of them. Thefe
pieces are for the molt part repreiented according to the
order ot their difpofition in fig. i. Plate CCCCLIV.
A, Reprefents the pieces of the keel to be fecurely
bolted together and clinched.
B, The fternpoit, which is tenanted into the keel, and
conne&ed to it by the knee G.
E, The back of the poll, which is alfo tenanted into
the keel, and fecurely bolted to the poll; the intention
of it is to give fufficient breadth to the port, which fel-
dom can be got broad enough in one piece. C is the
falfe poft, which is fayed (b) to the fore part of the
iternpoft.
C, The ftem, in two pieces, to be fcarfed together.
The ftem is joined to the fore foot, which makes a part
of both.
H, The apron, in t\yo pieces, to be fcarfed together,
and fayed on the infide of the ftem, to fupport the fcarf
thereof; and therefore the fcarf of the apron muft be at
Pome diftance from that of the ftem.
I, The ftemfon, in two pieces, to fupport the fcarf of
the apron.
D, The beams which fupport the decks; and F the
knees by which the beams are fattened to the Tides of
the fhip.
K, The wing tranfom : it is fayed acrofs the ftern-
poft, and bolted to the head of it, and its extremities
are fattened to the faihion pieces. L, Is the deck tran¬
fom, parallel to the wing tranfom. M, N, Two of the
lower tranfoms : thefe are fattened to the fternpoft and
fafliion pieces in the fame manner as the wing tranfom.
Q^> The knee which fattens the tranfom to the (hip’s
fide. And, O, The fafhion piece, of which there is
one on each fide. The keel of the fafhion piece is con-
nedled with the dead wood, and the head is fattened to
the wing tranfom.
R, S, Breaft-hooks : thefe are fayed in the infide to
the ftem, and to the bow on each fide of it, to which
they are fattened with proper bolts. There are gene-
I L D I N G. ^79
rally four or five in the hold, in the form of that mark- Different
ed R, and one in the form of that marked S, into which plans of a
the lower deck planks are rabbeted : There is alfo one Shlp'
immediately under the haufe holes, and another under
the fecond deck.
T, The rudder, which is joined to the fternpoft by
the rudder irons, upon which it turns round in the
googings, fattened to the fternpoft for that purpofe.
There is a mortife cut in the head of the rudder, into
which a long bar is fitted called the tiller, and by which
the rudder is turned.
U, A floor timber : it is laid acrofs the keel, to
which it is fattened by a bolt through the middle,
v, V, V, V, The lower, the fecond, third, and fourth
futtocks. W, W, The top timbers. Thefe reprefent
the length and fcarf of the feveral timbers in the mid-
fhip frame.
X, The pieces which compofe the kelfon. They
are fcarfed together in the fame manner as the keel, and
placed over the middle of the floor timbers, being fco-
red about an inch and a half down upon each fide of
them, as reprefented in the figure.
Y, i he feveral pieces of the knee of the head ; the
lower part of which is fayed to the ftem, and its keel is
fcarfed to the head of the forefoot. It is faftened to
the bow by two knees, called cheehs, in the form of that
reprefented by Z ; and to the ftem, by a knee called a
Jlamlard, in the form of that marked (J).
a. The cathead, of which there is one on each fide
of the bow, projecting fo far as to keep the anchor clear
of the fhip when it is hove up.
b, The bits, to which the cable is faftened when the
ftiip is at anchor.
d. The fide counter-timbers, which terminate the fhip
abaft within the quarter gallery.
e, e, Two pieces of dead wood, one afore and the
other abaft, fayed on the keel.
Fig. 2. is a perfpe&ive reprefentation of a fliip fra¬
med and ready for the planking; in which A, A is the
keel; B, the fternpoft ; C, the ftem ; K, L, M, the tran¬
foms ; F, F, F, F, F, F, the ribbands.
Chap. III. Containing Prelimmary Problems, &c.
The general dimenfions of a (hip are the length,
breadth, and depth. ' '
To afeertain thofe dimenfions that will beft anfwer Propor-
the intended purpofe is, no doubt, a problem of confi- tioiial dx-
  ^ VAW LAWL, a jJlUUACIU UI CiUIllI- '**v,“‘**
derable difficulty; and, from theory, it may be drown n’er,Plons
r-i ^ .4 . ^ ^-1..  X * r 1 X* n • * ^ ^ llljp
that there are no determinate proportions fubfifting be-° a„5'
tween the length, breadth, and depth, by which thefe To be in-
dimenfions may be fettled ; yet, by combining theory ferrc4 from
and practice, the proportional dimenfions may be ap- the"r>’ ,
proxfmated to pretty nearly. ^ combined
As (hips are conltiudted for a variety of different tice;
purpofes, their principal dimenfions muft therefore be
altered accordingly, in order to adapt them as nearly as
poffible to the propofed intention ; but fince there is
no fixed ftandard whereby to regulate thefe dimenfions,
the methods therefore introduced are "numerous, and in
a great meafure depend upon cuftom and fancy.
With regard, however, to the proportional dimen-
3 & 2 lions,
(b) To fay, is to join two pieces of timber clofe together.
S H 1 P - B U
circle.
Vrclimina- £0us they p?rhsps may he inferred from the circle,
ry ^ro- Thus, if the extreme breadth be made equal to the dia-
L!ems- meter, the length at the load water line, or the diftance
between the rabbetsof the ftem and poft at that place,may
And tiro be made equal to the circumference of the fame, circle ;
from the ancj t}ie depth of the hold equal to the radius, the upper
works being continued upwards according to circum-
ftarce?. A Or ip for rued from thefe dimenfions, with a bot¬
tom more or Ids full according as may be judged nepefla-
ry, will no doubt anfwer the propofed intention. Never-
thdefs, one or other of thefe dimenfxons may be varied
in order to gain fome effential property, which the
tiade that the veffd is intended for may require..
The following hints are given by Mr Hutchinfon f
towards fixing rules for the belt conftru&ion of flops
bottoms.
■| Pr.iSlhal
Searn.ttijhip,
page ij.
[. “ I would recommend (fays he), to prevent fhips
* See Book bottoms from hogging * upwards amidflup, to have the
ii. Chap. 2. fore and after part of their keels deep enough, that the
upper part may be made to admit a rabbet tor the gam
board ilreak, that the main body and bearing part of
the fhips bottoms may be made to form an arch^ down¬
wards in their length, fuppofe with the fame thee, as
their bends, at the rate of about 2 inches for every 30
feet of the extreme length of the keel towards the mid-
fhip or main frame, which may be reckoned the crown
of the arch ; and the lower part of the keel to be made
ftraight, but laid upon blocks fo that it may form a re-
puiar convex curve downwards at the rate of an inch
for every 30 feet of the extreme length of the keel, the
lowed, part exadtly under the main frame ; which curve,
I reckon, is only a fufficient allowance for tne keel to
become ftraight below, after they are launched afloat,
by the preffure of the water upward againft their floors
amidftib, which caufes their tendency to'hog. And
certainly a ftraight keel is a great advantage in fading,
a8 well as to fupport them when laid upon level ground
or on ftraight blocks in a repairing dock, without ta¬
king damage.
2. *‘As fquare ftevned fhips, from experience, aie
found to anfwer all trades and purpofes better than
round or pink itemed fhips, I would recommend the
fore part of the fternpoft, on account of drawing the
water lines in the draught, only to have a few inches
rake, that the after part may Hand quite upright per¬
pendicular to the keel: and for the rake oi the tiem I
Would propofe the rabbet for the budding ends for the
entrance, and bows from the keel upwards, to form the
fame curve as the water line from the Item at the har-
pin towards the main breadth, and the bows at the Kar¬
pin to be f ormed by a fvveep of a circle oi bait the tlvree-
fourths of the main breadth; and the main tranfom to
be three-fourths of the main-breadth ;. and the buttocks,
at the load 01 failing mark aft, to be formed, in the fame
manner as the bows at the harpin, with a fweep of a
. ircle of half the three fourths of the mam breadth, to
extend iuft as far from the ftem and ftern poft as to ad¬
mit a regular convex curve to the main frame, and from
thefe down to the keel to form regular convex water-
lines, without any ot thofe unnatural, hollow, concave,
ones, either in the entrance or run ; which rules, in my
opinion, will agree with the main body of the flip,
whether (lie is defigned to be built full for burden or
fharp below for failing.
“ This rule for raking the ftem will admit all the
I L D I N G. Book I.
water-lines in the fhip’s entrance to form convex curves Vrefimina-
all the way from the ftem to the midfhip or main frame,
which anfwera much better for failing as well as ma- _J|‘A.8'. t
king'a fhip more eafy and lively in bad weather. And v -J
the bows (hould flange off, rounding in a circular form
from the bends up to the gunwale, in order to meet the ,
main breadth the fooner, with a fweep of half the main
breadth at the gunwale amidfhips; which will not only
prevent them greatly from being plunged under water
in bad weather, but fpread the Handing fore-iigging the
more, to fupport thefe material malls and fails forward
to much greater advantage than in thofe over fharp
bowed fmps, as has been mentioned. And as the fail¬
ing trim or ihips in general is more or leis by the ftern,
this makes the water lines of the entrance in proportion
the (harper to divide the particles of water the eaiier,
fo that the (hip may prefs through it with the teaft re¬
finance.
4. “ The run ought to be formed (horter or longer, ^
fuller or (harper, in proportion to the entrance and main
body, as the fhip is defigned for burden or failing fall.
The convex curves of the water lines (hould lefien gra¬
dually from the load or failing mark aft, as lias been
mentioned, downwards, till a fair ftraight taper is form¬
ed from the after part of the floor to the flernpoft be¬
low, without any concavity in the wuiter lines ; which
will not only add buoyancy and burden to the after
body and run of the (hip, but, in my opinion, will help
both her failing and fleering motions ; for the preflure
of the water, as it dotes and rifes upon it to come to
its level again, and fill up that hollow which is made
by the fore and main body being preffed forward with
fail, will impinge, and atft with more power to help the
fhip forward in her progressive motion, than upon thofe
unnatural concave runs, which have fo much more flat
dead wood, that muit, in proportion, be a hinderance
to the ftern being turned io eaiily by the power of the
helm to fleer the (hip to the greateil advantage.”
Many and various are the methods which are employ¬
ed to deleribe the feveral parts of a flup. In the follow¬
ing problems, however, thpfe methods only are given
which appear to be rnoft eaiily applied to praAice, and
which, at the fame time, will anfwer any propofed pur-
pofe.
PaoB. I. To deferibe in the plane of elevation the
fheer or curvature of the top timbers.
Let QR (fig. 3.) be the length of the (hip between c ^
the wing tranfom and the rabbet of the ftem. Then J
fmee it is generally agreed, efpeeially by the French The place
conllruQors, that the broaddl part of the (hip ought T the
to be abo-ut one-twelfth of the length before the
frame or dead flat; therefore make RT) equal to five- twelfth bc,
twelfths of QR, and 0 will be the ftation of the main f()re the
frame; fpace the other frames on the keel, and from middle of
thefe points let perpendiculars be drawn to the keel.the
I.J Hwiv. V'  jr J  ^ rto
Let 0P be the height of the (hip at the mam frame, Mc;ho,ltf
VF the height at the aftermoft frame, and RIv the ieftribing
height at the ftem. Through P draw LPL paral. the topum.
lei to the keel; deferibe the quadrants PGI, PMK, the -A'1 ll1'*
radius being FT); make PH equal to EF, and PO
equal KL, and draw the parallels GH, OM : Divide
GH fimilar to ©C, and OM flmilar to ©Pv. Through
thefe points of divifion draw lines perpendicular to EL,
and the feveial portions of thefe perpendiculars contain¬
ed between EL and the arch will be the riflings of the
o top-
Book!. S H I P-B U
Ptclin itia top-timber line above EL. A curve drawn through
ry Pro- p0;ul8 wj[l form the toptimber line,
v This line is more eafily drawn by means of a curved
or bent ruler, lb placed that it may touch the three
points F, P, and K.
40 Prob. II. To deferibe the ftem.
The item, Tet K (fig. 3.) be the upper part of the ftem, thro*
whicli draw KS parallel to the keel, and equal to twice
K R : Tlrrough the termination of the wales on the
Item draw TW parallel to Qdl. 1 hen from the centre
S, with the diftance SK, deferibe an arch : Take an
extent equal to the nearelt didance between the paral¬
lels WT, QR ; and find the point W,r fuch that one
pxrint of the compafs being placed there, the other
point will juft touch the neareft part of the above arch;
and from this point as a centre deferibe an arch until it
meets the keel, and the item will be formed.
41 Prob.. III. To deicribe the iternpoit.
And pod. Sec off QV (fig. 3.) for the rake of the poll:
draw VX perpendicular to the keel, and equal to
the height of the wing tranfom, join QX> and it wdl
reprefent the aft fide of the port.
4-t Prob. IV. To deferibe the half breadth line.
Mun half Let MN (fig- 4.) be the given length : Make N(>?)
line*e<lu‘d to live-twelfths of MN ; draw the line 0P per¬
pendicular to MN, and equal to the propofed extreme
half breadth. Let ME be the round ait of the ftern
or wing tranfom ; make EO perpendicular to MN, and
equal to the given half breadth at the flern, which is
generally between two-thirds and three-fourths of the
main half breadth ; and deferihe the arch MO, the
centre of which is in the middle line. Space the frames
(A), A, B, See. and ( 1 ), t, 2, See. From the centre
0, with the radius (J>P, deferibe the quadrant PUS ;
deferibe alto the quadrant PC f. Through the point
O draw ORU parallel to MN ; divide the ftraight line
RU fimilar to M^1; and through t-hefe points of di-
viiion draw lines perpendicular to MN, and meeting
the arch. 'I ransfer thefe lines to the correfpondent
frames each to each, and a curve drawn through the
extremities will reprefent that part of the fide contain¬
ed between the main frame and the ftern. Again, thro’
Q , the extremity of the foremoit frame, draw QV pa-
ralkl to MN. Or make PV a fourth or third part of
ITT, according as it is intended to make the fliip more
or lefs full towards the bow. Divide VC fimilar to
(P^iC ; through thefe points draw lines perpendicular to
MN, and terminating in the quadrantal arch : Transfer
thefe lines to the correfponding timbers in the fore part,
and a curve drawn through the extreme points will li-'
mit that part of the fhip’s fide contained between P and
Q. Continue the curve to the next timber at X. From
Q draw QZ perpendicular to QX ; make the angle
ZNQjqual to ZQN, and the point Z will be the cen¬
tre of the arch forming the bow. Remark, if it is pro¬
pofed that the breadth of the fhip at the frames adja¬
cent, to the main frame fhall be equal to the breadth at
the main frame ; in this cafe, the centres of the qua¬
drantal arches will be at the points of interfeclion of
thefe frames with the line MN ; namely at (A) and (1).
Alfo, if the height of the fhip at the frames (A) and
(i) is to be the fame as at dead flat, the quadrantal
arches in fig. 3. are to be deferibed from the points of
mterfectiou of thefe frames with the line EL.
I L D I N G. 3S5
Thefe rules, it is evident, are variable at pleafure; and Prelimina-'
any perfon acquainted with the firft principles of mathe-
matics may apply calculation to find the radii of the . ^
feveral fweeps.
Prob. V. To deferibe the main frame or dead-
flat. 43
This frame is that which contains the greateft fpace, Of the
and the particular form of each of the other frames de-jp^’P
pends very much on it. If the ftiip is intended to carry
a great burden in proportion to her principal dimen-
fions, this frame is made very full ; but if file is intend¬
ed to fail fart, it is ufually made fharp. Hence arifes
diverfity of opinions refpec'ting its form ; each conttruc-
tor ufing that which to him appears preferable. In or¬
der to lave repetition, it is judged proper to explain
certain operations which neceffarily enter into all the
different methods of conftru&ing this frame. 44
In the plane of the upper tide of the keel produced, Gene-al
draw the line AB (fig. s •) equal to the propofed breadth Pri“f'T
of the fhip ; bifeeft AB in C, and draw AD, CE, and
BF, perpendicular to AB. Then, fince the two fides
6f a fliip are fimilar, it is therelore thought fufficient to
deferihe the half of each frame between the main frame
and the ftem on one fide of the middle line CE, and
the half of each of thole be‘ore the main frame on the
other fide of it. The firft halt is called the aJier-lodyy
and the other the fore-body. The after-body is com¬
monly deferibed on the left fide of the middle line ;
and the fore-body on the right lide of it : hence the
line AD is called the fide line of the after body, and
BF the fide line of the fore body. Make AD and BF
each equal to the height of the fhip at the main frame.
Make AG, BG, and AH, EH, equal to the lower and
upper heights of breadth refpedtively, taken from the
filter plan. Let I I be the load water line, or line of
floatation when the fhip is loaded, and KKthe height
6f the rifmg line of the floor at this frame. Make CN,
CO, each equal to half the length of the floorr timber,
and N, O, will be the heads of the floor timber, thro’
which draw' perpendiculars to A B. Make C m, E m,
each equal to half the thickrefs of the fternpoft, and C k,
E n, equal to half the thicknefs of the flern, and join
m rn, n n.
Method I. Of chfriling amain frame.— From the
centre <7 (fig. 5.), in the lower breadth '"Kne, deferibe
the lower breadth Iwctp Ge ; make N b equal to the
propofed radius of the floor fweep, and from the centre
b deferibe the floor fweep N f. Let the radius of the
reconciling fweep be Kg, equal to about the half of
AX ; then make A h equal to N b, and A m equal to-
O a Now from the centre a, with an extent equal to
g m, deferibe an arch, and from the centre b, with the
extent g h, deferibe an arch inttrfe&ing the former in
c, which will be the centre of the reconciling fweep ef.
Join N m by an inverted curve, the centre of which may
be in the line b N produced downwards ; or it may be
joined by two curves, or by a ftraight line if there is
little riling ; and hence the lower part of the main frame
wall be deferibed.
In order to form the top timber, make F k equal to
fuch part of the half breadth, agreeable to the propo¬
fed round of the fide, as one-feventh ; join H k, and
make k i equal to about two-thirds of H ^ : make the
angle H i / equal to i H /; and from the centre ! at the
diiiai.ee-
3%l S H I P - B U
^ry Pro*3" ^’^ance dcfcnbe the arch H i; and from the cen-
blems. tre t^ie intcrfcftion of // and i F produced, defcribe
the arch /' /■, and the top timber will be formed.
II. To defcribe a main frame of an intermediate capacity,
that is, neither too flat nor toofharp. — Divide the line AX
(%• 6), which limits the head of the floor timber, into
three equal parts ; and make a h equal to one of them.
Divide the line d B, the perpendicular diftance between
the load water line and the plane of the upper fide of
the keel, into feven equal parts ; and fet off one of thefe
parts from d to r, and from o to m. Let GH be the
lower deck, join G m, and produce it to q. Draw the
Itraight line V a, bifedi it in «, and from the points
.n, a, defcribe arches with the radius Gq interfering each
tojdier in P, which will be the centre of the arch na.
Phe centre of the arch V n is found by deferibing arches
downwards with the fame radius.
With an extent equal to once and a half of B e, de¬
fcribe arches from the points b, e, interfering each other
in A, and from this point as a centre defcribe the arch
e b ; make a l equal to d m, and join Am, A/. Then,
in order to reconcile two arches fo as to make a fair
curve, the centres of thefe arches and of the points of
contad mull be in the fame Itraight line. Hence the
point i will be the centre of the arch dm, and o the
centre of the arch a l. The arch l m is dtferibed from
the centre A.
To form the top timber, fet back the tenth part of
the half breadth from K to S upon the line of the fe-
cond deck ; then with an extent equal to two-thirds of
the whole breadth defcribe an arch through the points
S and H, the upper height of breadth. Again, make
MI equal to the fifth part of the half breadth ; defcribe
an arch of a circle through the points-S and T, taking
the diagonal GB for the radius. As this arch is in¬
verted in refped of the arch d S, the centre will be
without the figure. Hence one-half of the main frame
is formed, and the other half is deferibed by fimilar
operations.
Remark. This frame may be made more or lefs full
by altering the feveral radii.
III. To defcribje a main frame of a circular form.—
Let the feveral lines be drawn as before : Then make
Plate O a (fig. 7.) equal to the half breadth G a, and from
cccclvi. , the centres, with the radius G a, defcribe the arch
£ G c O. Let d be the head of the floor-timber, and
dx the rifing. A flume the point / in the arch, ac¬
cording to the propofed round of the fecond futtock,
and defcribe the arch df the centre of which may be
found as in the former method : from the centre a, with
the diftance a d, defcribe the arch d c O •, make d c
equal to one-third of d O, and the angle deb equal to
c d h, and from the centre h defcribe the arch d c. The
inverted arch c O may be deferibed as before.
IV To dejeribe a very full main frame. Let the
vertical and horizontal lines be drawn as before : let b,
fig. 8. be the floor-head, and b x the rifing. Divide G r
into two equal parts in the point d, and upon c d de¬
fcribe the fquare d b a c,m which inferibe the quadrant
d e a. Divide the line b d into any number of equal parts
in the points O, N, M, L, and draw the lines Ltk, Mf,
N*, Ob, perpendicular to d b. Divide the lint G C,
jJie depth of the hold, the rifing being deducted, into
the lame number of equal parts in the points E, F,I, K,
ignd make the lines E p, F q, I r} K s} in the frame,
X L D I N G. Book I
cquat to the lines O b, N«, M r, Lm, in the fquare, each t’relimina-
to each rdpe&ively ; and through the points G, p, q,r r> lJro*
s, b, defcribe a curve. The remaining part of the frame ^'ems' .
ma}- be deferibed by the preceding methods. v
- y defcribe the main frame of a Jhip intended to be a
faft foxier. The principal lines being drawn as before,
let the length cd the floor-timber be equal to hah the
breadth ot the flup, and the rifing one-fifth or one-fixthof
the whole length ofthe floor-timber, which lay off from
X to E, fig. 9. Through the point E draw the line T x
perpendicular to GC, and d E perpendicular to A G.
Join T d, which bifed in B, and draw BE perpendicu-
lar thereto, and meeting C G produced in F, from the
centre I, at the diifance F T, defcribe the femicircie
1 d D. Divide G T into any number of parts, V W,
&c. and bifed the intervals . DV, DW, &c. in the
points X, Z, &c.; then, from the centre X, with the
extent XV, defcribe the femicircie D bV, interfeding
AG in b. Let VP be drawn perpendicular to GT,
and b P perpendicular to AG, and the point of inter-
fedion P will be one point through which the curve is
to pafs. In like manner proceed for the others, and a
curve drawn through all the points of interfedion will
be pait Oi the curve of the mam frame. The remain-
ing part of the curve from E to Y will be compofed
of two arches, the one to reconcile with the former part
of the curve at E, and the other to pafs through the
point Y, the centre of which may be found by any of
the preceding methods. In order to find the centre of
that which joins with the curve at E, make TR equal
to the half ot GD, and join ER, in which a proper
centre for this arch may be eafily found.
I he portion G £ E of the curve is a parabola, whofe
vertex is G and parameter GD.
For GD : G b 1 : Gb : GV by conftrudion.
Hence Dv-r XGV G£z, which is the equation
for a parabola.
VI. To defcribe a main frame of a middling capacity 
Let the length of the floor timber be equal to one-half
of the breadth of the fliip. Make O d, fig. 10. equal
to one-fourth of the length of the floor timber, and draw
the perpendicular d c equal to the rifing, and divide it
into two equal parts in the point e. Defcribe an arch
through e, and the extremity a of the floor timber, the
radius being equal to the half breadth, or more or lefs
according to the propofed round of the floor head.—
Then with the radius O /, half the length of the floor
timber, defcribe the arch e Y.
Draw / m perpendicular to OA : bifett A n in p,
‘and draw the perpendicular p q. From the middle of
A p draw the perpendicular r s, and from the middle
of A r draw the perpendicular t u. Make nz, pg,
each equal to In: make the diftances py, rb, each
equal to ag ; r F, t E, each equal to a b \ and t x equal
to dE. Then a curve drawn through the points a, z,yt
F, x, 1 , will form the under part of the midfhip frame.
We flrall finifh thefe methods of deferibing the main
frame of a fhip with the following remark from M.
Vial du Clairbois J. “ It feems (fays he) that they t drebi/ec*
have afte&ed to avoid ftraight lines in naval architec-ture Na~
ture; yet, geometrically fpeaking, it appears that a maiaW*,P' U’
frame formed of ftraight lines will have both the ad¬
vantage and fimplicity over others.” To illuflrate this,
draw the firaight line M N (fig. 9.) in fuch a manner
that the mixtilineal fpace Mad may be equal to the
mix-
I
Book I. S H I P- B U
frelimina- mixtilineal fpacc D N Y. J-Ience the capacity of the
ry t’r0 main frame formed by the ftraight lines MN, NY will
be equal to that of the frame formed by the curve M a
D Y ; and the frame formed by the ftraight lines will
for the molt part be always more fufceptible of recei-
Friite Ju ving a bow that will eafily divide the fluid. It is alfo
Navire de evJ'^ent, that the cargo or ballad, being lower in the
p. 601. * frame formed of ftraight lines than in the other, it will
therefore be more advantageoufly placed, and will ena¬
ble the fhip to carry more fail (c) ; fo that having a bow
equally well or better formed, fhe will fail fader.
Pros. VI. To defcribe a dern having afquaretuck.
Let AB (fig. ix.) be the middle line of the pod,
and let CD be drawm parallel thereto at a didance
equal to half the thicknefs of the pod. Make CE
equal to the height of the lower part of the fafhion-
piece above the keel: make CT equal to the height of
the extremity G of the tranfom above the plane of the
keel produced, and CH equal to the height of the tran¬
fom on the pod, HT being equal to above one-ninth
or one-tenth of GT, and defcribe the arch GH, the
centre of which will be in BA produced : make EK
equal to five-twelfths of ET: through K draw KL
perpendicular to CD, and equal to EK ; and with an
extent equal to EL defcribe the arch EL. Make GI
equal to the half of ET, and from the centre I defcribe
the arch GM, and draw the reconciling curve ML.—
Let the curve of the fafhion-piece be produced upwards
to the point reprefenting the upper height of breadth,
as at O. Make ON equal to the height of the top-
timber, and BN equal to the half breadth at that place,
and join ON. Through N and the upper part of the
counter, let arches be deferibed parallel to GH, The
tafferel, windows, and remaining part of the dern, may
be finilhed agreeable to the fancy of the artid.
In fig. x 2. the projection of the dern on the plane of
elevation is laid down, the method of doing which is
obvious from infpeCtion.
If the tranfom is to round aft, then fince the fafiiion
pieces are always iided draight, their planes will in-
terfeCt the fheer and floor planes in a draight line. Let
Plate G .y (fig. 14.) be the interfeCtion of the plane of the
cccclvii, fafhion-piece wfith the floor plane. From the point g
dr aw g W perpendicular to g M : make y k equal to the
height of the tuck, and W k being joined will be the
interfedtion of the plane of the fafhion-piece with the
fheer plane. Let the wrater lines in the fheer plane pro¬
duced meet the line ^ W in the points a,r, h, and draw the
perpendicularsuis,/V, hh. Fromthe points a,x, h (fig. 14.)
draw lines parallel to G^ to interfedt each correlpond-
ing water line in the floor plane in the points 3, 2, x.
From the points G, 3, 2, 1 in the floor plane draw
lines perpendicular to g M, interfering the water lines
(fig. 13.) in the points G, 3, 2, 1 ; and through thefe
points defcribe the curve G 3 2 \ k \ and WG 3 2,
x k will be the projection of the plane of the fafhion-
piece on the fheer plane. Through the points G, 3, 2,
1 (%• 1 3’) draw the lines GF, 3 A, 2 S, 1 H, per¬
pendicular to W £ ; and make the lines WF, a A, ^ S,
I L D I N G. 383
h H, equal to the lines £ G, 3, J 2, h 1 (fig. 14.) Prelimina-
refpeCtively, and WFASH ^ will be the true form of 1''ro“
the plane of the aft fide of the fafhion-piece. When it f
is in its proper pofition, the line WF will be in the -1
fame plane with the fheer line ; the line a A in the fame-
plane with the water line a 3 ; the line r S in the fame
plane wfith the water line s 2 ; and the line h FI in the
fame plane with the water line h\. If lines be drawn from
the feveral points of interfeCFon of the water lines with
the rabbet of the port (fig. 13), perpendicular to g M,
and curved lines being drawn from thefe points to G*
3, 2, 1 (fig. >4.) refpeCtively, will give the form and
dimenfions of the tuck at the ieveral.water lines.
Prob. VII. To bevel the fafhion-piece of a fquare
tuck by water-lines-
As the fafhion-piece both rakes and cants, the planes
of the water-lines will therefore interfeCt it higher on
the aft than on the fore-fide : but before the heights on
the fore-fide can be found, the breadth of the timber
muft be determined ; which let be bn (fig. 15.) Then,
as it cants, the breadth in the direction of the water¬
line will exceed the true breadth. In order to find the
true breadth, form the aft-fide of the fafhion-piece as
direded in the lafl problem.
Let (fig. 13.) be the aft-fide of the rabbet oa
the outfide of the poft, WM the common ieCtion
of the plan of the fafhion-piece and the fheer-plan.
Before this lait line can be determined, the feveral
water-lines 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, muft be drawn parallel
to the keel, which may repreient fo many tranfoms.—-
Let thefe water lines be formed and ended at the aft-
fide of the rabbet, as in fig. 14. where the rounds aft of
the feveral tranfoms are deferibed, limiting the curves of
the water lines. Now the line WM muft rake fo as
to leave room for half the thicknefs of the poft, at the
tuck : in order to which, produce W ^ to r ^ make rg.
half the thicknefs of the poft ; through r draw a line
parallel to ^ M to interfeCt £ G in £ : then with the ra¬
dius r l, from x the point of the tuck as a centre, de-r
feribe an arch, and draw the line WM juft to touch the
back of that arch.
The line WM being, drawn, let any point h. in it
be affumed at pleafure : from k draw k y perpendicu¬
lar to g M : throughy drawy f (fig. 14.) parallel to
g G, interfeCting the line M / drawn perpendicular to
g M in the point/. From M draw M 1 perpendicular
toy/, and fromy drawy n perpendicular to WM (fig,
13.) Make M n (fig. 15.) equal to Mi (fig. 14.) ;
then MI (fig. 15.) being equal toy h (fig. 1 3 ), join n 1,
and the angler n M will be the bevelling to the horizontal
plane. Again, make Mz, My (fig. 15.) refpeCtively equal
toy « (fig. 13.) and M/ (fig. 14.), and join * J ; and
the angle M z j will be the bevelling to the"flieer plane.
The bevelling* being now found, draw the line ah
(fig- 1 5-) parallel to z w, a 2; or 3 « being the fcant-
ling of the timber. Then n x will be the breadth of
the timber on the horizontal plane, and 2 e its breadth
on the fheer plane, and a c what it is within a fquare.
Now as the lines g G, a 3, s 2, /j 1, y i, reprefent
1 the
(c) It is not a general rule, that lowering the cargo of a fhip augments her {lability. This is demonftrated by
the Chevalier de Borda, in a work pubiiflxcd by M. de Goimpy upon this iubjeCt. See alfo VArchittblum No*
vale par AL Vial du Clair boh, p. 23.
*
#4 S H 1 p-B U
J^ellhiina- tlie aft fide of the fa{hion-piece on the horizontal plane
ry I4 ^ dotted lines may be drawn parallel to them
v !llerni to reprefent the fore-iide, making n x (fig. 15.) the
perpendicular didance between the lines reprefenting
fore and aft fides of the fafhion-piece. By thefe lines
form the fore-flde of the falhion-piece in the fame man-
‘lier as the aft-fide was formed. The water lines on the
fore-fide of the plane ot the fafhion piece muft, however,
be firft drawn in fig. 1 3, thus : Draw the lines e b, c cl
parallel to W M, and whole perpendicular didances
therefrom may be equal to ac and 2. e (fig. 15.) re-
fpe&ively. Draw a line parallel to WF (fig. 13.)
through the point where the line c d interfefts the fifth
water line. Draw a line parallel to a A through the
point where the fourth water line interfefts the line cd;
in like manner proceed with the other water lines. The
fore-fide of the fafhion piece is now to be defcribed by
means of thefe new water lines, obferving that the dif-
tances in the door plane mud be fet off from the line
e by and not from WM, as in the former cafe; and
a curve defcribed through the points 5, 3, 5, 1, where
thefe didances reach to, will reprefent the fore-fide
of the fafhion-piece.
The neared didance between the points 5, 3, 2, 1
and the aft fide of the fafhion piece is what the bevelling
is beyond the fquare when both dock and tongue of
the bevel are perpendicular to the timber. Make M p
(fig. 16 ) eopral to the breadth of the timber, and M5
equal to the perpendicular didance of the point 5
(fig. 13.) from the aft fide of the fafhion piece, and
join 5 p. In like manner proceed with the others, and
the bevellings at thefe parts will be obtained ; but, in
order to avoid confufion, the perpendiculars 4, 3, 2,
(fig. 13.), indead of being laid off from M (fig. ifi ),
were fet off from points as far below M as the other ex¬
tremities of the lines drawn from theie points are below
the point p.
Prob. VIII. To defcribe the tranfoms of a round
poop.
The tranfoms are faftened to the ftem-pod in the
fame manner that the floor-timbers are fadened to the
keel, and have a riling called the flight fimdar to the ri¬
ling of the door-timbers. The upper traniom is called
the nuing tranfom, the next the deck tranfom, and the
Others the firfl, fccond, and third tranfoms in order. The
wing tranfom has a round aft and a round up : the round
tip of the deck tranfom is the fame as that of the
beams.
The falhion-piece of a fquare tuck mud be fird de¬
fcribed, together with the three adjacent frames, by the
method to be explained. The part of the dern above
the wing tranfom is to be deferibed in the fame manner
as before, and may therefore be omitted in this place.
The part below the keel of the lafhion-piece is alio the
\>!ate fame in both wrfes. Let fig. 17. reprefent the falhion-
ccccLvin/piece of a fquare tuck, arid the three adjoining frames.
Dhide the interval AB into four equal parts in the
points C, D, E, and draw the perpendiculars AF, CG,
DPI, FT, and BK : thefe wall be portions of water
■ lines anfvvering to the feveral tranfoms.
Let thefe water lines be defcribed on the floor plan
(fig. 18.), in.which ABC reprefents the wing tran¬
fom. Defcribe the arch b C to reconcile tire curves
A b and CE. Let LEG be the water-line anfwering
to the lower part of the fafhion-piece, the didance be*
r L d 1 N G.
Bock T.
tween the points I. and A being equal to the fexcefs of s
the projeclion of the point A beyond that of B
(fiq. 70.). Draw CK (fig. i8.) perpendicular to AM,
and make the angle KCM equal to about 25 degrees,
and CN will be the p^ojeftion of the falhion-piece on
the floor-plane. Make AB (fig. 19.) equal to AB (fig.
17.) Divide it into four equal parts, and draw the
perpendiculars AF, CH, DI, EK, and BG. Make
AF equal to CM, and BG equal to MN, and draw
the curve FHIKG, having a lefs curvature than the
falhion piece of the fquare tuck s c p g n. Make MO,
MP, equal to CH, DI, and EK refpedfiveiy.
Divide AL (fig. 18.) into four equal parts, and to
thefe points of divifion draw curves through the points
O, P, Q^, fo as to partake partly of the curvature of
A £ C E and partly of that of LNF, but mod of the
curvature ot that to which the propofed curve is
neared ; and hence the form of the feveral tranfoms will
be obtained.
In order to reprefent the curve of the falhion-piece
on the plane of projection, make the lines AF, CG,
DH, El, and BK (.fig. 17.) refpeCtrvely equal to the
perpendicular diftance ot the points C, O, P, Q, and N.
From the line AN (fig-1 8.), and through the extremities
of thefe lines, draw the curve FGHIK.
Ir remains to lay down the projection of the falhion-
piece on the plane of elevation. In order to which, di¬
vide the line AB, fig. 20. (equal'to A.B, fig. 17.) into
four equal parts, and through the points of divifion
draw the perpendiculars AF, CG, DH, El, and BK ;
make AF(fig. 20.) equal to the perpendicular didance of
the point C from the line BL (fig. 18.) In like manner
make the linesCG, DH,EI, and BK (fig. 20.) refpeCtive-
ly equal to the perpendicular didances of the points O, P,
Q, and N, from the lih?BL(fig. 18.); and a curve drawn
through thefe points will be the prqjeClian of the lalhion-
piece on the plane of elevation.
Prob. IX. To defcribe the intermediate frames in the
after body.
For this purpofe the mid (hip and deni frames mud
be drawn in the plane of projection. As the main frame
contains the greated capacity, and the dern frame is
that having the lead, it hence follows that the form
and dimenfions of the intermediate frames will be be¬
tween thefe ; each frame, however, partaking mod of
the form of that to which it is neared.
Let ACDE (fig. 21.) be the main frame on the
plane of projeClion, and FGH the dern frame ; and let
there be any convenient number of intermediate frames,
as nine. Draw the floor ribband CF, and the breadth
ribband GD. Divide the curves CD, EG, each into
the fame number of equal parts, as three, in the points
K, M ; L, N ; and draw the feeond and third ribbands
KL, MN. In order to divideThefe ribbands fo as to
form fair curves in different ieCtions, various nurthods
have been propofed. One of the bed of thefe, being
that which is chiefly employed by the French con dr ac¬
tors, is by means of an equilateral triangle, which is con-
druCted as follows.
Draw the line ME (fig. 22.), limited at M, but
produced towards E: take M 1 equal to any convenient
extent ; make 1, 2 equal to thrice that extent, 2, 3
equal to five times, and 3, 4 equal to feven times the
above extent ; and continue this divifion to E, always
increafmg by two, until there be as many points as there
reliniina-
Ty Pro¬
blems.
Book!. S H I P-B U
Application the deck are to be taken from the dimenfions, obfer-
of the f'ore-v;n,^ however, to add to thefe heights the thicknefs of
going Rules the deck, as the deck line at the fide reprdents the
to trie con- r j i
(irinftio.n of under part ot the deck. .
Ships. The foremoft port is then to be deferibed, ob-
-Wrv-—'.jferving to place it as Far aft as to give fufficient
room for the wanger; the utoft convenient place will
v therefore be to put it between the frames R and T,
and equally dillant from each. It will then be placed
in the moft confpicuous point of ftrength, as it will
have a long top-timber on the aft fide and a long fourth
futtock on the fore fide of it. The fecond port may be
. placed in like manner between the next two frames,
v which will be equally well fituated for ftrength as the
' ■ former; and by proceeding in this manner, the ports
on the gun-deck may alfo be placed, taking care to
have two frames between every two ports, all fore and
'■ aft.
The upper deck ports are then to be deferibed; and
in order to difpofe of them in the ftrongeft fituation
- pofiible, they muft be placed over the middle between
the gun-deck ports, fo that every frame in the fhip will
run up to the top of the fide, by their coming between
a gun and upper deck port; and every port will be
between the frames, which wull in a great meafure con¬
tribute towards the ftrength of the fhip. With regard
to the ports on the quarter deck, it is not of fuch ma¬
terial confequence if they cut the head of the frame, as
in placing them the fituation of the dead eyes muft be
confidered, placing a port where there is a vacancy be¬
tween the dead eyes large enough to admit of one ; ob-
ferving always to place them as nearly as poftible at
equal diftances from each other; and where it happens
that they do not fall in the wake of a frame, then that
frame muft by all means be carried up to the top of the
iide.-x
The ncceflary length of the round houfe being de¬
termined in the dimenfions, it may be fet off; obferving,
' however, to let it be no longer than is juft fufficient
for the neceffary accommodations, as the fhorter the
round-houfe the works abaft may be kept lower, and a
low fnug . ftern is always accounted the handfomeft.
Then fet off the round of the deck at the foremoft end,
below the line drawn ; the deck at the fide may be de¬
feribed by another curve drawn quite aft. Now, from
the point for the round of the deck to the ftern timber,
draw a curve parallel to the top-timber line, and that
will be the extreme height of the top of the fide abaft,
which height continues to range fair along to the fore¬
moft end of the round houfe, and at that place may
have a fall about 14 inches, which may be turned off
with a drift fcroll. At the fore part of the quarter¬
deck, the topfide may have a rife of 14 inches, which
-may alfo be turned off with a fcroll. But as the railing
of the topfide only 14 inches at that place will not be
fufficient to unite with the heights abaft, it will there¬
fore be neceffary to raife 14 inches more upon that,
and break it off with a fcroll inverted on the firft fcroll,
and continue thefe two lines, parallel to the top-timber
line, to the diftance of about feven feet aft. At the
foremoft end of the round-houfe there is a break of 14
inches already mentioned; and in order to make that
part uniform with the breaks at the forenroft end of the
quarter-deck, there muft be fet down 14 inches more
below the former ; and at tlrefe two heights continue*two
Vol. XVII. Part I.
I L D I N G.
393
curves parallel to the top-timber line, from the aft part Applicatiolt
of the ftern to the ends of the two curves already drawn f
at the foremoft end of the quarter-deck. If they fhould t,, ^ Con*
happen not to break in fair with them, they muft be ftru&ion of
turned off with a round; but to make them appear Ships,
more handfome, the lower line may be turned off with a ——y—"-
fcroll. Thefe linesjbeing drawn will reprefent the up¬
per edges of the rails.
The height of the top fide at the fore part of the fhip
muft next be conlidered; which, in order to give proper
height for the forecaftle, muft have a rife there of 14
inches, the break being at the after end of the fore¬
caftle, and turned off as before. But as this part of
the fhip is ftill confiderably lower than the after part, it
will be neceffary to give another of eight inches upon
the former, and turn it off with a fcroll inverted. Hence
this part of the fhip will appear mere uniform to the af¬
ter part.
The finiftiinj* parts, namely the wales, ftern, head,
rails, &c. remain to be deferibed. The wales may be
firft drawn ; and as the ftrength of the fhip depends
very much on the right placing of them, great care
muft therefore be taken that they may be as little as
poffible wounded by the lower deck ports, and fo placed
that the lower deck bolts fhall bolt in them, and
alfo that they come as near as poffible on the broadeft
part of the fhip. In the firft place, therefore, the
height of breadth lines muft be chofen for our guide.
Thefe heights of breadth are to be taken from the di¬
menfions, and fet off’ on the refpeftive frames, and curves
drawn through thefe points will be the upper and lower
heights of breadth lines. The height of the wale®
may now be determined ; which in general is in fuch a
maimer that the upper height of breadth line comes
about fix inches below their upper edge, and the wales
are then placed right upon the breadth lines. Take the
heights and breadths of the walea afore, at midfhips,
and abaft from the table of dimenfions; draw curves
through the points thus found, and the wales will be
reprel'ented.
The channel wales are then to be deferibed. They
are principally intended to ftrengthen the top fide, and
muft be placed between the lower and upper deck poits;
and the lower edge of them at midfhips fhould be placed
as low as pofiible, in order to prevent them from being
cut by the upper deck ports afore and abaft. Take their
heights and breadths from the dimenfions ; lay them
off, and deferibe curves through the correfponding
points, and the channel wales will be reprefented.
Lay off the dimenfions of the wafte rail found in the
table ; and through the points draw a line parallel to
the top-timber line all fore and aft. This rail terminates
the lower part of the paint work in the top fide, as all
the work above this rail is generally painted, and the
work of the top fide below it payed with a varnifh, ex¬
cept the main wales, which are always payed with
pitch.
Take the draught of water from the dimenfions, and
draw the load water-line, which is always done in green.
Divide the diftance between the load water-line and the
upper edge of the keel into five equal parts, and through
thefe points draw four more water-lines.
Set off the centres of the mafts on the gun-deck $
their rake may likewife be taken from the dimenfions-
Set off alfo the centre of the bowfprit, letting it be
3 ^ four
394 S H I P - B U
/^pplicatior four feet from the deck at the after part of the ftem,
of.thc^fo^e-^Jeh wj]i g;ve fufficient height for alight and airy li-
ITthe 0)n-gure*
itruetion of Draw the knight-heads fo as to be fufficiently high
ahips above the bowfprit to admit of a chock between them
for the better fecurity of the bowfprit. The timber
heads may alfo be drawn above the forecaftle, obferving
to place the moft convenient for the timbers of the frame,
being thofe which come over the upper deck ports, as
they may be allowed long enough to form handfome
heads. There fhould be one placed abaft the cat-head,
to which the fore moll block is to be bolted, and there
may be two ports on the forecaftle formed by them,
and placed where it is moft convenient to the dead
eyes.
Defcribe the channels, taking their lengths and
thicknefies from the dimenfions, and place their upper
edges well with the lower edge of the iheer rail. The
dead eyes may then be drawn, bbferving to place them
in luch a manner that the chains may not interfere with
the ports ; and the preventer plates muft all be placed
on the channel wales, letting them be of fuch a length
that the preventer bolt at each end may bolt on each edge
of the channel wales. It muft alfo be obferved to
give each of the chains and preventer plates a pro¬
per rake, that is, to let them lie in the dire£lion of
the (brouds, which may be done in the following man¬
ner: Produce the mail upwards, upon which fet off
the length of the mail to the. lower part of the head ;
thefe ftraight lines drawn from that point through the
centre of each dead eye will give the diredlion of the
chains and preventer braces.
The fenders may be then drawn, obferving to place
them right abreaft of the main hatchway, in order to
prevent the fnip’s fide from being hurt by whatever
may be hoifted ©n board. The proper place for them
will therefore be at timber 3 ; and the diftance between
them may be regulated by the diftance between the
ports. The cheft-tree may alfo be drawn, which muft
be placed at a proper diftance abaft the fore mail, for
the conveniency of hauling home the fore tack. It
may therefore be drawn at the aft fide of timber C,
from the top of the fide down to the upper edge of
the channel wales; and the fenders may reach from the
top of the fide down to the upper edge of the
main wales. As the fenders and cheft-tree are on the
outfide of the planks, wales, &c. the lines repre-
fenting the wales, See. ftiould not be drawn through
them.
Draw the Heps on the fide, which muft. be at the fore
part of the main drift or break, making them as long
as the diftance between the upper and lower deck ports
will admit of. They may be about fix inches afunder,
and five inches deep, and continued from the top of the
fide down to the middle of the main wales.
In order to defcribe the head, the height of the beak-
head muft be firft determined, which may be about two
feet above the upper deck. At that place draw a horizon¬
tal line, upon which fet off the length of the beak-head,
which may be 7^ feet abaft the fore part of the ftem, and
from thence fquare a line up to the forecaftle deck ;
which line will reprefent the aft part of the beak-head,
and will likewife terminate the foremoll end of the fore-
callle. The length of the head may now be determined,
which by the proportions will be found to be 15 feet fix
inches from the fore part of the ftem. Set it off from
I L D I N G. Book I,
the fore part of the ftem, and ereft a perpendicular, which Application
will be the utmoft limits of the figure forward : then take ''f .'^e forc-
the breadth of the figure from the proportions, which is
four feet four inches, and i’et it off forward ; and another ftru<9k>n of"
perpendicular being drawn will fhow the utmoft extent of Ships.
the hair bracket forward, or aft part of the figure. Then ——
draw the lower cheek, letting the upper edge be well with
the upper edge of the main wales, and the after end
ranging well with the beak-head line ; fet off the depth (?f
it on the ftem; which is about 1 1 inches, and let a curved
line pafs from the alter end through the point on the
ftem, and to break in fair with the perpendicular firft
drawn for the length of the head, the fore part of the
curve will then reprefent the pofition of the figure.
The upper cheek may be next drawn ; but, in order to
know the exaft place of it on the ilem, the place of the
main rail muft firft: be fet off on the llem, the upper
edge of which may be kept on a level with the beak-
head ; then fetting off the depth of it below that, the
place for the upper cheek may be determined, letting
it be exatlly in the middle between that and the lower
cheek : then, by drawing curves for the upper and
lower edges of the cheek from the after end parallel to
the lower cheek, to break in fair with the perpendicular,
drawn for the back of the figure : then the upper cheek
will be formed. The upper part may run in a lerpen-
tine as high as where the ihoulder of the figure is fuppo-
fed to come, at which place it may be turned off with
a fcroll. The diftance from the fcroll to the heel of
the figure is called the hair-bracket.
The head of the block may be formed by continuing
the line at the breaft round to the top of the hair-brac¬
ket, obferving to keep the top of it about fix inches-
clear of the under fide of the bowfprk.
Having the diftance fet off on the ftem for placing the
main rail, it may next be deferibed, keeping the bag of
it as level as poffible for the conveniency of the gratings,
and letting the foremoft end rife gradually according to
the rile of the upper cheek and hair bracket, and may
turn off on the round of the fcroll before drawn for the
hair-bracket. To form the after end, fet off the iize
ol the head of the rail abaft the beak-head line, and
ereft a perpendicular ; then defcribe the arch of a circle
from that perpendicular to break in fair with the lower
fide of the rail in the middle, and alfo another from the
beak-head perpendicular, to break in fair with the up¬
per fide of the rail at the middle, obferving to continue
the head of it fufficiently high to range with the tim¬
ber heads above the forecaftle.
The head timbers are next to be drawn, placing the ftem
timber its own thicknefs abaft the ftem, and the foremoft
muft be fo placed that the fore fide may be up and down
with the heel of the block or figure, which has not yet
been fet off. Take therefore the diftance from the
breaft to the heel on a fquare which is ieven feet, and
ereft a perpendicular from the lower part of the lower
cheek to the lower part of the upper cheek ; which per¬
pendicular will terminate the foremoft end of the lower
cheek and the heel of the figure, and will alfo termi¬
nate the lower end of the hair-bracket : then, by conti¬
nuing the fame perpendicular from the upper part of
the lower deck to the under part of the main rail, the
fore fide of. the foremoft: head timber will be deferibed ;
and by fetting off its thicknefs aft, the other fide may
be drawn. ‘ The middle head timber may be fpaced be¬
tween the two former ones j and there may alfo be one
6 timber
Book I. S H I P - B U
application timber placed abaft the ftem, at a dlftance from the
of the fere ftem| equa| to that between the others, and the lower
^!"the Con -en<^ ^ may fteP on the upper edge of the lower
ftrmftii n of rail.
-Ships. To defcribe the middle and lower rails, divide the
t*—'V”““ diftance between the lower part of the main rail and
the upper part of the upp er cheek equally at every head
timber ; and curves being defcribed through thefe points
will form the middle and low er rails. The after end of
the lower rail mull terminate at the after edge of the
after head timber.
The cat-head ought to be reprefented in fuch a man¬
ner as to come againft the aft fide of the head of the main
rail, to rake forward four inches in a foot, and to fteeve
up inches in a foot, and about one foot fix inches
fquare. The lower part of it comes on the plank of the
deck at the fide, and the fupporter under it muft form a
fair curve to break in wdth the after end of the middle
rail.
The hawfe holes muft come between the cheeks, which
is the moft convenient place for them ; but their place
fore and aft cannot be exaftly determined until they are
laid down in the half-breadth plan.
The knee of the head is to projeft from the breaft of
the figure about two inches; and particular care muft be
taken that in forming it downwards it be not too full, as
it is then liable to rub the cable very much : it may there¬
fore have no more fubftance under the lower cheek at the
heel of the figure than is juft fuiftcient to admit of the
bobftay holes, and maybe 3^ feet diftant from the ftem
at the load water-line, making it run in an agreeable fer-
pentine line from the breaft down to the third w'ater
Jine, where it maybe i-J- feet from the ftem. By con¬
tinuing the fame line downwards, keeping it more di¬
ftant from the ftem as it comes down, the gripe will be
formed. The lower part of it muft break in fair with
the under part of the falfe keel; and the breadth of the
gripe at the broadeft place will be found by the
proportions to be 44 feet. As the aft part of the gripe
is terminated by the fore foot, or foremoft end of the
keel, it wall now be proper to finifh that part as fol¬
lows : From the line reprefenting the upper edge of the
keel fet down the depth of the keel, through which
draw a line parallel to the former, and it will be the
lower edge of the keel. From that point, where the
aft fide of the ftem is diftant from the upper edge of
the keel by .a quantity equal to the breadth of the keel
at midfhips, eredf a perpendicular, which will, limit
the foremoft end of the keel; and the after or lower
end of the ftem may be reprefented by fetting off the
length of the fcarf from the foremoft; end of the keel,
which may be fix feet. Set down from the line repre-
fenting the lower edge of the keel the thicknefs of
the falfe keel, which is feven inches ; and a line drawn
through that point parallel to the lower edge of tfte
keel will be the under edge of the falfe keel, the fore¬
moft end of which may be three inches afore the fore¬
moft end of the main keel.
The head being now finifhed, proceed next to the
ftern, the fide and middle timbers of which are already
drawn. From the fide timber fet off forward 14 feet,
the length of gallery, and draw a pencil line parallel to
the fide timber ; draw alfo a line to interfedt the touch
of the upper counter at the fide, producing it forwards
parallel to the ftieer as far as the pencil line firit drawn;
J I L D I N G. 395
•e and this line will reprefent the- upper edge of .the gal-Application
;r lery rim. From which fet down eight inches, the ort^ep01if’'
•r breadth of the gallery rail, and draw the lower edge Con*
of the rail. At the diftance of eight inches from the ftruAion of
e fore fide of the fide timber draw a line parallel thereto ; Ships,
d and from the point of interfedtion of this line with the
d upper edge of the gallery rim, draw a curve to the
;s middle timber parallel to the touches of the upper couil-
F ter, which line will reprefent the upper edge of the up-
e per counter rail as it appears on the fheer draught.
The lower edge of this rail may be formed by fetting
- off its depth from the upper edge. In the fame man-
n ner the lower counter rail may be defcribed : then take
e the diftance between that and the upper counter rail,
e and let it off below the rim rail; and hence the rail
e that comes to the lower ftool may be drawn, keeping
a it parallel to the rim rail. Underneath that, the lower
e finiihing may be formed, making it as light and agree¬
able as poffible.
1 Set off from the middle timber on the end of the
e quarter-deck the projedtion of the balcony, which may
e be about 2 feet, and draw a line with a pencil parallel
to tire middle timber. On this line fet off a point 1 b
f inches below the under fide of the quarter-deck, from
: which draw a curve to the fide timber parallel to the
3 upper counter rail, which curve will reprefent the lower
- fide of the foot fpace rail of the balcony as it appears
: in the fheer draught.
: lake the diftance between the point of interfedtion
1 of the upper edge of the upper counter with the mid-
• die line, and the point of interfeftion of the under fide
• of the foot fpace rail with the middle line, which fet
■ up on a perpendicular from the upper edge of the rim
■ rail at the foremoft end. Through this point draw a
; line parallel to the rim rail to interfedt the lower part
l of the foot fpace rail, and this line will reprefent the
; lower edge of the rail that comes to tire middle ftool,
and will anfwer to the foot fpace rail. Then between
this line and the rim rail three lights or fafhes may be
: drawn, having a muntin or pillar between each light of
about 14 inches broad, and the lower gallery will be
finifhed. Set off-the depth of the middle ftool rail
above the line already drawn for the lower edge, and the
upper edge may be drawn. Then fet off the fame
depth above the curve drawn for the lower edge of the
foot fpace rail, and the upper edge of that rail may then
be drawn.
The quarter-piece muft be next defcribed, the heel
of which muft ftep on the after end of the middle
ftool. Draw a line with a pencil parallel to the middle
timber, and at a diftance therefrom, equal to the pro¬
jedtion of the balcony. Upon this line fet up from
the round houfe deck the height of the upper part of
the ftern or taff rail, which may be four feet above the
deck. At that height draw with a pencil a horizon¬
tal line, and from its interfeftion with the line firft.
drawn defcribe a curve to the middle {Idol rail, obferving
to make the lower part of this curve run nearly parallel
to the fide timber, and the lower part about three
inches abaft the fide timber; and this curve will repre¬
fent the att fide of the quarter-piece at the outiide.
There fet off the thicknefs of the quarter-piece, which
is one foot fix inches, afore the curve already drawn •
and another curve being defcribed parallel to it from the
lower part to the top of the. fheer, and the quarter-piece
* at
39<S S H I P - B U
A|‘pUcii'ien & the outfide will he reprefented. On the horizontal
of the jjne {|ra,vn for the upper part of the taff-rail fet off
Soothe Con*the thicknefs of the taff-rail, which is one foot;
firu<&ion of then draw a curve down to the head of the quarter-
Stwjw. piece parallel to the firft, and that part of the taff-rail
4—^y—~ will be defcribed. Initead of a fair curve, it is ctiftom-
ary to form the upper part of the taff-rail with one or
two bieaks, and their curves inverted. Either way may,
however, be ufed according to fancy.
Set off the depth of the taff rail, which may be about
3^ feet, on the line drawn for the projedfion ; from the
upper part, and from this point, defcribe a curve as low
as the heel of the quarter-piece, and about five inches
abaft it at that place ; obferving to make it run nearly
parallel to the alter edge of the quarter-piece ; and the
after part of the quarter-piece, which comes neareft to
the fide, will be reprefented.
Set .up on the line drawn for the projeftion of the
balcony the height of the upper part of the balcony
or bread rail, which is 34 feet from the deck ; fart?off
the thicknefs of the rail below that, and defcribe the
balcony, keeping it parallel to the foot fpace rail, and
terminating it at the line drawn for the after part of the
quarter-piece neareft the fide ; and the whole balcony
will then be reprefented.
The upper gallery is then to be defcribed> In order
to this, its length muft be determined, which may be
3 1 feet. Set off this diftance from the fide timber
forward with the fheer ; and at this point draw a line
parallel to the fide timber, which line will reprefent the
fore part of the gallery. Then take the diftance be¬
tween the upper part of the foot fpace rail and the up¬
per part of the bread rail on a perpendicular, and fet
it off on a perpendicular from the upper part of the
middle ftool rail on the line drawn for the fore part of
the gallery, from which to the fore part of the quarter
piece draw a ftraight line parallel to the rail below,
which line will be the upper edge of the upper rim rail;
and its thicknefs being fet off, the lower edge may alfo
be drawn. From the upper edge of that rail fet up an
extent equal to the diftance between the lower rim rail
and middle ftool rail, and defcribe the upper ftool rail,
the after end of which will be determined by the quar¬
ter piece, and the fore end by the line for the length
of the gallery. There may be three fafhes drawn be¬
tween thefe two rails as before; and hence the upper
gallery will be formed.
The upper finifhirig fhould be next drawn, the length
of which may be i4 foot lefs than the upper gallery.
J)raw a line parallel to the rake of the (tern for the
fore end of it, and let the upper part of the top fide
be the upper part of the upper rail, from which fet
down three inches for the thicknefs of the rail, and de¬
fcribe it. Defcribe alfo another rail of the fame length
and thicknefs as the former, and eight inches below ;
from the end of which a ferpentine line may be drawn
down to the upper ftool rail, and the upper fiaifhing
■will be completed.
The ftern being now finifhed, the rudder only remains
to be drawn. The breadth of the rudder at the lower
part is to be determined from the proportions, and fet
©ff from the line reprefenting the aft part oi the ftern-
poft ; which line alfo reprefents the fore part ©f the rud¬
der. Then determine on the lower hance, letting it be
»o higher than is juft fufficient, which may be about
I L D I N G. BookT.
one foot above the load water-line, and fet off its breadth Application
at that place taken from the proportions. Then a line
drawn from thence to the breadth fet off at the lower t;“. Qor„
part will be the aft fide of the rudder below the lower Uru&ion of
hance. There may; alfo be another hance about the Ships, f
height of the lower deck. The ufe of thefe breaks or » ' -j
hances is to reduce the breadth as it rifes toward the
head. The aft part may be drawn above the lower
hance, the break at the lower hance being about ten
inches, and the break at the upper hance fix inches. —
The back may be then drawn. It is of elm, about
four inches thick on the aft part. That thicknefs be¬
ing fet off, and a line drawn from the lower hance to
the lower end, will reprefent the back. The head of
the rudder fhould be as high as to receive a tiller above
the upper deck. Therefore fet off the fize of the head
above the upper deck, and draw a line from thence to
the break at the upper hance, and the aft part of the
rudder will be reprefented all the way up. The beard¬
ing fhould be drawn, by fetting off the breadth of it
at the keel from the fore fide of the rudder, which may
be nine inches. Set off alfo the breadth at the head of
the wing tranfom, which may be a foot. Then a line
being drawn through thefe two points,' from the lower
part of the rudder to about a foot above the wing tranfom*
and the bearding will be reprefented. As the bearding
is a very nice point, and the working of the rudder de¬
pending very much upon it, it fhould always be very
particularly confidered. It has been cuftomary to beard
the rudder to a fharp edge at the middle line, by which
the main piece is reduced more than neceffary. The
rudder fhould, however, be bearded from the fide of
the pintles, and the fore fide made to the form of the
pintles.
The pintles and braces may next be drawn. In order
to which determine the place of the upper one, which
muft be fo difpofed that the {traps fhall come round the
head of the ftandard, which is againft the head of the
fttrn-poft on the gun-deck, and meet at the middle
line. By this means there is double fecurity both to
the brace and ftandard. To obtain thofe advantages,
it muft therefore be placed about four inches above the
wing tranfom ; the fecond muft he placed juft below the
gun-deck fo as to bolt in the middle of the deck tran¬
fom, and the reft may" be fpaced equally between the
lower one, which may be about fix inches above the
upper edge of the keel. The number of them are ge¬
nerally feven pair upon thisclafs of fhips; but the num¬
ber may be regulated by the diftance between the fecond
and upper one, making the diftance between the reft
nearly the fame. The length of all the braces will be
found by fetting off the length of the lower one, which
may be eight feet afore the back of the ftern-poft, and
alfo the length of the third, which is four feet and a half
afore the back of the ftern-poft ; and a line drawn from
the one extremity to the other will limit the interme¬
diate ones, as will appear on the iheer draught. The
braces will feem to diminifh in length very much as
they go tip ; but when meafured or viewed on the
fhape of the body, they will all be nearly of an equal
length. The length of the ftraps of the pintles which
come upon the rudder may all be within four inches of
the aft fide of the rudder ;, and the rudder being a flat
furface, they will all appear of the proper lengths.
II. Of the half-breadth and body The half-
c breadth
I
X
ceeci^xi
Book r. S H I. P - B U
Application breadth plan muft be firft drawn. Then produce the
of the fort- lower 0f the keel both ways, and let it alfo re-
^the^'on-Pre^cnt the middle line of the half-breadth plan. Pro-
flni&ion of duce all the frames downwards, and alio the fore and af-
bhips. ter perpendiculars. Then from the place in the Iheer-
plan, where the height of breadth-lines interfeft the
ftem, fquare down to the middle line the fore and aft
part of the rabbet and the fbre part of the ftern.
Take from the dimenfions what the ftem is Tided at that
place, and fet off half of it from the middle line in the
half-breadth plan, through which draw a line parallel
to the middle line through the three lines fquared down,
and the half-breadth of the ftem will be reprefented in
the half-breadth plan. Take the thicknefs of the plank
of the bottom, which is 4T inches, and deferibe tbe rab¬
bet of the ftem in the half-breadth plan.
From the points of interfedfion of the height of
breadth lines with the counter timber at the fide, and
with the counter timber at the middle line, draw lines
perpendicular to the middle line of the half-breadth
plan, from which fet off the half breadth of the coun¬
ter on the line firft drawn; and from this point to the
interleft ion of the line laft drawn, wdth the middle line
draw a curve, and the half breadth of the counter will
be reprefented at the height of breadth, which will be
the broadeft part of the ftern.
Take the main half breadth of timber dead flat from
the dimenftons, and lay it off from the middle line on
dead flat in the half-breadth plan. Take alfo from the
dimenfions the main half breadth of every timber, and
fet off each from the middle line on the correfponding
timbers in the half-breadth plan. Then a curve drawn
from the end of the line reprefenting the half breadth
of the counter through all the points, fet off on the tim¬
bers, and terminating at the aft part of the ftern, will
be the main half breadth line. Take from the dimen-
fions the top-timber half breadth, and deferibe the top-
timber half-breadth line in the half-breadth plan, in the
fame manner as the main half-breadth line.
Take from the dimenfions the half breadth of the ri-
fing, and fet it off from the middle line on the corre¬
fponding timbers in the half-breadth plan, obferving,
where the word outftde is exprefled in the tables, the
half breadth for that timber mult be fet off above or
on the outfide of the middle line. Then a curve drawn
through thefe points will be the half breadth of rifing
in the half breadth plan.
It will now be neceflary to proceed to the body plan.
p!a{e Draw a horizontal line (fig. 35.), which is called the
cccuxii. baf'ttnt, from the right hand extremity of which ereft
a perpendicular. Then fet off on the bafe line the
main half breadth at dead flat, and ereft another per¬
pendicular, and from that fet off the main half breadth
again, and ^ereft a third perpendicular. The firft per¬
pendicular, as already obferved, is called the fide line
of the fore body ; the fecond the middle line $ and the
third the fide line of the after body.
Take from the dimenfions the heights of the diago¬
nals up the middle line, and fet them from the bafe up
the middle line in the body plan. Take alfo their diilan-
ces from the middle line on the bafe, and fet them off.
Set off alfo their heights up the fide lines, and draw the
diagonals. Then take from the fheer plan the heights
of the lower height of breadth line, and fet them off
upon the middle line in the body plan ; through thefe
I L D I N G. 397
points lines are to be drawn parallel to the bafe, and Application
terminating at the fide lines. In like manner proceed
with the upper height of breadth line. to thc Con!
The rifing is next to be fet off on the body plan ; itftru&ion of
muft, however, be firft deferibed in the fheer plan : Ships.
Take, therefore, the heights from the dimfenfions, and v '
fet them off on the correfponding timbers in the fheer
plan, and a curve deferibed through thefe points will
be the rifing line in tfie fheer plan. Then take from
the dimenfiens the rifing heights of dead flat. Set it
off in the body plan, and draw a horizontal line. Now
take all the rifing heights from the fhecr plan, and fet
them off in the body plan from the line drawn for the
rifing height of dead flat, and draw horizontal lines
through thefe points. Take from the half-breadth
plan the half breadths of the rifing, and fet them off
from the middle line in the body plan, and the centres
of the floor fweeps,of the correfponding timbers will
be obtained.
From the half-breadth plan take the main half*
breadth lines, and fet them off from the middle line in
the body plan on the correfponding lines before drawn
for the lower height of breadth ; and from the extre¬
mities of thefe lines fet off towards the middle line the
lengths of the lower breadth fweeps refpeftivdy.
'Fake from the dimenfrons the diftance of each frame
from the middle line on the diagonals, and fet them off
from the middle line on their refpeftive diagonal lines.
Now thefe diftanees being fet off, and the lower breadth
and floor fweeps defcribtd, the fhape of the frames
below the breadth line may eafily be drawn as follows:
Place one point of a compafs in the diftance fet off for
the length of the lower breadth fweep, and extend the
other to the point which terminates the breadth, and
deferibe an arch of a circle downwards, which will in-
terieft the points fet off on the upper diagonal lines,
letting it pafs as low as convenient. Then fix one point
of the compafies in the centre of the floor fweep, and
extend the other to the point fet off on the fourth dia¬
gonal, which is the floor head; and deferibe a circle to
interfeft as many of the points fet off on the diagonals
as it will. Then draw a curve from the back of the
lower breadth fweep, through the points on the diago¬
nals, to the back 6f the floor fweep. Dsfcribe alfo
another curve from the bask of the floor fvveep through
the points on the lower diagonals, and terminating at
the upper part of the rabbet of the keel, and that part
of the frame below the breadth will be formed. In like
manner deferibe the other frames. .
Through the extremities of the frames at the lower
height of breadth draw lines parallel to the middle
line, and terminating, at the upper height of breadth
line, and from thence fet off the upper breadth fweeps;
now fix ©ne point of the compafs in the centres of the
upper breadth fweeps fucceffivcly, and the other point
to the extremities of the frames, and deferibe circles
upwards. Then from the fheer plan, take off the
heights of the top-timber lines, and fet them off in
the body plan, drawing horizontal lines 5 upon which
fet off the top-timber half breadths taken from the ■
correfponding timbers in the half-bfeadth plan ; and by •
deferibing curves from the back of the upper breadth
fweeps through the points fet off on the feventh or up¬
per ■ diagonal ; and interfefting the .'top-timber half-
breadths, the timbers will then be formed fiom the
keel
S H I F - B U
;>°n keel to the top of the fide. The upper end of the
fore- timbers may be determined by taking the feveral
vV)^sheights of the upper part of the top fide above the.
on tftop-timber line, and letting them off above the top¬
’s. timber line on the correfponding timbers in the body
plan. The lower parts of the timbers are ended at the
rabbet of the keel as follows: With an extent of 4r
inches, the thicknefs of the bottom, and one leg of
the compaffes at the place where the line for the thick¬
nefs of the keel interfe&s the bale line ; with the other
leg defcribe an arch to interfeA the keel line and the
bafe. 1 hen fix one point at the interfe&ion of the
arch and keel, and from the point of interfeftion of the
keel and bafe detcribe another arch to interfeft the for¬
mer. rI lien from the interfe<Tk>n of thefe arches
draw one flraight line to the interfe&ion of the keel
and bale, and another to the interfetfion of the lower
arch and the keel, and the rabbet of the keel will be
deferibed at the main frame. All the timbers in the
middle part of the fhip which have no riling terminate
at the interfedfion of the upper edge of the rabbet with
the bafe line ; but the lower part of the timbers, having
a riling, end in the centre of the rabbet, that is, where
the two circles interfe£l. Thofe timbers which are near
the after end of the keel mud be ended by fetting off
the half breadth of the keel at the port in the half-
breadth plan, and defcribe the tapering of the keel.
Then at the .correfponding timbers take off the half-
breadth of the keel; fet it off in the body plan, and
defcribe the rabbet as before, letting every timber end
where the two circles for its refpedfive rabbet interfedl.
To delcribe the fide counter or dern timber, take
the height of the wing tranfom, the lower counter, up¬
per counter, and top-timber line at the fide ; from the
fheer plan transfer them to the body plan, and through
thefe points draw horizontal lines. Divide the didance
between the wing tranfom and lower counter into three
equal parts, and through the two points of divifion
draw two horizontal lines. Draw alfo a horizontal line
equididant from the upper counter and the top-timber
line in the fheer plan, and transfer them to the body
plan.
Now, from the point of interfedlion of the aft fide
of the dern timber at the fide, with the wing tranfom
at the fide in the fheer plan, draw a line perpendicular
to the middle line in the half-breadth plan. Draw alfo
perpendicular lines from the points where the upper and
lower tranfoms touch the dern-pod ; from the points of
interfeftion of the dein timber with the two horizontal
Jinesdrawn between,jand from the interfeftion of the dern
limber with the horizontal line drawn between the upper
counter and top-timber line. Then curves mud be form¬
ed in the half-breadth plan for the diape of the body at
each of thefe heights. In order to which, begin with
the horizontal or level line reprefenting the height of the
wing tranfom in the body plan. Lay a dip of paper
to that line, and mark on it the middle line and the
timbers 37, 3 s, 33, and 29 ; transfer the flip to the
half-breadth plan, placing the point marked on it for
the middle line exaftly on the middle in the half-breadth
plan, and fet off the half-breadths on the correfponding
timbers 37, 35, 33, and 29, and deferibe a curve
through thefe points, and to interfedl the perpendicular
drawn from the fheer plan. In like manner proceed
with the horizontal lines at the heights of the coun¬
ters, between the lower counter and wing tranfom,
I L D I N G, Book F.
above the upper counter and top-timber line ; and from Application
the interfe&ions of the curve drawn in the half-breadtho! ,the Pre¬
plan, with the perpendicular lines drawn from the flieer
plan, take the diflances to the middle line, and fet ttrutf^or^of
them off on the correfponding lines in the body plan ; Ships,
then a curve deferibed through the feveral points thus '—nr—*4
fet’off will be the reprefentative of the ftern timber.
The round-up of the wing tranfom, upper and lower
counter, may be taken from the flieer draught, and fet
off at the middle line above their refpeftive level lines
in the body plan, by which the round-up of each may
be drawn. 1 he round aft of the wing tranfom may
alfo be taken from the flieer plan, and fet off at the
middle line, abaft the perpendicular for the wing tran¬
fom in the half-breadth plan, whence the round aft of
the wing tranfom may be deferibed.
The after body being now finiflied, it remains to
form the fore body; but as the operation is nearly the
fame in both, a repetition is therefore unneceffary, ex¬
cept in thofe parts which require a different proc-efs.
The foremoft timbers end on the item, and confe-
quently the method of deferibing the ending of them
differs from that ufed for the timbers ufed in the after
body. Draw a line in the body plan parallel to the
middle line, at a diflance equal to the half of what
the ftem is fided. In the flieer plan take the height
of the point of interfedfion of the lower part of the
rabbet of the ftem with the timber which is required
to be ended, and fet it off on the line before drawn in
the body plan. Then take the extent between the
points of interfedlion of the timber with the lower and
upper parts of the rabbet, and with one leg of the
compaffes at the extremity of the diftance laid off in the
body plan defcribe a circle, and the timbers may then
pafs over the back of this circle. Now, by applying
a fmall fquare to the timber, and letting the back of it
interfedl the point fet off for the lower part of the rab¬
bet, the lower part of the rabbet and the ending of
the timbers will be deferibed.
The foremoft timbers differ alfo very much at the
head from thofe in the after body : For fince the (hip
carries her breadth fo far forward at the top-timber line,
it therefore occafions the two foremoft frames to fall
out at the head beyond the breadth, whence they are
called knuckle timbers. They are thus deferibed:
The height of the top-timber line being fet off in the
body plan, fet off on it the top half breadth taken from
the half-breadth plan, and at that place draw a perpendi¬
cular; then from the fheer plan take the height of the
top of the fide, and fet it off on the perpendicular in
the body plan : Take alfo the breadth of the rail at
the top-timber line in the flieer plan, and fet it off be¬
low the top-timber line at the perpendicular line in the
body plan, and the ftraight part of the knuckle timber
to be drawn will be determined. Then from the laft
mentioned point fet off defcribe a curve through the
points fet off for the timber down to the upper
breadth, and the whole knuckle timber will be formed.
It will hence be feen that thofe timbers forward will fall
out beyond the main breadth with a hollow, contrary
to the reft of the top fide, which falls within the main
breadth with a hollow.
The fore and after bodies being now formed, the wa¬
ter lines muft next be deferibed in the half-breadth plan,
in order to prove the fairnefs of the bodies. In this
draught the water lines are all reprefented parallel to
the
Book r, S H I P - B u
Applicatioti the kee!; their heights may, therefore, be taken from
Boh/ RiTles t^ie ^iee.r P^an’ ant^ transferred to the body plan, draw-
to the Con- ^n8' horizontal lines, and the water lines will be repre-
ftruiStion offented in the body plan. In fhips that draw more wa-
5hips ter abaft than afore, the water lines will not be parallel
to the keel; in this cafe, the heights muft be taken at
every timber in the fheer plan, and fet off on their cor-
refponding timbers in the body plan ; and curves being
defcribed through the feveral points, will repreient the
water lines in the body plan.
* Take the diftances from the middle line to the points
where the water lines interfeet the different timbers in
the body plan, and fet them off on their correfponding
timbers in the half-breadth plan. From the points
where the water lines in the fheer plan interfefts the
aft part of the rabbet of the fternpoft draw perpendi¬
culars to the middle line of the half-breadth plan, and
upon thefe perpendiculars fet off from the middle line
the halt thicknefs of the fterupoft at its correfponding
water line ; which may be taken from the body plan,
by fetting off the iize of the pofl at the head and the
keel, and drawing a line for the tapering of it; and
where the line fo drawn interfe&s the water lines, that
wall be the half thicknefs required : then take an extent
in the compaffes equal to the thicknefs of the plank, and
fix one point wdiere the half thicknefs of the pofl in-
terfeefts the perpendicular, and with the other deferibe
a circle, from the back of which the water lines may
j>afs through their refpeftive points fet off, and end at
the fore part of the halt breadth plan, proceeding in
the fame manner as with the after part. A line drawn
from the water line to the point fet off for the half
thicknefs of the pofl will reprefent the aft part of the
rabbet of the poft ; and in like manner the rabbet of
the Item may be reprefented. The w^ater lines being
all defcribed, it will be feen if the body is fair; and if
the timbers require any alteration, it fhould be compli¬
ed with.
The cant timbers of the after body may next be de¬
fcribed in the half-breadth plan ; in order to which the
cant of the fafhion-piece mull firfl be reprefented. Ha¬
ving therefore the round aft of the wing tranfom re¬
prefented in the half-breadth plan, and alfo the fhape
of a level line at the height of the wing tranfom ; then
fet off the breadth of the wing tranfom at the end,
which is one foot four inches, and that wull be the place
where the head of the fafhion-piece will come : now to
determine the cant of it, the fhape of the body mull be
coniidered ; as it muft be canted in fuch a manner as
to preferve as great a flraightnefs as is poffible for the
fhape of the timber, by which means the timber will be
much llronger than if it were crooked; the cant muft
alfo be coniidered, in order to let the timber have as
little bevelling as pofiible. Let, therefore, the heel of
the timber be fet off on the middle line, two feet afore
timber 35 ; and then drawing a line from thence to the
point fet off on the level line for the wing tranfom,
the cant of the fafhion piece will he defcribed, and will
be found fituated in the heft manner poflxble to anfwer
the before mentioned purpofes.
dhe cant of the fafhion-piece being reprefented, the
cant of the other timbers may now be eaiily determi¬
ned. Let timber 29 be the foremoft cant timber in the
after body, and with a pencil draw timber 28 ; then
obferve how many frames there are between timber 28
I L D I N C. 399
and the fafhionpiece, which will be found to be nine, Application
namely, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, and 37. Now°f ,the f01;6-
divide the diftance between timber 28 and the fafhion-
piece on the middle line into 10 equal parts: DivideftmUHon of
alfo the correfponding portion of the main half breadth Ships,
lines into the fame number of equal parts ; and ftraight —^
lines joining the correfponding points at the middle line
with thofe in the half-breadth line will reprefent. the
cant timbers in the after body.
The line drawn for the cant of the fafhion-piece re-
prefents the aft ftde of it, which comes to the end of
the tranfoms ; but in order to help the converlion with
regard to the lower tranfoms, there may be two more
fall ion-pieces abaft the former; therefore the foremoft
fafhion-piece, or that which is already defcribed in the
half-breadth plan, may only take the ends of the three
upper tranfoms, which are, the wing, filling, and deck :
the middle fafhion-piece may take the four next, and
the after fafhion piece the lower ones: therefore fet off in
the half-breadth plan the frding of the middle and after
fafhion-piece, which may be 13 inches each ; then by
drawing lines parallel to the foremofl fafhion-piece, at
the aforefaid diftance from each other, the middle and
after fafhion-piece will be reprefented in the half-breadth
plan.
The falhion-piece and tranfoms yet remain to be re¬
prefented in the fheer plan ; in order to which, let the
number of tranfoms be determined, which, for fo large
a buttock, maybe feven below the deck tranfom : draw
them with a pencil, beginning with the wing, the upper
fide of which is reprefented by a level line at its height;
fet off its Tiding below that, and draw a level line for
the lower edge. The filling tranforn follows ; which
is merely for the purpofe of filling the vacancy between
the under edge of the wing and the upper part of the
deck plank : it may therefore be reprefented by draw¬
ing two level lines for the upper and lower edge, lea¬
ving about two inches between the upper edge and lower
edge of the wing tranfom, and four inches between the
lower edge of the gun-deck plank ; then the deck tran¬
fom mull be governed by the gun-deck, letting the un¬
der fide of the gun-deck plank reprefent the upper fide
of it, and fetting off its fiding below that; the. under
edge may alfo be drawn : the tranfoms below the deck
may all be fided equally, which may be 1 1 inches ;
they muft alfo have a fufficient diftance between to
admit the circulation of the air to preferve them, which
may be about three inches.
_ 1 he tranfoms-being now drawn with a pencil, the fa¬
fhion-piece muft next be defcribed in the fheer plan, by
which the length of the tranfoms1 as they appear in
that plan will be determined. As the foremoft fafhion-
pieee reaches above the upper tranfom, it may therefore
be fir ft defcribed : in order to which, draw a fufficient
number of level lines in the fheer plan ; or, as the water
lines are level, draw therefore one line between the up¬
per water line and the wing tranfom, and one above
the wing tranfom at the intended height of the head
of the fafhion-piece, which may be about five feet :
then take the neight of thefe two level hues, and trani-
fer them to the body pian ; and take off two or three
timbers and run them in the half-breadth plan, in the /
fame manner as the water lines were done ; then from
the point where the line drawn for the cant of the fa-
ftiion-piece, in the half-breadth plan, interfebls the le¬
vel
4co s H I P-B u
Application vcl line dfswn for tlte head of the fahion-pit’ce, draw
of the fore-Up a perpendicular to the faid line in the flieer plan,
^o'tlfe ^Coa* making a point. Again, from the interfeftion of the
fkrutftion'of carit line, with the level line for the wing tranfoin in
Ships, the half breadth plan, draw a perpendicular to the wing
V—v—f tranfom in the (heer plan. Alfo draw perpendiculars
from the points where the cant line in the half-breadth
plan interfctts the level line btlow the wing tranfom,
and alfo the water lines to the correfponding lines in
the {heer plan; then a curve defcrihed through thefe
points will be the reprefentation of the foremolt fa-
ibion-piece in the {heer plan. In the fame manner the
middle and after fafldon-pieces may be defcribed ; ob-
ferving to let the middle one run up no higher than the
under part of the deck tranfom, and the after to the
i;nder fide of the fourth tranfom under the deck. The
tranforos may now be drawn with ink, as their lengths
are limited by the fafbion-pieces.
Neither the head nor the forefide of the fternpoft are
yet defcribed ; take, therefore, from the dimenlions, the
breadth of the poft on the keel, and fet it off on the
upper edge of the keel from the aft lide of poll. The
head of the poft muft next be determined, which muft
juft be high enough to admit of the helm-poft tranfom
and the tiller coming between it and the upper deck
beam; the height therefore that is necefiary will be one
foot nine inches above the wing tranlom. Now draw
a level line at that height, upon which fet off the breadth
of the fternpoft at that place, taken from the dimen-
fions, and a line drawn from thence to the point fet off
on the keel will be the forefide of the fternpoft; obfer-
ving, however, not to draw the line through the tran-
foms, as it will only appear between them. The inner
poft may be drawn, by fetting off its thicknefs forward
from the fternpoft, and drawing a ftraight line as be-
V fore, continuing it no higher than the under fide of
s the wing tranfom.
The cant-timbers in the after body being defcribed,
together with the parts dependent on them, thofe in the
fore body may be next formed ; in order to which, the
foremoft and aftermoft cant timbers muft be firft deter¬
mined, and alfo the cant of the foremoft ones. The
foremoft cant-timber will extend fo far forward as to be
named ; the cant on the middle line may be one foot
four inches afore fquarc timber W, and on the main half
breath line one foot nine inches afore timber Y; in
which fituation the line may be drawn for the cant ;
the aftermoft may be timber The cant timbers
may now be defcribtd in the fame manner as thofe in
the’’ after body, namely, by fpacing them equally be¬
tween the cant timber bf and the fquare timber P, both
on the main half breadth arnl middle lines, and draw¬
ing ftraight lines between the l orrefponding points, ob-
ferving to let them run out to the top-timber half¬
breadth line, where it comes without the main half
# breadth line.
The hawfe pieces muft next be laid down in the halt
breadth plan ; the fides of which muft look fore and aft
writh the fhip upon account of- the round of the bow.
Take the fiding'of the apron, which may be about four
inches more than the -ftem, - and’ let off half of it from
the middle line, drawing a line from the main half
breadth to the foremoft cant timber, W’hiclvwili repre-
{*nt the loremoft edge of the knight-head; then from
*hat fet off the fiding of tb“ knight-head, which may
I L D I N G. Book r.
he one foot four inches, and draw the aft fide of it, A( plication
The hawfe pieces may then be drawn, which are fonF^f. ^ farc¬
in number, by fetting off their fidings, namely, one foot
fix inches parallel from the knight-head and from each (tru&jon gf
other ; and ftraight lines being drawn from the main Ships,
half breadth line to the foremoft cant timber will repre- —»^
fent them. \
The hawfe holes fhouTd be defcribed in fuch a man¬
ner as to wound the hawfe pieces as little as polfible j
they may therefore be placed fo that the joint of the
hawfe pieces {hall be in the centre of the holes, whence
they wri<ll only cut half the hawfe pieces. Take the di-
menfions of the hawfe holes, which is one foot fix
inches, and fet off the foremoft one, or that next the
middle line, on the joint ‘between the firft and fecosl
hawfe piece ; then fet off the other on the joint between
the third and fourth hawfe piece; and fmall lines being
drawn acrofs the main half breadth at their refpedtive
places will reprefent the hawfe holes in the half-breadth
plan.
The hawfe holes flrould next be reprefented in the
{heer plan. In this dafs of fhips they are always pla¬
ced in the middle between the cheeks; therefore fet
off their diameter, namely, one foot fix inches, between
the cheeks, and draw lines parallel to the cheeks for
their upper and lower part. Then to determine their
fituation agreeable to the half-breadth plan, which is
the fore and aft way, draw perpendiculars from their
interfe&ions with the main half-breadth line to the
lines drawn between the cheeks, and their true fitua-
tionsj tHe fore and aft way, will be obtained ; and, by
defenbing them round or circular, according to the
points fet off, they will be reprefented as they appear
in the {heer plan.
The apron may be drawn in the fheer plan; fettirtg
off its bignefs from the ftem, and letting it come fo-low
that the fcarf may be about two feet higher than the
foremoft end of the fore foot; by which it will give {hip
to the fcarfs of the ftem. It may run up td the head of
the ftem. -*•
The cutting down fiiould next be drawn. Take there¬
fore from the tables of dimenfions the different heights
there expreffed, and fet them off from the upper edge
of the keel on the correfpending timbers in the {heer
plan : then a curve defcribed through the points fet off*
from the ianer poll aft to the apron forward, will be
the cutting down. Next fet off from the cutting down
the thicknefs of the timber ftrake, which is 84- inches,
and a curve deferibed parallel to the former will repre¬
fent the timber ftrake, from which the depth of the
hold is-always meafured.
The kelfon is draww, by taking its depth from
the dimenfions, and fetting it off above the cutting
down line; and a curve defcribed parallel to the cutting
down will reprefent the kelfon.
The cutting down line being-defcribed, the knee of
the dead wood abaft timber 27, being the after floor
timber, may then be reprefented. Set off the fiding
of the floor abaft it, and eredl a perpendicular in the
ftteer plan, which will terminate the foremoft end of
the dead v/ood : then the fore and aft arm of the knee
may be half the-length of the whole dead wood, and
the up and down arm may reach to the^nder part Of
. the lower tranfom ; and the whole knee fnay be placed
in fuch a maimer that the upper piece of the dead
wood
S mr P>TJIXI) TINT G-
IMalf rrCCLXIL.
Ship Btjil:di:na.
pjnte ccccLxnx.
/ " • V'*
«■
1
J '
'
( ■
SHIP-BUILDING.
PI at c C C C C L XAr
/
Book r. S H I r-B u
Application woed fliall bolt over ft, and be of as much fubftance as
ling Rule’.the : therefore the knee muft confequently
8 • - be placed its whole thicknefs below the cuttino- down
turheCon--- r uciuw uic cutting C
(truffion tfhne reprefentimr the upper part of the dead wood.
Ships, The flieer draught, the body, and half-breadth plans
are nopw finilhed, from whence the fhip may be laid
down in the mould loft, and alio the whole frame ere£f-
ed. As, however, the ufe of the diagonal lines in the
body plan has not been fufficiently explained, it is
therefore thought proper to fubjoin the followino mu.
45 ilration of them. ^
The d\afona\ Iines in the body plan are mentioned
ccnal lines. \n . tab,les of dimenfions merely for the purpofe of
forming the body therefrom ; but after the body is
formed, they are of very principal ufe, as at their lla-
tions the ribbands and harpins which keep the body of
the fhip together while in her frames are all defcribed,
and the heads of the different timbers in the frame like-
wife determined.
1 he lowermoft diagonal, or n° i. which is named the
lower fir mar at which place the bevellings are taken
lor the hollow of the floors; its fituation is gene¬
rally in the middle between the keel and the floor fir-
mark.
. Second diagonal is placed in the midfhips, about 18
inches below the floor head, and is the ftation where the
floor ribband is placed in midfhips, and likewife the floor
harpin forward ; there is alfo a bevelling taken at this
diagonal all the way fore and aft, from which it is term¬
ed the ^oor frmarh.
Third diagonal, terminates the length of the floors
and is therefore called the>or head. There are likewife
bevdiiiigs taken at this diagonal as far forward and aft
as the floor extends. The placing of this diagonal is
of the utmoft confequence to the ftrength of the fhip
it being fo near to that part of the bulge which takes
the ground, and of confequeuce is always liable to the
greatefl {train; it Ihould therefore be placed as much
above the bearing of the body in midfhips as could
be conveniently allowed by converfion of the timber •
but afore and abaft it is not of fo much confequence.
Fourth diagonal is placed in the middle between the
boor head and the fifth diagonal, at which place a rib¬
band and harpin are ftationed for the fecurity of the firil
or lower futtock, from whence it is named the firji fut-
tock ftrmark. There are alfo bevellings taken at this
•diagonal all afore and aft, which being part of the body
where the timbers moft vary, occafions them to be the
greateft bevellings in the whole body.
Fifth diagonal terminates the heads of the firfl fut-
tocks and is therefore called the frf futtock head. It
Jould be placed at a convenient diflance above the
floor head, m order to give a fufficient-fcarf to the
lower part of the fecond futtocks. There are likewife
0r ^rabers ^a^eri at this diagonal, all fore
Sixth diagonal fhould be placed in the middle be¬
tween the firfl futtock head and the feventh diagonal;
at which place the ribband and harpin are ftationed for
the fupport of the fecond futtocks. Bevellings are ta-
taK and aft- 11 is "™'d
Seventh diagonal terminates the fecond futtoek
ablr.h ?°re t0.the aftcrmoft floors> and-afore
VouXVlL plurate! th'ai‘,uble futt°ci h'ads
I L D I N G. 40,
^°re ant^ a^t Can*; k°die3- It fliouTj be placed in Application
midfhips, as much above the firft futtock head as the of t,ie
firft futtock is above the floor head : by which it gives R?Ie*
the fame fcarf to the lower part of the third futtock fh-udion°of
as the hrft futtock does to the fecond. There are be- Ships,
veilings taken all fore and aft at this diagonal. It is —
named the fecond futtock head.
Eighth diagonal is the ftation for the ribband and
Karpin which fupports the third futtocks, and is there¬
fore placed between the fecond futtock head and ninth
diagonal. It is alfo a bevelling place, and is named the
third futtock frmark.
Ninth and laft diagonal is placed the fame diftance
above the fecond futtock head as that is above the firft,
and terminates all the heads of the third futtocks which
are in the frames, as they come between the ports; but
fuch as are between the frames, and come under the
lower deck ports, muft run up to the under part of the.
ports, as bo fhort timbers fhould by any means be ad-
clo te<ri under t^ie ports, which require the greateft pof~
nble ftrength. This diagonal is likewife a bevelling
place for the heads of the third futtocks, and is there¬
fore called the thirdfuttock head.
1 he fourth futtock heads are terminated by the un-
der part °f the upper deck ports all fore and aft, and
a ribband is placed fore and aft at the height of the
upper breadth line, another between the lower and up¬
per deck ports, and one at the top-timber line ; which,
with the ribbands and harpins before-mentioned, keep
the whole body of the fhip together, and likewife in its
proper form and fliape.
• that the diagonal lines laid down
in the dimenfions will not correfpond to what has been
laid above upon diagonals, as they were drawn difere-
tionally upon the body for the purpofe of giving the
true dimenfions of it. Therefore, when the body is
drawn in fair, the firft diagonals (which fhould only be
m pencil) are to be rubbed out, and the proper diago¬
nals drawn with red ink, ftriftly adhering to what hae
been laid above.
Sect. III. Of the Inboard Works of the Ship defcribed
tn the preceding Setlion.
Draughts of the outboard works being now con-
,.1 ucted, in which every part is defcribed that is necef-
iary to enable the artift to put the fhip in her frames, we
muft now proceed to form another draught of the cavity
of the fhip or inboard works, which muft be fo contrived
that every thing within the fhip may be arranged in the
molt commodious manner and to the beft advantage.
t is ufual to draw the inboard works in the fheer- Slip-Build-
draught; but as this generally occafions much confu-^’-'
hon, it is therefore the beft and eafieft method to ap-for>
propnate a draught to this particular purpofe.
1 ake from the fheer draught the ftem, ftern-poft,
counter timbers, and keel, and deferibe them on an¬
other paper; draw m alfo the cutting down, kelfon,
apron, tranfoms, fafhion-pieces, and decks, and the up¬
per line of the fheer all fore and aft, alfo the timbers
and ports.
The beams come firft under confideration, and fhould
be fo difpoied as to come one under and one between
each port, or as near as can be to anfwer other works
of the flip ; but where'it happens that a beam cannot
pollibly be placed under the port, then a beam arm
3 fhould
402 S H I P-B U
App'katron fhould be introduced to make good the deficiency.
of the ‘'ore- Every beam, and alfo the beam arms, fhould be kneed
going Rulcsat ea'h end wIth one lodg;n,s and one hanging knee ;
{trudlion of and in thole parts of the fhip which require the knees
Ships. to be very acute, fuch as the after beams of the gun-
  deck, and in fome (hips, whofe bodies are very (harp,
the foremoit beams of the gun-deck, there fhould be
knees of iron. Care fhould be taken always to let the
upper fide of the knees be below the furface of the
beams in large fhips one inch and a half, and in fmall
{hips an inch, by which means the air will have a free
paffage between the knees and under part of the
deck. .
In the converfion of the beams the fide next the
lodging knee fhould be left as broad at the end of the
beam as can poffibly be allowed by the timber, the
beam retaining its proper fcantling at the end of the
lodging knee : by lo doing the lodging knees will be
more without a iquare, which confequently makes them
the more eafy to be provided.
In fhips where the beams can be got in one piece,
they (hould be fo difpofed as to have every other one
with the butt end the fame way ; for this reafon, that
the butts will decay before the tops. In large fhips the
beams are made in two or three pieces, and are there¬
fore allowed te be ftronger than thofe that are in one
piece. The beams in two pieces may have the fcarf
one-third of the length, and thofe in three pieces fhould
have the middle piece half the length of the whole
beam. The cuftomary way of putting them together
is to table them ; and the length of the tablings fhould
be one-half more than the depth of the beam. It is
very common to divide the tablings in the middle of
the beam, and that part which is taken out at the up¬
per fide to be left at the lower fide, and then kerfey or
flannel is put into the fcarf: but in this cafe the wa¬
ter is liable to lie in the fcarf, and mu ft be the means
of rotting the beams. If, however, the beams were ta¬
bled together in dovetails, and taken through from fide
to fide, putting tar only between them, which hardens
the wood £ then the water occafioned by the leaking
of the decks would have a ftee pafiage, and the beam
would dry again ; and this method would not be found
inferior in point of ftrength to the other. Fhe length
of the fore and aft arm of the lodging knee fhould ex¬
tend to the fide of the hanging knee next to it ; but
there is no necefiity for that arm to be longer than the
other. In faftening the knees, care fhould be taken to
let one bolt pafs exa&ly through the middle of the
throat, one foot fix inches from each end, and the reft
divided equally between ; obferving always to have the
holes bored fquare from the knee. I he bolts for the
thwart fhip arms of both hanging and lodging knees
may go through the arms of each knee, and drive every
one the other way.
In order to draw the beams in the draught, take the
moulding of the lower deck beams, and fet it off below
the line reprefenting the deck at the fide, and draw a
line in pencil parallel thereto, v/hich will reprefent the
under fide of the beams. In like manner reprefent the
under fide of the beams for the upper deck, quarter
deck, forecaftle, and roundhoufe. 1 hen take the Tiding
of the lower deck beams, and place one under and one
between each port, all fore and aft, drawing them in
pencil. Determine the dimenfions of the well fore
I L D I N G. Book I.
and aft, which is ten feet, and fet it off abaft the beam App rcatirm
under the eighth port, placing the beam under the ninth ,,f j°re.
port at that diftance : thofe two beams may then he
drawn in ink, and will terminate the extent of the well {h-inftioa of
the fore and aft way ; and as a beam cannot go acrofs Ships,
the fhip at that place upon account of its being the l-—-v"—
well and matt room, there muft therefore be a beam
arm between thefe two beams.
The main hatchway fhould then be determined, let¬
ting the beam that forms the fore part of the well
form the aft part of it, and the beam under the next
part may form the fore fide of it, which beam may alfo
be now drawn in ink : there fhould alfo be another
beam arm introduced in the wake of the main hatch¬
way
The fore hatchway may be next determined ; the
fore fide of which fliould range well up and down with
the after end of the forecaftle, and it may be fore and
aft about four-fevenths of the main hatchway. At the
forefide of the fore hatchway there muft be a ladder¬
way down to the orlop, which may be as much fore
and aft as the beams will allow. The reft of the beams-
afore the fore hatchway may remain as firft placed,
there being nothing in the way to alter the (hip. Then
determine on the after hatchway", the forefide of which
comes to the aft fide of the mainmaft room.
There fhould alfo be a hatchway, the forefide of
which may be formed by the aft fide of the beam un¬
der the twelfth port; which is for the convenieney of
the fpirit and fith rooms: and there firould be a ladder¬
way abaft it to lead down to the cockpit. There may
be alfo another hatchway, the forelide of it to be form¬
ed by the aft fide of the beam under the eleventh port.
The fize of the ladder and hatchways muft be governed
by the-beams, as when there is a good fhift of beams
they fhould not be altered for ladder and hatchways,
unlefs it is the three principal hatchways, which muft
always be of a proper fi/.e, according to the fize of the
{hip.
The after capftan muft be placed between the two
hatchways laft deicribed, and the beams abaft may
{land as they are already {hifted, obferving only the
mizenmaft. There fhould be a fmall fcuttle placed
afore the fecond beam from aft, for the convenience of
the bread room : it muft be on one of the middle lines,
as there is a carling at the middle under the four or
five after beams to receive the pillars for the fupport
thereof.
The bits may be placed, letting the forefide of the
after ones come again!! the aft fide of the beam abaft
the third port, and the forefide of the foremoft ones
againft the next beam but one forward ; then at the
forefide of each bit there fhould be drawn a fmall fcut¬
tle for the conveniency of handing up the powder from
the magazine. The breaft hook ihould alio be drawn,
which may be three feet the moulding away, and fided
nine-tenths of the beams of the lower deck.
The gun-deck, beams, knees, &c. being deferibed ;
in which, as well as all the decks having ports, the fame
precautions are to be uled as in the gun-deck ; and ob¬
ferving to keep the beams upon one deck as neatly as
poflible over the beams of the other, for the conve¬
niency of pillaring, as they will then fupport each
other. •
The hatchways are to be placed exa&ty over thole
i
Book I,
S H I P - B U
AfPSSnrenor! tIie 1Iower. each over each; ami therefore,
going Rule w'1^re there is a beam arm in the lower deck there
tothe<j:on-muit ?lfo be one above it in the upper deck, and the
ftmdHon ol fame in the middle deck in three-deck fhips. It com-
SJiips.
monly happens in fnips of the line that there cannot be
a whole beam between the deck breail hook and the
beam that fupports the ftep of the bowfprit, becaufe the
bowfprit pafles through that place : in this cafe, there
muft be a beam arm placed, letting the end come equal¬
ly between the beam and the bread: hook : but in fliips
that the bowfprit will allow of a whole beam, then the
ports and the relt of the beams muft be confulted in or¬
der to fpace it; and when it fo happens that the fore-
maft comes in the wake of a port, then a beam arm
muft be neceftarily introduced.
Having placed the beams according to the difpofi-
tion of the other beams below, the ladder-ways fhould
be contrived : there fhould be one next abaft the fore
hatchway, which is a fingle ladder-way ; and one next
afore the main hatch, which is a double ladder-way ;
the ladders Handing the fore and aft way. There
fhould alfo be another next abaft the after hatch, and
one over the cockpit correfponding with that on the
lower deck.
The capftans are next to be confidered ; the after
one is already placed on the lower deck, the barrel of
which muft pafs through the upper deck to receive the
whelps and drumhead there, it being a double capftan.
In fhips having three decks, the upper part of each
capftan is in the middle deck ; but in fliips with one
deck there is only this one capftan, the upper part of
which is placed on the quarter deck. The foremoft
capftan fhould be placed in the moft convenient fpot, to
admit of its being lowered down to the orlop out o£.
the way of the long boat: it may therefore be placed
between the main and fore hatchways ; the beam under
the iixth port of the lower deck may form the aft fide
of its room, and the beams on each fide of it fhould be
placed exactly over or under the beams on the other
decks^ and they fliould be at a diftance from each other
fufficient to let the drumheads pafs between them. The
centre of the capftan fhould then be placed in the
middle between the beams which compofe its room •
and the partners fhould be fitted in fuch a manner as to’
fhift occafionally when wanted, which is by letting them
be m two pieces fitted together. The partners on
the lower deck, wherein the capftan Heps, muft be fup-
ported by a pillar on the orlop deck, the lower part of
which may be fitted in an oak chock ; fo that when the
pillar is taken away, and the capftan lowered down,
that chock ferves as a ftep for the capftan. Thofe two
beams on the orlop, by having the pillar and chock
upon them, have therefore the whole weight of
the capftan preffing downwards : for the fupport of
t em, there fhould be a carling placed underneath the
tore and aft way, with three pillars, one under each
beam, and one between ; all of them being ftept in the
kelfon, by which the orlop deck will be well fupported
m the wake of the capftan, and the other decks will
f«el no ftrain from it.
^ The fire hearth is next to be difpofed; which is
placed differently according to the fize of the fhip. In
three-deckers it is found moft convenient to place it on
the middle deck; whence there is much more room un-
oer the forecaftle than there would have been had it
I L D l n G. 4o3
been placed there. In all twcdeck fhips it is placed Application
under the forecaftle, becaufe on the deck underneath f°re~
the bits are in the way. It is alfo under the forecaftle f Ruie!
in one-deck fhips, though confined between the bits: (tru&iorTof
in this cafe it fhould be kept as near as poffibk to the Ship*,
aftei bits, that there may be more room between it and
the foremoft bits to make a good galley.
I he pofitions of the main-topfail-fheet bits are next
to be determined; the foremoft of which muft be fo
placed as to let its forefide come againft the aft fide of
the beam abaft the main hatchway, and to pafs down
to the lower deck, and there ftep in the beams : admit¬
ting it to be a ftraight piece, it would come at the aft
fide of the lower deck beam the fame as it does at the
upper deck beam, in confequence of thofe two beams
ranging well up and down with each other; it muft
therefore have a caft under the upper deck beam, by
which the lower part may be brought forward fufficient
to flop in the lower deck beam. The aftermoft muft
be placed againft the forefide of the beam abaft the
maft, and ftep on the beam below; but there is no ne-
ceffity to provide a crooked piece as before, for the
beam of the upper deck may be moved a little farther
aft, till it admit of the bit flopping on the lower deck,
beam, unlefs the beam comes under a port, as in that
cafe it muft not by any means be moved. The crofs
pieces to the bits ffiould be on the forefide, and in
height from the upper deck about one-third of the
height between it and the quarter deck. With regard
to the heads of the bits, the length of the (hip’s wafte
mould be confidered; and if there is length enough
from the forecaftle to the foremoft bits to admit of the
fpare geer being flowed thereon without reaching far¬
ther aft, the quarter deck may then run fo far forward
that the head of the foremoft bits ffiall tenon in the
foremoft beam ; this gives the mainmaft another deck
and admits of the quarter deck being all that the long!
er : but if there is not the room before mentioned,
then the quarter deck muft run no further forward than
the after bits, which will then tenon in the foremoft
beam; and the foremoft bits muft have a crofs piece let
on their heads, which is termed a horfe, and will be for
the purpofe of receiving the ends of the fpare geer.
The length of the quarter deck being now deter-
mined, the beams are then to be placed. For this pur¬
pofe the feveral contrivances in the quarter deck muft
be previoufly confulted. It is neceffary to obferve, that,
there arc neither carlmgs nor lodges, the carlings of the
hatches excepted, in the quarter deck, round-houfe, and
forecaftle ; as they would weaken inftead of ftrengthen-
ing the beams, which fliould be as fmall as the fize of
the flup will permit, in order that the upper works may
be as light as poffible. Hence, as there are to be nei¬
ther carlings nor lodges, the deck will require a great-
er number of beams, and a good round up, as on the
contrary the deck would be apt to bend with its own
weight. '1 he moft approved rule is therefore to have
double the number of beams in the quarter deck as
there are in a fpace of the fame length in the upper
Then proceed to fhift the beams to the beft advan¬
tage, confultmg the hatchways, ladder-ways, made, bits
wheel, &c. With refped to the ladder-ways on the'
quarter decks of all (hips, there fhould be one near the
fore part of tlie great cabin for the officers, and an-
3 E 2 other
404 S H I P-B U
Application other near the foreiuoil end of the quarter deck, con-
cf the fore-^-no. 0f double ladders for the conveyance of the men
going Rules t]ie other decks in cafes of emergency; and
flru&ion of like wife one on each fide of the fore part of the quar*
bhips- ter deck from the gangway • and in every fhip ot the
• };ne all the beams from the foremoft ladder-way to the
after one fliould be open with gratings, both for the
admiiiion of air, and lor the greater expedition of con¬
veying different articles in the time of atbion.
Two fcuttles are to be diipofed one on each fide of
the mainmafi, if it happens to come through the quar¬
ter deck, lor the top tackles to pafs through, to hook
So the eye bolts drove ia the upper deck for that pur-
pofe.
The fleering wheel fhould be placed under the fore¬
part of the ronndhoufe, and the two beams of the quar¬
ter deck, which come under it, fhould be placed con¬
formable to the two uprights, fo that they may tenon
in them. The quarter deck beams fhould be kneed at
each end with one hanging and one lodging knee ;
which adds greatly to the ftrength of the fide. The
hanging knees which come in the great cabin may be
of iron ; their vertical arms to be two-thirds of the
length of that of wood, and to reach the fpirketing.
It Should be obfeived, that the beam abait, which
comes under the fereen bulkhead, fhould round aft
agreeable to ihe round of the bulkheady for the fupport
of the fame.
The forecaftle beams fhould be placed according as
the works of the deck will admit. The hatchways are
therefore to be confidered firft. There fhould be one
for the funnel of the fire hearth to pat's through, and
one for the copper to admit of vent for the fleam ; and
alfo one or two over the galley as the forecaltle will
admit of. The fore-topfail-fheet bits fhould be fo dif-
pofed as to come one pair on the fore and one on the
aft fide of the maft, to let into the fide of the forecaftle
beams,^and ftep on the upper deck beams below : there
fhould alfo be a ladder-way at the fore part of the fore¬
caftle for the conveniency of the fore part of the fhip.
The beams may now be placed agreeable thereto,
their number being four more than there are in a fpace
in the upper deck equal in length to the forecaftle ;
and where there happens to be a wide opening between
the beams, as in the cafe of a hatchway, maft room,
&c. then half abeam of fir may be introduced to make
good the deficiency. The foremoft beam fhould be of
a breadth fufficient to take the aft fide of the inboard
arms of the catheads, as they are fecured upon this
beam by being bolted thereto. Every beam of the
forecaftle fhould be kneed at each end with one hang¬
ing and one lodging knee: the vertical arms of the
hanging knees Ihould reach the fpirketing, and the
knees well bolted and carefully clenched.
Proceed to the roundhoufe ; the fame things being
©bferved with refpeft to the beams as in the quarter
deck : for as the roundhoufe beams are fided very fmall,
it hence follows that they muft be near co each other.
jLet therefore tlie number of beams on the roundhoufe
be four more than in the fame length of the quarter
deck; every other beam being of fir for lightnefs, and
e;very oak beam may be kneed at each end with one
hanging and one lodging knee ; the hanging knees abaft
way be of iron, their vertical arm# to be in length two
I t D I N a. Book I.
thirds of thofe of wood. The roundhoufe Ihould al- Application
ways have a great round up, both for ftrength and
vemency. There muft be on the roundhoufe a fmall Co’
▼ViUVUCy* XXXVXXK MV. WiA --- - - to tjie LfOIl*
pair of knee-bits on each fide ot the mizenmaft, turned Urudiou of
round and fcarted over each other, and bolted through Ships,
the maft callings. There muft alio be a companion on ~
the roundhoufe placed over the middle of the coach,
in order to give light thereto.
With regaid to placing the roundhoufe beams, the
uprights of the fteering wheel and the mizenmaft are
to be obferved ; as when the beams which interfere
with thole parts are properly [paced, the reft may be
difpofed of at diferetion, or at an equal diftance from
each other, and letting the beam over the fereen bulk¬
head have a proper round alt, agreeable to the quarter
deck beam underneath. _ v
The upper parts of the inboard works being now de-
feribed, proceed next to the lower parts, or to thofe
which come below the lower deck. Draw in the orlop,
by taking the heights afore, at midlhips, and abaft,
between that and the gun-deck, from the dimenfions,
and a curve deferibed through thefe points will repre-
fent the upper part of the deck. Set off the thicknefs
of the plank below, and the under fide of the plank will
be reprelented. As this deck does not run quite for¬
ward and aft as the other decks, the length of it muft
be therefore determined ; for this purpofe let the after
beam be placed at a fufficient diffance from aft to ad¬
mit of the bread rooms being of a proper fize for the
(hip, which will be under that beam of the gun deck
that comes at the fecond part from aft. The after
beam being drawn in, proceed to fpace the other beams,
placing them exactly under thofe of the gun-deck ; and
that which comes under the foremoft beam of the gun-
deck may terminate the fore part of the orlop. Draw
the limber ftrake, by letting off its thicknefs above the
cutting down line, and a line drawn parallel thereto will
reprefont the limber ftrake. That part of the orlop
which is over the after magazine, fpirit room, and fifh
room, and alfo that which is over the fore magazine, is
laid with thicker planks than the reft of the deck ;
which is for the better focurity of thofo places, the
planks being laid over the beams ; but in the midlhips,
from the fore part of the fpirit room to the aft part of
the fore magazine, the beams are laid level with the fur-
face of the deck, and the planks are rabbeted in from
one beam to the other.
In order to reprefont the orlop as juft deferibed, the
dimenfions ©f the different apartments above mentioned
muft be determined : Let the aft fide of the after beam
be the aft fide of the after magazine, and from thence
draw the bulkhead down to the limber ftrake ; and the
forefide of the third beam may be the forefide of the af¬
ter magazine, drawing that bulkhead like wife, which
will alio form the aft fide of the filh room ; the forefide
of the fifh room may be drawn from the aft fide of the
fifth beam, which will alfo reprefont the aft fide of the
fpirit room; then the foreiide of the fpirit room may¬
be drawn from the forefide of the fixth beam. Hence
from the forefide of the fixth beam quite aft the deck
will be reprefonted by the two lines already drawn, and
the upper fide of the beams will be reprefented by the
lower line.
Proceed next to the forepart of the orlop, letting the
tore-
Book T. S H I P-B U
Method forcfide of the after bits be the aft part of the foremoll;
of Whole- magazine, drawing the bulkhead thereof, which will
i*”011, ‘n^~ cPrTie to the aft fide of the fixth beam ; therefore, from
the fixth beam to the foremoll end of the orlop, the
plank and beams will be repreiented juft in the fame
manner as before mentioned for the after part of the
orlop : then the midihip part of the deck will be re¬
prefen ted by letting the upper line be the upper fide
of the plank, and likewife the upper fide of the beams;
and the lower line will reprefcnt the lower edge of the
plank, only drawing it from beam to beam, and obfer-
ving not to let it pafs through them.
1 he hatchways, See. may now be reprefented on the
orlop, letting the main, fore, and after hatchway, be
exaftly under thofe of the gun-deck: there mull be
one over the filh room, and one over the fpirit room.
There mull be two fcuttles over the after magazine
for the paflage to the magazine and light room.
There Ihould alfo be one afore the fourth beam from
forward for the paflage to the fore magazine, and one
abaft the fecond beam for the pafl'age to the light
room.
The bulkheads for the fore and after parts of the
well may be drawn from the lower deck beams to the
orlop, and from thence to the limber ftrake in the hold.
The (hot lockers may alfo be reprefented, having one
afore and one abaft the well: there fliould alfo be one
abaft the foremoft magazine, the ends of which may be
formed by the after bits. The Iteps of the malls may
be drawn in by continuing their centres down to the
limber ftrake ; and likewife two crutches abaft the mi-
zen ftep divided equally between that and the after part
of the cutting down : the breaft hooks may alfo be
drawn letting them be five in number below the
lower deck hook, and all equally divided between that
and the fore ftep. Hence every part of the inboard is
decribed as far as neceflary.
Chap. V. Of the Method of IVhole-mcidding,
46 Y
Method Hating now finilhed the methods of laying down the
of whole- feveral plan* of a ihip, any farther addition on this fub-
Atvrray’f jt^ might appear unneceflary. We cannot, however.
Ship.Build- with propriety, omit to deferibe the method called
dug. 'whole-mouldings ufed by the ancients, and which ftill
continues in ufe among thofe unacquainted with the
more proper methods already explained. This method
will be illulltated by laying down the feveral plans of
a long boat; the length of the keel being 29 feet, and
breadth moulded nine feet.
Applied to ^raw the ftraight line PO (fig. 37.) equal to 29
a long boat, feet, the extreme length of the boat, and alfo to repre-
Plate fent the upper edge of the keel. Let 0 be the ftation
•ccclxiii. 0f the midlhip frame. From the points P, 0, and O,
draw the lines PT, 0M, and OS, perpendicular to
PO. Make 0M, 0N, equal to the upper and lower
heights of breadth refpeftively at the main frame, PT
the height of breadth at the tranfom, and OS the height
at the ftem. Deferibe the curve TMS to reprefent
the Iheer or extreme height of the fide, which in a fhip
would be called the upper height of Ireadth line, or up¬
per edge of the wale. Through the point N draw a
curve parallel to TMS, to reprefent the breadth of the
upper ftrake of a boat, or lower edge of the wale if in
1 l d 1 n g. 4{Jj
a ihip. The dotted line TNS may alfo be drawn to Method'
reprefent the lower height of breadth. °f Whole-
Set off the rake of the port from P to and draw moulclhig>
the line pt to reprefent the aft fide of the port ; then "rnr^”v
T t will reprefent the round up of the tranfom. Set
off the breadth of the port from‘/> to r, and from T to
s, and draw the line r s to reprefent the forefide of the
port, which may either be a curve or a llraight line at
pleafure. Set up the height of the tuck from p to k.
Let i X be the thicknefs of the tranfom, and draw the
line ZX to reprefent the forefide of the tranfom.
There is given the point S, the height of the ftieer
on the forefide of the item ; now that fide of the ftem
is to be formed either by fweeps or fome other contri¬
vance. Set off the breadth of the ftem, and form the
aft fide of it.
Set up the dead-riling from 0 ro d, and form the ri-
fing line r i s. Draw the line KL parallel to PO to
reprefent the lower edge of the keel, atid another to re¬
prefent the thicknefs of the plank or the rabbet. The
rabbet on the poll and Item may alfo be reprefented ;
and the iUtions of the timbers afffgned, as0, (1), 1, 2,
3j> 4> 5> 6> 7> 9 ; and0, (A), A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H ; and the ftieer plan will be completed.
The half-breadth plan is to be formed next; for this
purpofe the perpendiculars TP, 9, 8, &c. muft be pro¬
duced. Upon M 0 produced fet off the half breadth-
from the line KL to R (fig. 38.) ; fet off alfo the
hall breadth at the tranfom from K to 6, and deferibe
the extreme half breadth line b RX, making the fore¬
part of the curve agreeable to the propofed round of
the tranfom.
We may next proceed to form the timbers in the
body plan. Let AB (fig. 39.) be the breadth mould¬
ed at 0. Ere& the perpendicular CD in the middle
of the line AB ; draw the line m n diftant there¬
from the half thicknefs of the poll, and xy the half
thicknefs of the Hern. Then take off the feveral por¬
tions of the perpendiculars 0, i, 2, &c. intercepted
between the upper edge of the keel and the riling
line in the Iheer plan, and fet them up from C upon
the line CD ; through thefe points draw lines paral¬
lel to AC ; take oft alfo the feveral lower heights of
breadth at0,1, 2, &c. from the Iheer plan ; and fet
them up from C upon the middle line in the body plan;
and draw lines parallel to AC through thefe points ^
Then take off the feveral half breadths correfponding
to each from the floor plan ; and fet them off on their
proper half-breadth lines from the middle line in the
body plan.
Conftruft the midftiip frame by Problem V. the form
of which will in fome meafure determine the form of
the reft, j For if a mould be made on any fide of the
middle line to fit the curve part of it, and the rifing
line, or that marked bend mould (fig. 4c.), and laid in
fuch a manner that the lower part itr which is ftraight,
may be fet upon the feveral riling lines, and the upper
part juft touch the point of the half breadth in the
breadth line correfponding to that riling upon which
the mould is placed, a curve may then be drawn by
the mould to the rifing line. In this manner we may
proceed fo far as the rifing line is parallel to the lower
height of the breadth line. Then a hollow mould muft
be made, the upper end of which is left ftraight, ae
that-
/
4o5 S H I P-B U
Method that marked hollow mould (fig* 4r'•)" This ia applied
of Whole. in fuch a manner, that fome part of the hollow may
moulding. toucj1 the ^1(}e cf keel, and the ftraight part touch
' the back of the curve before defcribed by the bend
mould ; and, beginning abaft, the itraight part will al¬
ways come lower on every timber, till we come to the
midfhip timber, when it comes to the fide of the keel.
Having thus formed the timbers, fo far as the whole
mouldings will ferve, the timbers abaft them are next
formed. Their half breadths are determined by the
Iheer and floor plans, which are the only fixed points
through which the curves of thefe timbers muft pals.
Some form thele after timbers before the whole is
moulded, and then make the hollow mould, which will
be ftraighter than the hollow of either of thefe timbers.
It is indifferent which are firft formed, or what methods
are ufed ; for after the timbers are all formed, though
every timber may appear very lair when confidered by
itfelf, it is uncertain what the form of the fide will be.
In order to find which, we muft form feveral ribband
and water lines ; and if thefe do not make fair curves,
they muft be reftified, and the timbers formed from
thefe ribband and water lines. In ufing the hollow
mould, when it is applied to the curve of each tim¬
ber, if the ftraight part is produced to the middle
line, we fhall have as many points of interfeftion as
there are timbers ; and if the heights above the bafe be
transferred to the correfponding timbers in the fheer
plan, a curve pafiing through thefe points is what is
called a rijing Jlrait. This may be formed by fixing
a point for the aftermoft timber that is whole moulded,
and transferring that height to the fheer plan. The
curve muft pafs through this point, and fall in with the
rifing line fomewhere abaft dead flat; and if the feve¬
ral heights of this line be transferred from the fheer to
the middle line in the body plan, thefe points will regu¬
late what is called the hauling down of the hollow mould.
The timbers in the after body being all formed, thofe
in the fore body are formed in the fame manner, by
transferring the feveral heights of the riling and breadth
lines from the fheer to the body plan ; the half
breadths correfponding to each height muft alfo be
transferred from the floor to the body plan. The fame
hollow mould will ferve both for the fore and after
body ; and the level lines, by which the water lines to
prove the after body were formed, may be produced
into the fore body, and by them, the water lines to prove
the fore body, may be deferibed.
Another method of proving the body is by ribband
lines, which are formed by fedions of planes inclined
to the fheer plan, and interfeding the body plan diago¬
nally, as before obferved, of which there may be as many
as may be judged neceffary. As this has been already
explained, we fhall therefore lay down only ®ne, repre-
fented in the body plan by the lines marked d i a.
Thefe are drawn in inch a manner as to be perpendi¬
cular to as many timbers as conveniently may be. After
they are drawn in the body plan, the feveral portions
of the diagonal intercepted between the middle line
and each timber muft be transferred to the floor plan.
Thus, fix one foot of the compafles in thet!point where
the diagonal interfeds the middle line in the body plan ;
extend the other foot to the point where the diagonal in¬
terfeds the timber ; for example, timber 9 : Set off the
fame extent upon the perpendicular reprefenting the plane
I L D I N Q, Book T,
of timber 9 from the point where it intetfeds the line Method
KL on the floor plan ; in like manner proceed with all of Whole-,
the other timbers both in the fore and after body ; and n ou^11‘^
thefe fhall have the points thro’ which the curve muft
pafs. If this fhould not prove a fair curve, it muft be
altered, obferving to conform to the points as nearly
as the nature of the curve will admit: fo it may be car¬
ried within one point, and without another, according
as we find the timbers will allow. For after all the
ribband lines are formed, the timbers muft, if needful,
be altered by the ribband lines : this is only the reverfe
of forming the ribband lines; for taking the portions
of the fcveral perpendiculars intercepted between the
line KL and the curve of the ribband line in the floor
plan, and fetting them off upon the diagonal from
the point where it interfeds the middle line, we fhall
have the points in the diagonal through which the
curves of the timbers muft pafs. Thus the diftance
between the line KL and the ribband at timber 3 on
the floor plan, when transferred to the body plan, will
extend on the diagonal from the middle line to the
point where the curve of timber 3 interieds that dia¬
gonal. The like may be faid of all the other timbers ;
and if feveral ribband lines be formed, they may be fo
contrived that their diagonals in the body plan fhall
be at fuch diftances, that a point for every timber be-
ing given in each diagonal, will be fufficient to deter¬
mine the form of all the timbers.
In ftationing the timbers upon the keel for a boat*
there muft be room for two futtocks in the fpace be¬
fore or abaft ; for which reafon, the diftance between
thefe two timbers will be as much more than that be¬
tween the other as the timber is broad. Here it is
between ® and (A); which contains the diftances be¬
tween 0 and (1), and the breadth of the timber be-
fxdes.
The timbers being new formed, and proved by rib¬
band and water lines, proceed then to form the tranfom,
fafhion-pieces, &c. by Problem VI.
This method of whole-moulding will not anfwer for
the long timbers afore and abaft. They are generally
canted in the fame manner as thofe for a {hip. In or¬
der to render this method more complete, we fhall here
deferibe the manner of moulding the timbers after they
are laid down in the mould loft, by a rifing fquare,
bend, and hollow mould.
It was fhown before how to form the timbers by the
bend and hollow mould# on the draught. The fame
method muft be ufed in the loft ; but the moulds muft
be made to their proper fcantlings in real feet and
inches. Now when they are fet, as before directed, for
moulding each timber, let the middle line in the body
plan be drawn acrofs the bend mould, and draw a line
acrofs the hollow mould at the point where it touches
the upper edge of the keel; and let them be marked
with the proper name ol the timber, as in fig. 40. The
graduations of the bend mould will therefore be exact¬
ly the fame as the narrowing of the breadth. Thus,
the diftance between (g) and 7 on the bend mould is
equal to the difference between the half breadth of tim¬
ber 7 and that of (£). The height of the head of each
timber is likewife marked oa the bend mould, and alfo
the floor and breadth iirmarks. The floor firmark is
in that point where a ftraight edged batten touches the
back of the bend mould, the batten being fo placed
Book!. S H I P-B TJ
fWho^ 38 ^ ^ rthe ,0WPr ed<re °f thC keeI at tke fame
moulding. t!me' .l he feveraI nfin£s of the ftoor and heights of
c—^  the cutting down line are marked on the riling fquare,
and the half breadth of the keel fet off from the lide
of it.
The moulds being thus prepared, we fhall apply them
to mould timber 7. The timber being firft properly
fided to us breadth, lay the bend mould upon it, fo as
may beft anfwer the round according to the grain of
the wood; then lay the riling fquare to the bottom of
the bend mould, fo that the line drawn acrofs the bend
mould at timber 7 may coincide with the line repre-
fenting the middle of the keel upon the rifing fquare ;
and draw a line upon the timber by the fide of the
fquare, or let the line be fcored or cut by a tool made
for that purpofe, called a rafting knife (e ) ; this line fo
. rafend Wl11 be tbe. fide of the keel. Then the fquare
inure be moved till the fide of it comes to 7 on the
bend mould, and another line mull be rafed in bv the
fide of it to reprefent the middle of the keel. 'The
other fide of the keel mull likewife he rafed after the
fame manner, and the point 7 the riling fquare be
marked on each fide of the keel, and a line rafed acrofs
at thefe points to reprefent the upper edge of the keel.
From this line the height of the cutting down line at
7 mull be fet up, and then the rifing fquare may be ta¬
ken away, and the timber may be rafed by the bend
mould, both infide and outfide, from the head to the
floor lirmaiK ; or it may be carried lower if neceffary.
After the lirmarks and head of the timbers are marked,
the bend mould may likewife be taken away, and then the
hollow mould applied to the back of the fweep in fuch a
manner that the point 7 upon it may interfe& the upper
fide of the keel, before fet off by the riling fquare ; and
when in this pofition the timber may be rafed by it,
which will complete the outfide of the timbers. The
infide of the timbers may likewile be formed by the
hollow mould. The fcantling at the keel is given bv
the cutting down before fet off. The mould muff be
io placed as to touch the fweep of the infide of the tim¬
ber formed before by the bend mould, and pals through
the cutting down point. b
i he ufe of the firmarks is to find the true places of
the futtocks; for as they are cut off three or four
inches fhort of the keel, they mull be fo placed that
the futtock and floor firmarks may be compared and co¬
incide. Notwithftanding which, if the timbers are not
very carefully trimmed, the head of the futtock may
be either within or without its proper half breadth ; to
prevent which a half breadth ftaff is made ufe of.
1 he half breadth llaff may be one inch fquare, and
of any convenient length. Upon one fide of it are fet
off from one end the feveral half breadths of all the
timbers in the after body, and thofe of the fore body
upon the oppofite fide. On the other two fides are fet
off the feveral heights of the Iheer, the after body on
one fide, and the fore body on its oppofite. Two fides
of the ftaff are marked half breadths^ and the other two
lides heights of the Jheer,
.The ftaff being thus prepared, and the floor timbers
407
Pra&ic®
of Ship¬
building,
I L D I N G.
faftened on the keel, and levelled acrofs, the futtocks
muft next be faftened to the floor timbers ; but they
imift be fet firft to their proper half breadth and height.
The half breadth ftaff, with the afiiftance of the ram- V
line $, ferves to fet them to the half breadth : for as § See next
the keel of a boat is generally perpendicular to the ho- Chapter,
rizon, therefore the line at which the plummet is fuf-
pended, and which is moveable on the ram line, will be
perpendicular to the keel. Whence we may by it fet
the timbers perpendicular to the keel, and then fet them
to their proper half breadths by the ftaff: and when
the two firmarks coincide, the futtock will be at its
proper height, and may be nailed to the floor timbers,
and alfo to the breadth ribband, which may be fet to
the height of the ftieer by a level laid acrofs, taking the
height of the fheer by the ftaff from the upper fide of
the keel; by which means we (hall difeover if the rib¬
band is exactly the height of the ftieer; and if not, the
true height may be fet off by a pair of compaffes from
the level, and marked on the timbers.
Chap. VI. Of the Pradice of Ship-building.
The elevation, projection, and half-breadth plans, of
a propofed ftiip being laid down on paper, we mull
next proceed to lay down thefe feveral plans on the
mould loft of the real dimenfions of the fhip propofed.
to be built, and from which moulds for each feparate
part are to be made. I he method of laying down
thefe plans, from what has been already faid, will, it is
prefumed, be no very difficult talk to accomplifti, as it
is no more than enlarging the dimenfions of the origi¬
nal draughts; and with refpeft to the moulds, they arc
very eafily formed agreeable to the figure of the feveral
parts of the ftiip laid down in the mould loft.
Blocks of wood are now to be prepared upon which
the keel is to be laid. Thefe blocks are to be placed
at nearly equal diftances, as of five or fix feet, and in.
fuch a manner that their upper furfaces may be exactly
in the fame plane, and their middle in the fame ftraight-
line. . This laft is eafily done by means of a line ftretch*
ed a little more than the propofed length of the keel ;■
and the upper planes of thefe blocks may be verified by
a long and ftraight rule ; and the utmoft care and pre¬
caution muft be taken to have thefe blocks properly
bedded. Each block may be about fix or eight inches-
longer than the keel is in thicknefs ; their breadth from
x 2 to 14 inches, and their depth from a foot to a foot
and half.
Fhe dimenfions of the keel are to be taken from the
mould loft, and the keel is to be prepared accordingly.
As, however, it is feldom poflible to procure a piece
of wood of fufficient length for a keel, efpecially if for
a large ftiip,_ it is, therefore, for the moft part neceflary-
to compofe it of feveral pieces, and thefe pieces are to
be fcarfed together, and fecurely bolted, fo as to make
one entire piece. It muft, however, he obferved, that
the pieces which compofe the keel ought to be of fuch
lengths, that a fcarf may not be oppofite to the ftep of
any of the mafts. Rabbets are to be formed on <Tach.
fide of the keel to receive the edge of the planks next
to.
(e) The term rafeing is ufed when any line is drawn by fuch an inftrument inftead ©f a pencil
7
4oS S H I P~B U
Pra^ic# to It, or garboard ftrake, and the keel Is to be laid on
the blocks (f).
p hmldmg. rp,he ^cmj ancj the poll, and the feveral tranfoms bc-
longing to it, are to be prepared from the moulds, and
rabbeted in like manner as the keel, to receive the ends
of the plank. The tranfoms are to be bolted to the
poll at their middle, each at its refpe&ive height, ta¬
ken from the elevation in the mould loft, and the ex¬
tremities of the tranfoms are to be firmly conne&ed with
the fafhion-pieces, lloth ftem and poll are then to be
ere&ed, each at its reipe&ive extremity of the keel..
The (tenons at the heel of each being let into mortifes
prepared to receive them, and being fet to their proper
rakes or angles with the keel, are to be fupported by
props or fiiores. Pieces of wood called dead wood are
to be laid upon and fixed to the upper fide of the keel
towards the fore and aft parts of it ; the deepnefs of
the dead wood increafing with its dillance from the mid¬
dle, agreeable to the propofed form of the cutting
down line.
A line is to beftretched from the middle of the head
of the ftem to that of the poft, called the ram line,
tipon which is a moveable line with a plummet affixed
to it. The midlhip and other frames are to be eredted
upon the keel at their proper ftations. The extremities
of each frame are fet at equal diftances from the vertical
longitudinal fe&ion of the (hip, by moving the frame
in its own plane until the plumb-line coincides with a
mark at the middle between the arms ot each irame ;
and although the keel is inclined to the horizon, yet
the frames may alfo be fet perpendicular to the keel by
means of the plumb-line. The {bores which are fup-
porting the frames are now to be fecurely fixed, that the
pofition of the frames may not be altered. I he rib¬
bands are now to be nailed to the fi ames at their pi o-
per places, the more effedually to fecure them ; and the
intermediate vacancies between the frames filled up with
filling timbers. For a perfpeftive view of a flrip framed,
fee Plate CCCCLIV. fig. 2.
The frames being now ftationed, proceed next to
fix on the planks, of which the wales are the principal,
being much thicker and ftronger than the reft, as is re-
prefented in the midfhip frame, Plate CCCXIV. The
harpins, which may be confrdered as a continuation of
the wales at their fore ends, are fixed acrofs the hawfe
pieces, and furround the fore part of the fhip. The
planks that inclofe the {hip’s fides are then brought about
the timbers j and the clamps, which are of equal thick-
nefs with the wales, fixed oppofite to the wales within
the fnip. Thefe are ufed to fupport the ends of the
beams, and accordingly ftretch from one end of the ffiip
to the other. The thick ftuff or ftrong planks of the
bottom within board are then placed oppofite to the
feveral fcarfs of the timbers, to reinforce them through¬
out the {hip’s length. The planks employed to line the
fhip, called the ceiling or foot-waling, is next fixed in
the intervals between the thick ftuff of the hold. The
beams are afterwards laid acrofs the ffiip to fupport the
decks, and are connected to the fide by lodging and
I L D I N G. Book I.
hanging knees: the former of which are exhibited at F,
Plate CLVI. See alfo the article Deck ; and the ^ild.ng.
hanging-knees, together with the breadth, thicknefs,
and pofition of the keel, floor timbers, futtocks, top-
timbers, wales, clamps, thick fluff, planks within and
without, beams, decks, &c. are feen in the midfhip
frame, Plate CCCXIV. and in that article thefe feveral
parts have already been explained.
The cable-bits being next erefted, the curlings and
/edges, reprefented in Plate CLVI. are difpofed between
the beams to ftrengthen the deck. The water-ways are
then laid on the ends of the beams throughout the {hip’s
length, and the fpirketing fixed clofe above them.—
The upper deck is then planked, and the firing placed
under the gunnel, or p/anjheer, in the waift. *1 he dilpo-
fition of thofe latter pieces on the timbers, viz. the wa¬
ter-ways, fpirketing, upper deck, firing, and gunnel,
are alfo reprefented in the midftiip frame, Plate CCCIV.
Then proceed next to plank the quarter-deck and
forecaftle, and to fix the partners of the malls and cap-
fterns with the coamings of the hatches* I he breajl-
hooks are then bolted acrofs the ftem and bow within-
board, the ftep of the foremafl placed on the kclfon,
and the riders, exhibited in the Midship Frame, fay¬
ed to the infide of the timbers, to reinforce the fides in
different parts of the {hip’s length. The pointers, if
any, are afterwards fixed acrofs the hold diagonally to
fupport the beams ;,.and the crotches llationed' in the af*
ter hold to unite the half timbers. The ftps of the
mainmafl and capfterns are next placed ; the planks of
the lower decks and orlop laid; the navel-hoods fayed
to the hawfe holes; and the knees of the head, or cut¬
water, conne&ed to the Hern. The figure of the head
is then ere&ed, and the trail-board and cheeks fixed on
the fide of the knee.
The t afar el and quarter-pieces, which terminate the
{hip abaft, the former above and the latter on erfeh fide,
are then difpofed, and the Hern and quarter galleries
framed and fupported by their brackets. The pumps,
with their well, are next fixed in the hold; the Umber
boards laid on each fide of the kelfon, and the gar board
firake fixed on the {hip’s bottom next to the heel with¬
out.
The hull beiag thus fabricated, proceed tb feparate
the apartments by bulkheads or partitions, to frame
the port-lids, to fix the catheads and chefs-trees ; to
form the hatchways and fcuttles, and fit them with pro¬
per covers or gratings. Next fix the ladders at the dif¬
ferent hatchways, and build the manger on the lower
deck, to carry off the water that runs in at the hawfe*
holes when the fhip rides at anchor in a fea. The
bread-room and magazines are there lined; and the
gunnel, rails, and gangways fixed oq the upper part of
the {hip. The cleats, kevels, and ranges, by which the
ropes are faftened, are afterwards bolted or nailed to the
fides in different places.
The rudder, being fitted with its irons, is next hung
to the ftern-poft, and the tiller or bar, by which it r*
managed, let into a mortife at its upper end. The
feuppert.
(f) In fhips of war, which are a long while in building, it has been found that the keel is often apt ^
before they are finilhed. Upon this account, therefore, fome builders have begun with the floor timbers, and add¬
ed the keel afterwards.
8
Book I. S H I P - B U
Improve- /cuppers> or leaden.tubee, that carry the water off from
^h^Mafts t^ie ^ec^s’ are t*ien in holes cut through the
ard Rud- Chip’s fides; and the Jlandards reprefented in the Mid-
cu ru » a i? r'{~'v rrr a.i. 
der. ship Frame, Plate CCCXIV. bolted to the'beams
and fides above the decks to which they belong. The
poop lanthorns are laft fixed upon their cranes'over the
Hern, and the biige-<ways or cradles placed under the
bottom to condud the ffiip fteadily into the water
whilll launching.
As the various pieces which have been mentioned
above are explained at large in their proper places, it is
therefore fuperfluous to enter into a more particular de-
feription of them here.
4g Chap. VII. Of Improvements in the Ma/s and Rudder.
Improve- Since the article Mast was printed, an account of
niafts! U1 a method for reftoring mafts ot fhips when wounded,
or otherwife injured, in an eafy, cheap, and expeditious
Ofw4 und- manner» by Captain Edward Pakenham of the royal
ed mafts navy, has been publifhed in the tenth volume of the
by Captain Tranfa&ions of the Society for the Encouragement of
Pakenham. Artg> &c. Captain Pakenham introduces his invention
with the following obfervations:
Page top. “ Amonff the various accidents which fhips are liable
to at fea, none call more for the attention and exertion
of the officer than the fpeedy refitting of the mafts ;
and having obferved, in the courfe of laft war, the very
great deftru&ion made among the lower mafts of our
fhips from the enemy’s mode of fighting, as well as the
very great expence and delay in refitting a fleet after
an adtion, particularly acrofs the Atlantic—a very
fimple expedient has fuggefted itfelf to me as a refource
in part; which appears To very fpeedy and fecure, that
the capacity of the meaneft failor will at once conceive
it. I therefore think it my duty to ftate my ideas of
the advantages likely to refult from it; and I fhall feel
myfelf exceedingly happy fhould they in anywife con¬
tribute to remedy the evil.
“ My plan, therefore, is, to have the heels of all
lower mafts fo formed as to become the heads : but it
is not the intention of the above plan to have the fmall-
eft alteration made in the heels of the prefent lower
mails ; for as all line-of-battle fhips malls are nine inches
in diameter larger at the heel than at the head, it will
follow, that by letting in the treffel-trees to their pro¬
per depth, the mall will form its own cheeks or hounds;
and I flatter myfelf the following advantages will refult
from the above alteration.
Firft, I mull beg to obferve, that all line-of-battle
fhips bury one third of their lower mails, particularly
three-deckers ; it therefore follows, that if the wounds
are in the upper third, by turning the mail fo as to
make the heel the head, it will be as good as new ; for,
in eight aaions I was prefent in laft war, I made the
following obfervations :
44 1 hat in the laid actions fifty-eight lower mafts were
wounded, and obliged to be United, thirty-two of
which had their wounds in the upper third, and of courfe
the fhips detained until new mafts were made. And
when it is confidered that a lower mail for a 90 or 74
Hands government in a fum not lefs, I am informed,
than 20Q0 L to 2300 1. the advantages acrofs the At¬
lantic refulting from the aforefaid plan will be particu-
latly obvious; not to mention the probability of there
being no nt fpars in the country, which was the cafe in
Vol. XVII. Part II.
I ,L D I N G. 409
the inftances of the Ifrs and Prxncefs Royal; and as Improve-
I was one of the lieutenants of the Ifis at that time, ir>
I am more particular in the circumftance of thatthe Mafts
fliip. The Ifis had both her lower mafts wounded der.
above the cathar pins in her adlion with the Cse- ——v——
far, a French 74 ; and as there were no fpars at New
Yoik, the Ifis was detained five weeks at that place.—
Now, if her mafts had been fitted on the plan I have
propofed, I am confident fire would have been ready for
fea in 48 hours ; and as a further proof, I beg leave
to add, that the whole fleet, on the glorious 12th of
April, had not the leaft accident of any confequence ex¬
cept what befel their lower mafts, which detained them
between eight and ten weeks at Jamaica.
44 1 he delay of a fhip while a new mail is making,
and probably the fleet being detained for want of that
fhip, which frequently occurred in the courfe of laft
war, the taking of fhipwrights from other work, with a
variety of inconveniences not neceffary to mention here,
mu ft be obvious to every officer that has made the
fmalleft obfervations on fea actions.
You will further obferve, that this fubftitute is
formed on the mofl fimple principle, fitted to the
meaneft capacity, and calculated to benefit all fhips,
from a firft-rate down to the fmalleft merchantman, in
cafes of an accident by fhot, a fpring,, a rottennefs,
paiticularly as there accidents generally happen in the
upper third of the malt and above the cheeks.
“ It might probably be objeaed, that a difficulty and
fome danger might arife from the wounded part of the
mail being below ; but this will at once be obviated,
when it is remembered, that as the wounded part is be¬
low the wedges, it may with eafe be both fifhed, cafed,
and fecured, to any fize or degree you pleafe, with the
addition of its being wedged on each deck.”
41* reprefents a mail of a firft-rate in its proper
ftate, the figures reprefenting its thicknefs at the diffe¬
rent divifions.
Fig. 42. the fame mail inverted, the heel forming the
head, and the treffel-trees let into their proper depth,
the additional thickneis of the mail forming its owu
cheeks.
Fig. 43. the propofed mail, the figures reprefenting
the thicknefs of the mail in the propofed alterations ;
a, the heel made fquare ; b, the letting in of the treffel-
tiees ; r, the third proportion of thicknefs continued up
to where the fourth is in the prefent mail, or at leaft
fome little diftance above the lower part of the cheeks,
which is always looked upon as the weakeit part of the
mail; and by its being fo proportioned, the mail, when
turned, will be nearly as ftrong in the partners as before.
As the expence of a mall is much greater than is
generally imagined, it is therefore thought proper to
lubjoin the following ilatement of the Several articles
ufed in making a 74 gun ihip’s mainmaft.
Fifties for a fpindle, 21 inches, 2 nails of Value.
two mafts, - . L. lot 3 11 T/J“r! o*
Two fide fifties, 22 inches, 2 ditto, 133
Fore and aft fifties, 22 inches, 2 nails of
one mail, - . ^
Fifti ^ 2 / f inches, 1 nail of half a mail, 29
> On the fore pait.
Iron 9 3 qrs 19 lbs !
Aries load baulk, 2 loads 22 feet, - 12
xo
*3
8
Naval Afo.
0 chiteflurci
part a.
10
5
3 F Carried over L. 344 5
410
Improve¬
ments in
the Mafl*
and Rud.
dcr.
S H I
Brought over
Breadtlinuig ') 2 loads 7 feet,
1 Dautzic fir timber,
f Cheeks S 4 loads 2 feet,
j^Iron, 5 cwt. 2 qrs 21 lb.
Knees, elm timber, 13 feet, *■
Iron, 2 qrs. J 4 lb.
Hoops and bolts on the body, 13 cwt. 1 qr
16 lb.
Tre^el trees, ftraight oak timber, fecond fort,
2 loads 10 feet,
Iron, 3 qrs. 10 lb-
Crofs trees, firaight oak timber, fecond fort
1 load t 2 feet.
Iron, 2 qrs. 2 lb.
t^ap, elm timber, 1 load 24 feet,
Iron, 3 cwt. 14 lb.
I'uHings, holders, bollins, and Dantzic fir,
1 load 2 feet,
Workmanihip,
P- B U
Value.
L-344- 5
11
20
8
o
o
18
o
>5
‘7
10
1
5
o
4
2
5
78
Main topmafi of a 74 gun fhip,
Main top-gallant-mall,
18 15 O
2
3
14
14
6
7
6
5*3 6
1^0 16
'8 11
Principles
of Sweat
yitf.bitcc-
tjre, p. SO.
10
IVIr Gor¬
don’* plan
tit building
xnuils.
In order to lefien the enormous expence of ma'ls, a
propofal was made fome years ago to conttru& them
hollow ; and the author having premiied feveral experi¬
ments which he had made, proceeds as follows:
“ Galileo taught us, that the refiftance or ftrength
of a hollow cylinder is to that of a full cylinder, con¬
taining the fame quantity of matter, as the total diame¬
ter of the hollow one is to the diameter of the full one;
and thefe exoerirnents fhow us, that the ftrength or re¬
finance of two or more pieces of wood, faftened toge¬
ther at each end, and connefted by a pillar, pillars, or
framing, increales, at leait to a certain degreee, cartens^
paribus] as the diftance between them and number of
pillars, provided the forc$ is applied in the line or direc¬
tion of the pillars.
“ It is furprffing that this difeovery of Galileo has not
been made fubfervient to more ufeful purpofes. It is
particularly applicable to the conftruaion of mails, as
not requiring that the hollow cylinder ftrould be made
of one iolid piece of wood (g). .
“ However, the foregoing experiments teach us, that
the fame advantages may be obtained by other forms
befides that of a cylinder ; and that perhaps not only in
a fuperior degree, but likewile with greater facility of
execution ; as by adopting a fquare figure, but more
particularly by conftruaing them of feparate pieces of
v/ood, placed at proper diftanees from each other, in
the following or any other manner that may be found
moft convenient. I’ig- 44’ 45’ an<^ 4^> exhibit each
the trsnfverfe feclion of a maft, in which the frnall cir¬
cles reprefent the trees or upright pieces of wood, and
I L D I N G. Book!;
the lines the beams or framing of wood, which are cm-lniPro’|e-
ployed at proper places and at proper diftances
each other, for conne&ing theft together. Perhaps fo- a„j
lid frames of wood, placed at proper diftanees from eachder
other, and filling up the whole dotted fpace, would an- ■ v~—4
fwer better ; in which event, the mall could be ftrong.
ly hooped with iron at thofe places, and the upright
trees formed fquare, or of any other convenient form.
“ It will be evident to thofe acquainted with this fub-
jeft, that fuch malts would be greatly ftronger than com¬
mon ones containing the fame qmntityof materials. It is
likewife evident that they would be lefs apt to fpring, as
being fupported on a more extended bafe, and affording
many conveniences for being better fecured ; and that
they might be conftrufted of fuch wood as at prefent
would be deemed altogether improper for malts : a
circumllance of importance to Britain at all times, but
more particularly now, when there is fuch difficulty in
procuring wood proper for the kind of malts in com¬
mon ufe.” 51
An improvement in the rudder has lately taken place im-
in feveral fnips, particularly in fome of thofe in the fer-
vice of the Halt India company. It will, however, be(jer
trecelTary previoufly to delcribe the ufual form of the
rudder, in order to fhow the advantages it pofleffes when
conltrufted agreeable to the improved method.
NJ I. (fig. 47) repreients the rudder according to Papers «n
the common method of conltruftion ; in which AB is ^r*'
the axis of rotation. It is hence evident that a fpace ,,art. ’ ’
confiderably greater than the traniverfe feCtion of the
rudder at the counter muft be left in the counter for the
rudder to revolve in. Thus, let CAB (rft 2.) be the
feftion of the rudder at the counter ; then there mu ft
be a fpace fimiiar to CDE in the counter, in order that
the rudder may be moveable as required. Hence, to
prevent the water from wafhing up the rudder cafe, a
rudder coat, that is, a piece of tarred canvas, is nailed
in fuch a manner to the rudder and counter as- to co¬
ver the intermediate fpaee : but the canvas being con¬
tinually waftred by the lea, foon becomes brittle, and.
unable to yield to the various turns of the rudder with¬
out breaking ; in which cafe the (hip is of courfe left
pervious to the waves, even of three or lour feet high ;
in faff, there are few men bred to the fea wh© have not
been witneffes to the bad effetts o‘ Inch a fpace being
left fo ill guarded againft the ftroke of the waves ; and
many fhips have, with great probability, been fuppofed
to founder at fea from the quantity of water {hipped
between the rudder and counter.
It was to remedy this deleft that the alteration above
alluded to took place ; which confifts in making the
upper part AFG (fig. 48, n° 1.) of the rudder ABD
cylindrical, and giving that part at the fame time a
call forward, fo that the axis of rotation may by that
means be the line AD, paffing as ufual from E to D,
through the centres of the braces which attach the rud¬
der to the ftern-poft, and from E to A through the
(g) The ftrength of thefe cylinders would be ftill further augmented by having fold pieces of wcoc placed
within them at proper diftances, and fecurely faftened to them, in the fame manner, and on the Ame princi¬
ples, that nature has furnifhed reeds with joints; and for anfwering, in fome refpefts, the lame purpofe c..
pillars in tjie experiments alluded to.
ter Line
and Ship’*
Capacity.
Book I. S H I P - B U
Load-wa- axis the cylinder AFG, in order that the tranfverfe fec-
tion KH (n° 2.) at the counter may be a circle re¬
volving upon its centre ; in which cafe the fpace of
half an inch is more than fufficient between the rudder
and the counter, and coniequendy the neceffity of a
rudder coat entirely done away. But as it was fore*
feen, that if the rudder by any accident was unfhipped,
this alteration might endanger the tearing away of the
counter, the hole is made much larger than the tranf-
verfe fe&ion of the cylindric part of the rudder, and
the fpace between filled up with pieces of wood fo fit¬
ted to the counter as to be capable of withftanding the
{hock, of the fea, but to be eafily carried away with the
rudder, leaving the counter, under fuch circumftances,
in as fafe a ftate as it would be agreeable in the pre-
fent form of making rudders in the navy.
Chap. VIII. Upon the Pojitlon of the Load water Line,
and the Capacity of a Ship.
?ee Hydr*- The weight of the quantity of water difplaced by
(latics. the bottom of a {1*1 ip is equal to the weight of the
fhip with its rigging, provifions, and every thing on
board. If therefore the exatt weight of the flrip when
ready for fea be calculated, and alfo the number of cu¬
bic feet in the {hip’s bottom below the load-water line,
and hence the weight of the water {he difplaces ; it
will be known if the load-water line is properly placed
in the draught.
Ship-Build The pofition of the {hip in the draught may be ei-
•r s Rep ft- ther on an even keel, or to draw moll water abaft ; but
an even keel is judged to be the beft pofition in point
of velocity, when the {hip is conftructed fuitable there¬
to, that is, when her natural pofition is fuch. For when
a {hip is csnflrufted to fwim by the Hern, and when
brought down to her load-water made to fwim on an
even keel (as is the cafe with moft Ihips that are thus
built), her velocity is by that means greatly retarded,
and alfo her ftrength greatly diminished : for the fore¬
part being brought down lower than it fiaould be, and
the middle of the {hip maintaining its proper depth in
the water, the after part is by that means lifted, and
the {hip is then upon an even keel: but in confequence
of her being out of her natural pofition, the after part
is always prefiing downwards with a confiderable ftrain,
which will continue till the fhip's fheer is entirely
broke, and in time would fall into its natural pofition
agaip : for which reafon we fee fo many {hips with bro¬
ken backs, that is, with their fiieers altered in fuch a
manner that the fheer rounds up, and the higheit part
is in the midfhips.
Such are the difadvantages arifing from not paying
a due attention to thole points in the conltruCfion ol a
draught ; therefore, when the load-water line is found
to be fo fituated at a proper height on the draught,
according to the weight given for fuch a {hip, and alfo
(drawn parallel to the keel, as fuppoling that to be the
beft failing trim, the next thing is to examine whether
the body is conftrufted fuitable thereto, in order to
avoid the above-mentioned ill confequenees.
In the firft place, therefore, we muft divide the {hip
equally in two-length wife between the fore and after
perpendiculars; and the exadt number of cubic feet in
the whole bottom beneath the load-water line beinrr
.
I L D I N G. 4»*
known, we muft find whether the number of cubicLcad-wa-
feet in each part fo divided are the fame; and if they
arc found to be equal, the b<xly of the {hip may then (japac,ty.
be faid to be cOnfti ueted in all refpefts fuitable to her  ^ ->
fwimming on an even keel, let the fhape of the body be
whatever it will; and which will be found to be her
natural pofition at the load-water line. But if either .
of the parts fhould contain a greater number of cubic
feet than the other, that part which contains the great-
eft will fwirn the moft out of the water, and confe-
quently the other will fwim deepeft, fuppofmg the fnip
in her natural pofition for that conftrudfion. In order,
therefore, to render the {hip fuitably conftrlifted to the
load-water line in the draught, which i» parallel to the
keel, the number of cubic feet in the lefs part muft be
fubtrafted from the number contained in the greater
part, and that part of the body is to be tilled out till
it has increafed half the difference of their quantities,
and the other part is to be drawn in as much : henc£
the two parts will be equal, that is, each will contain
the fame number of cubic feet, and the (hip’s body will
be cbnllrufted in a manner fuitable to her fwimming on
an even keel.
If it is propofed that the fliip laid down on the
draught (hall not fwim on an even keel, but draw more
water abaft than afore, then the fore and after parts of
the {hip’s body below the load-water line are to be
compared ; and if thefe parts are unequal, that part
which is leaft is to be filled out by half the difference,
and the other part drawn in as much as before.
It will be neceffary, in the firft place, to calculate the
weight of a fnip ready equipped for fea, from the kno w¬
ledge of the weight of every feparate thing in her and
belonging to her, as the exaft weight of all the timber,
iron, lead, mails, fails, rigging, and in fhovt all the ma¬
terials, men, provifions, and every thing elfe on board
of her, from which we (hall be able afterwards to jud >e
of the truth of the calculation, and whether the load-wa¬
ter line in the draught be placet^ agreeable thereto.
This is indeed a very laborious talk, upon account of
the feveral pieces of timber, &c. being of fo many diffe¬
rent figures, and the fpecifie gravity of feme of the
timber entering the conftruftion not being precifely de¬
termined.
In order to afeertain the weight of the hull; the
timber is the firft thing which comes under confidera-
tion : the number ot cubic feet of timber contained in
the whole fabric mult be found ; which we {hall be
able to do by help of the draught and the principal
dimenfions and fcantlings ; obferving to diftingufth the
different kinds of timber from each other, as they differ
confiderably in weight ; then the number of cubic feet
contained in the different forts of timber being reduced
into pounds, and added, will be the weight of the tim¬
ber. In like manner proceed to find the weight of the
iron, lead, paint, &c. and the true weight of the whole
will be found.
In reducing quantity to weight, it may be obferved ^ee Hydro*
that a cubic foot of oak is equal to 66 pounds, and thcA',2"‘
fpecific gravity ol the other,materials are as follow :
Water being iooo
Lead is - 1*345
Iron - 7643
Oak is 891.89 1
Dry elm 702.70
Dry fir 648.64
3 F 2
4*2
Load-wa¬
ter Line
and -Ship’s
Capacity.
SHIP-BUILDING.
Book I.
An EJlim'ite of the Weight of the Eighty Gun Ship in
PlatesCCCCLX. and CCCCLXI.aj ftted for Sea,
with fix Months Prov fions.
Weight of the Hull.
N° of Ft.l N° of lbs.
Eftimate ofOak timber at 66 lb. tol 0 I 0
the weight the cubic foot j 4*497 3200002
5*
ot the eigh jrjr timber at 48 lb. to
ty gun ihip , . “
before laid the cubic foot
down. Elm timber at 52 lb. to'
the cubic foot
Carve work and lead work
Iron work, rudder irons,
chain-plates, nails, &c.
Pitch, tar, oakum, and
paint
Cook-room fitted with
fire hearth
Sum
4457
520
213936
27040
4651
88254
17920
16123
Tom. I.bs.
1428 2082
95
12 160
2 171
39 *94
8
7 443
3568726:1593 406
Weight of the Furniture,
N°oflb
Complete fet of mafts and yards,!
with the fpare geer - J
Anchors with their flocks, andl
mailer’s flores
Rigging
Sails, complete fet, and fpare
Cables and hawfers
Blocks, pumps, and boats
Sum
161000
Tons Lbs.
71 i960
17 1916
30 1928
14 648
32 1652
62056. 27 1576
39996
69128
32008
73332
437520I95 720
Weight cf the Guns and Ammunition.
Guns with their carriages
Powder and fhot, powder barrels,!
&c. * • j
Implements for the powder
Ditto for guns, crows, handfpikes,!
&c. - . - j
Sum -
377034
116320
6500
21573
521427
168 714
51 2080
2 2020
9 X4X3
Weight of the Officers Stores, EsV.
Carpenter’s flores - 20187
Boatfwain’s flores - 21112
Gunner’s flores « - 8964
Caulker’s flores - - 5200
Surgeon and chaplain’s effeils 11096
Sum
66559
Weight of the Provifons.
Provifions for fix months for 7007 g cSq'tc
men, with all their equipage 3 3 9/
Water, calks, and captain’s table 933900
Weight of the Men, &c,
N 9 of lbs.
Seven hundred men with theirT
effefts, including the officers >
and their effefts - J
Ballaft
232 1747
9 27
9 952
4 4
2 720
4 2136
Sum
29 I599
383 1050
416 2060
Load-wa¬
ter Line
and Ship’*
Tons. Lbs. Capacity^
316961
14784OO
Sum - 1795361
Recapitulation.
|3e68726
'' 437520
521427
66559
1792870
1795361
The hull
The furniture
Guns and ammunition
Officers flores
Provifions
Weight of the men and ballaft
Sum
1593 406
195 720
232 1747
29 1599
800 870
801 1121
81824633652 1983
1792870,800 870
Agreeable to the above eftimate, we find that the
eighty gun fhip, with every thing on board and fit for
fea, when brought down to the load water line, weighs
8,182,463 pounds, or nearly 3653 tons. It may now
be known if the load water line in the draught be pro¬
perly placed, by reducing the immerfed part of the bo¬
dy into cubic feet. For if the eighty gun fhip, when
brought down to the load water line, weighs 3653
tons, the quantity of water diiplaced muft alfo be 3653
tons : now a cubic foot of fait water being fuppofed to
weigh 74 pounds, if therefore 8182463 be divided by
74, the quotient is 110573, ^ number of cubical feet
which file muft difplace agreeable to her weight.
It is now neceffary to find the number of cubic feet
contained in the fhip’s bottom below the load water
line by calculation. If the bottom was a regular folid,
this might be very eafily done ; but as it is otherwife,
we mull be fatisfied with the following method by ap¬
proximation, firft given by M. Bouguer. _
Take the lengths of every other of the lines that re- Met^d nf
prefent the frames in the horizontal plane upon the up- calculatin?
per water line ; then find the film of thefe together,the cont:nt
with half the foremoft and aftermoft frames. Now mul-
tiply that fum by the diftance between the frames, and 1
the product is the area of the water line contained be¬
tween the foremoft and aftermoft frames: then find the
area of that part abai t the after frame, which forms a
trapezium, and alfo the poll and rudder ; find alfo the
area of that part afore the foremaft frame, and alfo of
the ftem and gripe ; then thefe areas being added to
that fivft found, and the fum doubled, will be the area
of the furface of the whole water line. "The reafon of
this rule will be obvious to thofe acquainted with the
firft principles of mathematics.
The areas of the other water line may be found in
the fame manner: then the fum of all thefe areas, ex¬
cept that of the uppermoft and lowermoft, of which ofi-
ly one half of each muft be taken, being multiplied by
the diftance between the water lines (thefe lines in the
plane of elevation being equidiftant from each other),
and the produdl will be the folid content of" the fpace
contained between the lower and load water lines.
Book I. S H I P-B U
toad wa- Add the area of the lower water line to the area of
ter Line, Upper {ide of the keel; multiply half that fum by
Capacity.* t^ie diftance between them, the product will be the fo-
L —f lid content of that part between the lower water line
and upper edge of the keel, fupoofmg them parallel to
each other. But if the lower water line is not parallel
to the keel, the above half fum is to be multiplied by
the diftance between them at the middle of the Ihip.
The folid contents of the keel muft be next found,
by multiplying its length by its depth, and that pro-
du£t by the breadth. Then the fum of thefe folid con¬
tents will be the number of cubic feet contained in the
immerfed part of the fhip’s bottom, or that part below
the load water line.
(
Determination of the number of Cubic Feet contained in
the Bottom of the Eighty Gun Ship. See Plates
CCCCLX. and CCCCLXI.
54
Applied to The fore body is divided into live, and the after bo-
t^e efh;hty dy into ten, equal parts in the horizontal plane; be-
Eun :P« fjdeg the parts contained between the foremoft timber
and the ftem, and the aftermoft timber and the poft.
The plane of elevation is alfo divided into five equal
parts by water lines drawn parallel to the keel. Thefe
water lines are alfo defcribed upon the horizontal
plane.
It is to be obferved that there muft be five inches
added to each line that reprefents a frame in the hori¬
zontal plane for the thicknefs of the plank, that being
nearly a mean between the thicknefs of the plank next
the water and that on the lower part of the bottom.
rt
”5
"£}
-a
Upper Water Line abaft Dead Flat.
"frame dead flat is 24 f. 10 in. one-half of
which is - - .
frame (4) - • .
frame 3 - - .
frame 7 . _
frame 11
frame 15
Irame 19 . . .
frame 23
frame 27
frame 31
frame 3 5 is 16 feet 3 inches, the half of
which is - .
Ft. In.
12 5
24 10
24 10
24 10
24 I-Q
24
24
23
22
20
9t
5
IO
9
1 x
Sum
.Diftance between the frames
Product
Area of that part abaft frame 3 5
rudder and poft
236 7
jo 11
2582 Sjf
78 o
5 ^
2666 2f
2
Area of the load water line from dead flat aft 5332 5
L D I N G.
Second Water Line abaft Dead Flat.
'frame dead flat is 23 feet ioi inches, the
half of which is - -
frame (4)
frame 3 - .
frame 7 - -
frame 11
frame 15
frame 19
frame 23
frame 27
frame 31
frame 35 is 8 feet 6 inches, the half of
which is -
Ft. In.
Sum - ,
Diftance between the frames
Produdt
Area of that part abaft frame. 35
rudder and poft
Sum
Third IVhter Line abaft Dead Flat.
Ft.
-e
4-J
H3
H
frame deadflatis 22 feet inches—half if
frame (4)
frame 3 - - „
frame 7 - .
frame 11
frame 15
frame 19
frame 23
frame 27
frame 31
frame 35 is 4 feet 3 inches—half
J 90
10
4*3
Load-wa¬
ter Line
and Ship’s
Capacity.
4 3
219 71:
10 11
2397 4
31 7
5 5
2434 4
2
Area of the 2d water line from dead flat aft 4868 8
22
22
22
22
21
20
J9
16
11
2
In.
0|
It
It
It
1
5
8t
3t
5
2t
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poft
>81
14
5
8
it
6
21 ox
Area of the 3d water line from dead flat aft 4203
7t
2
-c
45
Fourth Water Line abaft Dead Flat.
[" frame deadflat is 20 feet 1 inch—half
j frame (4) - .
j frame 3 - , -
j frame 7 . .
1 frame 11
l frame 15
Carry over
Ft.
IO
20
20
In.
°t
I
X
J9 11
19 7t
19 o
ic8 Q~"
414
Load wa¬
ter Line
and Ship’s
iCapacity.
Brought over
frame 19
frame 23
frame 27
frame 31
frame 35 is 1 foot ut^ inches'
SHIP-BUILD IN G.
Ft.
108
17
14
I o
5
o
-half
in.
9
7t
10
x x
1 x
114-
Book I.
Load-wa,
Upper or Load •water Line afore Dead Flat. ter L‘ne
Ft. In. anti
« r frame dead flat is 24 feet 10 inches—half 12 c Cap*clty
^ v 24. 10
m 1
if
l59
10
o
11
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poll
1735 9
9 9
■ 5 °
: 75°
Fifth or Lower Water Line abaft Dead Flat.
Ft.
' frame dead flat is 17 feet 2 inches—half
frame (4) -
^3
-G
frame 3 - -
frame 7 - - .
frame 11
frame 15
frame 19
frame 23
frame 27 - - .
frame 31
^frame 35 is x foot inches—half
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poft
Area of the 5th or lower water line from
dead flat aft
Half the area of the load water line
Area of the fecond water line
Area of the third water line
Area of the fourth water line
Half the area of the lower water line
Sum ...
Diftance between the water lines
Content in cubic feet between the lower
and load water lines
Area of the lower water line 2678 10
Area of the upper fideof the keel 206 4
Sum - . 288c 2~
Half ^ . - 1442 7
.Diftance between the lower wa¬
ter line and the keel 4 1
Cub. feet contained between low¬
er water line and the keel 5890 64-
Content of the keel, lower part ef rudder,
and falfe keel
Cubic feet abaft the midfliip frame under
water when loaded
Area of the 4th water line from dead flat aft 3501 o
121 XO^;
10 it
133° 2
4 84
4 64
1339 5
 2
2678 10
2666 24
4868 8
4203 3
3501 o
*339 5
16578 64
 4 *
67695 8i
5890
464 3
74050 6
frame E
frame I - .
frame N -
frame Q_
.frame W is 15 feet 1 inch—half
In.
7
2
2
1
4
4
1
9
xo
I X
74:
Sum -
Diftance between the frames
Product
Area of the part afore frame W
ftem and knee
Sum
Multiply by - -
Area of the load water line from dead flat
forward
24 84'
24 o
2X loi
7 64
1 lS 4*
10 11
1259 6
80 3
C 4 °
*343
frame E
« , frame I - -
J5 1 frame N -
jy 1 frame „
p-t l frame W is 11 feet 11 inches—half
Sum '
Diftance between the frames
Product - .
Area of the part afore frame W, with the
ftem and knee '
Sum - . . .
H
frame E
frame I
frame N
frame
-frame W is 7 feet—half
Sum -
Diftance between the frames
Produft
Area of the part afore W, with the ftem
and gripe ...
Sum ....
2687 6
Second Water Line afore Dead Flat.
Ft. In.
frame deadflat is 23 feet xo4 inches—half 11 1 ij
23 10
23 5
22 5
19 11
5 **4
*07 Si
10 11
**73 9
43 9
1217 6
2
Area of the fecond water line from dead flat
forward - . 2435 o
"Third Water L ine afore Dead Flat.
Ft. In.
-frame dead flat is 22 feet x \ inch—half 11 cl
22
21
20
16 14
3 6
94 64
10 11
Area of the third water line from dead flat
forward - - - 2115 4
Fourth
/
Book I.
LoatU’-a-
tcr Line
and Ship'*
Capacity.
S H I P - B U
Fourth Water Line afore Dead Flat. '
I injji—half
frame dead flat is 20 feet
■ frame E
J frame I
1 frame N
I frame
l frame W is 2 feet 9 inches-
-half
Ft.
10
20
19
16
11
I
In.
C-r
oi
3
5
2
4t
Sam - *
Diftance between the frames
Produft
Area of part before W, with the flem and
gripe
Sum
5t
10 11
854 8
*63 6*
2
Area of fourth water line from dead flat for¬
ward . . -I727 i-r
d' tfth Water Line afore Dead Flat.
Ft In.
^ f frame dead .fiat is 17 feet 2 inches—half 8 7
j! | frame E -
<J frame I -
£ j frame N - .
P3 [ frame Qjs 5 feet—half
Sam
Didance between the frames
Produft
Area of part afore
16 9
14 10
i° yl
ftem and knee
Sum
■-\rea of the fifth or lower water line from
dead flat forward
Area of the upper fide of the keel
Sum - . „
Half
Diftance between the lower water line and
keel
53 5r
xo IX
583 7
26 2(-
5 Ht
615 9
2
1231 6
87 4
1318 10
659 5
4 1
Content of the part contained between the
lower water line and the keel in cub. feet 2692 ^
Half the area of the load w'ater line I343 9
Area of the fecond water line - 24^5 o
third water line - 2115 4
fourth water line - X727 if
.naif the area of the fifth or lower water line 615 9
Sum -
Diftance between the water lines
8236 11^
*4 J
I L D I N G.
Cubic feet contained between the lower and Ft.
load water lines - 33^34
Cubic feet contained between lower water
line and keel . . 2,692
Content of the keel and falfie keel - 196
Content afore midftiip frame under water
when loaded - _ 36523
Content abaft midfhip frame - 74°50
Content under water
Weight of a cubic foot of fait water
415
Jn.Tonnage of
2l a sh4*
II0573 10
74 lbs.
Weight of the whole ihip with every thing
onboard - - 8182463.8 lbs.
As the weight of the fhip, with every thing on board,
found by this calculation, is equal to that found by efti-
mate; it hence appears that the water line is properly
placed in the draught. It now only remains to find
whether the body is conftrufted fuitably thereto, that
is, whether the fhip will be in her natural pofition when
brought down to that line. For this purpofe a perpen¬
dicular muft be erefted 27 feet } inch, abaft dead flat,
which will be the middle between the two perpendicu¬
lars and the place where the centre of gravity fhould
fall, that the fhip may fwim on an even keel. The fo-
lidity ot that part of the bottom contained between the
faid perpendicular and dead fiat is then to be calculated^
which will be found to be 25846 feet 7 inches.
Solidity of the bottom afore dead flat 36523 f. 4 in,
* between the middle and dead flat 25846 7
Solid content of the forepart of the bot-
tom . - 62369 11
Solidity of the bottom abaft dead flat 74050 6
—  between the middle and deadflat 25846 7
Solid content of the aft part of the bot. 48203 i 1
 fore part of the bottom 62369 11
Difference
Half
14166
7083
Hence the after part of the flop’s bottom is too lean
by 7083 cubic feet, and the fore part as much too full.
1 he after part muff therefore be filled out until it has
received an addition of 7083 feet, and the fore part
muft be drawn in till it has loft the fame quantity, and
the bottom will then be conftrufted fuitable to the fliip’s
fwimming on an even keel.
Chap. IX. Of the Tonnage of a Ship.
T. his is aqueftion of equal importance and difficul- Proper gje-
ty. By the tonnage of a ftfip is meant the weight ofrhl,d of cul-
every thing that can with fafety and expediency be ta.c“latmf
ken on board that ihip for the pin-pole of conveyance: of a
it is alfo called the jhip’s burthen ; and it is totally
different from the weight of the whole as fine floats in
the water. It is perhaps beft exprefied by calling it the
weight of the cargo. It is of importance, becaufe it is by
this, that the merchant or freighter judges of the fitnefs
of
4i<S SHI P-B U
'i'onna^ pfof the iliip for h’s purpofe. By this government judge
. a of the (hips requisite for tranfport fervice, and by this
* are ail revenue charges on the fhip computed. It is no
lefs difficult to anfwer this queib'on by any general rule
which {hall be very exafr, becaufe it depends not on¬
ly on the cubical dimenfions of the {hip’s bottom, but
alfo on the fcantling of her whole frame, and in Ihort
On the weight of every thing which properly makes
part of a fhip ready to receive on hoard her cargo.
The weight of timber is variable ; the fcantling of the
frame is no lefs fo. We muft therefore be contented
with an average value which is not very remote from
the truth ; and this average is to be obtained, not by
any mathematical difcuffion, but by obfervation of the
burthen or cargo a&ually received, in a great variety of
cafes. But fome fort of rule of calculation muft be
made out. This is and muft be done by perfons not ma¬
thematicians. We may therefore expedl to find it inca¬
pable of being reduced to any principle, and that every
builder will have a different mle. Accordingly the rules
given for this purpofe are in general very whimfical,
meafures being ufed and combined in a way that feems
quite unconnedhed with ffercometry or the meafurement
of folids. The rules for calculation are even affe&ed
by the interefts of the two parties oppofitely concerned
in the refult. The calculation for the tonnage by which
the cuftoms are to be exafted by government are quite
different from the rule by which the tonnage of a tran¬
fport hired by government is computed ; and the fame
{hip hired as a tranfport will be computed near one half
bigger than when paying importation duties.
Yet the whole of this might be made a very fimple
bufinefs and very exadf. When the fhip is launched,
let her light-water line be marked, and this with the
cubical contents of the immerfed part be noted down,
and be engroffed in the deed by which the property of
the {hip is conveyed from hand to hand. The weight
of her mails, fails, rigging, and fea-ftores, is moft eafily
obtained ; and every builder can compute the cubical
contents of the body when immerfed to the load water
line. The difference of thefe is unqueftionably the bur¬
then of the {hip.
It is evident from what has been alreadyfaid in the laft
chapter, that if the number of cubic feet of water which
the lhip difplaces when light, or, which is the fame, the
number of cubic feet below the light water line, found
by the preceding method of calculation, be fubtradted
from the number of cubic feet contained in the bottom
below the load waterline, and the remainder reduced
to tons by multiplying by 74, the number of pounds in
a cubic foot of fea water, and divided by 2240, the
number of pounds in a ton, the quotient will be the
tonnage.
But as this method is very troublefome, the follow¬
ing rule for this purpofe is that which is uled in the
king’s and merchant’s fervice.
56 Let fall a perpendicular from the forefide of the ftem
at the height of the hawfe holes (h), and another per¬
pendicular from the back of the main poll at the height
I L B I N O, Back?,
of the wing tranfom. Front the length between thefe two Tonnage qj
perpendiculars dedudt three-fifths of the extreme breadth a a^lP~
(1), and alfo as many times 2\r inches as there are feet _"1_t J
in the height of the wing tranfom above the upper edge
of the keel; the remainder is the length of the keel for
tonnage. Now multiply this length by the extreme
breadth, and the produdl by half the extreme breadth,
and this laft produdl divided by 94 is the tonnage re¬
quired.
Or, multiply the length of the keel for tonnage by
the fquare of the extreme breadth, and the product di¬
vided by 188 will give the tonnage.
Calculation of the Tonnage of an Eighty Gun Ship
I, According to the true method.
The weight of the {hip at her launching
draught of water
The weight of the furniture
57
tons lbs Calculatioi
1593 4o6°fthetf0nl:
' ■'a 1 na^e of the
195 72° eighty gua
 {hip.
The weight of the {hip at her light wa¬
ter mark - - 1788 1126
The weight of the {hip at the load water mark 3652 1983
Real burthen
II. By the common rule.
Length from the forefide of the ftem at
the height of the hawfe holes, to the
aft fide of the main poft, at the height
of the wing tranfom
Three-fifths of the extreme breadth
is - - 29 f. 9i in.
Height of the wing tranfom
is 2 8 f. 4 in. which mul¬
tiplied by 24- inches is 6 8f
Sum 36 6
Lengthof the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
1864 857
Ft inch.
185 10
3^ 6
149
49
4
8 -
Product
Half the extreme breadth
74*6
24
ic4
JO
94)184185
Burthen according to the common
rule
Real burthen
1959 929
1864 857
95 72
Difference
Hence an eighty gun {hip will not carry the ton-Thesc8om.
sage fire is rated at by about 95 tons. As the body ofmon rule,
his {hio is fuller than in {hips of war in general, there is gives the
ftierefore a nearer agreement between the tonnages found
ay the two different methods. It may be obferved that^^.,^
hips of war carry left tonnage than they are rated at by of mer- _
he common rule, and that moft merchants {hips carry chant ftipa
le(s, than ,
1 ihetuiih.
(h) In the merchant fervice this perpendicular is let fall from the fore fide of the ftnm at the height of the
wing tranfom, by reafon of the hawfe-holes being generally fo very high in merchant {hips, and their Hems alio
fiaving a great rake forward. , . .
(1) The breadth underftood in this place is the breadth from outfide to outude of the plank.
Took T.
Tcnnatjeofa great deal more. In confirmation of this, it is thought
aiihig proper to fubjoin the dimenfions of feveral Ihips, with
L ' the tonnage calculated therefrom.
I. Audacious of feventy four guns.
Length on the gun deck - 168 f. o in.
Length of the keel for tonhage - 138 o
Extreme breadth
Depth of the hold
r* r
Launching draught of water -j
Load draught of water abaft
The weight of the fhip at her launching
draught of water . 15091.
SHIP-BUILDING.
46
19
12
*7
20
21
The weight of the furniture
Weight of the fhip at her light water
mark
Weight of the flnp at her load water
mark
Real burthen
By the common rule.
Length of the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
Lrodudl
Half the extreme breadth
67 Bibs.
120 1500
1629 2i78
2776 498
1146 560
138 f. o in.
46 9
6451
23
94)i5°8o3
Tonnage according to the common rule 1604 643
Real burthen - _ 1146 560
Difference
2. An Haft Indiatnan.
Length between the perpendiculars for¬
ward and aft
Length of the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
Depth in hold
Launching draught of water
Load draught of water f afore
_ 4 4 abaft
J he weight of the ihip at her launching
draught of water
45S 83
132 f. 8 in.
105 o
38 o
16 o
7 10
xi 10
19 8
20 8
602 t. 21 i61bs.
124
The weight of the furniture 50
Weight of the fhip at her light water
mark . . ^
Weight of the fhip at her load water
mark “ - 1637 1670
Real burthen 9g4 x()hjQ
w By the common rule.
Reel for tonnage . „ 105 fi
Extreme breadth - 38
Broduft „
Half extreme breadth
3999
‘9
Tonnage
Vox. XVII. Part IL
'94)758io
806 1096
Tonnage
Real tonnage
Difference
3. A Cutter.
Length of the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
Launching draught of water j ^
Load draught of water T^ft
The weight of the cutter at her launch-
ing
Weight of the furniture
Weight of the cutter at her light wa¬
ter mark
Weight of the cutter at her load water
mark
806 1096
984 1670
178 574
417
Tonnage of
a Ship. ,
Real burthen
By the common rule.
Keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
Product
Half extreme breadth
Tonnage by the common rule
Real tonnage
Difference
58 f. o in*
29 o-
5 10.
9 8
9 o
12 o
147 t. 64olbs.
9 199
156 839
266 1970
110 1131
58 f.
29
1682
Hr
94)24389
259 1024
110 1131
148 2133
Rhe impropriety of the common rule is hence mani-
feft, as there can be no dependence on it for afeertaining
the tonnage of veffels. ”
We fliall now fubjoin the following experimental
method of finding the tonnage of a fhip.
Conftruft a model agreeable to the draught of the ExpcH-
propofed fhip, to a fcale of about one-fourth of an inch menial me.,
to a foot, and let the light and load water lines bethod nf de"
marked on it. Then put the model in water, and load^nn"8
it until the furface of the water is exa&ly at the light nage of
water line; and let it be fufpended until the watervefRls.
drains off, and then weighed. Now fince the weights
cf fimilar bodies are in the triplicate ratio of their ho¬
mologous dimenfions, the weight of the fhip when IHht
rs, therefore, equal to the produH of the cube of die
number of times the fhip exceeds the model by the
weight of the model, which is to be reduced to tons.
Hence, if the model is conftruAed to a Quarter of an
inch fcale, and its weight expreffed in ounces ; then to
the conftant logarithm 0.4893556, add the logarithm of
the weight of the model in ounces, and the firm will
be the logarithm of the weight of the fhip in tons.
Again, the model is to be loaded until the furface of
the water coincides with the load water line. Now the
model being weighed, the weight of the fhip is to be
found by the preceding rule : then the difference be¬
tween the weights of the fhip when light and loaded
rs the tonnage required.
3 G
It
4i8 S H I P-B U
Tonnatre cf It will alfo be worth while to add the following ex-
» Ship. ru|e 0f Mr Parkins, who was many years foreman
  of the fliipwrights in Chatham dockyard.
I. For Men of War.
Take the length of the gun-deck from the rabbet of
the ftem to the rabbet of the llern-poft. \\ ot this is
tn be affumed as the length for tonnagey = L.
Take the extreme breadth from outfide to outfide of
the plank ; add this to the length, and take of the
furn ; call this the depth for tonnage, = D.
Set up this height from the limber ftrake, and at
that height take a breadth alfo from outiide to outfide
of plank in the timber when the extreme breadth is
found, and another breadth in the middle between that
and the limber ftrake; add together the extreme
breadth and thefe two breadths, and take \ of the fum
for the breadth for tonnage, r= D.
Multiply L, D, and B together, and divide by 49.
The quotient is the burthen in tons.
The following proof may be given of the accuracy
of this rule. Column 1. is the tonnage or burthen by
the king’s meafurement; col. 2. is the tonnage by this
rule; and, coL 3 is the weight acfually received on
board thefe (hips at Blackftakes ;
I L D I N G.
alfo the additional weight neceffary to bring her down
to the load water line.
In order to conftruft this fcale for a given fhip, it is
neceftary to calculate the quantity of water difplaced by
the keel, and by that part of the bottom below each
water line in the draught. Since the areas .of the feve-
ral water lines are already computed for the eighty gun
flip laid down in Plates CCCCLX. and CCCCLXI,
the contents of thefe parts may hence be ealily found
for that (hip, and are as follow.
Book T.
Vi&ory
London
Arrogant
Diadem
Adamant
Dolphin
Amphion
Daphne
100 guns
90
74
64
50
44
32
20
Stair i.f
Stlulity,
2162 1839 J840
1845 1575 ,677
1614 1308 I3I4
1369 1141 9^5
1044 870 886
879 737 • 758
667 554 549
429 329 374
2. For Ships of Burthen.
Take the length of the lower deck from the rabbet
©f the ftem to the rabbet of the ftern-poit; then of
this is the length for tonnage, = L.
Add the length of the lower deck to the extreme
breadth from outiide to outfide of plank ; and take fr
of the fum for the depth for tonnage, — D.
Set up that depth from the limber ftrake, and at thia
height take a breadth from outfide to outfide. 1 ake
another at y of this height, and another at y of the
height. Add the extreme breadth and thefe three
breadths, and take the 4th of the fum for the breadth
for tonnage*. := B.
Multiply L, D, and B, and divide by 36|-. The
quotient is the burthen in tons.
This rule -refts on the authority of many fuch trials,
as the following;
King’s Actually
Meairm. Rule., recd.onbd.
Northington Indiaman 676 io53 1064
Granby Indiaman 786. 1*79 Il!79
Union coallier 193 266 289
Another coallier 1.82 254 277
Chap. X. Of the Scale of Solidity.
By this fcale the quantity of water difplaced by the
bottom of the fhip, for which it is conftru&ed, anfwer-
ing to a given, draught of water is.ealily obtained; and
Draught of water.
Water difplaced in
Cubic feet. | tons. lbs.
Keel and falfe keel
Dill. bet. keel £
and 5th w. line )
Sum
Dift. 5th andl
4th w. line J
Sum
Dift. 4th and!
3d w. line J
Sum
Dift. 3d and7
2d w. line j
Sum
Dift. 2d and
1 ft w. line
Sum
}
2 f. 3 in.
4 1
6 4
4 1
10 5
4 *
14 6
4 1
18 7
4 I
22 8
660.9
8583.il
9243. i°I
18657.8^
2790,'7tt
23574'^i
51476.2^
27812.it5t
79288.3U
31285.711
110573.11^
21 1855
283 1233!
3°5 M
616 828
921 1676
778 1795
1700 1231
9l8 ‘775
2619 766
1033 1218
3652 1984
Conftruft any convenient fcale of equal parts to re-
prel'ent tons, as Icale n* 1. and another to reprefent
feet, as n° 2. _ plate
Draw the line AB (fig. 36 ) limited at A, but pro- cccclxji,
duced indefinitely towards B. Make AC equal to the^,
depth of the keel, 2 feet 3 inches from fcale n 2, and^,^' 0f t^e
through C draw a line parallel to AB, which will re-gaie 0f r„.
prefent the upper edge of the keel; upon which fet of? Hefty for
Cc equal to 21 tons 1855 lbs, taken from fcale n°
Again, make AD equal to the diftance between the” *
lower edge of the keel and the fifth water line, namely,
6 feet 4 inches, and a line drawn through D parallel to
AB will be the reprefentation of the lower water line ;
and make D b equal to 305 tons 848 lbs, the corre-
fponding tonnage. In like manner draw the other wa¬
ter lines, and lay off the correfponding tonnages ac¬
cordingly : then through the points A, c, 5, e,
g, h, draw the curve Acbefgh. Through A draw
h B perpendicular to AB, and it will be the great-
eft limit of the quantity of water expreffed in tons dif¬
placed by the bottom of the fhip, or that when fhe
is brought down to the load water line. And fince the
ftiip difplaces 1788 tons at her light water mark, take,
therefore that quantity from the fcale n° 1, which be¬
ing laid upon AB from A to K, and KL drawn per¬
pendicular to AB, will be the reprefentation of the
light water line for tonnage. Hence the fcak will be
completed.
(
Bookir. S H I F-B U
gc»le of Let it bow be required to find the number of cubic
Solidity. feeI; difplaced when the draught of water is x 7 feet, and
the number of additional tons neceflary to bring her
Ufe of the down to the load tvater mark.
above fcaic. Take the given draught of water 17 feet from the
fcale n° 2, which laid from it will reach to T ; through
which draw the line IMN parallel to AB, and inter-
fedting the curve in AC ; then the diftance IM applied
to the fcale n° 1. will meafure about 2248 tons, the dif-
placement anfwerable to that draught of water; and
MN applied to the fame fcale will meafure about 1405
tons, the additianal weight neceffary to bring her down
to the load water mark. Alfo the neareft diftance be¬
tween M and the line KL wrill meafure about 460 tons,
the v/eight already on board.
It will conduce very much to facilitate this operation
to divide KB into a Icale of tons taken from the Icale
n° 1, beginning at B, and alfo h L, beginning at h.
Then when the draught of water is taken from the fcale
n° 2, and laid from it to I, as in the former example,
and IMN drawn parallel to AB, and interfe&ing the
curve in M. Now through M draw aline perpendicu¬
lar to AB, and it will meet KB in a point reprefenting
the number of tons aboard, and alfo /6 L in a point de¬
noting the additional weight neceflary to load her. .
Again, if the weight on hoard be given, the corre-
fponding draught of water is obtained as follows.
Find the given number of tons in the fcale KB,
through which draw a line perpendicular to AB ; then
through the point of interfedlion of this line with the
curve draw another line parallel to AB. Now the
diftance between A and the point where the par allel
interfered AH being applied to the fcale n° 2, will
give the draught of water required.
Any other cafe to which this fcale may be applied
will be obvious.
Book II. Containing the Properties of Ships, Sec.
Chap. I. Gf the Equilibrium of Ships.
See Hydro- Since the preffure of fluids is equal in every direc-
tiatics. tion, tire bottom of a fhip is therefore afted upon by
the fluid in which it is immerfed ; which preffure, for
any given portion of furnace, is equal to the produr of
that portion by the depth and denfity of the fluid : or
it is equal to the weight of a column of the fluid whofe
bafe is the given furface, and the altitude equal to the
diftance between the furface of the fluid and the centre
of gravity of the furface preffed. Hence a floating
body is in equilibrio between two forces, namely, its
gravity and the vertical preflure of the fluid ; the hori¬
zontal preffure being deftroyed.
pjatc Let ABC (fig. 49.) be any body immerfed in
cccclxxv. a fluid whofe line of floatation is GH : hence the
preffure of the fluid is exerted on every portion of
the furface of the immerfed part AFCH. Let EF,
CD be any two fmall portions contained between the
« lines ED, FC, parallel to each other, and to the line
of floatation GH.: then the preflure exerted Upon EF
is expreffed by EF X IK, IK being the depth of EF
I L D I N G. 419
or CD 5 the denfity of the fluid being fuppofed equal EtmlifW-
to 1. In like manner the preffure upon CD is equal
to CD X IK. Now fince the preffure is in a direction
perpendicular to the furface, draw therefore the line
EL perpendicular to EF, and DM perpendicular to
DC, and make each equal to the depth IK, below the
furface. Now the effort or prefl’ure of the fluid upon
EF w'ill be expreffed by EF X EL, and that Upon
CD by CD X DM. Complete the parallelograms
ON, QS, and the preffure in the direction EL is re-
folved into EN, EO, the firft in a horizontal, and the
fecond in a vertical direction. In like manner, the
preffure in the direftion DM is refolved into the pref-
fures DS, DQ^ Hence the joint effeft of the preffures
in the horizontal and vertical diredtions, namely, EF X
EN, and EF X EO, w'ill be equal to EF X EL : For
the fame reafon, CD X DP -J- CD X DQjpr CD XDM.
But the parts of the preffures in a horizontal direction
EF X EN, and CD X DP, are equal. For, becaufe of
the fimilar triangles ENL, ERF, and DPM, DSC,
EL EF _ DM Dt
we have
EN ~ FR
and
DP “ CS
Hence DM
X CS = DP X DC, and EL X FR= EN X EF. Now
fince EL = DM, and FR = CS, therefore EL X FR
= DM X CS = DP X DC = EN X EF. Hence,
fince EF X EN DP X CD, the effefts of the pref¬
fures in a horizontal diredlion are therefore equal and
contrary, and confequently deftroy each other.
'idle preflure in a vertical direftion is reprefented by
EO X EF, DQj< DC, &c. which, becaufe of the fimi-
lar triangles EOL, ERF, and DLM, DSC, become
EL X ER, DM X DS, &c. or IK X ER, IK X DS,
&c. By applying the fame reafoning to every other
portion of the furface of the immerfed part of the body,
it is hence evident that the fum of the vertical preffures
is equal to the fum of the correfponding difplaced co¬
lumns of the fluid. ^
Hence a floating body is preffed upwards by a force The weight
equal to the weight of the quantity of w'ater difplaced C’f a
and fince there is an equilibrium between this force and t^onhe
the weight of the body, therefore the weight of a float- quantity cf
ing body is equal to the weight of the difplaced fluid water dif-
(k). Hence alfo the centre of gravity of the bodyP^acci^*
and the centre of gravity of the difplaced fluid are in ^
the fame vertical, otherwife the body would not be at centre of
reft. gravity of
both are in
Chap. II. Upon the Efforts of the Water to lend * the fame
Veffel. vertical.
When it is faid that the preffure of the water upon Thcorie
the immerfed part of a veffel counterbalances fcs weight, comp^ttet
it is fuppofed that the different parts of the veffel are fo f£^ifar
clofely connected together, that the forces W'hich a£l t ran Hated
upon its furfaee are not capable of producing any by Watfon.
change. For wre may eafily conceive, if the connec¬
tion of the parts were not fufficiently ftrong, the veflel
wTould run the rifle either of being broken in pieces, or
of fuffering fome alteration in its figure.
The veffel is in a fituation fimilar to that of a rod
AB (fig. 50.), which being a&ed upon by the forces
Aa, C c,~D d,Vt b, may be maintained in equilibrio,
3 G 2 pro-.
^k) Upon this principle the weight and tonnage of the 80 gun fhip laid down was calculated.
4-20 • S H I P - B U
of provided it has a fuff;clent degree of ftiffnefs : but as-
V.- ^ Ja ^oon as ^ begins to give way, it is evident it mull bend
Wffci ^ hi a convex manner, fince its middle would obey the
t——v**~- forces C c and D d, wdiile its extremities would be ac¬
tually drawn downwards by the forces A a and B b.
The veflel is generally found in fuch a fituation ; and
fince limilar efforts continually aft whilil the veffel is
immcrfed in the water, it happens but too often that
the keel experiences the bad effeft of a drain. It is
therefore very important to inquire into the true caufe
of this accident.
for this purpofe, let us conceive the veffel to be di¬
vided into two parts by a trani'verfe feftion through
the vertical axis of the veffel, in which both the centre
ceccLXv. °- grav'ty O (fig. 51.) of the whole veffel and that of
the immerfed part are fituated : fo that one of them
will reprefent the head part, and the other that of the
fieri., each of which will be coniidered feparately. Let
be the centre of gravity of the entire weight of the
firll, and 0 that of the immerfed part corrtfponding.
In like manner, let y be the centre of gravity of the
whole after part, and <zv that of its immediate por¬
tion.
Now it is plain, that the head will be aided upon by
the two forces g m and 0 n, of which the firfl will prefs
it down, and the latter pufh it up. In the fame man¬
ner, the ftern will be preffed down by the force yy, and
pufhed up by the force a». But thefe four forces will
maintain themfelves in equilibrium, as well as the total
64 forces reunited in the points G and O, which are equi-
The canfe valent to them ; but whilfl neither the forces before
Egging * n°r t^I0^e behind fall in the fame direftion, the veffel
h ’ will evidently fuflain efforts tending to bend the keel
(,t- upwards, if the two points 0 « are nearer the middle
Ard lag- than the two other forces gm and y y. A contrary
aji;g- effeft would happen if the points 0 and a were more
diflant from the middle than the points g and y.
But the firfl of thefe two caufes ulually takes place
almoll in all veffels, fince they have a greater breadth
towards the middle, and become more and more narrow
towards the extremities ; whilil the weight of the veffel
is in proportion much more coniiderable towards the
extremities than at the middle. From whence we fee,
that the greater this difference becomes, the more alfo
will the v.effelbe fubjeft to the forces which tend to bend
its keel upwards. It is therefore from thence that
we mufl judge how much flrength it is neceffary to
give to- this part of the velfel, in order to avoid fuch a
confequence.
If other circumflances would permit either to load
the veffel more in the middle, or to give to the part
immerfed a greater capacity towards the head and flern,
fuch an effeft would no longer be apprehended. But the
deflination of moil velTels is entirely oppofite to fuch an
arrangement: by which means we are obliged to ihength-
en the keel as much, as may be neeeffary, in order to
avoid fuch a difafler.
We (hall conclude this chapter with the following
practical obfervations on the hogging and fagging of
Ihips by Mr Hutchinfon of Liverpool :
^Stara'inli “ hiips with long floors happen to be laid a-
dty.upon mud or land, which makes a folid refiftance
againft the long flraight floors amidfhips, in compan¬
ion with the two (harp ends, the entrance and run meet
with little fupport, but are preffed down lower than.the
I L D I N G. Book IT.
flat of the floor, and in proportion hogs the (hip amid- iirtbrts of
fhips ; which is too well known from experience to oc- "rater
caixon many total Ioffes, or do fo much damage by *
hogging them, as to require a vail deal of trouble and
expence to fave and repair them, fo as to get the hog
taKen out and brought to their proper fheer again : and
to do this the more effeftually, the owners have often
been induced to go to the-expence of lengthening them j
and by the common method, in proportion as they add
to the burden of thefe fhips, by lengthening their too
long flraight floors in their main bodies amidfhips, fo
much do they add to their general weakneis to bear
hardfhips either on the ground or afloat ; for the fcant-
ling of their old timber and plank is not proportion-
able to bear the additional burden that is added to
them.
“ But defefts o! this kind are bell proved from real
and ineonteflable fafts in common praftice. At the
very time I was writing upon this fubjeft, I was called
upon for my advice by the commander of one of thole
flrong, long-, flraight floored flips, who was in much
trouble and difliaction of mind for the damage his-
(hip had taken by the pilot laying her on a hard,,
gentle Hoping fand, at the outfide of our docks at Li¬
verpool, where it is common for flu’ps that will take
the ground to lie for a tide, when it proves too late to
get into our wet docks. After recommending a pro¬
per fhip carpenter, I went to the flip, which lay with
only a fmall keel, yet was greatly hogged, and the
butts of her upper works flrained greatly on the lee-
iide ; and the learns of her bottom, at the lower fut-
tock heads, vallly opened on the weather fide : all
which flrained parts were agreed upon not to be caulk¬
ed, but filled with tallow, putty, or clay, &.c. with raw.
bullocks hides, or canvas nailed with battens on her
bottom, which prevented her finking with the flow of
the tide, without hindering the preffure of water from
righting and doling the feams again as foe floated, fo asr
to enable them to keep her free with pumping. This
veffel, like many other inflances of fhips o: tins conftruc-
t/ori that I have known, was faved and repaired at a
very great expence in our dry repairing docks. And
that their bottoms not only hog upwards, but fag (or
curve) downwards, to dangerous and fatal degrees, ac¬
cording to the (train or preflure that prevails upon,
them, will be proved from the following fafts:
“ It has been long known from experience, that
when fhips load deep with very heavy cargoes or ma¬
terials that are flowed too low, it makes them fo very
labourfome at fea, when the waves run high, as to roll,
away their malls; and after that misfortune caufes them;
to labour and roll the more, fo as to endanger their
working and llraining themfelves to pieces: to prevent
which, it has been long a common praftice to leave at
great part of their fore and after holds empty, and to
flow them as high as poflible in the main body at mid-
fhips, which caufes the bottoms of thefe long flraight
floored fhips to fag downwards, in proportion as the
weight of the cargo flowed there exceeds the preflure
of the water upwards, fo much fo as to make them
dangeroufly and fatally leaky.
“ I have known many initanecs of thofe flrong flips
of 500 or 600 tons burdens built with long itraight.
floors, on the call coait of England, for the coal and
timber trade, come loaded with timber from the Baltic
3 to>
EooklL SHIP-BUILDING.
Eff rts of to Liverpool, where commonly load deep with
the^Water rocjc wl)ic]1 is too heavy to fill their holds, fo that
Vcil-L ^or t^ie a^ove reafons they flowed it high amidfhips,
Lmm-y—m. and left large empty fpaces in their fore and after holds,
which caufed their long flraight floors to fag down¬
wards, fo much as to make their hold ftaunchions arnid-
fhips, at the main hatchway, fettle from the beams three
or four inches, and their mainmafts fettle fo much as
to oblige them to fet up the main rigging when roll¬
ing hard at fea, to prevent the malls being rolled
away; and they were rendered fo leaky as to be obliged
to return to Liverpool to get their leaks flopped at
great expence. And in order to fave the time and ex-
pence in difeharging them, endeavours were made to
find out and flop their leaks, by laying them afhore
dry on a level land ; but without efledt : for though
their bottoms were thus fagged down by their cargoes
when afloat, yet when they came a-dry upon the fand,
fome of their bottoms hogged upwards lo much as u>
raife their mainraafts and pumps fo high as to tear their
coats from their decks ; fo that they have been obliged
to difeharge their cargoes, and give them a repair in
the repairing dock, and in fume to double their bot¬
toms, to enable them to carry their cargoes with fafe-
ty, flowed in this manner. From this caufe I have
known one of thefe ftrong fhips to founder.
“ Among the many inllances of fhips that have been
diftrefled by carrying cargoes of lead, one failed from
hence bound to Marfeilles, which was fcon obliged to put
back again in great diftrefs, having had four feet water
in the hold, by the commander’s account, owing to the
fhip’s bottom fagging- down to fuch a degree as made
the hold ftaunchions fettle fix inches from the lower
deck beams amidfhips ; yet it is common with thefe long
itraight floored fhips, when thefe heavy cargoes are dif-
charged that makes their bottom fag down, then to hog
upwards: lo that when they are put into a dry repair¬
ing dock, with empty holds, upon ftraight blocks, they
commonly either fplit the blocks clofe fore and aft, or
damage their keels there, by the whole weight of the
fhip lying upon them, when none lies upon the blacks
under the flat of their floors amidfhips, that being hog¬
ged upwards ; which was the cafe of this fhip’s bottom j
though fagged downwards fix inches by her cargo, it
was now found hogged fo much that her keel did not
touch the blocks amidfhips, which occafloned fo much
damage to the after part of the keel, as to oblige them
to repair it; which is commonly the cafe with thefe
fhips, and therefore deferving particular notice.”
In order to prevent thefe defe£ts in fhips, “ they
fhould all be built with their floors or bottoms length-
wife, to form an arch with the projefting part down¬
wards, which will naturally not only contribute greatly
to prevent their taking damage by their bottoms hog¬
ging and ftraining upwards, either aground or afloat, as
has been mentioned, but will, among other advantages,
be a help to their failing, fleering, flaying, and wa¬
ring.”
Chap. III. Of the Stalility of Ships,
When a veffd receives an impulfe or preffure in a
horizontal direction, fo as to be inclined in a fmall
degree, the vefiel will then either regain its former
poiition as the preflure is taken off, and is in this cafe
faid to be poflefied of {lability ; or it will continue in Stability
its inclined ftate ; or, laftly, the inclination will increafe
until the veflel is overturned. With regard to the firft
cafe, it is evident that a fuffleient degree oHlability is
necefiary in order to fuftain the efforts of the wind ; but
neither of the other two .cafes muft be permitted to
have place in veflels.
Let CED (fig. 52.) be the feftion of a fhip pafling
through its centre of gravity, and perpendicular to the
fheer and floor plans ; which let be in equilibrium in a
fluid; AB being the water line, G the centre of gra¬
vity of the whole body, and g that of the immerfed
part AEB. Let the body receive now a very fmall
inclination, fo that a E £ becomes the immerfed part,
and y its centre of gravity. From > draw y M perpen-
dicular to a b, and meetings G, produced, if necefiary,
in M. If, then, the point M thus found is higher
than G the centre of gravity of the whole body, the
body will, in this cafe, return to its-former polltion,
the preffure being taken off. If the point M coin¬
cides with G, the veflel will remain in its inclined
Hate ; but if M be below G, the inclination of the
veffel will continually increafe until it is entirely over-
fet.
The point of interfeefion M is called the metacentert
and is the limit of the altitude of the centre of gravity
of the whole veffeL Whence it is evident, from what
has already been laid, that the liability of the veflel in-
creafes with the altitude of the metacenter above the
centre of gravity : But when the metacenter coincides
with the centre of gravity, the veflel has no tendency
whatever to move out of the fttuation into which it may
be put. Thus, if the veflel be inclined either to the right
or left fide, it will remain in that pofition until a new
force is impreffed upon it: in this cafe, therefore, the
veflel would not be able to carry fail, and is hence un¬
fit for the purpofes of navigation. If the metacenter
is below the common centre of gravity, the veflel will
inilantly o-verfet.
As the determination of the metacenter is-of the ut-
moft importance in the conftru&ion. of fhips, it is there¬
fore thought neceflary to illuilrate this fubjedf more par¬
ticularly.
_ Let AEB (fig. 52.) be a fedlion of a Ihip perpen¬
dicular to the keel, and alfo to the plane of elevation,-
and palling through the centre of gravity of the fliip,
and alfo through the centre of gravity of the immerfed
part, which let he^.
Now let the Ihip be fuppofed to receive a very fmall
inclination, fo that the line of floatation is <?,,£, and > the:
centre of gravity of the immerfed part a hi b. From y
draw y M perpendicular to ab, and interfedling GM in-.
M, the metacenter, as before. Hence the preflure of
the water will be in the diredtion y M.
In order to determine the point M, the metacenter,
the pofition of y with refpedl to the lines AB and g G,
mull be previoufly afeertained. For this purpofe, let
the fhip be fuppofed to be divided into a great number
of fedlions by planes} perpendicular to the keel, and pa¬
rallel to each other, and to that formerly drawn, thefe
planes being fuppofed equidiftant. Let AEB (fig. ^3.)
be one of thefe fedtions, g the centre of gravitv of the
immerfed part before inclination, and y the c<jntre of
gravity of the immerfed part when the fhip is in its
inclined ftatethe diftance g y between the two centre*.
of
+ Berout't
Mechaniquc,
*rt.
422 ' S H I' P-B u
Stability of 0f gravity in each feftion is to he found. Let AB he
, the line of floatation of the (hip whep in an upright
"" » " ftatc, and n b the water line when inclined. Then, be-
caufe the weight of the (hip remains the fame, the
quantity of water dil placed will alfo be the fame in both
cafes, and therefore AEB za c E b, each fuftaining the
fame part of the whole weight of the (hip. From each
of thefe take the part AE A, which is common to
both, and the remainders AO a, BO b will be equal ;
and which, becaufe the inclination is fuppofed very (mall,
may be confidertd as rectilineal triangles, and the point
O the middle of AB.
’ Now, let H, I, K, be the centres of gravity of the
•{paces AOfl, AE A and BOA refpeftively. From
thefe points draw the lines H A, I i, and K i, perpen¬
dicular to AB, and let IL be drawn perpendicular to
EO. Now to afcertain the diftance y q oi the centre
of gravity y of the part a JL b from the line AB, the
momentum of a IE. b with refpedl to this line muft be
put equal to the difference of the momentums of the
parts AE A AO a, which are upon different Aides of
AB f- Hence a IE bXr q, or AEB X y q — AF. b
X I i—AO a X H A. But ffnce g is the common centre
of gravity of the two parts AE A BO A we have there¬
fore AEB X^O = AE<5 X I r-fBO bXFk. Hence
by expunging the term AE ^ X I / from each of
thefe equations, and comoaring them, we obtain AEB
X y AEBX^- O—BO b X K i — AO a;X H h.
Now, fmce the triangles AO a, BO b, arc fuppofed
infinitely fmall, their momentums or produCfs, by the
infinitely little lines H A K i, will alfo be infinitely
fmall with refpeCl to AEB X ^ O; which therefore be¬
ing rejefted, the former equation becomes A EB X y q
= AEB y^gO, and hence y q — gQ. Whence the
•centres of gravity 7, g, being at equal diffances below
AB, the infinitely little line y ^ is therefore perpendi¬
cular to EO. For the fame reafonj’-?, fig. 52. may
be confidered as an aich of a circle whole centre is M.
To determine the value of g >, the momentum of
a E b with refpedf to EO muft be taken, for the fame
Teafon as before, and put equah to the momentums of
the two parts AO a, AE £ ; and we (hall then have
aF b Xg y, or AEB x g y AEB X IL -j- AO a
X O A But fmce g is the common centre of gravity
of the two fpaces AE b, BO A we (hall have AE £ X
IL — BO ^ X O Z ^ O, or AE bxlL = BO b X
O A Hence AEB X^ j-=. BO £ X 0£-f-AO a x O £
= 2BOiXOi; becaufe the two triapgles AO a,
BO b are equal, and that the diftances Ob, Ob, arc
alfo evidently equal.
Let x be the thicknefs of the feftion reprefented by
ABC. Then the momentum of this fedtion will be
2 BO b Xx XO k, which equation will alfo ferve for
•each particular leftion.
Now let f reprefent the fum of the momentums of
all the fe&ions. Hence J, AEB XxXgy — J, 2.
BO b X X X O k. Now the firft member being the
fum of the momentums of each fe&icn, in proportion
to a plane paffmg through the keel, ought therefore to
be equal to the fum of all the fedfions, or to the volume
of the immerfed part of the bottom multiplied by the
diftance gy. Hence V reprefenting the volume, we
fhall have V Xgy —f, 2 BO bXxO h.
In order to determine the value of the fecond member
of this equation, it may be remarked, that when the
I L D I N G, , ♦ Bookir,
(hip is inclined, the original plane of floatation CBPO
(fig- 54-) becomes C £ Q. Now the triangles NIn, ship*.
BO b, being the fame as thofe in figures'^2. and 53. ;
and as each of thefe triangles have one angle equal, they
may, upon account of their infinite (mallnefs, be confi¬
dered as fimilar ; and hence B O 3 : NI « : : OBI*
 ^ 'OK J2
: IN:2 ; whence BO 3 ==- X N I n. Moreover, we
TNI*
have (fig. J3.) O i = y O B, for the points K and k
may be confidered as equidiftant from the point O :
whence BO A<0 k X NI n.
INT
Flence YXgy— f, X x X NI «. From this
IN|2
equation the value of y y is obtained.
To find the altitude £ M (fig 55.) of the meta¬
center above the centre of gravity of the immerfed part
of the bottom, let the arc N S be defcribed from the
centre I with the radius IN; then NI n —
INxNS
.Now
Now this being fubftituted in the
Whence to have the altitude of the me-
fince the two ftraight lines y M, £ M are perpendicular
to an and AN refpe6(ively, the angles M and NI n
are therefore equal: and the infinitely little portion g y,
which is perpendicular to g M, may be confider ed as an
archdefcribed from the centre M. Hence the two fee-
tors NTS, g M > are fimilar ; and therefore ^ M : ^ :
IN : NS. Hence NS ; and confequently
_ n ,7
Ni»=Mlxrj-.
2,y _M
former equation, and reduced, we have Y Xg y —f
4 OBJ} X x X g y „ r , T ,
 ^*M * ■^llt “nce £ ^ an“ S y are t"41
fame, whatever feftion may be under confideratiorq the
equation may therefore be expreffed thus, V Xg y ~
. /, OBl’X x. Hence gM =
g M ^ V
Let y = OB, and the equation becomes ^ M —
ULy3j
Y
tacenter above the centre of gravity of the immerfed part
of the bottom, the length of the fettion at the water¬
line muft be divided by lines perpendicular to the middle
line of this fedfion into a great number of equal parts,
fo that- the portion of the curve contained between any
two adjacent perpendiculars may be confidered as a
ftraight line. Then the lum of the cubes of the half
perpendiculars or ordinates is to be multiplied by the
diftance between the perpendiculars, and two thirds of
the produdl is to be divided by the volume of the im-
metfed part of the bottom of the (hip.
It is hence evident, that while the feclor at the wa¬
ter line is the fame, and the volume of the immerfed part
of the bottom remains alio the fame, the altitude ot the
metacenter will remain the fame, whatever may be the
figure of the bottom.
Chap. IV. 0/ the Centre of Gravity of the immerfed Part
of the Bottom of a flip.
The centre of gravity * of a (hip, fuppofed homo-4 Sec
geneous, and in an upright pofition in the water, is in ^cuani',‘
4 ver-
Book H.
S H I P-B U
Centre of vertical fe&ion pafiiajr through the keel, and dividing
Gravity, (^Jp jnt0 two equal and limihr parts, at a certain di-
T ftance from the flern, and altitude above the heel.
In order to determine the centre of gravity of the
immerfed part of a {hip’s bottom, we mull begin with
determining the centre of gravity of a feftion of the (hip
parallel to the keel, as ANDFPB (fig, 56.), bounded
by the parallel lines AB, DF, and by the equal and fi-
milar curves AND, BPF.
If the equation of this curve were known, its centre
of gravity would be eafily found : but as this is not the
cafe, let therefore the line CE be drawn through th**
middle C, E, of the lines AB, DF, and let this line
CE be divided into fo great a number of equal parts
by the perpendiculars TH, EM, &c. that the arches of
the curves contained between the extremities of any two
adjacent perpendiculars may be confidered as ftraight
lines. The momentums of the trapeziums DTHF,
TKMH, See. relative to the point E, are then to be
found, and the fum of thefe momentums is to be divided
by the fum of the trapeziums, that is, by the furface
ANDFPB.
The diitance of the centre of gravity of the trape-
y IE:<(DF4-2TH)
66
Diftance
of the
centre of
gravity
from the
ftem or
iletn.
$ Bez out's
zium THFD from the pointEis:
DF+TH
For the fame reafon, and becanfe of the equality of the
art. zjy. lines IE, IE, the diRance of the centre of gravity of
the trapezium TKMH from the fame point E will be
•fIEX(TH+2 KM) _ Tc. 4IEx(4TH+-5KM)
TH + KM +1L>or- TH+KM *
In like manner, the diRance of the centre of gravity of
the trapezium NKMP from the point E will be
4IEX(KM+2NP) F _4IEX(7KM+SNP)
KM+NP "r ’ KM + NP ’
&c.
Now, if each diRance be multiplied by the furface of
the correfponding trapezium, that is, by the product of
half the fum of the two oppofite Tides of the trapezium
into the common altitude IE, we (hall have the momen-
tumsof thefe trapeziums,namely, 4 IE|2X(E>F-{-2TH),
4 IE|* X (4 TH + 5KM)41E|2X(7 KM + SNP),
See. Hence the fum of thefe momentiuns will be 4
FeI’X (DF-J-6TH+I2 KM+18 NP-f 24QS4-14
AB). Whence it may be remarked, that if the line
CE be divided into a great number of equal parts,, the
faftor or coefficient of the laR term, which is here 14,
will be = 24-3 (n— 2 ) or 3 n—4, « being the number
of perpendiculars. Thus the general expreffion ol the
fum of the momentums is reduced to lE|x (4 +
TH + 2 KM + 3 NP + 4 QS +, Sec.—k 1”-~1
j , X AB).
The area of the figure ANDFPB is equal to
IE x (4 DF + TH + KM + N P +, &c + 4
AB) ; hence the diRance EG of the centre of gravity
G from one of the extreme ordinates DF is egual to
®7
Rule for
the diftance
IEx(4DF+TH+2KM+3NP+,&c.+Apb<AB)
4 DF + IH FKM + NP4-, Sec. -J- 4 AB :
of the cen- Whence the following rule to find the diflance of the
vit °from* centre gravity G from one of the extreme ordinates
one of the To the fixth of. the firR ordinate add the fixth
extreme of the laft ordinate multiplied by three times the num-
wdinates.
I !L D I N O.
ber of ordinates minus four ; tlien the fecond ordinate, Centre of
twice the third, three times the fourth, Sec. the fum Gravity?.
will be a firR term. Then to half the fum of the ex-
treme ordinates add all the intermediate ones, and the
fum will be a fecond term. Now the firR term divided
by the fecond, and the quotient multiulied by the in¬
terval between two adjacent perpendiculars, will be the
diRance fought.
Thus, let there be feven perpendiculars, whofe va-
lues are 18, 23, 28, 3c, 30,. 2U, o, feet.refpeftively,,
and the common interval between thefe perpendiculars
20 feet. Now the fixth of the firR term 18 is 3 ; and
as the kR term is c, therefore to 3 add 23, twice 28
or 56, thrice 30 or 90, four times 30 or 1 20, five times
2( or 105 ; and the fum is 397. "Then to the half of
18.4-0, or 9, add the intermediate ordinates, and the
fum will be 141. Now 32.1*20, or 7940 , feet
141 141 ^
4 inches nearly, the diRance of the centre of gravity
from the firR ordinate.
Now, when the centre of gravity of any fe&ion is-
determined, it is eafy from thence to find the centre of
gravity of the folid, and confequently that of the bot¬
tom of a {hip.
Fhe next Rep is to find the. height of the centre of bright cF*
gravity, of the bottom above the keel.. For this pUr-thc “lltre
pofe the bottom muR be imagined to be divided into "[ ff ‘avi.tjr
leftions by planes parallel to the keel or water-line, keel,
(figs. 57, 58.) i hen the folidity of each portion con¬
tained between two parallel planes will be equal to half
the fum of the two oppofed furfaces multiplied by the
diRance between them ; and its centre of gravity will
be at the fame altitude as that of the trapezium a t r a',
(fig. 58.), which is in the vertical leclion paffing
through the keel. It is hence obvious, that the fame
rule as before is to be applied to find the altitude of the
centre of gravity, with this difference only, that the
word perpendicular or ordinate is to be changed into
fedion. Hence the rule is, to the fixth part of the
loweR fe&ion add the product of the fixth part of the
uppermoR fe&ion by three times the number of ft&ions,
minus four; the iecond fe&ion in afeending twice the
third, three times the fourth. See. the fum will be
a firR term. To half the fum of upper and lower lec¬
tions add the intermediate ones, the furn will be a fe¬
cond term. Divide the firR term by the fecond, and
the quotient multiplied by the diRance between the fec-
tions will give the altitude of the centre of gravity
above the keel. 7
With regard to the-centre of gravity of a ft ip, whe¬
ther it is confidered as loaded or light, the operatic a
becomes more difficult. The momentum of every dif¬
ferent part of the ftip and cargo mult be found fepa-
rately with refpe& to a horizontal and alfo a vertical:
plane. Now the fums of thefe two momentums being
divided by the weight of the ftip> will give the alti¬
tude of the centre of gravity, and its diRance from the
vertical plane ; and as this centre is in a vertical plane
paffing through the axis of the keel, its place is
therefore determined. In the calculation -of the mo¬
mentums, it muR be obferved to multiply the weioht,
and not the magnitude of each piece, by the diRance of
its centre of gravity.
A more eafy method of finding the centre of gravity
*f a ftip is by a mechanical operation, as foliows: ConRrud.
424
Centre of a block of as tight wood as poffible, exactly fimilar to the
, ^ravii:7- parts of the propofed draught or ihip, by a feale ot
6() about one-fourth of an inch to a foot. The block is
A mecha- then to be fufpended by a iilk-thread or very fine line,
nical me- placed in different fituations until it is found to be in a
^f0 rta°'n ^ate ^ eclu^kmim> and the centre of gravity will be
fn^the " pointed out. The block may be proved by faftening
centre < f the line which fufpends it to any point in the line join-
gravity of ing the middles of the ftem and poll, and weights are
** to be fufpended from the extremities of this middle line
at the ftem and poll. If, then, the block be properly
conftrufled, a plane palling through the line of fufpen-
fion, and the other two lines, will alio pafs through the
keel, ftem, and poll. Now, the block being lufpend-
ed in this manner from any point in the middle line, a
line is to be drawn on the block parallel to the line of
fufpenfion, fo that the plane pafiing through thefe two
lines may be perpendicular to the vertical plane of the
Ihip in the direftion of the keel. The line by which
the block is fufpended is then to be removed to fome
Book IF,
other convenient point in the middle line ; and another Centre of
line is to be drawn on the block parallel to the line fuf- Gravity-<
pending it, as before. Then the-point of inter!eftion ^
of this line with the former will give the pofition of
the centre of gravity on the block, which may now be
laid down in the draught.
Chap. V. application of the preceding Rules to the De¬
termination of the Centre of Gravity and the Height of
the Metacenter above the Centre of Gravity of a Ship of
74 Guns. %
In fig. 59. are laid down the feveral feflions in a
horizontal direftion, by planes parallel to the keel, and
at equal diftances from each other, each diftance being
10 feet o inches 4 parts*
I. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the upper Ho¬
rizontal Se8ion.
To find the diftance of the centre of gravity of the
plane 8 ^ 0 G from the firft ordinate 8 g.
SHIP-BUILDING.
Ordinates.
Fecr. In P.
14 9 °
17 i 6
18 9 o
1910 o
20 7 6
21
21
21
21
21
21
20 IO
19 9
17 4
13 1
Double Ord.
Feet. In. P.
29 6 O
34 3 0
37 6 o
39 8 0
41 3 o
42 3
43 0
43 3
43
43
42 8
4‘ 9
39
34
26
tft Fa&ors.
°5-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
J2
*3
X 15)
ift Products, , , F;,(CLnr(1 2d Products
Feet In. P. 2(1 1
4 11
34 3
((3X.J)-4)X;
75
119
165
211
258
3°3
346
389
426
459
474
45 1
179
o
o
o
o
o
6
o
6
o
o
o
o
o
o
I
Oy
t
I
I
1
l
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
t
Or
Feet. In. P.
14 9 C
34 3
37 6
39 8
41 3
3
o
3
3
3
42
43
43
43
43
42 8
41 9
39
34
1 3
291 13 582 2 6
3897 3 *
N(
3897 3 *
X 10
3897 . 27
4 = ^rr h ,£>-03
70.5.
o
o
o
©
6
6
6
6
o
o
o
o
o
3
554 4 3
554 4 3 554 -25
Hence ♦he diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 £ 0 G from the firft ordinate
8«?> is . ‘
.Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of ftern-poft,
Diftance of the centre of gravity from the aft fide of poft, *■ -
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR g 8 from its ordinate AR,
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the ftern-poft, *
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this plane from the aft fide of the ftern-poft,
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium G 0 y z from its ordinate G 0,
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poll,
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft,
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the ftern-poft from the aft part of the poft,
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fe&ion of the ftern from the aft fide of the poftj
Feet.
7<M
1 3 5
84.0
8.42
0.58
9.0
5*44
*53-78
159.22
0.29
169.76
Tbs
Book H.
Centre of
Gravity.
SHIP-BUILDING.
The areas of thefe feveral planes, calculated by the common method, will be as follow ;
5558.90 for that of the plane, and its momentum 5558.9 X 84 sr 466947.6000
1 99.13 for that of double the trapezium AR^ 8, and its momentum 199.13 X 9 == 1 792.1700
2 14.59 for that of double the trapezium G 0 and its momentum 214.59 X 159.22 s 34167.0236
0.77 for that of the feftion of the ftern-poft, and its momentum 0.77 X 0.29 = °*2233
0.77 for that of the fe&ion of the item, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 =: 130.7152
4*1
Centre of
Gravity,
5974.16 Sum ... - 503°37*732 i
Now • ^ t^ie diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole fe&ion from the aft fide of
the ftermpoft.
IT. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the fecond Horixontal Section.
To find the dillance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8/« G from its firil ordinate 8 f
Ordinates.
Double Ord. 1. Fa&ors.
Feet. In. Pts.
1123
3
5
15
17
18 10
19 10
7
o
2
o
20
21
21
21
20 IO
20 6
19 IO
18 6
*5 9
11 2
Feet. In. Pts.
22 4 6
30 6
34
8
9
2
o
4
1
9
1
37
39
41
42
42
42
41
41
39 8
37 °
3i
22
O-T
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*3
1. Produ&s. 2. Fail.
Feet. In. Pts.
9
3
30
69
113
159
205 10
252 3
296 4
336 8 o
6
o
o
o
o
o4
37s
410 10
4
o
7
43<5
444
410
2. Produfts.
Feet. In. Pts.
II 23
30 6
34 10
8
9
2
o
4
1
9
1
37
39
4t
42
42
42
4i
4*
6 ((SX^)—4) Xv 153 oj
39 8
37 o
3i 7
11 2
e
o
6
o
o
6
o
o
6
o
o
o
o
273
546 4 6
3698 5 3
523 11 6
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8/n G from its firft ordinate 8 n is
3^98 5 3    3698.43
  —2 X 10.C.4
3 11 6
X 10.03 =
523 II 0 ■ 523*95
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the ftern-poft - .
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the above plane from the aft fide of poll
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR/8 from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of ftern-poft: - - .
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium before the ordinate G n from that ordinate
Diftance of that ordinate from the aft fide of the poft - - .
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the ftern-poft from the aft fide of the poft;
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fe&ion of the ftem from the aft fide of the poft
The areas of thefe feveral plans being calculated, will be as follow:
5255.22 for that of the plan 8/n G, and its momentum 5255.22 X 84.29 =
153.11 for that of double the trapezium AR/8, and its momentum 155.11 X 8.95 zs
182.40 the area of the trapezium before, and its momentum 182.40 X 159.52 =
0.77 the area of the fe&ion of the fternpoft, and its momentum 0.77 X 0.29 =
0.77 the area of the fedion of the ftem, and its mortientum 0.77 X 169.76 =2
5592.27 Sum
Vot. XVII. Part II.
3 H
70.79
J3-5
84.29
8L38
0.57
8*95
5*74
I53-78
159*52
0\29
169.76
442962.493*
I37°*3345
29096.4480
0.2233
130.7152
473560.2148
Now
1
426
SHIP-BUILDING.
Book IF,
Centre ot
Centre of 4'7 3c6o.2148 ri <• 1 Centre of
Gravity. Now — —   =84.68, the diftance of the centre ot gravity of the whole lection from t&e aftfida Gravity*
1 - - 5952.27 T » i
of the ftern-poft.
III. Determination of the Centre bf Gravity of the third Horizontal Sefiion.
DUlance of
Ordinates.
Feet. Fn. Pts.
676
7
1
1
3
3
9
o
o
the centre of gravity
Double Ord.
F’eet. In. Pts.
of double the plan 8 e w G from its firft ordinate 8 e*
1. Factors. 1. Produdts. 2. Fadt. 2. Products.
11
*5
*7
18
19
19
20
20
19 8
19 1
J 8 1
16 3
13 2
8 4
23
3©
34
36
38
39
40
40
39
38
36
32
26
°S'
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
12
J3
23
60
Feet. in. Pts.
2 2 6
3
4
7
o
6
o
o
o
4
1
102
146
192
237
280
32°
354
382
397 10
391 6
342 10
of
1
z
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Feet In. Pts.
676
3
2
23
3°
34
36
S8
39
40
40
39
38
36
32
26
16 9 o
—4) X s' —
114 5 6
3347
846
469 10 6
, 242 5 3' 484 iq 6
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 em G from its firft; ordinate 8 e i?s
. 3347 o 6 3347-°4
«= -ir 7 X 10 o 4 = or- X 10.03 =
469 10 6 ^ 409.87 J
Diftance of this ordinate fronv the aft fide of the poll
71-44
13?
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of this plan from the aft fide of the poft is
Eiftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR <?8, from its ordinate All
iftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft - -
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from its ordinate G m
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the poft from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fe&ioH of the ftem from the aft fide of the poft
The areas of thefe feveral planes will be found to be as follow:
4712.7961 for that of double the plan 8 em G, and its momentum 4712.7961 X 84.94 ^
93.84 the area of double the trapezium AR 3 e 88, and its momentum 93-84 X 8.61 =2
13.1.1 for the area of foremoft trapezium, and its momentum 131.1 X 158.97 =
0.77 the area of the feftion of the poft, and its momentum 0.77 X o. 29 =
0.77 the area of the fe&ion of the ftem, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 =
84.94
8.o<a
0.58
8.61
4939.2761 Sum
5.19
153-?8-
1/8.97
0.29
169.76
400304.9007
807.9624
20840.967
0.2233
130.7152
422084.7706
Now — 85.45, the diftance of the centre of gravity ©f the whole fe&ion from the aft fide of
the poft. 4959‘2*7 1
!»V. Dr
Book If.
Centre of
Gravity.
SHIP-BUILDING.
IV. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the Fourth Horizontal SeSion*
Diftance ©f the centre ©f gravity of double the plan 8 <//G from its firft ordinate 8 J,
Ordinates. Double Ord. i. Fadtors. I. Produ&s. 2. Fadt. 2. Produdts.
Feet. In. Pts.
3 3 6
7 9
11 ii
14 8
16 3
4
1
5
3
17
18
18
18
17 10
17 2
15 10
13 6
9 7
Feet. In. Pts.
670
15 6
2X IO
29 5
32 6
34 9
36 3
36 10
36 6
35 9
5
8
o
3
34
3l
27
J9
Ob-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
S
9
JO
11
12
13
Feet. In. Pts.
I I 2
15 6
47 8
88 4
130 o
173 11
217 9 o-,
257 10 o
292 o
322 I
340 10
348 9
324 o
250 3
o
6
o
6
o
o
Ot
I
r
1
1
1
1
t
1
1
1
1
i
s.
5 4 9
ro
6 ((3X15)-4) X £ 73 8 11
Feet. In. Pt$>
3 3 6
15 6
23 10
29 5
32 6
34 9
36 3
36 TO
36 6
35 9
34 5
31 8
27 o
19 3
o
o
6
o
6
6
o
o
6
o
6
o
o
205 7 6 411 3
2883 u o
5 4 9
402 6 9
Diftahce of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft - - w
Didance of the centre of gravity of the plan from the aft fide of the poll
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR ^ 8 from its ordihate AR
Diitance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poll
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from its ordinate GV
Diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of the poft _
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fedtion of the poft from its aft fide
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fedtion of the ftem from the aft fide of-4he poft
The areas of thefe feveral plans being calculated, will be as follow ;
4037.6768 for that of double the plan 8 dIG, and its momentum 4037.6768 X 85.35 —
51.12 the area of double the trapezium AR d 8, and its momentum 51.1 2 X 8.47 =:
79- '6 the area of the foremoft trapezium, and its momentum 79.16 X 158.61 =
0.77 the area of the fedtion of the poft, and its momentum 0.77 X 0.29 =
0.77 the area of the fedtion of the item, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76
4169.4968 Sum - .
Then ——^ = 85.80, the diftanct of the fourth horizontal fedtion from the aft fide
V. Determination of the Centre of Gravity cf the fflh Horizontal SeSion.
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plan 8 c k G from its firft ordinate 8 c.
Ordinates.
Feet. In i..
19 o
460
Double Ord.
Feet In. JL.
360
900
1. Fadtors.
1
126 o
1. Produdts.
Feet. In. i,.
070
9 O O
9 7 0
2. Fail.
o-i
1
3 Hs
2. Produdts,
Feet. In. L.
190
§00
I© 9 o
427
Centre of
'Gravity.
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 d l G from its firft; ordinate 8 d, is
2883 11 o 2883.916
= -—— x 10 o 4= “—^X 10.03 =
402 69 ^ 402.56 0
71.85
'35
85.35
7.89
0.58
8.47
4-83
I53-78
158.61
0.29
169.-7^
344615.7149
432.986^.
I2555-5676
0-2233
130.7452
357735-2074
of the ftern-pofh
Over 6
428
SHIP-BUILDING.
Centre of Feet. In. L.
Gravity. Brought over 630
xi 8
13 10
*5 3
16 o
16 5
16 3
15 9
14 10
12 10
9 8
6 1
Feet. In. L.
1260
6
4
8
6
o
16
23
27
30
32
32 10
32 6
31 6
29 8
25 8
19 5
12 3
o
6
6
o
6
o
o
o
o
6
6
o
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
3 3 0
660 ^(3X15)—4^
Feet. In. L,
9 7 0
33 °
70 I
no 10
152 6
192 3
229 10
260 o
283 6
296 8
282 9
233 6
J59 3
Feet. In. L.
10 9 o
166 6 3
333
x £ 44 5 °
2358 3 o
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
oi
16
23
27
3°
32
328
X 10
328.04
X 10.03 =
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poll - - „
X) iftance of the centre of gravity of the plan from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR c 8 from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of poft.
Diftance of centre of gravity of trapezium from aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from its ordinate G £
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of poft - -
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fedftion of the poft from the aft fide of poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the ftem from the aft fide of poft
The areas of thefe feveral planes being calculated, will be as follow.
3290.2412 for the area of double the plan 8 r ^ G, and its momentum 3290.2412 X 85.6 =
31.21 the area of double the trapezium AR c 8, and its momentum 31.21 X 8
42.43 the area of the foremoft trapezium, and its momentum 42.43 X 158 =
0.77 the area of the feftion of the poft, and its momentum 0.77 X0.29 =:
0.77 the area of the fe&ion of the ftem, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 =
Book IT.
Centre of
Gravity.
22 IO
32 6
31 6
29 8
25 8
19 5
12 3
3 3
o
6
6
o
6
c
o
0
o
6
6
o
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 r G from its firft ordinate is
2358.25
23$8 3 o
328 o 6
72.10
r3-5«
85.60
7.42
0.58
8.00
4.22
1J3-78
158.00
0.29
169.76
Sum
281644.6467
249.68
6703.94
0.2233
130.7152
288729.2052
3365.4212
New - —85.70, the diftance of the centre ©f gravity of the whole feftion frem the aft fide of
3365.4212 J
the Hern.
VI. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the Jtxth Horizontal SetHoa.
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plan 8 £ r G from its firft ordinate 8 b.
Ordinates. Double Ord. I. Faftors, 1. Produfts. 2. Faft. 2. Produfts.
Feet.
-1
2
4
7
20
12
In. L.
o o
Feet. In. L.
2 0 0
O
O
O
6
6
4 IO
8 10
14 7
20 3
24 2
Qver 37 4 6 74 9 o
Off
z
2
3
4
5
Feet. In. L.
040
4 IO
17 8
43 9
81 2
121 o
268 9 6
oi
1
1
1
1
z
Feet. In. L,
IOO
4 IO
8 10
14 7
20 3
34 2
73 9
Book II*
Centre of Fett« In* L>
Gravity. Broughtover 37 4 6
*3 9 9
13 7 o
12 8 o
10 6 6
710
4 7 3
2 10
1 6
H I P-B U
Feel. In. L.
74 9 o
26 6 o 6
27 7 6 7
27 2 o 8
25 4 o 9
21 1 o 10
14 2 O II
926 12
5 9 0 13
I L
D I
Feet. In. L.
268 9 6
159 °
*93 4
217 4
228 o
210 10
J55 10
110 6
74 9
N
G.
Feet. In. L,
73 9 o
9 3 1 <5x((3Xi5)~4^Xf 21 4 3
26
27
27
25
21
14
9
5
1
117 4 3 234 8 6
i639 9 3
232
1630 0 3 1639.77
-Xio o 4 = ~X 10.03 =
232 19 ^ 232-I4 J
Diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of poll
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of the plan from the aft fide of the poft is
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium AR b 8 from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre ef gravity of the foremoft trapezium from the ordinate G i
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of
Diftance of
2328.3642
21.52
15.04
0.77
0.77
the centre of gravity of the feftion of the poft from its aft fide
the centre of gravity of the fe£tion of the ftem from the aft fide of the poft
The areas of thefe plans will be found to be as follow:
for that of double the plan 8 £ i G, and its momentum 2328.3642 X 84.34 =
for the area of double the trapezium AR b 8, and its momentum 21.52 X 7.46
the area of the foremoft trapezium, and its momentum 15.04 X 156.7 =
the area of the fe&ion of the poft, and its momentum 0.77 X 0.29 =
the area of the fe&ion of the ftem, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 =
*96374-2366
160.5392
2356.7680
0.2233
130.7152
199022.4823
2366.4642 Sum - - ■
Now := 84.1, the diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole from the aft fide of the poft.
VII. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the feventb Horizontal SeSion.
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plan 8 a b G from its firft ordinate 8 a.
Ordinates.
Double Ord. 1. Fa&ors. 1. Produfts. 2. Fa6t. 2. Products.
Feet. In. L.
080
J I
1 7
J IO
2 I
2 I
I 10
1 8
1 1
o 9
o 8
Jeet. In.
i 4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Feet. In. L,
0 2 8
2 3
6 6
11 4
16 10
20 10
22 9
4
4
6
4
23
*7
*3
*3
Ox
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Feet. In. L»
080
Over 15 6 9
6
30 1 6
*48 3 a
30 5 6
429
Centre of
Gravity,
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 31» G from its firft ordinate 8 3 is
- - - 70.84
I3-S0
84-34
6.88
0.58
7-46
2.92
I53-78
156.70
0.29
169.76
430
Centre of
Gravity. Brouglitover 15 6 9
080
080
$ H I P - B
Feet. In. L. Feet. In. L.
3°
8
U I L D I
F.et. Ir. 1^.
16 148 3 2
4 0 ii ♦ 14 8 o 1
4 o xa 16 o o 1
40 13 17 4 o 1
4 ° • 4) XI 9 1 4 Or
N
G.
Feet. In. L.
5 6
4 o
4 o
4 o
8 o
3°
1
1
1
Bcoklr,
Centre oC
Gravity,
18
36 5 ^3
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double
. 2°? 4 6_
this plane from its firft. ordinate is X1 o o 4
205. !?7
•X 1O.83
3?-12
The diftance of this ordinate from aft fide 6f
poft — - -
"Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of
this plane from the aft-ftde of the poft is
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the
redlangle AR 8 from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of
the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this rec¬
tangle from the aft ftde of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fore-
moft reftangle from its ordinate 7'' 7 f 71
Dittance of this ordinate from the aft fide of
the poft -
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this rec¬
tangle from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fec-
tion of the poft from its aft fide
.Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fec-
tion of the Item from the aft fide of the
poft
58.65
I3-50
72.15
6.45
0.58
7-03
1.25
15378
i55-o3
e-29
169.76
Now the areas of thefe feveral plans being calculated
will be as follows.
352.2536, the area of double the plan
8 a AG, and its momentum
352.2536X72.15= 25415.0972
fiy.i 3 70, the area of double the rectan¬
gle AR a 8, and its mo¬
mentum 17.1570X7.03 = 120.6137
the area of the foremoit rec¬
tangle, and its momentum
3.3250X155.03 = 5?5-4747
the area of the fedtion of the
port, and its momentum
0:77X0.29 = 0.2233
the area of the fcCtion of the
ftem and its momentum
C.77X169.76 =
3-325°>
0.77,
o.'
74.2756
Sum
Then
26182.124.2
205 4 6
35
6
VIII. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the eighth
Plane.
This plane is equal in length to the feventh horizon¬
tal plane, and its breadth is equal to that of the keel.
The diftance between the ieventh and eighth planes is
three feet, but which is here taken equal to 2 feet ii*
inches.
Diftance between the aft fide of the poft and
the firft ordinate
Fourteen intervals between the fifteen ordi¬
nates, each interval being 10.03 feet
13-5
Diftance of the laft ordinate from the fore foot
Hence the length of the eighth plane is
Which multiplied by the breadth
The produCf is the area of this plane
The dittance of its centre of gravity from the
aft fide of the pqft, being equal to half its
length, is -
130.7152
26x82.1242
K> r. Planes.
5^74.16
5592.27
4939-27
41 69.50
3365-d 2
2366.46
374-27
208.00
, = 69.95, the diftance of the
374.2756 ^
centre of gravity of the whole ftdt-ion from the aft fide
.of the port.
Fec#. Products.
2987.08
5592.27
4939.27
4169.50
3365-42
2366.46
374-27
104.00
e>T
1
1
1
1
1
1
oi
Momentums. Fadt
5°3037-73 '°i
473560.21 1
422084.77
3 57 7 3 5-21
288729.20
1.99022.48
21682.12
16236.48
23898.27
1
1
\
1
1
oi
140.42
2.2
156.12
Ik33
208“
■78.06
The centres of gravity of thefe eight plane? being
found, the diftance of the centre of gravity of the hot*
tom of the fhip from the aft fide of the poft, and all®
its altitude, may from thence be eafilydetermined.
From the principles already explained, the dift mee
of the centre of gravity of the bottom from the^aft fide
of the poft, is equal to the fum of the momentums of
an infinite number of horizontal planes, divided by the
fum of thefe planes, or, which is the fame, by the foli-
dity of the bottom. As, however, we have no more
than eight planes, we mult therefore conceive their mo¬
mentums as the ordinates of a curve, whofe diftances
may be the fame as that of the horizontal planes. Now
the fum of thefe ordinates minus half the fum of the ex¬
treme ordinates being multiplied by their diftance, gives
the furface of the curve ; ol which any ordinate what¬
ever reprefents the momentum of the horizontal plane
at the fame altkude as thefe ordinates ; and the whole
furface will reprefent the fum of the momentums of all
the horizontal planes.
ProdmSls.
2515x8.86
473560.21
422084.77
3 c 7735.21
288729.20
J99022.48
2 1 682. 1 2
8l 18.24
202245 I.09
Now-
2022451.09
23898.27
= 84.63, the diftance of the
centre
■Book IT.
I Centre of centre of gravity of the bottom of the fhip from the
I Gravity aft fide of the poft.
■k,"',’v The height of the centre of gravity of the bottom
above the tower edge of the keel may be determined
by the fame principles. Thus,
To one lixth of the lowermoll horizontal fedlion add
the product of one fixth of the uppermoft feftion by
three times the number of fections minus four the fe-
cond feftion in afcending, twice the third, three times
the fourth, &c. ; and to half the fum of the extreme
planes add all the intermediate ones. Now the firft of
thefe fums, multiplied by the diltance between the planes
or fettions, and divided by the feeond fum, gives the
altitude of the centre of gravity of the bottom of the
fhip above the lower edge .of the keel as required.
$ H I P-B U I L D I N G;
Ordinate at 10.03 ket abaft the or¬
dinate 8y, ~ 4, of which the cube
is 64, and 64 X 4
Ordinate at 10.03 feet afore the or¬
dinate Go =6, cube of which is
216, and 2x6 Xi
433'
Centre of
Gravity.
12.
roS.
Sum
Diilance between the ordinates
Kor. Planes.
208.00
374-27
2366.46
3365-42
4169.50
4939-27
5S92-27
ifc Facft.
O^-
1
2
3
4
5
6
iftProdu&s. zi Fa (ft. 2d Produ&s.
3.4-67
374-27
4732.92
IOO96.26
16678.CO
24696.35
33553-62
°r
l
X
I
I
I
I
5974.16^(3 X 8)—4^)x£ 19913.87 oi
N(
110079.96
110079.96
104.co
374-27
2366.46
3365-42
4169.50
4939-27
5592.27
2987.08
23898.27
Produft
Half the cube of the after-
moll ordinate
Half the cube of the thick-
nefs of the ftem
Sum
Diilance between the ordinates
II5859-442
10.03
1162070.20326
32-
o. 14
32.14
3-°
Product
Half the cube of the fore-
moll ordinate
Hail the cube of the thick-
nefs of the Item
Sum
Diltance between the ordinates
96.43
108.
X 2.95 == 13.588, the height of Product
23898.27
the centre of gravity of the bottom of the Ihip above
tire lower edge of the keel.
We have now found the diilance of the centre of gra¬
vity of the bottom of the ftrip from the aft fide of the
poll, and its altitude above the lower edge of the keel.
Hence the Ihip being fuppofed in an upright polition,
this centre of gravity wilf neceflarily be in the vertical
longitudinal fedlion which divides the Ihip into two
equal and fimilar parts ; the pofition of this centre is
therefore determined.
Ihermira- It now remains to find the height of the metacenter
■n of the above the centre of gravity ; the exprefllon for this al-
594-77
1162761.39326
2325522.786^^-
70
yy*
2/y«
rfy3 x -
The folidity of the bottom is 2527-} tons--70018.67
i.-.r... 1 77517-26
cubic feet: hence ** 77 ~ ——7r~?—■ xi.o*? feet
V 70018.67 11 °7 ree6>
the altitude of the metacenter above the centre of gra¬
vity of the bottom of the Ihip.
775174.26217
titude, as found in Chap. III. is
which we lhall
; l ght of
! t nieta-
c iter
a ve the nOW apply to determine the metacenter of the Ihip of
■tieof of 74 guns, whofe centre of gravity we have already
found. • '
Ord. of the Plane of Floatation. Cub.ofOrdinates.
gfvity,
3 209.046
5000.21 x
6591.797
7762.392
8741.816
9595-703
9938.375
10289.109
10289.109
10289.109
9663.597
9120.329
7703-734
5268.024
2248.091
II57,9-44ji
A P P E N D I X,
When a fin’p is built, fhe mull be fitted with
mails, yards, fails, ropes, and blocks, or, in other
words, Ihe mult be rigged before Ihe can go to lea.
To complete this article, it may therefore be thought
necelfary to ti eot of the art of rigging velfels ; but we
have ellewhere (lee MAsr-Rigging, Rope-Making,
and Sail) Ihown how the feveral parts of a Ihip’s
rigging are made ; and the art of putting them proper¬
ly together, fo as to make the Ihip bell anfwer the pur-
pofe for which Ihe is intended, depends upon a juft
knowledge of the impulfe and refillanee of fluids, and of
the theory and pra&ice of feamanlhip. (See Resistance
of Fluids and Seamanship). Nothing, therefore, of
the fubjedl is left to us here, except we were to Hate in
few words the progreffive method of rigging fliips ; but
there is no one undeviating, mode which is purfued, as
the nature of the operation is fuch that all the parts of
it may be advancing at the fame time. We Iball there¬
fore take our leave of Jhips and pip-building with a few
general obferyations on fail-making, which were omitted
under the article Sail, referring our readers for farther
information to the very elegant work lately publilhed, m
5 two
4.32 S H I P - B U
Appendix, two volumes 410, on the Elements and Practice of Rigging
s ^ and Seamanjhip,
Sails are made of canvas, of different textures, and are
extended on or between the marts, to receive the wind
that forces the vertel through the water. They are
quadrilateral or triangular, as has been elfewhere de-
feribed, and are cut out of the canvas cloth by cloth.
The width is governed by the length of the yard, gaff,
boom, or flay ; the depth by the height of the mart-
In the valuable work to which we have juft referred,
the following directions are given for cutting fails.
“ The width and depth being given, find the number
of cloths the width requires, allowing for feams, tabling
on the leeches, and flack cloth; and, in the depth, al¬
low for tabling on the head and foot. For fails cut
fquare on the head and foot, with gores only on the
leeches, as fome topfails, &c. the cloths on the head,
between the leeches, are cut fquare to the depth ; and
the gores on the leeches ane found by dividing the depth
of the fail by the number of cloths gored, which gives
the length of each gore. The gore is fet down from a
fquare with the oppofite felvage; and the canvas being
cut diagonally, the longeft gored fide of one cloth
makes the fhorteft fide of the next; confequently, the
fir ft gore being known, the reft are cut by it. In the
leeches of topfails cut hollow, the upper gores are long¬
er than the lower ones; and in fails cut with a roach
leech, the lower gores are longer than the upper ones.
This muft be regulated by judgment, and care taken
that the whole of the gores do not exceed the depth of
the leech. Or, by drawing on paper the gored fide of
the fail, and delineating the breadth of every cloth by
?. convenient fcale of equal part® of an inch to a foot,
the length of every gore may be found with precifion.
Sails, gored with a fweep on the head or the foot, or
on both, have the depth of their gores marked on the
felvage, from the fquare of the given depth on each
doth, and are cut as above; the longeft felvage of one
ferving to meafure the Ihorteft felvage of the next, be¬
ginning with the firit gored cloth next the middle in
fome fails, and the firft cloth next the mart leech in o-
thers. For thofe gores that are irregular no ftrift rule
can be given; they can only be determined by the judge¬
ment of the fail-maker, or by a drawing.
Fl(tr,rU “ In the royal navy, mizen topfails are cut.with three
and PraSlice quarters of a yard hollow in the foot; but, in the mer-
of Miggt’g chant fervice, top and topgallant lads are cut with more
and Sea. or hollow in the foot. Flying jibs are cut with a
r0aCh-curve on the ftay, and a three-inch gore in each
¥C,1,p'9T‘cloth, fhortening from the tack to the clue. Lotver
ftudding-fails are cut with fquare leeches, and topmaft
and topgallant-maft ftudding fails with goring leeches.
“ The lenoth of reef and middle bands is governed by
the width of°the fail at their refpe&ive places; the leech-
linings, buntline-cloths, top-linings, maft-cloths, and cor¬
ner-pieces, are cut agreeably to the depth of the fail ;
each cloth and every article fliould be properly marked
with charcoal, to prevent confufion or miftake. Sails
that have bonnets are cut out the whole depth of the
fail and bonnet included, allowing enough for the ta-
blings on the foot of the fail and head and foot of the
I L D I n G.
bonnet. The bonnet is cut off after the fail is fewed Appendix,
together. If a drabler is required, it is allowed for in ’ ■-"v ■'W
the cutting out the fame as the bonnet.”
When the cloth is thus properly' cut, the different
pieces are to be joined together in the form of a fail;
and for doing this properly we have the following di¬
rections in the work already quoted. “ Sails have a
double flat feam, and fliould be fewed with the heft Eng.
lilh-made twine of three threads, fpun 360 fathoms to
the pound, and have from one hundred and eight to one
hundred and fixteen Hitches in every yard in length.
The twine for large fails, in the royal navy, is waxed by
hand, with genuine bees-wax, mixed with one-fixth part
of clear turpentine ; and, for fmall fails, in a mixture
made with bees wax, 4 lb; hogs lard 5 lb ; and clear
turpentine 1 lb. In the merchant fervice, the twine is dip¬
ped in tar (l), foftened with a proper proportion of oil.
“ It is the erroneous pra&ice of fome failmakers not
to few the feams any farther than where the edge is
creafed down for the tabling ; but all fails fhould be
fewed quite home to the end, and, when finiihed, fhould
be well rubbed down with a rubber. In the merchant
fervice feams are fometimes made broader at the foot
than at the head, being ftronger. Broad feams are not
allowed t© be made on courfes, in the royal navy, but
goring leeches are adopted in lieu of them. Boom-
mainfails and the fails of floops generally have the feams
broader at the foot than at the head. The feams of
courfes and topfails are ftuck or ftitched up, in the
middle of the feams, along the whole length, with doa¬
ble feaming-twine ; and have from 68 to 72 flitches in
a yard. In the merchant fervice it is common to flick
the feams with two rows of flitches, when the fail is half
worn, as they will then laft till the fail is worn out.
“ The breadth of the feams of courfes, topfails, and
other fails, in the royal navy, to be as follow, viz. cour¬
fes and topfails, for 50 gun fhips and upwards, one inch
and a half, and, for 44 gun fhips and under, one inch
and a quarter, at head and foot ; all other fails, one inch
at head and foot.
“ The tablings of all fails are to be of a proportion-
able breadth to the fize of the fail, and fewed at the
edge, with 68 to 72 flitches in a yard. Thofe for the
heads of main and fore courfes to be four to fix inches
wide ; for fprit courfes and mizens, drivers, and other
boom fails, 3 to 4 inches wide ; for topfails, 3 inches to
4 inches and a half; topgallant and fprit topfails, 3
inches ; royal fails, 2 inches and a half; jib and other
ftayfails, 3 inches to 4 inches and a half, on the ftay or
hoift ; and for ftudding fails, 3 inches to 4 inches on the
head. Tablings on the foot and leeches of main and
fore courfes to be 3 inches to 5 inches broad; fprit
courfe and topfails, 3 inches ; topgallant and fprit top-
fails, 2 inches and a half; royals, 2 inches ; fore leeches
of mizen, driver, and other boomfails, 3 inches and a half
to 4 inches ; after leech, 3 inches ; and on the foot 2 or
3 inches. Tablings on the after leech of jibs and other
ftayfails to be from 2 to 3 inches broad ; and, on the
foot, 2 to 2 inches and a half: on ftudding fail leeches
one inch and a half to two inches and a half; and on
the foot, from one to two inches.
“ Main
(l) The dipping of the twine in tar, we are perfuaded, is a very bad pra&ice, for the reafon affigned in Rope0
Making. See that article, n0 32.
SHI P-B U
Appendix* u Main and Fore courfes are lined on the leeches,
from clue to earing, with one cloth feamed on and Ituck
or ftitched in the middle, and have a middle band half
way between the lower reef band and the foot, alfo four
buntline cloths, at equal difiances between the leeches,
the upper end of which are carried under the middle
band, that the lower fide of the band may be tabled up¬
on or fewed over the end of the buntline pieces. They
have likewife two reef bands ; each in breadth one third
of the breadth of the canvas ; the upper one is one iixth
of the depth of the fail from the head, and the lower
band is at the fame diftance from the upper one ; the
ends go four inches under the leech linings, which are
feamed over the reef bands. All linings are feamed on,
and are fluck with 68 to 72 flitches in a yard.
“ Main, fore, and mizen, topfails have leech linings,
maft and top linings, buntline cloths, middle bands and
reef bands. The leech linings are made of one breadth
of cloth, fo cut and fewed as to be half a cloth broad
at the head, and a cloth and a hah broad at the
foot; the piece cutout being half the breadth of the
cloth at one end, and tapering to a point at the o-
ther. The middle bands are put on half way between
the lower reef and foot, the buntline cloths join the
top-linings, and the buntline cloths and top-linings are
carried up to the lower fide of the middle band, which
is tabled on them. The mart lining is of two cloths,
and extends from the foot of the fail to the lower reef,
to receive the beat or chafe of the maft. The middle
band is made of one breadth of canvas, of the fame
number as the top-lining. It is firft folded and rubbed
down, to make a creafe at one third of the breadth ;
then tabled on the felvage, and ftuck along the creafe ;
then turned down, and tabled and ftuck through both
the double and Angle parts, with 681072 flitches in
a yard. It is the opinion of many, that middle bands
fhould not be put on until the fail is half worn.
“ Main and fore topfails have three and fometimes
four reef bands from leech to leech, over the leech li-
nirigs ; the upper one is one eighth of the depth of the
fail from the head, and they are the fame diftance afun-
der in the royal navy, but more in the merchant fervice.
The reef bands are each of hall a breadth of canvas put
on double ; the firftjTide is ftuck twice, and the laft turn¬
ed over, fo that the reef holes may be worked upon che
double part of the band, which is alfo ftuck with 68 to
72 flitches in a yard.
“ The top-lining of topfails is of canvas n° 6 or 7.
The other linings of this, and all the linings of other
fails, fhould be of the fame quality as the fails to which
they belong.
“ Top •linings and maft cloths are put on theaft fide,
and all other linings on the fore fide, of fails. Mizens
are lined with one breadth of cloth from the clue five
yards up the leech, and have a reef band fewed on, in
the fame manner as on other fails, at one fifth the depth
of the fail from the foot; they have alfo a nock-pfece
and a peek-piece, one cut out of the other, fo that each
contains one yard. Mizen topfails of 50 gun ihips and
upwards have three reefs, the upper one is one eighth
of the depth of the fail from the head, and the reefs ?.re
at the fame diftance afunder. Mizen topfails of fhips
44 guns and under have two reefs one feventh part
of the depth of the fail afunder, the upper one being at
the farce diftance from the head. Main and main top
Vot. XVII. Part II. 1
I Ij D I ^ G,
ftudding fails have each one reef, at one eighth of the Appendix,
depth of the fail from the head. Reef bands fliould not ^
be put on until the fail is fewed up, a contrary pradlice
being very erroneous. Lower ftayfails, fore top and
main top ftaylails, and flying jibs, have clue-pieces two
yards long. Square tack ftayfails have half a breadth
of cloth at the fore part, with a clue-piece containing
two yards, and a peek-piece, containing one yard.
“ have- two holes in each cloth, at the heads
and reefs of courfes, topfails, and other fquare fails ; one
hole in every yard in the flay of flying jibs, and one in
every three quarters of a yard in the flays of fquare tack
and other ftayfails. Thefe are made by an inftrument
called a pegging aw!, or a ftabber, and are fenced round
by Hitching the edge to a fmall grommet, made with
log or other line ; when finifhed, they fhould be well
flretched or rounded up by a pricker or a marline-fpike.
Reef and head holes of large fails have grommets of
twelve-thread line, worked round with 18 to 21 flitch¬
es; froaller fails have grommets of niae-thread line,
with 16 to 18 flitches, or as many as fhall cover the
line, and fmaller holes in proportion. The holes for
marling the clues of fails and the top-brims of topfails
have grommets of log-line, and fhould have from 9 to
1 1 flitches ; twelve holes are worked in each cloth.
Main courfes have marling holes from the clue to the
lower bow line cringle up the leech, and from the clue
to the firft buntline cringle on the foot. Fore courfes
have marling holes ane eighth of the depth of the fail
up the leech, and from the clue to the firft buntline
cringle at the foot. Main and fore topfails have mar¬
ling holes three feet each way from the clue and at the
top-brims. Spritfails, mizen topfails, lower ftayfails,
mam and fore top ftayfails, and jibs, have marling holes
two feet each way from the clues. All other fails are
fewed home to the clues. Marling holes of courfes are
at three fourths of the depth of the tablings at the clues
from the rope, and thofe of topfails are at half the depth
of the tablings at the clues and top-brim from the rope.”
The rope, which is fewed on the edges of fails to
prevent their rending, and which is called bott-robe,
Ihould be well made of fine yarn, fpun from the heft.
Riga 1 bine hemp well topt, and fewed on with good
Enghfh-made twine of three threads, fpun 200 fathom
to the pound ; the twine in the royal navy is dipped in
acompofition made with. bees-wax, 4 lbs ; hogs lard
i lbs; and clear turpentine one pound; and in the
merchant fervice,. in tar foftened with oil. They
fhould be floved in a ftove by the heat of a flue, and
not in a baker’s even or a ftove tub ; and tarred in the
heft Stockholm tar. The flexibility of them fliould be
always considered, in taking in the flack, which mull
reft on the judgment of the failmaker.
“ Bolt-ropes of couifes, topfails, and all other fails,
inould be neatly fewed on through every buntline of
the rope ; and, to avoid ftretcbing, the rope muft be
kept tightly twifted while fewing on, and care taken
that neither too much nor too little flack is taken in •
they are to be crofs-ftitched at the leeches every twelve
inches in length ; at every feam, and in the middle of
every cloth at the foot, with three crofs-flitches • four
crofs-flitches fhould be taken at all beginnings and faf-
tenings off; the firft flitch given twice, and the laft
three times. Small fails have two crofs flitches at every
feam, and three at every fattening off. •
3 I
“ On
m, s H I P-B U
Appendix. “ On main and fore courfes two inches flack cloth
  v  fhould be allowed in the head and foot, and one inch and
a half in the leeches, in every yard in length. Topfails
are allowed 3 inches flack in every cloth in the foot,
one inch and a half in every yard in the leech, and two
inches in every cloth left open in the top-brim.. Mi-
zen courfes have two inches flack in every yard in the
foremoft leech, bot none in the after leech or foot.
Spritfail courfes have no flack cloth. Jibs have four
inches flack in every yard in the flay, one inch in every
cloth in the foot, and none in the leech. Stayfails have
three inches flack in every yard in the flay, one inch in
I L D I N G.
every cloth in the foot, but none in the leech. Topgallant Append,',..
fails have two inches flack in every cloth in the foot,  ,—j
and one inch in every yard in the leech. Studding
fails have an inch and a half flack in every yard in go¬
ring leeches, but no flack in fquare leeches, and one inch
in every cloth in the head and foot.”
Thefe dire&ions for failmaking, we truft may be ufe-
ful. They are indeed very general, but the limits pre-
feribed us will not permit of a more minute detail. The-
failmaker will find every inftru&ion that he can want in
the Elements of Rigging nnd Seaman/hf, a work which
we therefore recommend to his attention.
S H I
Ship's Form Gauge, an inftrument recommended by
Mr Hutchinfon as fit to afeertain any alteration in the
bottom of a (hip, by its hogging or fagging; and alfo
to regulate the ftowage of a (hip.
“ All (hips (fays he) of any confequence are built
with ftaunchions fixed from the kelfon to the middle
of all the lower-deck beams fore and aft, in order to
fupport them in their exaft, regular height, as well
as" the whole frame of the (hip in the regular form
in which (he was built upon the flocks ; yet notwith-
ftanding thefe ftaunchions, it is proved from experience
that our drips bottoms, hitherto, by the preffure of wa¬
ter, and improper ftowage, have generally been hogged
upwards, or fagged downwards, and moft. about the
midftrip frame or main body of the (hip, which is com-
momy about the fore part of the main hatchway ;
which naturally makes it the bell place at which to fix
the (hip’s form gauge,* where either the hogging or
fagging of her bottom may be obferved and feen foon-
eft and bed, to regulate the ftowage of heavy materials
to the greateft advantage, fo as to keep her bottom
nearly in the fame form in which (he was built.
“ The gauge I recommend is nothing more than a
narrow plate of iron divided into inches and quarters
like the Aide of a carpenter’s rule. Let this be fixed
to the after fide of the ftaunchion now mentioned, with
Its upper end projeding two or three inches above the
ftaunchion ; a groove being cut out for it in the after
fide of the lower-deck beam, and a mark being made
(when the (hip is on the ftocks) at the part of the beam
which correfponds to the o on the gauge. When the
fhip alters in her (hape, tfie gauge will Aide up and
down in this groove, and the quantity of hogging or
fagging will be pointed out on the gauge by the mark
on the beam. The ftowage may then be io managed
as to bring this mark to coincide again with the o, or
to approach it as near as we fee neceflary.”
Snip-Money, was an impofition charged upon the
ports, towns, cities, boroughs, and counties of this
realm, in the reign of king Charles I. by writs, com¬
monly called Jhip-nvrits, under the great feal of Eng¬
land, in the years 1635 and 1636, for the providing
and furnifhing of certain (hips for the king’s fervice, &c.
which was declared to be contrary to the laws and tta-
tutes of this realm, the petition of right and liberty of
the fubjed, by flat. 17 Car. I. c. 14. See Blackjlone’s
Commentaries, vol. iv. p. 3°-
SHip-Shape, according to the faftiion of a fhip,^ or in
the manner of an expert failor; as, 1 he maft is not
rigged (hip-lhape j Trim your fails (hip-fhape.
H 1
Stowing and ^Trimming of Ships, the method of dif-
pofing of the cargo in a proper and judicious manner
in the hold of a (hip.
A (hip’s failing, (leering, (laying, and wearing, and
being lively a '.d comparatively eafy at fea in a (torm,
depends greatly on the cargo, ballad, or other ’ mate¬
rials, being properly (lowed, according to their weight
and bulk, and the proportional dimenfions of the built
of the fhip, which may be made too crank or too (lift
to pafs on the ocean with fafety. Theie things ren¬
der this branch of knowledge of fuch confequence, that
rules for it ought to be endeavoured after, if but to
prevent, as much as poflible, the danger of a (hip over-
fetting at fea, or being fo labourfome as to roll away her
mafts, See. by being improperly (lowed, which is often
the cafe.
When a (hip is new, it is prudent to confult the
builder, who may be fuppofed bed acquainted with a
(hip of his own planning, and mod likely to judge what
her properties will be, to advife how the cargo or mate¬
rials, according to the nature of them, ought to be dif-
pofed of to advantage, fo as to put her in the bed fail¬
ing trim j and at every favourable opportunity after¬
wards it will be proper to endeavour to find out her bed
trim by experiment.
Ships mull differ in their form and proportional di¬
menfions } and to make them aniwer their diffeient pur-
pofes, they will require different management in the
do wage, which ought not to be left to mere chance, or
done at random, as goods or materials happen to come
to hand, which is too often the caufe that fuch impro¬
per ftowage makes (hips unfit for fea : theiefore the
ftowage fhould be conlidered, planned, and contrived,
according to the built and properties of the (hip, whicn.
if they are not known (hould be inquired after. If the
is narrow and high-built in proportion, fo that (lie will
not (hift herfelf without a great weight in the hold, it
is a certain fign fuch a (hip will require a great part of
heavy goods, ballad, or materials, laid low in the hold,
to make her iliff enough to bear fufficient fail without
being in danger of overfetting. But if a fhip be built
broad and low in proportion, fo that (he is diff and wall
fupport herfelf without any weight in the hold, fuch a
(hip will require heavy goods, ballad, or materials, flow¬
ed higher up, to prevent her from being too diff and
labourfome at fea, fo as to endanger her mafts being
rolled away, and the hull worked loofe and made
leaky. t
In order to help a (hip’s failing, that (he (hould .he
lively and eafy in her pitching and afeending motions.
SHI [
it (hould be contrived by the ftowage, that the princi¬
pal and weight left part of the cargo or materials fhould
lie as near the main body of the {hip, and as far from
the extreme ends, fore and aft, as things will admit of.
For it fhould be confidered, that the roomy part of our
fhips lengthwife forms a fweep or curve near four times
as long as they are broad ; therefore thofe roomy parts
at and above the water’s edge, which are made by a
full harping and a broad tranibm to fupport the fhip
Heady and keep her from plunging into the fea, and
alio by the entrance and run of the {hip having little or
no bearing body under for the preffure of the water to
fupport them, of courfe Ihould not be {towed with
heavy goods or materials, but all the neceffary vacan-,
cies, broken {towage, or light goods, Ihould be at thefe
extreme ends fore and aft; and in proportion as they
are kept lighter by the {towage, the {hip will be more
lively to fall and rife eafy in great feas ; and this will
contribute greatly to her working and failing, and to
prevent her from {training and hogging ; for which rea-
lon it is a wrong practice to leave fuch a large vacancy
in the main hatchway, as is ufual, to coil and work
the cables, which ought to be in the fore or after hatch¬
way, that the principal weight may be more eafily
flowed in the main body of the {hip, above the flatted
and loweit floorings, where the preflure of the water
ads the more to fupport it.
Machine for meafuring a Ship’s Way. We have al¬
ready defcribed a variety of machines or inftruments
which have been propofed for this purpofe under the
article Log. In this place, therefore, we {hall confine
ourfelves to the machine invented by Francis Hopkin-
fon, Elq; Judge of the Admiralty in Pennlylvania.—
A fter having fhown the fallacies to which the common
log, and alio that particular kind ot inftrument invent¬
ed by M. Saumarez, are 1 de, he proceeds to defcribe
his own machine as follows :
uranfaSikm This machine, in its moft Ample form, is reprefented
./the AwC- by fig. 5. Plate CCCCLIII. wherein A B is a ftrono-
‘opbkal °f ir°n moveable on.the fulcrum C. D is a thin
uty, vol. ii. circular palate of brafs rivetted to the lower extremity
>• 160. of the rod. E an horizontal arm conne&ed at one end
with the top ot the rod AB by a moveable joint F,
and at the other end with the bottom of the index H,
by a like moveable joint G. H is the index turning
on its centre I, and travelling over the graduated arch
K ; and L is a ftrong fpring, bearing againfl the rod
AB, and conflantly counteracting the preffure upon
the palate D. The rod AB flsouid be applied clofe to
the cut-water or ilem, and fhould be of fuch a length
that the palate D may be no higher above the keel than
is neceffary to fecure it from injury when the veffel is .
aground, or fails in fhoal water. As the bow of the
fhip curves inward towards the keel M, the palate D
will be thrown to a diftance from the bottom of the
veffel, although the perpendicular rod to which it is
annexed lies clofe to the bow above ; and therefore, the
palate will be more fairly afted upon. The arm E
ffrould enter the bow fomewhere near the hawfe hole,
and lead to any convenient place in the forecaflle, where
a imooth board or plate may be fixed, having the index
H, and graduated arch K, upon it.
It is evident from the figure, that as the fhip is
urged forward by the wind, the palate D will be preff-
<ed upon by the reflfting medium, with a greater or lefs
4.35 1 . SHI
force, according to the progreffive motion of the flrip ;
and this will operate upon the levers fo as to immediate¬
ly affect the index, making the leaft increafe or diminu¬
tion of the {hip’s way vifible on the graduated arch ;
the fpring L always counteracting the preffure upon
the palate, and bringing back'the index, on any relax¬
ation of the force impreffed.
This machine is advantageoufly placed at the bow of
the fhip, where the current firff begins, and acts fairly
upon the palate, in preference to the ffern,- where the
tumultuous doling of the waters caufes a wake, vilible
to a great diflance. The palate D is funk nearly as
low as the keel, that it may not be influenced by the
heaping up of the water and the dafhing of the waves
at and near the water line. The arch K is to afeertain
how many knots or miles fhe would run in one hour at
her then rate of failing. But the graduations on this
arch muft be unequal; becaufe the refiftance of the
ipring I, will increafe as it becomes more bent, fo that
the index will travel over a greater fpace from one to
five miles than from five to twelve. Laffly, the palate,
rod, fpring, and all the metallic parts of the inftrument,
ihould be covered with a ftrong varniftr, to prevent ruft
from the corrolive quality of the fait water and fea
air.
I his machine may be confiderably improved as fol¬
lows : Let the rod or fpear AB (fig. 5.) be a round
rod of iron or fteel, and inftead ot moving on the ful¬
crum or joint, as at C, let it pafs through and turn
freely in a focker, to which focket the moveable joint
muft be annexed, as reprefented in fig. 6. The rod
muft have a fhoulder to bear on the upper edge of the
focket, to prevent its flipping quite down. The rod
muft alfo pafs through a like locket at F, fig. 5. The
joint of the lower focket muft be fixed to the bow of
the flrip, and the upper joint or focket muft be connect¬
ed with the horizontal arm E. On the top of the up-
permoft focket let there be a fmall circular plate, bear¬
ing the 32 points of the mariner’s compafs ; and let
the top of the rod AB come through the centre of this
plate, fo as to carry a fmall index upon it, as is repre¬
fented in fig. 7. This fmall index muft be fixed to the
top of the rod on a fquare, fo that by turning the in¬
dex round the plate, the rod may alfo turn in the foc-
kets, and of courie carry the palate E) round with it ;
the little index always pointing in a direction with the
face of the palate. I he {mail compafs plate Ihould not
be faftened to the top of the focket, but only fitted
tightly on, that it may be moveable at pleafure. Sup*
pole then the intended port to bear S. W. from the
place of departure, the palate muft be turned on the foc¬
ket till the fouth-weft point thereon looks diredly to
the fhip’s bow ; fo that the fouth-weft and north-eaft
line on the compafs plate may be precifely parallel with
the {hip’s keel, and in this pofition the plate muft
remain during the whole voyage. Suppofe, then, the
lhip to be failing in the dired courfe of her intended
voyage, with her bowfpnt pointing fouth-weft. Let the
little index be brought to the fouch-wdt point on the
compafs plate, and the palate D will neceffarily prefent
its broad face toward the port of deftination ; and this it
muft always be made to do, be the {hip’s courfe what it
may. If, on account of unfavourable winds, the ftiip is
obliged to deviate from her intended courfe, the little in¬
dex muft be moved fo many points from the foutlfiweft
3 I 2 line
SHI [ 436 J SHI
line cf the compafs plate as the compa/s in the binnacle round to any intended point, it may fall into ©ne of Ship,
fhall (how that {he deviates from her true courfe ; fo thefe notches, and be detained there ; otherwife the ' »r-
that in whatever direction the {hip {hall fail, the palate preffure of the water will force the palate D from its
D will always look full to the fouth-weft point of the oblique pofition, and turn the rod and index round to
horizon, or towards the port ol deftination, and confe- the diredfion in which the {hip {hall be then failing.—
quently will prefent only an oblique furiace to the te- Should it be apprehended that the palate D, being
filling medium, more or lefs oblique as the {hip deviates placed fo far forward, may affedt the {flip’s lleerage, or
more or lefs fiom the true courfe cf her voyage. As, obilrudt her rate of failing, it fhould be confidered that
therefore, the rel-iftance of the water will operate lefs a very fmall plate will be fufficient to work the machine,
upon the palate in an oblique than in a direct pofition, as one of three or four inches in diameter would pro¬
in exaft proportion to its obliquity, the index H bably be fufficient, and yet not large enough to have
will not fhow how many knots the veflel runs in her any fenfible effedh on the helm or {hip’s way.
then courfe, but will indicate how many {lie gains in The greatell difficulty, perhaps, will be in gradua-
the direct line of her intended voyage—Thus, in ting the arch K, (if the machine is coniltufted as in
fig. 9. if the {hip’s courfe lies, in the direftion of fg. 5.); the unequal divilions of which can only be af~
the line AB, but Ihe can fail by the wind no nearer certained by aftual experiment on board of each {hip
than AC ; fuppofe, then, her progrefiive motion fuch refpedbively, inafmuch as the accuracy of thete gradu-
as to perform AC equal to five knots or miles in an ations will depend on three circumftances, viz. the pofi-
hour, yet the index H will only point to four knots on tion of the fulcrum C with refpeft to the length of the
the graduated arch, becaufe {he gains no more than at rod, the fize of the palate D, and the ftrength or
that rate on the true line of hei voyage, viz. from A to bearing of the fpring L. When thefe graduations,
B. Thus will the difference between her real motion and however, are once afeertained for the machine on board
that pointed out by the index be always in proportion of any one veffel, they will not want any future alte-
to her deviation from her intended port, until fhe fails rations, provided the palate D be kept clean, and the
in a line at right angles therewith, as AD ; in which fpring L retains its elafticity.
cafe the palate would prefent only a thin fharp edge to But the unequal divifions of the graduated arch will
the reiifting medium, the preffure of which fhould not be unneceffary, if the machine is confirufted as in fig. 8.;
be fufficient to overcome the friftion of the machine for as the chain goes round the barrel L, and then
and the bearing of the fpring L. So that at whatever winds through the fpiral channel of the fuzec W, the
rate the {hip may fail on that line, yet the index will force of the main ipring muff operate equally, or nearly
not be affefted, {bowing that {he gains nothing on her lo, in all pofitions of the index, and confequently the
true courfe. In this cafe, and alfa when the veffel is divifions of the arch K may in fuch cafe be equal,
not under way, the aftion of the fpring L ffiould caufe After all, it is not expefted that a {hip’s longitude
the index to point at O, as icprefented by the dotted can be determined to a mathematical certainty by this
lines in fig. 5. and 8. inftrument. The irregular motions and impulies ta
As the truth of this inftrument muft depend on the which a {hip is continually expofed, make fuch an ac-
equal preffure of the refifting medium upon the palate curacy unattainable perhaps by any machinery : But if
D, according to the {hip’s velocity, and the proper- it ftiould be found, as we flatter ourfelves it will on fair
tionable aftion of the fpring L, there Ihould be a experiment, that it anfwers the purpofe much better
pin or ferew at the joints C and F, fo that the rod may than the common log, it may be confidered as an acqui-
be readily unlhipped and taken in, in order to clean the fition to the art of navigation.
palate from any foulnefs it may contraft, which would It fiiould be obferved, that in afeertaining a {hip’s lon-
greatly increafe its operation on the index FI, and there- gitude by a time-piece, this great inconvenience occurs,
by render the graduated arch falfe and uncertain, that a fmall and trifling miftake in the time makes a
Further, the fpring L may be expofed too much to very great and dangerous error in the diftance run ;
injury from the fait water, if fixed on the outfide of the Whereas the errors of this machine will operate no far-
jftnp’s bow. To remedy this, it may be brought under ther than their real amount; which can never be great
cover, by conftrufting the machine as reprefented by or dangerous, if correfted by the ufual- obfervations
fig. 8. where AB is the rod, C the fulcrum or centre made by mariners for correfting the common log.
of its motion, D the palate, E the horizontal arm A like machine, made in its hmple form (as at fig.5.),
leading through a fmall hole into the forecaftle ; M is fo conftrufted as to ffiip and unftiip, might occafionally
a ftrong chain faftened at one end to the arm E, and at be applied alongfide about midfliips, in order to afeer-
the other to a rim or barrel on the wheel G, which by tain the leeway ; which, if rightly fliown, will give the
means of its teeth gives motion to the femicircle I and {hip’s precife longitude. As to fea currents, this and
index H. The fpring L is fpiral, and enclofed in a box all other machines hitherto invented muft be fubjeft;
or barrel, like the main ipring of a watch. A fmall to their influence ; and proper allowances muft be made
chain is fixed to, and paffing round the barrel, is fallen- according to the {kill and knowledge of the naviga-
ed by the other end to the fuzee W. This fueee is tor.
connefted by its teeth with the wheel G, and counter- Laftly, fome diferetion will be neceffary in taking ob-
afts the motion of the palate D. N, N, are the two fervations from the machine to be entered on the log-
fockets through which the rod AB paffes, and in which book : that is, the moft favourable and equitable mo-
it is turned round by means of the little index R. S ment ffiould be chofen for the obfervation ; not whilft:
is the fmall compafs plate, moveable on the top of the the ftiip is rapidly defeending the declivity of a wave,
upper focket N. The plate S hath an upright rim or is fuddenly checked by a itroke of the fea, or is in
round its edge, cut into teeth or notches, fo that when the very aft of plunging. In all cafes, periods may be
$he index R is a little railed up, in order to bring it found in which a {hip proceeds with a true average
velocity p
5 H O [ 437 ] S H O
Bhiraps velocity ; to difcover which, a little experience and at-
II tentipn will lead the fkilful mariner (a).
jhoad- SHIRAUZ. See Schiras.
SHIRE, is a Saxon word fignifying a divifion ; but
a county, comitatus, of the fame import, is plainly derived
from comes, “ the count of the Franks that is, the earl
or alderman (as the Saxons called him) of the fhire, to
whom the government of it was entrufted. This he uiu-
ally exercifed by his deputy, flill called in Latin vice-comes,
and in Englifh jkrieve, oxjhire reeve, iignitying-
the “ officer of the {hire upon whom, in procefs
of time, the civil adminiftration of it totally devolved.
In fome counties there is an intermediate diviiion be¬
tween the fhire and the hundred ; as lathes in Kent and
rapes in Suffex, each of them containing about three
or four hundreds apiece. Thefe had formerly their
lathe-reeves and rape-reeves, adding in fubordination to
the fhire reeve. Where a county is divided into three
of thefe intermediate jurifdidiions, they are called tri-
things, which were anciently governed by a trithing
reeve. Thefe trithings hill fubhft in the large county
of York, where, by an eafy corruption, they are deno¬
minated rulings the north, tire eait, and the w'eit ri-
ding.
SHIRL, or Cockle, in mineralogy. See Cockle.
SHIRT, a loofe garment, commonly of linen, worn
next the body.— Some doubt the propriety of changing
the linen when a perfon is fick. Clean linen promotes per-
fpiration; and it may be renewed as often as the patient
pleafes, whether the diforder be of the acute or the
chronical kind. Except during a crifis in fevers, whilft
the patient is in a fweat, a change of linen, if well dried
and warmed, may be daily ufed.
Shirts were not worn by Jews, Greeks, or Romans,
but their place w^as fupplied by thin tunkj; of wool.
The want of linen among the ancients made frequent
wafhings and ablutions neceflary.
SHIVER. See Sc histus and Shale.
SHIVERS, in the fea language, names given to the
little rollers, or round wheels of pulleys.
SHOAD, among miners, denotes a train of metal¬
line ftones, ferving to direft them in the difcovery of
mines.
ShOAD-Stones, a term ufed by the miners of Cornwall
and other parts of this kingdom, to exprefs fuch loofe
maffes of Hone as are ufually found about the entrances
into mines, fometimes running in a ftraight courfe from
the load or vein of ore to the furface of the earth.
Thefe are ftones of the common kinds, appearing to
have been pieces broken from the xlrata or larger maf¬
fes; but they ufually contain mundic, or marcalitic mat¬
ter, and more or lefs of the ore to be found in the mine.
They appear to have been at fome time rolled about in
water, their corners being broken off, and their furface
fmoothed and rounded.
The antimony mines in Cornwall are always eafily dif-
covered by the ffioad-ftones, thefe ufually lying up to
the furface, or very nearly fo; and the matter of the Shoad
ftone being a white fpar, or debafed cryftal, in which II
the native colour ot the ore, which is a fhining bluiih S,1<JC3'
black, eafily difcovers itfelf in ftreaks and threads.
Shoad-d ones are of fo many kinds, and of fuch va¬
rious appearances, that it is not eafy to defcribe or know
them : but the miners, to whom they are of greateft
ufe in the tracing or fearching after new mines, diltin-
guiih them from other ftones by their weight; for if
very ponderous, though they look ever fo much like
common ftones, there is great reafon to fufpecl that
they contain fome metal. Another mark or them is
their being fpongy and porous; this is a fign of efpe-
cial ufe in the tin countries; for the tin ffioad-ftonea
are often fo porous and fpongy, that they referable
large bodies thoroughly calcined. There are many
other appearances o; tin ffioads, the very haideft and
firmed ftones often containing this metal.
When the miners, in tracing a ffioad up hill, meet
with fuch odd ftones and earths that they know not
well what to make of them, they have recourfe to van¬
ning, that is, they calcine and powder the ftone, clay,
or whatever elfe is fuppofed to contain the metal; and
then wafhing it in an inftrument, prepared for that pur-
pole, and called a vanning Jbovel, they find the earthy
matter wafted away, and of the remainder, the ftony or
gravelly matter lies behind, and the metalline matter at
the point of the ftovel. If the perfon who performs
this operation has any judgment, he ealily difcovers not
only what the metal is that is contained in the ftoad,
but alfo will make a very probable guefs at what quan¬
tity the mine is likely to yield of it in proportion to the
ore.
SHOAL, in the fea-language, denotes a place where
the water is ftallow; and likewife a great quantity of
fifties, fuch as a Jhoal of herrings..
SHOCK, in electricity. The effeft of the explo-
fion of a charged body, that is, the difcharge of its elec¬
tricity on any other body, is called the eledric flock.
SHOE, a covering for the foot, ufually of leather.
Shoes, among the Jews, were made of leather,
linen, rufli, or wood ; thofe of foldiers were fome¬
times of brafs or iron. They were tied with thongs
which palled under the foies of the feet. To put off
their ftoes was an a<ft of veneration; it was alfo a frgn
of mourning and humiliation : to bear one’s ftoes, or "to
untie the latchets of them, was confidered as the mean-
eft fervice.
Among the Greeks ftoes of various kinds were ufed.
Sandals were worn by women of diftin&ion. The La¬
cedemonians wore red ftoes. The Grecian fhoes gene¬
rally reachea to the middle of the leg. The Romans
used two kinds of ftoes; the calceus, which covered the
whole foot fomewhat like our {hoes, and was tied
above with latchets or ftnngs ; and the folea or flipper,
which covered only the foie of the foot, and was faiten-
ed with leathern thongs. The calceus was always worn
.(a) An ingenious mechanic would probably conUruft this machine to better advantage in many refpe&s.
J he author only meant to fuggeft the principle ; experiment alone can point out the beft method of applying it
He is fenhble of at leaft of one deficiency, viz. that the little index R, fig. 4. will not be ftrong enough to retain
the palate D m an oblique pofition when the ftip is failing by the wind ; more efpecially as the compals plate S in
Lwe«r0tS,T ‘T •de? ,R is “’“'V •0t f‘xed.t0’ bllt “K1" ™ A' f«l“t N. Many meL,
however, might be contrived to remedy this mconveiuense, g
S H O
[ 438 J
S H O
Shf'es. along with the toga when a perfon went abroad : flip-
pers were put on during a journey and at feafts, but it
was reckoned effeminate to appear in public with them.
Black fhoes were worn by the citizens of ordinary rank,
and white ones by the women. Red fhoes were fome-
times worn by the ladies, and purple ones by the cox¬
combs of the other fex. Red fhoes were put on by the
chief magittrates of Rome on days of ceremony and
triumphs. The fhoes of fenators, patricians, and their
children, had a crefcent upon them which ferved for a
buckle; thefe were called oz/crf lunati. Slaves wore no
fhoes; hence they were called cretati from their dotty
feet. Phocion alfo and Cato Uticenfis went without
fhoes. The toes of the Roman fhoes were turned up
in the point ; hence they were called calcei rojlrati, re-
fandi, &c.
In the 9th and 10th centuries the greateft princes of
Europe wore wooden fhoes, or the upper part of lea¬
ther and the foie of wood. In the reign of William
Rufus, a great beau, Robert, furnamed the horned., ufed
ihoes with long fharp points, fluffed with tow, and
twitted like a ram’s horn. It is faid the clergy, being
highly offended, declaimed again!! the long-pointed
fhoes with great vehemence. The points, however,
continued to increafe till, in the reign of Richard il.
they were of fo enormous a length that they were tied
to the knees with chains fometimes of gold, fometimes
of filver. The upper parts of thefe fhoes in Chaucer’s
time were cut in imitation of a church window. The
long-pointed fhoes were called crackowes, and continued
in fafhion for three centuries in fpite of the bulls of
popes, the decrees of councils, and the declamations of
the clergy. At length the parliament of England in-
terpofed by an a<tt A. D. 1463, prohibiting the ufe of
fhoes or boots with pikes exceeding two inches in
length, and prohibiting all fhoemakers from making ihoes
or boots with longer pikes under fevere penalties. But
even this was not fufficient: it was neceffary to de¬
nounce the dreadful fentence of excommunication againft
all who wore fhocs or boots with points longer than
two inches. The prefent fafhion of fhoes was intro¬
duced in 1633, but the buckle was not ufed till
1670.
In Norway they ufe fhoes of a particular conftruc-
tion, confifting of two pieces, and without heels; in
which the upper leather fits clofe to the foot, the foie
being joined to it by many plaits or folds.
The fhoes or flippers of the Japanefe, as we are in¬
formed by Profeffor Thunberg, are made of rice-ftraw
woven, but fometimes for people of dittin&ion of fine
flips of ratan. The fhoe confifts of a foie, without up¬
per leather or hind-piece ; forwards it is eroded by a
ftrap, of the thicknefs of one’s linger, which is lined
with linen ; from the tip of the fhoe to the ftrap a cy¬
lindrical firing is carried, which paffes between the great
and fecond toe, and keeps the fhoe faft on the foot.
As thefe Ihoes have no hind-piece, they make a noife,
when people walk in them like flippers. When the Ja¬
panefe travel, their fhoes are furnifhed with three firings
made of twitted draw, with which they are tied to the
legs and feet, to prevent them from falling off. Some
people carry one or more pairs tff fhoes with them on
their journeys, in order to put on new, when the old
ones are worn out. When it rains, or the roads are
very dirty, thefe fhoes are foon wetted through, and one
continually fees a great number of worn-out fnoe& lying Shoe*,
on the roads, efpecially near the brooks, where travel- Shooting
lers have changed their fhoes after wafhing their feet.
Inftead of thefe, in rainy or dirty weather they wear
high wooden clogs, which underneath are hollowed out
in the middle, and at top have a band acrofs like a flir-
rup, and a firing for the great toe ; fo that they can
walk without foiling their feet. Some of them have
their ftraw fhoes faftened to thefe wooden clogs. The
Japanefe never enter their houfes with their fhoes on ;
but leave them in the entry, or place them on the bench
near the door, and thus are always barefooted in their
houfes, fo as not to dirty their neat mats. During the
time that the Dutch live at Japan, when they are fome¬
times under an obligation of paying vifits at the houfes
of the Japanefe, their own rooms at the factory being
likewife covered with mats of this kind, they wear, in-
flead of the ufual fhoes, red, green, or black flippers,
which on entering the houfe they pull off: however,
they have ftockings on, and fhoes made of cotton fluff
with buckles in them, which fhoes are made at Japan,
and can be wafhed whenever they are dirty. Some
have them of black fattin, in order to avoid wafhing
them.
Shoe of an Anchor, a fmall block of wood, convex on
the back, and having a fmall hole, fufficient to contain
the point of the anchor fluke, on the forelide. It is
ufed to prevent the anchor from tearing or wounding
the planks on the fhip’s bow, when afeeuding or de-
feending ; for which purpofe the flioe hides up and
down along the bow between the fluke of the anchor
and the planks, as being preffed clofe to the latter by
the weight of the former.
To Shoe an Anchor, is to cover the flukes with a
broad triangular piece of plank, whole area or fuper-
ficies is much larger than that of the flukes. It is in¬
tended to give the anchor a flronger and furer hold of
the bottom in very foft and oozy ground.
Horfe-SuoE. See Farriery, Se£t. 47.
SHOOTING, in the military art. See Artillery,
Gunnery, and Projectiles. t
Shooting, in fportfmanfhip, the killing of game by shooting in
the gun, with or without the help of dogs. fportfman-
Under this article we fhall lay down all the rules ^P*
which are neceffary to be obferved in order to ren¬
der one accomplifhed and fuccefsful in the art of fhoot-
ing-^ a
The firft thing which the fportfman ought to attend Dirediona
to is the choice of his fowling-piece. Conveniency re- ^
quires that the barrel be as light as poffible, at the fame .Ine *
time it ought to poffefs that degree of flrength which
will make it not liable to burft. Experience has pro¬
ved, that a thin and light barrel, which is of equal
thicknefs in every part of its circumference, is much
lets liable to burft than one which is confiderably thick¬
er and heavier, but which, from being badly filed or
bored, is of unequal ftrength in different places.
It is alfo of importance to determine of what length
the barrel ought to be, in order to acquire that range
which the fportfman has occafion for. On this fub-
je6t we have received the following information from
an experienced fportfman. .We have, at different times,
compared barrels of all the intermediate lengths be¬
tween z8 and 40 inches, and of nearly the fame caliber,
that is to fay, from 22 to *6 ; and thefe trials were
7 made
Shooring.
S H O [ 439 ] S
made both by tiring' the pieces from the fhoulder, and firmly placed on his fhoulder
from a firm block, at an equal diftance, and with equal
weights of the fame powder and of the fame fhot.
To avoid every pofiibility of error, the quires of
paper at which we fired were fixed againfl planks in-
Head of being placed againft the wall. From thefe
trials frequently repeated, we found that the ihot pier¬
ced an equal number of fheets, whether it was fired
from a barrel of 28, 3c, 32, 34, 36, 38, or 40, inches
in length. Nay more, we have compared two barrels
of the fame caliber, but one of them 3 3, and the other
66 inches long, by repeatedly firing them in the fame
manner as the others, at different diftances, from 45 to
100 paces, and the refnlts have always been the fame,
i. e. the barrel of 33 inches drove its fhot through as
many fheets of paper as that of 66 did. The conclu-
fion from all this is, that the differende of 1 o inches in
the length of the barrel, which feems to be more than
is ever infifted upon among fportfmen, produces no fen*
f’ble difference in the range of the piece ; and therefore,
that every one may pleafe himfelf in the length of his bar¬
rel, without either detriment or advantage to the range.
It may appear as an obje&ion to this, that a duck-
gun which is five or fix feet long kills at a greater
diftance than a fowling-piece ; but this is not owing to
its length, but to its greater weight and thicknefs, which
give it fuch additional ftrength, that the fhot may be
increafed, and the charge of powder doubled, trebled,
and even quadrupled. But a barrel of five or fix feet
length \Vould be very inconvenient for fowling. Thofe
who confult the appearance of the piece, lightnefs, and
the eafe with which it is managed, will find that a bar¬
rel from 32 to 38 inches will anfwer beft.
The next thing to be confidered is, of what dimen-
fions the caliber or bore of a fowling-piece ought to be.
1 his matter has been fubjedied to experiment, and it
has been found, that a barrel of 22 or 24, which
is the large ft caliber ufually employed in fowling-pieces,
throws its fhot as clofely as one of the fmalleft caliber,
s viz. of 30 or 32 (a).
Length and _As to the length and form of the flock, it may be
form of the laid down as a principle, that a long flock is preferable
to a fliort one, and at the fame time rather more bent
than ulual; for a long flock fits firmer to the fhoulder
than a fhort one, and particularly fo when the fhooter
is accuftomed to place his left hand, which principally
fupports the piece, near to the entrance of the ramrod
into the flock.
It is certain, however, that the flock may be fo form¬
ed as to be better fuited to one man than another.
For a tall, long-armed man, the flock of a gun fhould
be longer than for one of a lefs ftature and fhorter arm.
hat a ftraight flock is proper for him who has high
fhoulders and a fhort neck; for, if it be much bent, it
would be very difficult for him, efpecially in the quick
motion required in fhooting at a flying or running ob-
jedt, to place the butt of the gun-flock firmly to the
fhoulder, the upper part alone would in general be fix¬
ed ; which would not only raife the muzzle, and confe-
quently fhoot high, but make the recoil much more
ienfibly felt, than if the whole end of the flock were
4
Proper
length of
the barrel
4
Caliber.
H O
. _ Befides, fuppofing the Shooting.
fhooter to bring the butt home to his fhoulder, he would  'r-~J
fcarcely be able to level his piece at the objedt. On
the contrary, a man with low fhoulders, and a long
neck, requires a flock much bent; for if it is ftraight,
he will, in the adl of lowering his head to that place of
the flock at which his cheek fhould reft in taking aim,
feel a confttaint which he never experiences, when by
the effedl of the proper degree of bent, the flock lends
him fome affiftance, and, as it were, meets his aim Ijalf
way.
Having now deferibed the fowling-piece which has
been found to anfwer beft, it will next be proper to
give fome inftrudtions for the choice of gunpowder,
fhot, and wadding. ^
The various kinds of gunpowder are well known ; Sun<»
but, in the opinion of fome experienced fportfmen, powder.
Hervey’s battle-powder is the beft. Thofe who wifh
to examine the ftrength of powder, may determine it
by drying fome of it very well, and then trying how
many fheets of paper it will drive the fhot through, at
the diftance of 10 or 1.2 yards. In this trial we fhould
be careful to- employ the fame fized fhot in each experi¬
ment, the quantity both of the fhot and the powder
being regulated by exadft weight; btherwife we cannot,
even in this experiment, amv^ to any certainty in com¬
paring the flrength of different powders, or of the fame
powder at different times-
Powder ought to be kept very dry, for every degree To be kept
of moiflure injures it; and if confiderable, the faltpetre dry. 1'
is diflblved, and the intimate combination of the feveral
ingredients is entirely deflroyed. It is obferved, that
after firing with damp powder the piece becomes
very foul, which feems to arife from the diminution
of the a&ivity of the fire in the explofion. Flafks of
copper or tin are much better for keeping powder in
than thofe made of leather, or than fmall calks. Their
necks ought to be fmall and well flopped with cork. g
The patent milledJhot is now very generally ufed, and Size of
is reckoned fuperior to any other. The fize of the foot,
fhot muft vary according to the particuliar fpecies of
game which is the objeft of tire fportfman’s purfuit, as •
well as be adapted to the feafon. In the firft month of
partridge fhooting, N° 1. is moft proper; for fince at this
time the birds fpring near at hand, and we feldom fire at
more than the diftance of 40 paces, if the fhooter takes
his aim but tolerably well, it is almoft impoffible for a
bird at this diftance to efcape in the circle which the
fhot forms.
As hares fit clofer, and are thinly.'covered with fur
at this feafon, they may eafily be killed with this fhot
at 30 or 35 paces. NJ 1. is equally proper for fhoot-
ing fnipes or quails. About the beginning of Octo¬
ber, when the partridges are ftronger, N? 3. is the moft
proper fhot to be ufed. Many fportfmen ufe no other
during the whole feafon. The directions which have
now been given refer only to the patent ftiot.
, We lhall now fubjoin a table, which will fhow at one
view the number of pellets compofing an ounce weight
of eacli fort of fhot, the patent and the common, begin¬
ning with the fmalleft fize.
Patent
j iMri'Sctoet”or 24, that fo n,2ny balls exaaiy fittin!! ;t TO'*h
Shooting.
H O
Patent Shot.
N°
7
X
1
2
3
4
5
7*
6
5
4
3
2
I ounce
id.
(b) id.
id.
id.
id.
id.
id.
ounce
id.
id.
id.
id.
id.
id.
Common Shot.
620
480
3 00
220
i 80
l51
105
83
350
260
235
190
140
110
95
9 For a fowling-piece of a common caliber, which is
°owder ^rom 2 4 to 3° to t^ie Pound weight, a dram and
and fhot'hi a quarter, or at moft a dram and a half, of good pow-
tfee charge, der; and an ounce, or an ounce and a quarter of fhot, is
fufficient. But when fliot of a larger fize is ufed, fuch
as N° 5. the charge of fhot may be increafed one-
fourth, for the purpofe of counterbalancing in fome de¬
gree what the fize of the fhot lofes in the number of
pellets, and alfo to enable it to garniih the more. For
this purpofe the fportfman will find a meafure marked
with the proper gauges very convenient to him. An
infbrument of this nature has been made by an ingeni¬
ous artift of London, Egg, of the Haymarket.
A confequence of overloading with fhot, is the pow¬
der has not fufficient ftrength to throw it to its proper
diftance ; for if the objebt tired at be diftant, one-half
of the pellets compofing the charge, by their too great
quantity and weight, will ftrike againfl each other, and
fall by the way ; and thofe which reach the mark will
have fmall force, and will produce but little or no ef-
fed.
The ufe of the wadding is to carry the fhot in a
body to a certain diftance from the muzzle of the piece.
It ought to be of foft and pliable materials. The beft
kind of wadding, in the opinion of an experienced fow¬
ler, is a piece of an old hat; but this cannot be obtain¬
ed in fufficient quantity. Next to it nothing is better
than foft brown paper, which combines fupplenefs with
confidence, moulds itfelf to the barrel, and never falls to
the ground within 12 or 15 paces from the muzzle of
the piece. Tow anfwers very well, and cork has been
extolled for pofleffing the peculiar virtue of increafing
the range and clofenefs of the fhot.
The wadding ought to be quite clofe in the barrel,
but not rammed too hard ; for if it be rammed too clofe,
or be of a rigid fubftance, the piece will recoil, and the
.{hot will fpread too much. On the other hand, if the
wadding be very loofe, or is compofed of too foit ma¬
terials, fuch as wool or cotton, the difeharge will not
poflefs proper force.
In loading a piece, the powder ought to be flightly
rammed down by only preffing the ramrod two or three
1° rammed tirnes on t^e waftding, an(l not hy drawing up the ram-
down?me r°d an(l then returning it into the barrel with a jerk of
10
Wadding.
ir
Powder
and fhot
440 ] S H O
the arm feveral times. For when the powder is vio- Shooting,
lently comprefied, fome of the grains muft be bruifed, ——v—^
which will prevent the explofton from being quick, and
will fpread the fhot too wide. In pouring the powder
into the barrel, the meafure ought to be held fo as that
the powder may fall moll readily to the bottom. That
no grains may adhere to the fides of the barrel, the
butt-end of the piece may be ftruck agahift the ground.
The fhot ought never to be rammed down with force :
it is fufficient to ftrike the butt-end of the gun againlt
the ground as before. Then the wadding is to be put
down gently. A fportfman ought never to carry his gun
under his arm with the muzzle inclined downwards,
for this praftice loofens the wadding and charge too
much. lt
Immediately after the piece is fired it ought to be re- Dirtdh'oni
loaded; for while the barrel is ftill warm, there is nof,,r4»adi»g
danger of any moifture lodging in it to hinder thepow-a‘1^ ^rinS*
der from falling to the bottom. As it is found that the
coldnefs of the barrel, and perhaps the moifture con-
denfed in it, diminifhes the force of the powder in the
fir ft fhot; it is proper to fire off a little powder before
the piece is loaded. Some prime before loading, but
this is not proper unlefs the touch-hole be very large.
After every difeharge the touch-hole ought to be prick¬
ed, or a fmall feather may be inferted to clear away any
humidity or foulnefs that has been contrafted.
The fportfman having loaded his piece, muft next
prepare to fire. For this purpofe he ought to place
his hand near the entrance of the ramrod, and at the
fame time grafp the barrel firmly. The muzzle fhould
be a little elevated, for it is more ufual to fhoot low
than high. This direftion ought particularly to be at¬
tended to when the objedt is a little diftant; becaufe
fhot as well as ball only moves a certain diftance point
blank, when it begins to deferibe the curve of the pa¬
rabola _ 13
Practice foon teaches the fportfman the proper di- Diftance at
ftance at which he fhould fhoot. The diftance at which which the
he ought infallibly to kill any kind of game with pa-
tent fhot, N° 3 provided the aim be well taken, is from v;n.
2 5 to 3 ? paces for the footed, and from 40 to 45 paces
for the winged, game. Beyond this diftance even to
50 or 5$ paces, both partridges and hates are fometimes
killed ; but in general the hares are only flightly wound¬
ed, and carry away the fhot ; and the partridges at that
diftance prefent fo fmall a furface, that they frequently
efcape untouched between the fpaces of the circle. Yet
it does not follow that a partridge may not be killed
with N® 3 patent fhot at 60 and even 70 paces diftance,
but then thefe fhots are very rare. _ j4
In'fhooting at a bird flying, or a hare running acrofs, How the
it is neceffary to take aim before the objetft in proper-aim 13101,6
tion to its diftance at the time of firing. If a partridgetakcn'
flies acrofs at the diftance of 30 or 35 paces, it will be
fufficient to aim at the head, or at moft but a fmall
fpace before it. If it be 50, 60, or 70 paces diftant, it
is then requifite to aim at leaft half a foot before the
head. The fame praftice ought to be obferved in
fhoot in g at a hare, rabbit, or fox, when running in a
crofs direction ; at the fame time making due allowance
for
(b) The reader will obferve, that the patent fhot has no N° 6. the X being fubftituted m its place, and
that the numbers do not follow each other in the order of progreffion : the rv-fon of t us w e cannot a. .gn.
15
Every part
of the piece
to be kept
dean and
dry.
S H O
Shooting for the dUtance and fwiftnefs of the pace,
t'*—'v  thing to be attended to is, that the (hooter ought not
involuntarily to ftop the motion of the arms at the mo¬
ment of pulling the trigger ; for the inftant the hand
flops in order to fire, however inconfiderable the time
be, the bird gets beyond the line of aim, and the (hot
will mifs it. A fportfman ought therefore to accu-
flom his hand while he is taking aim to follow the ob-
je£l. When a hare runs in a llraight line from the
(hooter, he (bould take his aim between the ears, other-
wife he will run the hazard either of miffing, or at
lead not of killing dead, or as it is fometimes called
clean.
A fowling-piece (hould not be fired more than 20
or 2 5 times without being wafhed ; a barrel when foul
neither (hoots fo ready, nor carries the (hot fo far as
when clean. The flint, pan, and hammer, (hould be
well wiped after each (hot; this contributes greatly to
make the piece go off quick, but then it (hould be done
with fuch expedition, that the barrel may be reloaded
whilft warm, for the reafons we have before advanced.
The flint (hould be frequently changed, without wait¬
ing until it miffes fire, before a new one is put in. Fif¬
teen or eighteen (hots, therefore, fhould only be fired
with the fame flint; the expence is too trilling to be re¬
garded, and by changing it thus often much vexation
will be prevented.
A gun alfo fhould never be fired with the prime of
the preceding day ; it may happen that an old priming
will fometimes go off well, but it will more frequently
contract moifture and fuze in the firing ; then the ob-
jedl will mod probably be miffed, and that becaufe the
!<£ piece was not frefh primed.
When and For the information of the young fportfman we
how game sffiall add a few more general diredlions. In warm wea-
fouaht for t^ier ou8ht to f°r game in plains and open
' grounds, and in cold weather he may learch little hills
expofed to the fun, along hedges among heath, in
flubbles, and in paftures where there is much furze and
fern. The morning is the heft time of the day, before
the dew is exhaled, and before the game has been di-
fturbed. The colour of the (hooters drefs ought to be
the fame with that of the fields and trees ; in fummer
it ought to be green, in winter a dark grey. He
ought to hunt as much as poffible with the wind, not
only to prevent the game from perceiving the approach
of him and his dog, but alfo to enable the dog to fcent
the game at a greater diftance.
He (hould never be difcouraged from hunting and
ranging the fame ground over and over again, efpeci-
ally in places covered with heath, brambles, high grafs,
or young coppice wood. A hare or rabbit will fre¬
quently fuffer him to pafs feveral times within a few
yards of its form without getting up. He fhould be
llill more patient when he has marked partridges into
fuch places, for it often happens, that after the birds
have been (prung many times, they lie fo dead that
they will fuffer him almoft: to tread upon them before
they will rife. Pheafants, quails, and woodcocks do the
fame.
He ought to look carefully about him, never paffing
a bu(h or tuft of grafs without examination ; but he
ought never to (trike them with the muzzle of his gun
for it will loofen his wadding. He who patiently beats
and .ranges his ground over again, without being dif-
- Vot. XVII. Part IL
[ 44* l
Another couraged,
S H O
will always kill the greateft quantity of Shooting.
game; and if he is (hooting in company, he will find    
game where others have paffed without difcovering any.
When he has fired he (hould call in his dog, that he
may not have the mortification to fee game rife which
he cannot (hoot. When he has killed a bird, inftead
of being anxious about picking it up, he ought to fol¬
low the reft of the covey with his eye till he fee them
fettle.
Three fpecies of dogs are capable of receiving the Dog^fit
proper inftru&ion, and of being trained. Thefe are for (port,
the fmooth pointer, the fpaniel, and the rough pointer.
The laft is a dog with long curled hair, and- feems to
be a mixed breed of the water dog and the fpanieh
The fmooth pointer is aftive and lively enough in his
range, but in general is proper only for an open coun¬
try.
The greateft part of thefe dogs are afraid of water,,
brambles, and thickets ; but the fpanitl and the rough
pointer are eafily taught to take the water, even in cold
weather, and to range the woods and rough places as
well as the plain. Greater dependence may therefore
be had on thefe two laft fpecies of dogs than on the
fmooth pointer. ^
The education of a pointer may commence when he Dire<Stion»
is only five or fix months old. The only leffons which for tra,niri£
he can be taught at this time are to fetch and carry any a
thing when delired ; to come in when he runs far off,
and to go behind when he returns ; ufing, in the one
cafe, the words here, come in, and in the other hach or
behind. It is alfo neceffary at this period to accuftom
him to be tied up iu the kennel or liable ; but he ought
not at firft to be tied too long. He (hould be let loofe
in the morning, and faftened again in the evening.
When a dog is not early accuftomed to be chained, he
difturbs every perfon in the neighbourhood by howling.
It is alfo of importance that the perfon who is to train
him (hould give him his food.
When the dog has attained the age of 10 or 12
months, he may be carried into the field to be regular¬
ly trained. At firft he may be allowed to follow his
own inclination, and to run after every animal he fees.
His indifcriminating eagernefs will foon abate, and he
will purfue only partridges and hares. He will foon
become tired of following partridges in vain, and will
content himfelf after having flulhed them to follow them
with his eyes. It will be more difficult to prevent him
from following hares.
All young dogs are apt to rake ; that is, to hunt
with their nofes clofe to the ground, to follow birds ra¬
ther by the track than by the wind. But partridges
lie much better to dogs that wind them, than to thofe
that fellow them by the track. The dog that winds
the fcent approaches the birds by degrees and without
difturbing them ; but they are immediately alarmed
when they fee a dog tracing their footfteps. When
you perceive that your dog is committing this fault,
call to him in an angry'tone hold up: he will then grow
uneafy and agitated, going firft to the one fide and then
to the other, until the wind brings him the fcent of
the birds. After finding the game four or five times in
this way, he will take the wind of himfelf, and hunt
with his nofe high. If it be difficult to corrett this
fault, it will be neceffary to put the puzzle peg upon
him. This is of very Ample conftruction, confiding
3 K only
S H O [ 442 ] S H O
Shooting. on]y 0f a piece of oak or deal inch board, one foot in
length, and an inch and a half in breadth, tapering a
little to one end ; at the broader end are two holes run¬
ning longitudinally, through which the collar of the dog
is put, and the whole is buckled round his neck ; the
piece of wood being proje&ed beyond his nofe, is then
faftened with a piece of leather thong to his under jaw.
By this means the peg advancing feven or eight inches
beyond his fnout, the dog is prevented from putting his
nofe to the ground and raking.
* As foon as the young dog knows his game you muft
bring him under complete fubjeftion. If he is tra&able,
this will be eafy; but if he is itubborn, it will be neeef-
fary to ufe the trajh cord, which is a rope or cord of
20 or 2 $ fathoms in length failened to his collar. If
he refufe to come back when called upon, you muft:
check him fmartly with the cord, which will often bring
him upon his haunches. But be fure you never call to
him except when you are within reach of the cord. Af¬
ter repeating this feveral times he will not fail to
come back when called ; he ought then to be carefled,
and a bit of bread fhould be given him. He ought now
conftantly to be tied up, and never unchained, except
when you give him his food, and even then only when
he has done fomething to deferve it.
The next llep will be to throw down a piece of
bread on the ground, at the fame moment taking hold
. of the dog by the collar, calling out to him, “ take
heed,— foMy.” After having held him in this manner
for fome fpace of time, fay to him, “ feize—lay hold.,,
If he is impatient to lay hold of the piece of bread be¬
fore the fignal is given, correct him gently with a fmall
whip. Repeat this leflfon until he “ takes heed” well,
and no longer requires to be held fall to prevent him
from laying hold of the bread. When he is well ac-
cuftomed to this manege, turn the bread with a ftick,
holding it in the manner you do a fowling-piece, and
having done fo, cry feive. Never fuffer the dog to eat
either in the houfe or field without having firft made
him take heed in this manner.
Then, in order to apply this leflbn to the game, fry
fmall pieces of bread in hogs lard, with the dung of par¬
tridge ; take thefe in a linen bag into the fields, Itub-
bles, ploughed grounds, and paftures, and there put the
pieces in feveral different places, marking the fpots with
little cleft pickets of wood, which will be rendered
■more diftinguifhable by putting pieces of card in the
nicks. This being done, call off the dog and conduit
him to thefe places, always hunting in the wind. After
he has caught the fcent of the bread, if he approaches
too near, and feems eager to fail upon it, cry to him in
a menacing tone, “ take heed and if he does not flop
immediately, correct him with the whip. He will foon
comprehend what is required of him, and will ftand.
At thenextkiTon.take your gun charged only with pow¬
der, walk gently round the piece of bread once or twice,
and fire inftead of cryingye/ze. The next time ofprac-
tifing this leffon, walk round the bread four or five times,
but in a greater circle than before, and continue to do
this, until the dog is conquered of his impatience, and
will ftand without moving until the fignal is given him.
When he keeps his point well, and Hands fteady in this
leffon, you may carry him to the birds ; if he runs in
upon them, 01 barks when they fpring up, you mult cor-
reft, him ; and if he continues to do fo, you muff, return Shooting,
to the fried bread ; but this is feldom neceffary. ——
When the dog has learned by' this ufe of the bread
to take heed, he may be carried to the fields with the
trafh eord dragging on the ground. When lie fprings
birds for the firft time, if he runs after them or barks,
check him by calling out to him, take heed. If he point
properly, carefs him ; but you ought never to hunt
without the cord until he point {launch. 15
If the dog runs after flieep, and it be difficult to cure And pre.
him, couple him with a ram, and then whip the dog asvenu.nS ^
long as you can follow him. His cries will at fitfl”'r ^
alarm the ram; he will run with all his fpeed, and drag
the dog along with him ; but he will at length take
courage, turn upon the dog, and Butt him feverely with
his horns. When you think the dog is fufficiently chaf-
tifed, untie him : he will never run at fheep again.
Having now given a few general inftruftions con¬
cerning the heft method of training pointers, we {hall
fubjoin a few obfervations refpefting the moft common
fpecies of game, the partridge, pheafant, groufe, wood¬
cock, fnipe, and wild duck.
Partridges pair in the fpring, and lay their eggs (ge-0bferva-
nerally from 15 to 20) during May and part of June, tions con-
The young begin to fly about the end of June, and their tenting the
plumage is complete in the beginning of Oftober. The Partri<,;&**
male has a confpicuous horfefhoe upon his breaft, an
obtufe fpur on the hinder part of the leg, which di-
ftinguifhes him from the female. He is alio rather lar-
ger.
When a fportfman is {hooting in a country where
the birds are thin, and he no longer choofes to range
the field for the bare chance of meeting with them,
the following method will {how him v/here to find them
on another day. In the evening, from fun-fet to night¬
fall, he Ihould poll himfelf in a field, at the foot of a
tree or a bufh, and there wait until the partridge begin
to call or juck, which they always do at that time ;
not only for the purpofe of drawing together when fe-
parated, but alfo when the birds compofing the covey
are not difperfed. After calling in this 'manner for
fome little {pace of time, the partridges will take to
flight ; then, if he mark the place where they alight,
he may be affured they will lie there the whole night,
unlefs difturbed. Let him return to die fame poft the
next morning by break of day, and there watch a whilej
being careful to keep his dog in a firing, if he is not
under perfeft command.
As loon as the dawn begins to peep, the partridges
will begin to call, and loon afterwards will perform the
fame manoeuvre as on the preceding evening; that
is, after having called a while, they will take their
flight, and will moll commonly fettle at a little diftance.
There in a few minutes they will call again, and fome-
times take a fecond flight, but that will be to no great
diftance. Then as foon as the fun is rifen, and the
fpordman can lee to fhoot, he may call off his dog and
puriue them. 2j
The pheafant is of the fize of a common dunghillPheafant.
cock, and lays its eggs generally in the woods, the
number of which is 10 or 12.
Pheafants are accounted ftupid birds ; for when they
are furprifed they will frequently fquat down like a rab¬
bit, fuppofing themfeives to be in fafety as foon as their
heads
8 H,. ° C 443 1 S H O
and m «h» way they will feme- which is fmaller , by the nails, which are more black ;
and above all, by the web of the foot, which is much
finer and fofter to the touch.
22
Groufe.
23
Shooting, heads are concealed, _ __    
’ v times fuffer themfelves to be killed with a fiick. They
love low and moift places, and haunt the edges of thafe
pools which are found in woods, as well as the high grafs
of madhes that are near at hand ; and above all’ places
where there are clumps of alders.
Grou/e, or muir-game, are found in Wales, in the
northern counties of England, and in great abundance
in Scotland. I hey chiefly inhabit thofe mountains and
muirs which are covered with heath, and feldom de-
feend to the low grounds. They fly in companies of
four or five braces, and love to frequent mofly places,
particularly in the middle of the day or when the wea¬
ther is warm. In purfuing this game, when the pointer
fets, and the fportfman perceives the birds running with
their heads ere&, he muil run after them as faff as he
can, in the hope that he may get near enough t@ fhoot
when they rife upon the wing; for he may be pretty
certain they will not lie well that day. As thefe birds
are apt to grow foon putrid, they ought to be drawn
carefully the inftant they are fhot and' Huffed with any
heath, and if the feathers happen to be wetted they mull
be wiped dry.
Woodcock. . The woodcock is a bird of paflage; it commonly ar¬
rives about the end of O&ober, and remains until the
middle of March. Woodcocks are fattefl in December and
January, but from the end of February they are lean.
At their arrival they drop anywhere, but afterwards take
up theii refidence in copfes of nine or ten years growth.
T hey feldom, however, flay in one place longer than 12
or 15 days. During the day they remain in thofe parts
of the woods where there are void fpaces or glades,
picking up earth-worms and grubs from the fallen leaves.
In the evening they go to drink and wafh their bills at
pools and fprings, after which they repair to the open
fields and meadows for the night. It is remarkable,
that when a woodcock fprings from a wood to go into
the open country, he always endeavours to find fome
glade or opening, which he follows to the boundaries of
the wood. At his return he purfues the fame path a
good way, and then turns to the right or left oppofite
•to fome glade, in order to drop into a thick part of the
wood, where he may be fheltered from the wind. He
may therefore be watched with advantage in thefe nar-
iow paffes and little alleys on the edges of woods which
lead to a pool or fpring, or he may be watched in the
•dulk of the evening near the pools which he frequents.
’I he jmpe is a bird of pafiage as well as the wood¬
cock. This bird is. fcarcely worth (hooting till the
froft commences. In the month of November they be¬
gin to grow fat. Snipes, like woodcocks, frequent
fprings, bogs, and marfhy places, and generally fly a-
gainlt the wind. I he fiant and crofs fliots are rather
difficult, as the birds are fmall and fly very quickly.
The fportfman ought to look for them m the diredtion
•of the wind ; becaufe then they will fly towards him,
and prefent a fairen mark.
i he wild duck is alfo a bird of palTage, and arrives
here in gieat flocks from the northern countries in the
beginning of winter. Still, however, a great many re¬
main in our marfhes and’ fens during the whole year,
and breed. ;
The wild duck differs little in plumage from the tame
duck, but ts eafily dillinguiffied by its fize, which is
ieis; by the neck, which is more Header; by the foot
94
Snipe.
,25
Wild duck.
in the fummer feafon, when it is known that a team
of young ducks are in a particular piece of water, and
jud beginning to fly, the fportlman is fure to find them
early in the morning dabbling at the edges of the pool,
and arnongft the long grafs, and then he may get very
neai to them : it is ufual alio to find them in thofe pla¬
ces at noon.
In the beginning of autumn almoff every pool is fre¬
quented by teams of wild ducks, which remain there
during the day, concealed in the ruffles. If thefe pools
are of fmall extent, two fhooters, by going one on each
fide, making a noife and throwing ffones into the ruffles,
will make them fly up ; and they will in this way fre¬
quently get fliots, efpecially it the pool is not broad,
and contraas at one end. But the fureft and moff fuc-
cefsful way, is to launch a fmall boat or trow on the
pool, and to traverfe the ruffies by the openings which,
are found ; at the fame time making as little noife as
poffible. In this manner the ducks will fuffer the fportf-
men to come fuffieiently near them to fhoot flying ; and
it often happens that the ducks, after having flown up,
only make a circuit, return in a little timer and again
alight upon the pool. Then the fportfmen endeavour
a fecund time to come near them. If feveral {hoot¬
ers are in company, they fhould divide, two fhould
go in the boat, vvhJlft the others i'pread themfelves a-
bout the edge of the pool, in order to fhoot the ducks
m thur flight. In pools which will not admit a trow,
W’ater-fpaniels are abfolutely neceflary for this fport.
In winter they may be found on the margins of little
pools ; and when pools and rivers are frozen up, they
muff be watched for in places where there are fprinu;s
and waters which do not freeze. The fport is then
much more certain, becaufe the ducks are confined to
thefe places m order to procure aquatic herbs, which,
are almoft their only food at this period.
SHOl -lifters, are thofe that fteal goods privately
out of fliops which, being to the value'of 5 s. though
no perfon be in the fhop, is felony without the benefit
of clergy by the 10 and 1 1 W. III. c. 23.
. SHORE, a place walked by the fea, or by fome larire
river. &
. Count Marfigli divides the fea-fhore into three por¬
tions : the firit of which is that track of land which the
iea juff reaches m fforms and high tides, but which it
never covers ; the fecund part of the fliore is that which
is covered in high tides and ftorms, but is dry at other
tunes; and the third is the defeent from this, which is
always covered with water.
The firft part is only a continuation of the continent,
and iuffers no alteration from the neighbourhood of the
iea, except that it is rendered fit for the growth of fome
plants, and wholly unfit for that of others, by the faline
fleams and impregnations : and it is fcarce to be con¬
ceived by any, but thofe who have obferved it, how far
on land the effeds of the fea reach, fo as to make the
earth proper for plants which will not grow without
t.iis influence; there being feveral plants frequently-
found on high hills and dry places, at three, four, and
more miles from the fea, which vet would not grow uu-
lefs in the neighbourhood.of it, nor will ever be found
elie where.
3 K 2 The
Shooting
Shore.
—-v—*-*
S H O
Shore The fecond part or portion of the fhore is much
H more affeded by the fea than the former, being fre-
Short' quently waflied and beaten by it Its produdions are ren-
* dered fait by the water, and it is covered with fend, or
with the fragments of flidls in form of fand, and in fome
places with a tartarous matter depohted from the water ;
the colour of this whole extent of ground is ufually
dufky and dull, efpecially where there are rocks and
Itones, and thefe covered with a flimy matter.
The third part of the fhore is more affected by the
fea than either of the others ; and is covered with an
uniform cruft of the true nature of the bottom of the
fea, except that plants and animals have their refidence
in it, and the decayed parts of thefe alter it a little.
SHORE (Jane), the celebrated concubine of the
licentious king Edward IV. was the wife of Mr Mat¬
thew Shore, a goldfmith in Lombard ftreet, London.
Kings are feldom unfuccefsful in their amorous purfuits;
therefore there was nothing wonderful in Mrs Shore’s
removing from Lombard-ftreet to Chine at court as the
royal favourite. Hiftorians reprefent her as extremely
beautiful, remarkably cheerful, and of moll uncommon
generofity. The king, it is faid, was no lefs captivated
with her temper than with her perion : fhe never made
ufe of her influence over him to the prejudice of any
perfon ; and if ever fhe importuned him, it was in fa¬
vour of the unfortunate. After the death of Edward,
fhe attached herfelf to the lord Haftings ; and when
Richard III. cut off that nobleman as an obftacle to
his ambitious fchemes, Jane Shore was arrefted as an
accomplice, on the ridiculous accufation of witchcraft.
This, however, terminated only in a public penance;
excepting that Richard rifled her of all her little pro¬
perty : but whatever feverity might have been exereifed
towards her, it appears that fhe was alive, though fuf-
ficiently wretched, under the reign of Henry VIII.
when Sir Thomas More faw her poor, old, and fhrivel-
led, without the leaft trace of her former beauty. Mr
Rowe, in his tragedy of Jane Shore, has adopted the
popular ftory related in the old hiftorieal ballad, of her
perifhing by hunger iij a ditch where Shoreditch now
Hands. Rut Stow afjbres us that ftreet was fo named
before her time.
SHORE. See Schorl.
SHORLING and Morling, are words to diftin-
guifh fells of fheep ; Jhorimg being the tells after the
fleeces are fhorn off the fheep’s back ; and morling, the
fells Head off after they die or are killed. In fome
parts of England they underftand by •a.Jhorling, a fheep
whofe face is fhorn off; and by z. morling, a fheep that
dies.
SHORT (James), an eminent optician, was born in
Edinburgh on the loth of June, O. S. in the year 1710.
At ten years of age, having left his father and mother*
and being left in a ftate of indigence, he was received
into Heriot’s Hofpital, (fee Edinburgh Public Build¬
ings, n° 16.), where he foon difplayed his mechanical
genius in conftrucfting,. for himlelf, little chefts, book*
cafes, and other conveniences, with, fuch tools as fell in
his way. At the age. of twelve.he was removed from
the Hofpital to the High School, where he fhowed a
confiderable tafte for claflical literature, and generally
kept at the head of his forms. In the year 1726 he
was..entered.into the univerfity, where he paffed through.
S H O
the ufual courfe of education, and took his mailer’s de« Shart.
gree with great applaufe. —y—,
By his friends he was intended for the church ; but
after attending a courfe of theological le&ures, his mind
revolted from a profeffion which he thought little fuit-
ed to his talents ; and he devoted his whole time to ma¬
thematical and mechanical purfuits. He had been for¬
tunate enough to have the celebrated M‘Laurin for his
preceptor ; who having foon difcoVered the bent of his
genius, and made a proper eftimate of the extent of his
capacity, encouraged him to profecute thofe fludies in
which nature had qualified him to make the greateft fi¬
gure. Under the eye of that eminent mafter, he began
in 1732 to conftruft Gregorian telefcopes; and, as the
profeffor obferved in a letter to Dr Jurin, “ by taking
care of the figure of his fpecula, he was enabled to give
them larger apertures, and to carry them to greater
perfeftion, than had ever been done before him.” See
Optics, ntf 97.)
In the year 1736 Mr Short was called to London,
at the defire of Queen Caroline, to give inftruftions in
mathematics to William duke of Cumberland; and imme¬
diately on his appointment to that very honourable office
he was elefted a fellow of the royal fociety, and patro-
nifed by the earls of Morton and Macclesfield. In the
year 1739 he accompanied the former of thofe noble
lords to the Orkney Ifles, where he was employed in
adjulling the geography of that part of Scotland : and
happy it was for him that he was fo employed, as he
might other wife have been involved in a feuffie which
took place between the retainers of Sir James Stewart
of Barra and the attendants of the earl, in which fome
of the latter were dangeroufly wounded.
Mr Short having returned to London, and finally
eftablifhed himfelf there in the line of his profeffion, was
in 1745 employed by lord Thomas Spencer to make
for him a refledtor of twelve feet focus, for which he
received 600 guineas. He made feveral other telefcopes
of the fame focal diftance with greater improvements
and higher magnifiers ; and in 1752 finifhed one for the
king of Spain, for which, with its whole apparatus, he
received 1200I. This was the nobleft inftrumentof the
kind that had then been conflrudled, and perhaps it has
never yet been furpaffed except by the ailonilhing re-
fkdlors of Herfchel. See Telescope.
Mr Short was wont to vifit the place of his nativity
once every two or three years during his refidence ia
London, and in 1766 he vifited it for the laft time. On
the 15th of June 1768 he died, after a very fhort ill-
nefs, at Newington Butts, near London, of a mortifica¬
tion in his bowels, and was buried on the 2?.d of the
fame month, having completed, v/ithin a few days, his
fifty-eighth year. He left a fortune of about 20,000!.
of which 15,000!. was bequeathed to two nephews*
and the reft in legacies to his friends. In gratitude for
the fteady patronage.of the earl of Morton, he left t© i
his daughter the Lady Mary Douglas, afterwards coun¬
ters of Aboyne, ,ioocl. and the reverlion of his fortune,.
fhould his nephews die without iffue ; but this rever-
fionary legacy the lady, at the defire of her father, ge-
neroufly relinquiftied by a deed in favour of Mr Short’s
brother Mr Thomas Short and his children. Mr
Short’s eminence as an artift is univerfally known, and
we, have often heard him ipoken of by thofe who had
known
r 444 i
S H O
IJirrt known him from his youth, as a man of virtue and of
I! very amiable manners. ^
Shot. Short-Hand Writing. See Stenography.
’’“v SnoRT-jointed, in the manege. A horfe is faid to be
Ihort jointed that has a fhort paftern ; when this joint,
or the paftern is too ihort, the horfe is fubjeA to have
his fore legs from the knee to the cornet all in a ftraight
line. Commonly your ihort-jointed horfes do not ma.
jiege fo well as the long-jointed ; but out of the manege
the ihort-jointed are the beft for travel or fatigue.
SnoRT-Sightedne/s, a certain deleft in vifion, by which
objects cannot be diftinftly feen imlefs they are very
near the eye. See Optics, n° 155.
SHORTFORD, q. d. fsre-clofe, an ancient cuftom
in the city of Exeter, when the lord of the fee cannot
be anfwered rent due to him out of his tenement, and
no diftrefs can be levied for the fame. The lord is then
to come to the tenement, and there take a ftone, or
fome other dead thing off the tenement, and bring it
before the mayor and bailiff, and thus he muft do feven
quarter days fucceffively; and if on the feventh quarter-
day the lord is not fatisiied of his rent and arrears, then
the tenement ihall be adjudged to the lord to hold the
fame a year and a day ; and forthwith proclamation is
to be made in the court, that if any man claims any
title to the faid tenement, he muft appear within the
year and day next following, and fatisfy the lord of the
faid rent and arrears: but if no appearance be made,
and the rent not paid, the lord comes again to the
court, and prays that, according to the cuftom, the
faid tenement be adjudged to him in his demefne as
of fee, which is done accordingly, fo that the lord hath
from thenceforth the faid tenement, wuth the appurte¬
nances to him and his heirs.
SHOT, a denomination given to all forts of balls for
fire-arms ; thofe for cannon being of iron, and thofe for
guns, piftols, &c. of lead. See Shooting.
Cafe Shot formerly confifted of all kinds of ©Id iron,
nails, mufket-balls, ftones, &c. ufed as above.
Shot of a Cable, on fhip-board, is the fplicing of two
cables together, that a (hip may ride fafe in deep waters
and in great roads; for a (hip will ride eafier by one fhot
of a cable, than by three fhort cables out ahead.
Grape Shot. See GRAPE-Shot.
Patent milled Shot is thus made : Sheets of lead,
whofe thicknefs correfponds with the frze of the fhot
required, are cut into fmall pieces, or cubes, of the
form of a die. A great quantity of thefe little
cubes are put into a large hollow iron cylinder, which
is mounted horizontally and turned by a winch ; when
by their fritlion againft one another and againft the
Tides of the cylinder, they are rendered perfectly round
and very fmooth. The other patent fhot is caft in
moulds, in the fame way as bullets are.
SnoT-Flaggon, a fort of flaggon fomewhat bigger than
ordinary, which in fome counties, particularly Derby-
fhire, it is the cuftom for the hoft to ferve his guefts in,
after they have drank above a fhilling.
Small Shot, or that ufed for fowling, fliould be well
fized, and of a moderate bignefs : for fhould it be too
great, then it flies thin, and fcatters too much ; or if
too fmall, then it hath not weight and ftrength to pe¬
netrate far, and the bird is apt to fly away with it. In
order, therefore, to have it fuitable to the occafton, it
S H o
not being always to be had in every place fit for the pur.
pofe, we fhall fet down the true method of making all
forts and fizes under the name of mould-Jhot. Its prin¬
cipal good properties are to be round and folld.
'Fake any quantity of lead you think fit, and melt it
down in an iron veffel; and as it melts keep it ftirring1
with an iron ladle, fkimming off all impurities whatfo-
ever that may arife at the top : when it begins to look
of a greenifh colour, ftrew on it as much auripigmentum
or yellow orpiment, finely powdered, as will lie oh a flak
ling, to every 12 or 14 pound of lead; then ftirring
them together, the orpiment will flame.
The ladle fhould have a notch on one fide of the
brim, for more qafily pouring out the lead ; the ladle
muft remain in the melted lead, that its heat may be the
fame with that of the lead, to prevent inconveniences
which otherwife might happen by its being either too
hot or too cold : then, to try your lead, drop a little of
it into water, and if the drops- prove round, then the
lead is of a proper heat; if otherwife, and the fh©t have
tails, then add more orpiraent to increafe the heat, till
it be found fufficient.
Then take a plate of copper, about the bignefs of a
trencher, which muft be made with a hollownefs in the
middle, about three inches compafs, within which muft
be bored about 40 holes according to the iize of the
fhot which you intend to caft: the hollow bottom fliould
be thin ; but the thicker the brim, the better it will re¬
tain the heat. Place this plate on a frame of iron, over
a tub or vefiel of water, about four inches from the wa¬
ter, and fpread burning coals on the plate, to keep the
lead melted upon it: then take fome lead and pour it
gently on the coals on the plate, and it will make its
way through the holes into the water, and form itfelf
into fhot ; do thus till all your lead be run through
the holes of the plate, taking care, by keeping your
coals alive, that the lead do not cool, and fo flop up the
holes.
.While you are cafting in this manner, another perfon
with another ladle may catch fome of the ftiot, placin'*1
the ladle four or five inches underneath the plate in the
water, by which means you will fee if they are defec¬
tive, and redlify them.
Your chief care is to keep the lead in a juft degree
of heat, that it be not fo cold as to flop up the holes -
in your plate, nor fo hot as to caufe the fhot to crack :
to remedy the heat, you muft refrain working till it is
of a proper coolnefs ; and to remedy the coolnefs of your
lead and plate, you muft blow your fire ; obferving, that
the cooler your lead is, the larger will be your fhot; as
the hotter it is, the fmaller they will be.
After you have done cafting, take them out of the
water, and dry them over the fire with a gentle heat,
ftirring them continually that they do not melt; when
dry, you are to feparate the great fhot from the fmall,
by the help of a fieve made for that purpofe, according
to their feverai fizes. But thofe who would have very
large fhot, make the lead trickle with a flick out of the
ladle into the water, without the plate.
if it flop on the plate, and yet the plate be not too
cool, give but the plate a little knock, and it will run
again ; care muft be had that none of your implements
be greafy, oily, or the like ; ■ and when the fhot, being
feparated, are found too large or too fmall for your putk-
pofe3»
[ 445 1
S H O
[ 44-6 1
S H R
pofe, or otlierwife imperfeft, they will ferve again at into the Mediterranean; and it was owmg to him chief- Shove’er
the next operation. ly that Barcelona was taken. After an unfuccefsful ^ II
The fixes of common (hot for fowling are from N° i to attempt upon Toulon, he failed for Gibraltar, and fromslire'v^u*
6, and fmaller, which is called milliard feed, ®r dull fhot;/thence homeward with a part of the fleet. On the 22d ^
butN05 is fmall enoughfor anylhooting whatfoever. The of Oftober, at night, his {hip, wdth three others, was
call away on the rocks of Scilly. All on board perilh-
NJ i may be ufed for wild geefe ; the N° 2 for ducks,
widgeons, and other water-fowl; the N° 3 for phea-
fants, partridges after the fir A month, and all the fen-
fowl; the N° 4 for partridges, woodcocks, &c. ; and
the N° 5 for fnipes and all the fmaller birds.
Tin-Cafe Shot, in artillery, is formed by putting
a great quantity of fmall iron fhot into a cylindrical
tin-box called a cannifter, that juft fits the bore of the
gun. Leaden bullets arc fometimes ufed in the fame
manner; and it mull be obferved, that whatever num¬
ber or fizes of the Ihots are ufed, they muft weigh with
their cafes nearly as much as the fhot of the piece.
SHOVEL (Sir Claudefly ), was born about the year
1650 of parents rather in the lower rank of life. He
was put apprentice to a fheemaker ; but difliking this
profeffion, he abandoned it a few years after, and went
to fea. lie was at firff a cabin boy with Sir Chriilo-
pher Mynns, but applying to the ftudy of navigation
with indefatigable induftry, his flail as a feaman foon
railed him above that flation.
The corfairs of Tripoli having committed great out¬
rages on the Englifh in the Mediterranean, Sir John
Narborough was fent in 1674 to reduce them to rea-
fon. As he had received orders to try the effects of
ne;-Tociation before he proceeded to hoftnities, he fent Mr
Shovel, who was at that time a lieutenant in his fleet,
to demand fatisfa&ion. The Dey treated him with
a great deal of difrefpedl, and fent him back without
an anfwer. Sir John difpatched him a fecond time,
with orders to remark particularly the lituation of things
on fhore. The behaviour of the Dey was worfe than
ever. Upon Mr Shovel’s return, he informed Sir John
that it would be polfible, notwithftanding their fortifi¬
cations, to burn all the fhips in the harbour. The boats
were accordingly manned, and the command of them
given to Lieut. Shovel, who feized the guardlhip, and
burnt four others, without lofing a man. 1 his adlion
fo terrified the Tripolms, that they fued for peace.—
Sir John Narborough gave fo favourable an account of
this exploit, that Mr Shovel was foon after made captain
of the Sapphire, a fifth rate Ihip.
In the battle of Bantry-Bay, after the revolution, he
commanded the Edgar, and, for his gallant behaviour
in that action, was foon after knighted by king William.
Next year he was employed in tranfporting an army in¬
to Ireland; a fervice which he performed with fo much
diligence and dexterity, that the king railed him to
the rank of rear-admiral of the blue, and delivered his
commiffion with his own hands. Soon aAer he was
made rear admiral of the red, and lhared the glory of
the viftory at La Hogue. In 1694, he bombarded
Dunkirk. ' In 1 703, he commanded the grand fleet in
the Mediterranean, and did every thing in his power to
affift the Rfoteftants who were in arms in the Cevennes.^
Soon after'the battle off Malaga, he was prefented
by prince George to Queen Anne, who received him
gracioufly, and next year employed him as commander
in chief.
In 1705 he coTiimanded the fleet, together with the
‘earls of Peterborough and Monmouth, which was fent
ed. His body was found by fome filhermen on the
Hand of Scilly, who ftripped it of a valuable ring, and
afterwards buried it. Mr Paxton, the purfer of the
Arundel, hearing of this, found out the fellows, and
obliged them to difeover where they had buried the
body. He carried it on board his own fhip to Portf-
mouth, from whence it was conveyed to London, and in- '
terred with great folemnity in Weftminfter Abbey. A
monument was afterwards erefted to his memory by the
direftion of the Queen. He married the widow of his
patron, Sir John Narborough, by whom he left two
daughters, co-heireffes.
SHOVELER, in ornithology, a fpecies of Anas.
SPIOULDER-blade, a bone of the fhoulder, of a
triangular figure, covering the hind part of the ribs,
called by anatomifts the fcapuia and omoplata. See An a-
tomy.
SHOUT, clamour, in antiquity, was frequently
ufed on ecclefialtical, civil, and military occafions, as a
fign of approbation, and fometimes of indignation.—-
Thus as Cicero, in an affembly of the people, was ex-
pofing the arrogance of L. Antony, who had had the
impudence to caufe himfdf to be inferibed the patron
of the Romans, the people on hearing this railed a fliout
to Ihow their indignation. In the ancient military dif-
cipline, fhouts were ufed, 1. Upon occafion of the ge¬
neral’s making a fpeech or harangue to the army from
his tribunal. This they did in token of their approving
what had been propofed. 2. Before an engagement, in
order to encourage and fpirit their own men, and fill
the enemy with dread. This is a praftice of great an¬
tiquity ; befides which, it wants not the authority of
reafon to fupport it; for as mankind are endowed with
two fenfes, hearing and feeing, by which fear is raffed
in the mind, it may be proper to make ufe of the ear
as well as the eye for that purpole. Shouts were alfo
raffed in the ancient theatre, when what was adted pleafed
the fpeclators. It was ufual lor thofe prefent at the
burning of the dead to raife a great Ihout, and call the
dead perfon.by his name before they fet fire to the pile.
SHOWER, in meteorology, a cloud condenied in¬
to Rain.
SHREWMOUSE. See Sore*.
SPIREWSBURY, the capital of Shropftiire in
England. This town, the metropolis of the county,
grew up out of the ruins of Uriconium, anciently a
city, now a village called Wroxeter, about four miles
from it. The Saxons called it Scrobbes Be rig, Irom
the flirubs that grew about it ; and from thence the
prefent name of Shremfhury is fuppofed to have been
formed. It is pleatantly lituated upon a hill near the
Severn, over which there are two handfome bridges.
It was a place of note in the Saxon times; after
which it was granted by William the Conqueror, toge¬
ther with the title of earl and moll of .the county, to
Roger de Montgomery, who built a caftle upon the
north fide of it, where the Severn, that encompaffes it on
all other lides, leaves an opening. His fon Robert built
alfo a wall acrofs this neck of land, when he revolted
2 from
S H R
Shrc'vfbu- from Henry I. We learn from doomfday book, that
ry' at that time, when a widow of this town married, (he
1 ’ paid 20 flullings to the kinsr, and a virgin 10.. The
above-mentioned Roger founded alfo, and endowed
here, a Benedi&ine monaftery and a collegiate church.
When old age came upon him, he quitted the world,
and fpent the reft of his days as a monk in the abbey,
and when he died was interred in its church. From
the hiftory of this church and monaftery, it appears,
that ecckfiallical henehces about that time were here¬
ditary. The abbey became fo rich afterwards, that the
abbot was mitred, and fat in parliament. Eelides this
abbey, in after times there were three others, viz. a
Francifcan,. Dominican, and Auguftin, and likewife
two collegiate churches ; one dedicated to St Chad
and the other to St Mary. In the conteft between the
emprefs Maud and Stephen, this town; and its gover¬
nor William Fitz-Allan, ftded with the emprefs. In
Henr-y III. s time, a part of it was burnt down by
the Welch ; and in Richard II.’s reign a parliament
was held in it. At a place called Battlefield, near this
town, Henry Percy the younger, furnamed Hotfpur,
was killed in an engagement with Flenry IV. againft
whom he had rebelled. The king afterwards built a
chapel upon the foot, and endowed it for the fupport of
two priefts toprayfor the fouls of the flain. Twoof Edw.
IV.’s fons were born here ; namely, Richard, duke of
York, whom Perkin Warbeck afterwards perfonated,
and who was murdered in the Tower; and George
Plantagenet, who died before his brothers. Here firft
broke out the fweating-fteknefs, which carried off great
numbers fo fuddenly, that thofe who were feized with
it either died or recovered in the fpace of 24 hours. In
the beginning of the civil wars, king Charles I. came
hither, and formed an army, with which he marched
towards London ; but was met by the parliament’s forces
at Edgehdl. He continued here from the 20th of Sep.
tember to the 12th of Odlober, during which time he
was joined by prince Rupert, and many of the gentry
and nobility of thefe parts. This town anciently o-ave
title of earl to the Montgomeries, and afterwards to^the
Talbots, by whom it is ftill retained. Here is a free
grammar-fchool, with three mailers, and feveral ulhers
well endowed, by Edward VI. and queen Elizabeth’
and not inferior to many colleges in the univerfitie*!
It has a good library and chapel, and there are feveral
fcholarlhips appropriated to it in the unfverfity of Cam¬
bridge. . Here are alfo feveral hofpitals, alms-houfes,
and chanty-fchools. This town is one of the moft flou-
C 447 1
S H R
may be feen for fcveral miles, where Roman coins are Shrlfer
frequently found. In Shrewsbury are 12 incorporated !),
trading companies; and the corporation has a power to g3
try even capital caufes ot itfelt, except high treafon. v
It is faid that thigh-bones of dead men have been
found here a yard long, and teeth three inches round
and three long. -
SHRIKE. See Lanius.
SHRIMP,in ichthyology. See Cancer, n° 5. and 6.
SHRINE, in eccleftaftical hiftory, a cafe or box
to hold the relics of fome faint.
oHROi SHIRE, a county of England, bounded
on the loath by Worcellerfhire, Plerefordlhire, and
Radnorfhire ; on the north, by Chelhire ; on the call,
by Staffordfhire; on the welt, by Montgomerylhire
and Denbighflnre, m Wales. Its length is between
49 and 50 miles, its breadth about 38, and its circum¬
ference about 210. It is an inland county, contain-
mg 890,000 acres, 113,680 inhabitants, and 15 hun¬
dreds, in which are 170 parilhes, and 15 market
towns. It makes a part of three bilhoprics, viz.
Hereford, Coventry and Litchfield, and St Afaph,
Some part of it lies on the north, and foine on the
fouth fide or the Severn. . Befides the Severn, it is
alio watered by the Bemd or Befidiauc, as it is called
in W elch, which flows from the mountains of Rad¬
nor (hire ; and by the Tern, which has its rife and
name from one of thofe pools called tearnes, in Staf-
fordftiire. All thefe abound with fifli, efpecially
trouts,. pikes, lampreys, graylings, carp, and eels.
I ne air, efpecially upon the hills*, with which the
county abounds, is very wholefome. There is as great
a diverfity of foil as in moft other counties. On
the hills, where it is poor, is very good pafture for
ineep ; and in the low grounds, where it is very rich,
along the Severn in particular, there is plenty of grafs
for hay aad black cattle, with all forts of corn. No
county is better provided with fuel than this, having
in it many mexhauftible pits of coal, and alfo mines of
lead and iron. Over moft of the coal-pits in this coun¬
ty lies a ftratum or layer of blackilh porous rock, of
which, by grinding and boiling, they make pitch and
tar, which are rather better than the common fort for
caulking fhips, as they do not crack, but always con-
tmue ciole and fmooth. Quarries of lime-ftone and
iron-ftone arc common enough in the county, and the
iod m many places is a reddifti clay. As it lies^ upon
the borders 01 Wales, it was anciently full of caftles
and walled towns. On the fide next that country there
rkhing in England, having two great weekly markets w..„ an 1 r,WnS‘ • n l-^5 "“e next country there
for corn, cattle, and proviflons; and another for Welch county a-ftn/^The^nmaT ^ l° gUarfd Lhe
cottons and flannels, of which great quantities are fold. Welch. ^dations^f the
A great trade is carried on with the Welch, who bring
their commodities hither, as to the common mart of
both, nations. 1 he town is large and well-built, and
the fituation extremely pleafant. There is a very beau¬
tiful walk called the yuarry, between the town walls and
the Severn, delightfully fhaded with rows of lime-trees,
fo that it is not inferior to the Mall in St James’s Park.
1 he town is alfo noted for its gallantry and polite-
ne s, being full of gentry, for whom there are always
halls nnn    . .1 n i _ '
Wdch. 1 he borders here, as thofe between England
and Scotland, were called mantes, and there were cer-
tAin 6ar0/ieJ march'a, marchiones de man
cna Wall,* lords of the marches, or marquiffes of the
marches of V ales, ’ who were veiled with a fort of pa¬
latine junfdi&ion, held courts of juftice to determine
7/ ai:d enjTd maKy Privikgcs and immuni¬
ties, th. better to enable and encourage them to proteft
the county agamft the meurfions of the Welch, and to
maintam order amongft the borderers ; but they often
S H R
[ 44® 1
SHU
■Shrove
Shrub.
fa under thejurlfdiaion and vifitation of the arclideaeon
of Shrewfbury or Salop, and is divided into feveral
deanries. . . ,
The Oxford circuit includes in it this county, which
fends 17 members to parliament, viz. two for the {hire,
and two for each of the following towns, Shrewfbury,
Ludlow, Wenlock, and Bifhop’s Caftle, >
SHROVE-Tuesday, is the Tuefday after Qum-
quagefima Sunday, or the day immediately preceding
the firft of Lent; being fo called from the Saxon word
thrive, which fignifies “ to confefs.” Hence Shrove-
Tuefday fignifies Confeffion-'l uefday ; on which day
all the people in every parifh throughout England
(during the Romifh times) were obliged to confefs their
fins, one by one, to their own pariOi-priefts, in their own
■parifh churches ; and, that this might be done the more
regularly, the great bell in every parifh was rung at ten
o’clock (or perhaps feoner), that it might be heard by
all, and that they might attend, according to the cuf-
tom then in irfe. And though the Romifh religion has
now given way to the Proteftant religion, the cuitom
of ringing the great bell in our ancient parifh-churches,
at leaft in fome of them, Hill remains, and obtains m
and about London the name of Pancake bell; perhaps,
becaufe after the confefiion it was cuftomary for the le-
■veral perfons to dine on pancakes or fritters. Moft
churches, indeed, have rejefted that cuftom of ringing
the bell on Shrove-Tuefday ; but the ufage of dining
on pancakes or fritters, and fuch like provifion, Ml
continues.
SHROUDS (fcrud Sax.), a range of large ropes
extending from the maft-heads to the right and left fide
of the {hip, to fupport the mafts, and enable them to
The fhrouds as well as the fails are denominated from
the mafts to which they belong. Thus they are the
main, fore, and mizen fhrouds; the main-top-maft,
fore-top-maft, or mizen-top-maft (hrouds ; and the
main-top-gallant, fore-top-gallant, or mizen-top-gallant
ihrouds. The number of fhrouds by which a malt is
fuftained, as well as the fize of rope of which they are
formed, is always in proportion to the fize of the mail
and the weight of the fail it is intended to carry.
Bowfprk fhrouds are thofe which fupport the bow-
fprit. Bumkin fhrouds are thofe which fupport the
bumkins. Futtock fhrouds are fhrouds which conneft
the efforts of the topmaft fhrouds to the lower fhrouds.
Bentinck-fhrouds are additional fhrouds to fupport the
mafts in heavy gales. Preventer fhrouds are fimilar to
bentinck-fhrouds, and are ufed in bad weather to eaie
the lower rigging. See Mast and Sail.
SHRUB/ frutex, a little, low, dwarf tree, or a
woody vegetable, of a fize lefs than a tree ; and which,
inftead of one fmgle ftem, frequently froin the fame
root puts forth feveral fets or ftems. See Plant and
Tree. Such are privet, phillyrea, holly, box, honey-
fuckle, &c. Shrubs and trees put forth in autumn a
kind of buttons, or gems, in the axis of the leaves;
thefe buttons are as fo many little ova, which, coming
to expand by the warmth of the following fpnng, open
into leaves and flowers. By this, together with the
height, fome diftinguifh fhrubs {xovn fuffrutices, or under
jhrubs, which are low bufhes, that do not put forth
gmy of thefe buttonsj as fage, thyme, &.c.
The two hardieft fhrubs we are pofiefled of are the
ivy and box ; thefe ftand the feverity of eur fharpeft
winters unhurt, while other fhrubs perifh, and trees
have their folid bodies fplit and torn to pieces. In the
hard winter.of the year 1683, thefe two fhrubs fuffered
no injury any where ; though the yews and hollies,
which are generally fuppofed very hardy, were that
winter in fome places killed, and in others ftripped of
their leaves, and damaged in their bark. Furze-bufhes
were found to be fomewhat hardier than thefe, but they
fometimes perifhed, at leaft down to the root. The
broom feemed to occupy the next ftep of hardinefs be¬
yond thefe. This lived where the others died, and
where even this died, the juniper fhrubs were fometimes
found unhurt. This laft is the only fhrub that approach¬
es to the hardinefs of the box and ivy, but even it
does not quite come up to them ; for while they fuffer
nothing in whatever manner they are expofed, the ju¬
niper, though it bears cold well under the flicker of
other trees, yet cannot bear the viciflitudes of heat and
cold; infomuch that fome juniper fhrubs were found
half dead and half vigorous ; that fide which faced the
mid-day fun having periftied by the fucceffive thawings
and freezings of its fap ; while that which was not ex¬
pofed to the viciflitudes of heat had born the cold per-
fe&ly well. Such fhrubs as are not hardy enough to
defy the winter, but appear half dead in the fpring,
may often be recovered by Mr Evelyn’s method of beat¬
ing their branches with a {lender hazel-wand, to ftrike
off the withered leaves and buds, and give a free paf-
fage to the air to the internal parts. Where this fails,
the method is to cut them down to the quick, and if
no part of the trunk appears in a growing condition,
they muff be taken off down to the level of the ground.
Philofophical Tranfaftions, n° 165.
SHUCKFORD (Samuel), curate ®f Shelthon in
Norfolk, prebendary of Canterbury, and chaplain in
ordinary to the king, was a learned Englifhman. His
manners were thofe of a philofopher, uncorrupted by
the manners of the world. He wrote a hiftory of the
world, facred and profane, to ferve as an introduction
to Prideaux, in 3 vols 8vo. It is heavily written, but
difplays a great deal of erudition. His death, which
happened in 1756, prevented him from carrying it
down to the year 747 before Chrift, where Prideaux
begins. He wrote alfo a treatife on the Creation and
Fall of Man, to ferve as a fupplement to the preface to
his hiftory.
SHUTTLE, in the manufactures, an inftrument
ufed by the weavers, which guides the thread it contains,
either of woollen, filk, flax,or other matter, fo as to make
it form the woofs of fluffs, cloths, linens, ribbands, &c.
by throwing the fhuttle alternately from lett to right,
and from right to left, acrofs between the threads of the
warp, which are ftretched out lengthwife on the loom.
In the middle of the fhuttle is a kind of cavity, call¬
ed the eye or chamber of the fhuttle ; wherein is inclofed
the fpoul, which is a part of the thread deftined for the
woof; and this is wound on a little tube of paper, rulh,
or other matter.
The ribband-weaver’s fhuttle is very different from
that of moft. other weavers, though it ferves for the
fame purpofe : it is of box, fix or feven inches long,
one broad, and as much deep; fliod with iron at both
Shrah
Shuttle-
r
S I A [ 449 ] S I A
Slain- ends, wfuch terminate in points, and are a little crook-
gogues, ^ the one towards the right, and the other towards
riiam. tjic ieft> reprefenting the figure of an co horizontally
placed. See Weaving.
SIALOGOGUES, medicines which promote the
! falivary difeharge
Boundaries SIAM Proper, by fome called Upper, (to diftinguifii
and extent. jt from t^g l^ver Siam, under which are often inclu¬
ded Laos, Cambodia, and Malacca), is bounded on the
north by the kingdoms of Pegu and Laos; on the call
by Cambodia and Cochin-China; on the fouth by Ma¬
lacca and the bay of Siam; and on the weft by the
ocean. But as the opinions of geographers are ex¬
tremely various concerning the fituation and extent of
moft of the inland countries of Afia and Africa, neither
the extent nor boundaries of Siam are yet accurately
known. By fome it is fupppfed to extend 550 miles
in length, and 250 miles in breadth ; in kune places it
a is not above i;o miles broad.
Weather. The winds blow here from the fouth upon the coaft
of Siam, in March, April, and May ; in April the rains
begin, in May and June they fall almofi without cea-
fing. In July, Auguft, and September, the winds blow
from the weft, and the rains continuing, the rivers over¬
flow their banks nine or ten miles on each fide, and for
more than 150 miles up the ftream. /’ t this time,
and more particularly in July, the tides are fo ftrong
as to come up rhe river Menan as iar as the city of
Siam, which is fituated 60 miles from its mouth ; and
fometimes as far as Louvo, which is <;o miles higher.
The winds blow from the weft and north in Obiober,
when the rain ceafes. In N wember and December the
winds blow dry from the north, and the waters being
in a few days reduced to their ancient channels, the
tides become fo infenrble, that the water is frefti at the
mouth of the river. t Siam there is never more than
one flood and one ebb in the fpace o >4 hours. In
January the wind blows from the eaft, and in February
from the eaft and fouth. When the wind is at eaft,
the current fets to the weft; and, on the contrary,
when the wind is at weft, the currents run to the eafl-
ward.
As this country is fituated near the tropic, it muft
neceffarily be very hot; but yet, as in other places
nearly of the fame latitude, when the fun, is vertical and
fliines with a moft intenfe heat, the inhabitants are fo
fkreened by the clouds, and the air is fo refrefhed by
a deluge of rain that overflows the plains which the
people chiefly inhabit, that the heat is very fupportable.
^ The cooler! wind blows in December and January.
Vegeiable The vegetable produce «f this country is chiefly rice
proi'.uc- an4 wheat, befides tropical and a few European fruits.
The Siamefe prepare the land for tillage as foon as
the earth is fuftlciently rnoiflened by the floods. They
plant their rice before the waters rife to any confrder-
able height, and, as they rife fiowly, the rice keeps
pace with them, and the ear is always above the water.
T hey reap their corn when the water retires, and fome¬
times go in boats to cut it while the waters are upon
the ground. They alfo fow rice in feveral parts of the
kingdom that are not overflowed, and this is thought
better tafted, and will keep longer, than the other ; but
they are forced to fupply thefe fields conifantly with
water, while the rice is growing, from baiins and ponds
that fie about them.
Vot. XVII. Part II,
They have no European fruits except oranges, !e- Siam,
mons, citrons, and pomegranates. They have bananas,v—
Indian figs, jaques, durions, mangoes, mangoftans, ta¬
marinds, ananas, and cocoa-nuts; they have alfo abun¬
dance of pepper and fugar canes. The mountains are
covered with trees which make good mafts. The ve¬
getable of greatell ufe in the country is the bamboo,
which grows chiefly in marfhy foils, and is often found
of a prodigious fize. Cotton trees are found in great
numbers ; and others that yield capoc, a very fine cot¬
ton wool, but fo Ihort as to be unfit for fpinning,
though it anfwers very well for fluffing mattrefl'es and
pillows. ^
There is no country where elephants abound mere Animal*,
than in Siam, or where they are held in greater venera¬
tion. They have a few horfes, fheep, and goats, be¬
fides oxen and buffaloes ; but they have no good ani¬
mal food except the flefh of hows, their beef and mutton
being of a very indifferent quality. ^
The Siamele are of fmall ftature, but well propor- Defcriptlon
tioned; their complexions are fwarthy ; the faces of °f he inha-
both the men and women are broad, and their fore-bltant,a
heads, fuddenly contradling, terminate in a point, as
well as their chins. They have fmall black eyes, hol¬
low jaws, large mouths, and thick pale lips. Their
teeth are dyed black, their rnffes are fliort and round at
the end, and they have large ears, which they think
very beautiful. Their hair is thick and lank, and both
fexes cut it fo Ihort that it reaches no low'er than their
ears; the women make it ftand up on their foreheads ;
and the men (have their beards. ^
People of diftin&ion wear a piece of calico tied Drefs.
about their loins, that reaches down to their knees 
The men bring up this cloth between their legs, and
tuck it into their girdles, which gives it the appearance
of a pair of breeches. They have alfo a muflin Ihirt
without a collar, with wide fleeves, no wriftbands, and
the bofom open. In winter they wear a piece of ftuff
or painted linen over their Ihoulders, like a mantle, and
wind it about their arms.
The king of Siam is diftinguifhed by wearing a veft;
of brocaded fatin, with ftraight fleeves that reach down
to the wrift, under fueh a fhirt as we have juft deferi-
bed, and it is unlawful for any fubjeft to wear this
drefs unlefs he receives it from the king. They wear
flippers with piked toes turned up, but no ftockings.
The king fometimes prefents a military veft to the ge¬
nerals ; this is buttoned before, and reaches to the
knees ; but the fleeves are wide, and come no lower
than the elbows. All the retinue of the kinp-, either
in war or in hunting, are clothed in red. The king
wears a cap in the form of a fug ar-loaf, encompaffed
by a coronet or circle of precious ftones, and thofe of
his officers have a circle of gold, filver, or of vermilion
gilt, to diftinguifh their quality ; and thefe caps are fa¬
ttened with a ftay under the chin ; they are only worn
when they are in the king’s prefence, or when they pre-
fide in courts of juftice, and on other extraordinary oc»
cafions. They have alfo hats for travelling; but, in
general, fe w people cover their heads notwithftanding
the fcorching heat of the fun.
The women alfo wrap a cloth about their middle,
which hangs down to the calf of their legs. They co¬
ver their breafts with another cloth, the ends of which
hang over their ffiouldcrs. But they have no garment
3 L
cor-
S t A
Siam, correfponding to a fliift, nor any covering for their
heads but their hair. The common people are al-
moit naked, and wear neither ihoes nor flippers. The
women wear as many rings on the three hit fingers of
each hand as they can keep on, and bracelets upon their
wrifts and ancles, with pendants in their ears fhaped like
7 a pear.
Manneis For an inferior to Hand before a fuperior is deemed
and cu- infolent; and therefore Haves and people of inferior
flon.s. rank fit upon their heels, with their heads a little in¬
clined, and their joined hands lifted up to their fore¬
heads. In paffing by a fuperior they bend their bodies,
joining their hands, and lifting them toward their heads
in proportion to the refpedl they would fiiow. When
an inferior pays a vifit, he enters the room Hooping,
proftrates himfelf, and then remains upon his knees,
fitting upon his heels without (peaking a word till he
is addreffed by the perfon whom he viiits ; for he that
is of the higheft quality muft always fpeak firfl.. If a
perfon of rank vilits an inferior, he walks upright, and
the mailer of the houfe receives him at the door, and
waits on him fo far when he goes away, but never far¬
ther.
The highed part of the houfe is elteemed the moll
honourable, and no perfon cares to lodge under ano¬
ther’s feet. The Siamefe indeed have but one llory,
but the rooms rife gradually, and the innennoft, which
are the higheft, are always the moil honourable. When
the Siamefe ambaffador came to the French court,
fome of his retinue were lodged in a floor over the am-
s bafl’ador’s head ; but they no fooner knew it, than they
wrere ilruck with the greatell confternation, and ran
down tearing their hair at the thoughts of being guil¬
ty of v/hat they confidered as fo unpardonable a
crime.
The Siamefe never permit fuch familiarities as are
praftifed by gentlemen in Europe. Eafinefs of accefs,
and affability to inferiors, is in that part of the world
thought a fxgn of weaknefs, and yet they take no no¬
tice of fome things which would be looked upon as ill
breeding among us; fuch as belching in company,
which no man endeavours to prevent, or fo much as
hokls his hand before his mouth. They have an extra¬
ordinary refpedl for the head, and it is the greatell af¬
front to llroke or touch that of another perfon ; nay,
their cap mull not be ufed with too much familiarity ;
for when a fervant carries it, it is put on a Hick and held
above his head ; and when the mailer Hands Hill the
Hick is fet down, it having a foot to Hand upon. They
alfo flrow their refpeft by lifting their hands to the
head ; and therefore, when they receive a letter from
any one for whom they have a great refpedl,. they im¬
mediately hold it up to their heads, and fometimes lay
g it upon their heads.
Ctenius and They are elteemed an ingenious people, and though
difpefitior s rather indolent than adlive in difpolition, they are not
addidled to the voluptuous vices which often accompa¬
ny a Hate of eafe, being remarkably chafle and tempe¬
rate, and even holding drunkennefs in abhorrence.—
They are, however, accounted infolent towards their
inferiors, and equally obfequious to thofe above them ;
the latter of which qualities appears to be particularly
inculcated from their earlieH youth. In general, their
behaviour is extremely modell, and they are averfe to
loquacity. Like the Chinefe, they avoid fpeaking ia
S I A
the firH perfon • and when they addrefs a lady, it is al« Rum.
ways with fome refpedlful epithet, inflnuating perfonal
aecomplilhments.
No man in this country learns any particular trade,
but has a general knowledge of all that are commonly
pradlifed, and every one works fix months for the king
by rotation ; at which time, if he Ihould be found per¬
fectly ignorant of the buiinefs he is fet about, he is
doomed to fuller the bafiinado. The confequence of
this burdenfome fervice is, that no man endeavour*"
to excel in his bulinefs, leH he Ihould be obliged to
pradxife it as long as he lives for the benefit of the
crown.
The government of this country is extremely op- Govern*
preflive, the king being not only fovereign but proprie- menu
tor of all the lands, and chief merchant likewife ; by
which means he monopolizes almoH the whole traffic,
to the great prejudice of his fubjedts. The crown is
faid to be hereditary, but it is often transferred by re¬
volutions, on account of the exorbitant abufe of power
in thole who exercife the royal office. In his palace,
the king is attended by women, who not only prepare
his food, and wait on him at table, but even perform
the part of valets, and put on all his clothes, except his
cap, which is confidered as too facred to be touched
by any hand but his own. He fhows himfeif to the
people only twice a-year, when he dillributes his alms
to the talapoins or priefis ; and on thole occafions he
always appears in an elevated fituation, or mounted on
the back of an elephant. When he takes the diverlion
of hunting, he is as ufual attended by his women on
foot, preceded by a guard of 200 men, who drive all
the people from the roads through which they are to
pafs ; and when the king Hops, all his attendants fall
upon their faces on the ground.
All their proceedings in law are committed to wri- Forms of
ting, and none is fuffered to exhibit a charge againH Proce^*‘
another, without giving fecurity to profecute it, and
anfwer the damages if he does not prove the la6l againil
the perfon accufed. When a perfon intends to profe¬
cute another, he draws up a petition, in which he fets
forth his complaint, and prefents it to the nai, or head
of the band to which he belongs, who tranfmits it to
the governor ; and if the complaint appears frivolous,
the profeeutor, according to the laws of the country,
Ihould be punilhed ; but the magiHrates generally en¬
courage profecutions on account ol the perquifites they
bring to their office.
Every thing being prepared for hearing, the parties
are feveral days called into court, and perfuaded to
agree ; but this appears to be only a matter of form.
At length the governor appoints a day for all parties
to attend ; and being come into court, the clerk reads
the proceis and opinion of his affociates, and then the
governor examines upon what reafons their opinions
are founded; which being explained to him, he pro¬
ceeds to pafs judgment.
When fufficient proofs are wanting, they have re- yria| by of1
courle to an ordeal trial, like that of our Saxon ance-deaL
Hors : both the plaintiff and the defendant walk upon
burning coals, and he that efcapes unhurt is adjudged
to be in the rightfometimes the proof is made by put¬
ting their hands in boiling oil; and in both thefe trials,
by fome peculiar management, one or the other is faid
to remain unhurt. They have alfo a proof by water,.
[ 450 1
Siam
s r a
Slam,
17,
Religious
o^iflioru.
, 13
Marriages,
I4
Funerals.
«-15
Rivers.
m which he who remains longed under It is efteemed
1 Innocent. They have another proof, by fwallowing
pills, which d.eir priefts adminifter with fevere impreca¬
tions ; and the party who keeps them in his ftomach
without vomiting is thought to be innocent.
All thefe trials are made in the prefence of the ma-
giftrates and people ; and the king himfelf frequently
diredls them to be performed, when crimes come before
him by way of appeal. Sometimes he orders both the
informer and prifoner to be thrown to the tigers : and
the perfon that efcapes by his not being leized upon by
thofe beads, is fufficiently judified.
They maintain the do&rine of tranfmigration, belie¬
ving in a pre-exiftent date, and that they {hall pafs into
ether bodies till they are fufficiently purified to be re¬
ceived into paradife. They believe likewife that th«
foul is material, but not fubjeft to the touch ; that it
retains the human figure after quitting a body of that
Ipecies ; and that when it appears to perfons with whom
it was acquainted, which they fuppofe it to do, the
wounds of one that has been murdered will then be vi-
fible. They are of opinion that no man will be eter¬
nally punifhed ; that the good, after feveral tranfmigra-
tions, will enjoy perpetual happinefs; but that thofe
who are not reformed will be doomed to tranfmigra¬
tion to all eternity. They believe in the exidence of a
Supreme Being ; but the obje&s of their adoration are
departed faints, whom they confider as mediators or in-
terceffors for them; and to the honour of this nume¬
rous tribe both temples and images are erefted.
The men of this country are allowed a plurality of
women; but excepting one, who is a wife by contraft,
the others are only concubines, and their children deem¬
ed incapable of any legal inheritance. Previous to eve¬
ry nuptial contradt, an adrologer mud be confulted,
who calculates the nativity of the parties, and deter¬
mines whether their union is likely to prove fortunate
or otherwife. When his prognoftication is favourable,
the lover is permitted to vifit his miftrefs three times,
at the lad of which interviews the relations being pre-
fent,. the marriage portion is paid, when, without any
religious ceremony performed, the nuptials are reckon¬
ed complete, and foon after confummated. A few days
after the talapoin vifits the manied couple, fprinkles
them with water, and repeats a prayer for their pro-
fperity.
The pra&ice in Siam refpefting funerals, is both to
burn and bury the dead. The corpfe being laid upon
the pile, it is fuffered to burn till a conliderable part is
confumed, when the remainder is interred in a burying-
place contiguous to fome temple. The reafon which
they give for not burning it entirely to afhes is, that
they fuppofe the deceafed to be happy when part of
his remains efcapes the fire. Indead of a tombftone,
they ereft a pyramid over the grave. It formerly was
the cudom to burytreafure with the corpfe ; but long¬
er experience evincing, that the facrilegious light in
which robbing the graves was confidered did not pre*
vent the crime, they now difcontinue the ancient prac¬
tice, and inftead of treafure bury only painted papers
and other trifles.
The two principal rivers are the Menan and the Me-
con, which rife in the mountains of Tartary, and run
to the fouth ; the former paffing by the city of Siam,
falls into the bay of tire fame name, in the 13th de-
[ 451 1
S I B
gree of north latitude ; and the latter running through
Taos and Cambodia, difcharges itfelf into the Indian s;]Jr;a
ocean in the 9th degree of north latitude. /
The capital of the country is Siam, called by the na- 16
tives Siyotboya, fituated in the 101 ft degree of ead longi- Oefcnp-
tude, and in the 14th degree of north latitude, being al- 1 e
mod encompaffed by the branches of the river Menan. It
is about 1 o miles in circumference within the walls, but
not a fixth part of the ground is occupied by buildings.
In the vacant fpaces there are near 300 pagodas or
temples, round which are fcattered the convents of the
prieits and their burying-places. The dreets of the
city are fpacious, and fome have canals running through
them, over which is a great number of bridges. The
houfes dand on pillars of the bamboo cane, and are
built of the fame materials ; the communication between
different families, during the winter feafon, being carri¬
ed on as in other tropical countries by means of boats.
The grounds belonging to the feveral tenements are fe-
parated by a pallifado, within which the cattle are hou-
fed in barns, erefted likewife upon pillars, to preferve
them from the annual inundation.
SIBBALDIA, in botany : A genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs of pentandria, and to the order of
pentagynia; and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the 35th order, Senticofjc. The calyx is divided into
ten fegments. The petals are five, and are inferted
into the calyx. The ftyles are attached to the fide of
the germens. The feeds are five. There are three fpe-
cies belonging to this genus, the procumbens, ereSa, and
altaica. The procumbens, or reclining fibbaldia, is a
native of North Britain, having never been dilcovered in
the fouthern parts of the ifiand. It grows on Ben-Lo-
mond and Ben-Mor, within a mile of the fummit. It
is diftinguifhed by a procumbent or trailing ftem ; by
three leaves growing on the top of a fmall footftalk,
which are trifid at the extremity, and fomewhat hairy.
The flowers are yellow, and bloffom in July or Au«
guft.
SIBENICO, or Sebenico, the name of a city and
province of Dalmatia. The province of Sibenico runs
along the fea for more than 30 miles; reaches in fome
places above 20 miles within land, and comprehends
above 70 iflands. The city of Sibenico is fituated near
the mouth of the river Cherca, in the Gulf of Venice,
3 5 miles north of Spalatto, and 25 fouth-eall of Zara.
E. Eong. 16'’ 46', N. Eat. 44° 17'. It belongs to
the Venetians. It is defended on one fide by a caftle,
which held out againft repeated attacks of the Turks,
and towards the fea by a fort. r
SIBERIA, a large Country, comprehending the Boundaries
moft northerly parts of the Ruffian empire in Alia. Itand extent,
is bounded on the eaft by the eaftern ocean ; on the
fouth by Great Tartary; on the weft by Ruffia ; and
on the north by the Frozen Ocean. It is about 2000
miles in length from eaft to weft, and 750 miles in
breadth from north to fouth. t
At what time this country was firft inhabited, orConqueied
by whom it was peopled, we are entirely ignorant the
but writings have been found in it when it was difcover- Run‘ar s*
ed, which (hows that it muft have been early known to
a civilized peoplef. The Ruffians, from whom we have ^
received our knowledge, knew nothing of it before the ‘Tra've,s’
middle of the 16th century. In the reign of John Eafiio-
wiu I. indeed, an incurfion had been made into Siberia,
,3 k 2 and-
Siberia.
State of
Siberia at
the time
of theRuf
soixjueft.
S I B
[ 452 ]
S T B
and forne Tartar tribes fubdued: but tbefe conquefts were
not permanent; and we hear of no further communica¬
tion between Ruffia and Siberia till the time of John
Bafilowitz II. It was opened again at that time by
means of one Anika Strogonoff, a Ruffian merchant
who had eftabliflied fom.e falt-works at a town in the
government of Archangel. This man carried on a
trade with the inhabitants of the north-weft parts of
Siberia, who brought every year to the town above-
mentioned large quantities of the fineft furs. Thus
he acquired a very confiderable fortune in a fhort time;
when at laft the czar, perceiving the advantages which
would accrue to his fubjefts from having a regular in-
tercourfe with Siberia, determined to enlarge the com¬
munication which was already opened. With this view
he fent into Siberia a body of troops, which crofted
the Yugorian mountains, that form part of the north-
eaftern boundary of Europe. They feem, however,
not to have pafted the Irtifh, or to have penetrated far¬
ther than the weftern branch of the river Oby. Some
Tartar tribes were laid under contribution, and a chief
named Tediger confented to pay an annual tribute of
1000 fables. But this produced no lafting advantage
to Ruffia ; for, foon after, Yediger was defeated and
taken prifoner by Kutchum Khan, a defeendant of the
great Jenghiz Khan : and thus the allegiance of this
country to Ruffia was diffolved.
For fome time we hear of no further attempts made
by the Ruffians on Siberia ; but in 1577 the founda¬
tion of a permanent conqueft was laid by one Yermac
Temofeeff, a Coffack of the Don. This man was at
firft the head of a party of banditti who infefted the
Ruffians in the province of Cafan ; but being debated
by the troops of the czar, he retired with 6000 of his
followers into the interior parts of that province.
Continuing his courfe ftill eaftward, he came to Orel,
the moft eafterly of all the Ruffian fettlements. Here
he took up his winter-quarters r but his reftlefs genius
did not fuffer him to continue for any length of time in
a ftate of ina&ivity ; and from the intelligence he pro¬
cured concerning the fituation of the neighbouring
Tartars of Siberia, he turned his arms towards that
quarter.
Siberia was at that time partly divided among a
number of feparate princes, and partly inhabited by
the various tribes of independent Tartars. Of the
' former Kutchum Khan was the moft powerful fove.
reign. His dominions conftfted of that tradt of coun¬
try which now forms the fouth-weftern part of the pro- Siberia,
vince of Tebollk ; and ftretched from the banks of
the Irtifh and Oby to thofe of the Tobol and Tura.
His principal refidence was at Sibir, a fmall fortrefs
upon the river Irtifh, not far from the prefent town of
Tobolfk, and of which fome ruins are ftill to be feen.
After a courfe of unremitted fatigue, and a feries of
victories which almoft exceed belief, but of which we
have not room to give the detail, our intrepid adventu¬
rer difpoffeffed this prince of his dominions, and feated
himfelf on the throne of Sibir. The number of his fol¬
lowers, however, being greatly reduced, and perceiving
he could not depend on the affe£lion ol his new lub-
je£ts, he had recourfe to the czar of Mufcovy, and made
a tender of his new acquifitions to that monarch, upon
condition of receiving immediate and effe&ual fupport.
This propofal was received with the greateft fatisfac-
tion by the czar; who granted him a pardon for
all former offences, and fent him the required fuc-
cours. Yermac, however, being foon after drowned in
an unfucceisful excurfion, the Ruffians began to lofe
their footing in the country. But frefh reinforcements
being feafonably fent, they not only recovered their
ground, but pufhed their conquefts far and wide ;
wherever they appeared, the Tartars were either redu¬
ced or exterminated. New towns were built, and co¬
lonies were planted on all Tides. Before a century had
well elapfed, all that vaft traft of country now called
Siberia^ which ftretches from the confines of Europe to
the Eaftern Ocean, and from the Frozen Sea to the
prefent frontiers of China, was annexed to the Ruffian
dominions. ^
The air of Siberia is, in general, extremely piercing, Climate,
the cold there being more fevere than in any other part
of the Ruffian dominions. The Siberian rivers are
frozen very early, and it is late in the fpring before the
ice is thawed (a). If the corn does not ripen in Auguft,
there is little hope of a harveft in this country ; and in
the province of Jeniieilk it is fometimes covered with
fnow before the peafants can reap it. To defend the
inhabitants againft this extreme feverity of the climate.
Providence feems more liberally to have dealt out to
them wood for fuel and furs for clothing. As the win¬
ter’s day in the north parts of Siberia laft but a few
hours, and the ftorms and flakes, of fnow darken the
air fo much, that the inhabitants, even at noon, cannot
fee to do any thing without artificial lights, they fleep
away the greateft part of that feafon.
Thefe
(a) M. Gmelin, M. Muller, and two other philbfophers, fet out in the year 1733 to explore the dreary regions
of Siberia, by defrre of the emprefs Anne of Ruffia. After {pending nine years and a half in obferving every
thing that was remarkable, they returned to Peterfburgh ; and an account of this journey was publifhed by M..
Gmelin. In order to examine how far the froft had penetrated into the ground, M. Gmelin, on the 1 8th of
June, at a place called Jacutia, ordered the earth to be dug in high ground ; they found mould to the depth ot
11 inches, under which they met with loofe land to two feet and a halt further, after which it grew harder, and
at half a foot deeper fo hard as. fcarce to give way to the tools y fo that the ground ftill remained unthawed at
not lefs than the depth of four feet. He made the fame experiment in a lower f’tuation ; the foil was 1.0 inches
deep, after that a loofe fand for two feet and ten inches, below which all was frozen and hard. At Jacutia the
inhabitants preferve in cellars feveral farts of berries, which they reckon among their dainties,, perfectly good and
frefh the whole year, though thefe cellars are fcarce a fathom deep:. At the fortrefs of Argun, in little more
than 50 degrees of latitude, the inhabitants relate that the earth in many places is never thawed above a yard and
half, and that the internal cold of the earth will fcarce permit a well to be dug, of which they bring an inftance
that happened not long before the author’s arrival at that place. They deffgned to fink a. well near a houfe at
fome
S I B
[
Siberia.
5
Soil and
produce.
Thefe fevere winters are rapidly fucceeded by futn-
^ mers, in which the heat is fo intenfe that the 1'ungu-
fians, who live in the province oi Jakutfk, go almoft
naked. Here is fcarcely any night during that feafon ;
and towards the Frozen Ocean the fun appears continu¬
ally above the horizon. The vegetables and fruits of
the earth are here extremely quick in their growth.
The whole track of land beyond the 6oth degree of
north latitude is a barren walle ; for the north part of
Siberia yields neither corn nor fruits ; though barley is
known frequently to come to perfeftion in Jakutlk.—
For this reafon, the inhabitants of the northern parts
are obliged to live on filh and flefh, but the Ruffians are
fupplied with corn from the fouthern parts of Siberia,
where the foil is furprifingly fertile. The countries be¬
yond the lake ot Baikal, efpecially towards the eaft, as
far as the river Argun, are remarkably fruitful and plea-
fant ; but fuch is the indolence of the inhabitants, that
feveral line trafts ol land, which would make ample
returns to the pealant for cultivating them, lie negleft-
ed. The paltures are excellent in this country, which
abounds in fine horned cattle, horfes, goats, &c. on
which the Tartars chiefly depend for fubliftence. How-
453 1 SIB
ever, there are feveral fteppes, or barren walles, and tin- Slber
improvable tra&s in thefe parts; and not a lingle fruit '-““v-
tree is to be feen. There is great variety of vegetables,
and in feveral places, particularly near Krafnaia Slobo-
da, the ground is in a manner overrun with afparagus
of an extraordinary height and delicious flavour. The
bulbs of the Turkilh bundes, and other forts of lilies,
are much ufed by the Tartars inftead of bread. This
want of fruit and corn is richly compenfated by the
great quantities of wild and tame beads, and fowls, and
the infinite variety of fine filh which the country af¬
fords (b.)
In that part of Siberia which lies near the Ice Sea,
as well as in feveral other places, are woods of pine,
larch, and other trees ; befides which, a confiderable
quantity of wood is thrown alhore by the waves of
the Ice Sea; but whence it comes is not yet aider-
tained. g
Befides the wild fowl with which Siberia abounds, WiM
there is a prodigious number of quadrupeds, fome ofbealW,
which are eatable, and others valuable for their fkins
or furs.
The animals moll valued for their fkins are the black
fox,
fome diftance from the river Argun, for which purpofe they thawed the earth by degrees, and dug fome fathoms
till they had penetrated a fathom and half below the level of the river, but found no fpring. Hence perhaps
we may venture to alfert, that befides the great elevation of the earth in thefe countries, there is another caufe,
perhaps latent in the earth itfelf, of this extraordinary cold, naturally fuggefted to us by coniidering the cavity
of an old filver mine at Argun, which being exhaulled of its ore, now ferves the inhabitants in fummer time for
a cellar to keep their provifions: this place is fo extremely cold as to preferve flelh meats from putrefadlion in the
hotteil fummers, and to fink the mercury in de Lille’s thermometer to 146 and 147. The author travelling
from Nerfchoi towards Argun, to vifit the works of the filver mines in that place, Auguft 1735, came to the
nver Orkija, near Solonifchaia, on July the ill, from whence he arrived a little before dark at the village of Se~
ventua, diftant from the river 27 leagues. In this journey he and his fellow travellers for more than four leagues
felt it vallly cold ; fcon after they came into a warm air, which continued fome leagues; after which the cold re¬
turned ; and thus are travellers fubjefted to perpetual vicilfitudes of warmth and cold. But it is obferved, in ge¬
neral, that jhe eaftern parts are colder than the weftern, though fituated in the fame latitude ; for as in thole
eaftern regions fome tra£ts of land are much colder than the reft, their effe&s muft be felt by the neighbouring
parts. And this conjedlure is favoured by the thermometrical obfervations made with M. de LTfle’s inftrument
in all parts of Siberia, in which the mercury was depreffed to the 226th degree, even in thofe parts that lie
very much towards the fouth, as in the territory of Selinga, which faid degree anfwers in Fahrenheit’s thermo¬
meter to about 55.5 below o, but the fame thermometer fometimes indicated a much greater cold. At the fort
of Kiringa, on Feb. io- 1748, at 8 in the morning, the mercury flood at 240, which anfwers nearly to 72 be¬
low o in Fahrenheit’s. On the 23d of the fame month it was a degree lower. At the fame place, December
11. at three in the afternoon, it flood at 254 in De Lifle’s thermometer, and very near 90 in Fahrenheit’s • on
December 29. at four in the afternoon, at 263 ; on November 27. at noon, at 270 ; January 9. at 275, which-
feveral depreffions anfwer in Fahrenheit’s to 99.44, 107.73, and 113.65; on January 5. at 5 in the morning,
at 262, an hour after at 281, but at eight o’clock it returned to 250, and there remained till 6 in the afternoon*
and then rdfe by degrees till an hour before midnight, when it flood at 202. So that the greateft deprefiion
of the mercury anfwers in Fahrenheit’s thermometer to 120.76 degrees below o, which is indeed very furprifinp-,
and what no body ever imagined before. While this cold lafted at Jenrfea, the fparrows and magpies fell to the
ground, ftruck dead, as it were, with the froft, but revived if they were foon brought into a warm room. The
author was told all'o that numbers of wild beafts were found in the woods dead and ftiff with the froft, and fe¬
veral travellers Itf d their blood and juices quite frozen in their veffels. The air itfelf at that time was fo drimal
that you would think it changed to ice, as it was a thick fog, which was nat diffipable by any exhalations as
in the fpring and autumn, and the author could fcarce ftand three minutes in the porch of his houfe for the cold
(b) The oak, though frequent in Ruffia, it is fard, is not to be found through this vaft region nearer than
the banks of the Argun and Amur, in the dominions of China. The white poplar, the afpen, the black poplar
the common fallow, and leveral fpecies of the willow, are very common. The Norway and filver fir form
great foreils ; but the former does not grow beyond the 60th degree of north latitude, and the latter not beyond
58 degrees. To this dreary region of Siberia, Europe is indebted for that excellent fpecies of oats called
Sivena Sibirica, and our gardens are enlivened with the gay and brilliant flowers brought from the fame
country. ‘ a
S berig.
SIB f 454 ] . s 1
| fox, the fable, the hyaena, the ermine, the fquirrel, knife; but care is taken that
B
7
Minerals
8
Precious
Clones.
„ 9
Marien-
glas.
the beaver, and the lynx. The ilcin of a real black fox
is more efteemed than even that of a iable. In the
country near the Frozen Ocean are alfo blue and white
foxes. The fineft fables come from Nertfhinfk and Ja-
kutfk, the inhabitants of which places catch them in
tue mountains ©f Stannowoi Krebet. The tributary
nations were formerly obliged to pay their taxes in the
fkins of foxes and fables only. But now the flcins of
fquirrels, bears, rein-deer, &c. and fometimes money,
are received by way of tribute ; and this not only from
thofe who live near the Lena, but alfo in the govern¬
ments of Ilinfk, Irkutzk, Selenginlk, and Nertfhinfk.
When the Tartars firft became tributary to Ruffia,
they brought their furs indiferiminately as they caught
them, and among them were often fables of extraordi¬
nary value ; and formerly, if any trader brought with
him an iron kettle, they gave him in exchange for it as
many fables as it would hold. But they are now bet¬
ter acquainted with their value. They fell their fables
to fmugglers at a very high price, and pay only a ruble
inttead of a fkin to the revenue officers, who now re¬
ceive more ready money than fables, by way ot tribute.
The fubje&s plead the fcarcity of furs, and indeed not
without fome appearance of truth.
Siberia has ftill other and more valuable treafures than
thofe we have yet mentioned. The lilver mines ot Ar¬
gun are extremely rich ; the tilver they produce yield
.fome gold, and both of thefe are found among the cop¬
per ore of Koliwan. This country is alfo particularly
rich in copper and iron ore. The former lies even up¬
on the furface of the earth ; and confiderable mines of
it are found in the mountains of Pidtow, Koliwan, Plo-
fkau, Wotkerefenfk, Kufwi, Alepaik, and feveral others,
and in the government of Krafnoiarfk (c). Iron is ftill
more plentiful in all thefe places, and very good ; but
that of Kamentki is reckoned the beft. Several hun¬
dred thoufand puds of thefe metals are annually export¬
ed from the fmelting houfes, which belong partly to
the crown, and partly to private perfons. Moft of
them lie in the government of Catharinenburg- I he
Tartars alfo extrad a great quantity of iron from the
ore.
The topazes of Siberia have a fine luftre, and in open
fandy places, near the river Argun, as well as on the
banks of other rivers and lakes, are found fingle fmall
pieces of agate. Here are alfo cornelians and green jaf-
per with red veins. The latter is chiefly met with in
the deferts of Gobifkoi.
The famous marienglas, or lapis fpecularis, great
quantities of which are dug up in Siberia, is by lome
called Mufcovy or Ruffian glafs ; and by others, though
with lefs propriety, ifinglafs. It is a particular ipecies
of tranfparent ftone, lying in ftrata like fo many ffieets
of paper. The matrix, or ftone in which it is found,
is partly a light yellow quartz, or marcaffia, and partly
a brown indurated fluid ; and this Hone contains in it
all the fpecies of the marienglas. To render the ma-
rienglas fit for ufe, it is fplit with a thin two-edged
n
Curiolttiet.
the lamlnse be not too
thin. It is ufed for windows and lanterns all over Si-
beria, and indeed in every part of the Ruffian empire,
and looks very beautiful; its luttre and clearneis fur-
paffing that of the fineft glafs, to which it is particu¬
larly preferable for windows and lanterns of fhips, as it
will fland the explofion of cannon. It is found in the
greateft plenty near the river Witim. ,0
Siberia affords magnets of an extraordinary fize, and Magnet*,
even whole mountains of loadftone. Pit-coal is alfo
dug up in the northern parts of this country. The
kamennoe maflo, a yellowifh kind of alum, undtuous
and fmooth to the touch, like tophus, is found in the
mountains of Krafnoiarfk, Ural, Altaifh, Jenifea, Bai¬
kal, Bargufik, Lena, and feveral others in Siberia. xx
In this country are not only a great number of frefhSa't^a'tes
water lakes, but likewife feveral whofe waters are fait ;an
and thefe reciprocally change their nature, the fait fome¬
times becoming frefh, and the frefh changing into faline.
Some lakes alio dry up, and others appear where none
were ever feen before. The fait lake of Yamufha, in
the province of Tobolfk, is the moll remarkable of all,
for it contains a fait as white as fnow, confifthr* entire¬
ly of cubic cry-ftals. One finds alfo in Siberia faline
fprings, fait water brooks, and a hill of fait.
Siberia affords many other things which deferve no
tice. That uferul root called rhubarb grows in vail
quantities near the city of Seleginfk. The curious ma-
muth’s bones and horns, as they are called, which are
found along the banks of the Oby, Jenefei, Lena, and
Iitifh, are unqueilionably the teeth and bones of ele¬
phants. But whether thefe elephants teeth and bones
weir conveyed to thefe northern regions by the gene¬
ral deluge, or by any other inundation, and were by
degrees covered with earth, is a point which might lead
us into long and very- fruitleis difquifitions ; we fhall
therefore only obferve, that fuch bones have likewife
been found in Ruffia, and even in feveral parts of Ger¬
many. A kind of bones of a ftill larger fize than thele
have alfo been dug up in Siberia, and feem to have be¬
longed to an animal of the ox kind. The horn of the
whale called narwhal has been found in the earth near
the fivers Indigiika and Anadir ; and the teeth of ano¬
ther fpecies of whales, called Wolrofs, about Anadirileoi.
The latter are larger than the common fort, which are
brought from Greenland, Archangel, and Kola. 13
The chain of Siberian mountains reaches from that •'rAuauint,
of Werchoturie towards the fouth as far as the neigh¬
bourhood of the city of Orienburg, in a continued
ridge, under the name of the Uralian mountains ; but
from thence it alters its diredlion weltward. Thefe
mountains are a kind of boundary between Ruffia Proper
and Siberia. Another chain of hills divides Siberia
from the country of the Calmucks and Mongalians.—
Thefe mountains, between the rivers Irtiffi and Oby, are
called the Attaic or Golden Mountains, which name
they afterwards lofe, particularly between the river Je¬
nefei and the Baikal lake, where they are called the
Sayanian mountains.
The
(c) The copper mines of Koliwan, from which gold and filver are extra&ed, employ above 40,000 people.
The filver mines of Nertffiinlk, beyond lake Baikal, employ above 14,000. The whole revenue arifing from
ihefe mines, according to Mr Coxe, is not lefs than L. 679,182, 13 s. . /
S X B
14
Inhabitant
Lemprieres
JJiflio/h, ry.
Sibtherpi'a, The Inhabitants of Siberia confift of the Aborigines
, rili,yl3' , or ancient inhabitants, the Tartars, and Ruffians.
Some of thefe nations have no other religion but
-.that of nature; others are Pagans or Mahometans,
and fome of them have been converted to Chriftiani-
ty, or rather only baptifed by the Ruffian miffiona«
ries.
SIBTHORPI A, in botany ; A genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs of didynamia, and to the order of
angiofpermia ; and in the natural fyftem claffied with
thofe the order of which is doubtful. The calyx is
fpreadmg, and divided into five parts, almoft to the bafe.
1 he corolla is divided into five parts in the fame man¬
ner, which are rounded, equal, ipreading, and of the
length of the calyx. The ftamina grow in pairs at a
affiance from each other. The capfule is compreffed,
orbicular, bilocular, the partition being tranfverfe. 
There are two fpecies, the europaa and evohu/acea. The
europaa, or baftard money-wort, is a native of South
Britain. 1 he items of it are flender, and creeping The
leaves are fmall, round, and notched. The flowers grow
under the wings of the leaves, are fmall, and of a pale
red colour. It bloffoms from July to September, and
is found in Cornwall on the banks of rivulets.
SIBYLS, in pagan antiquity, certain women faid
to have been endowed with a prophetic fpirit, and to
have delivered oracles, fhowing the fates and revolu¬
tions of kingdoms. Their number is unknown. Plato
fpeaks of one, others of two, Pliny of three, iElian of
four and Varro °f ten ; an opinion which is univerfally
adopted by the earned. Thefe ten Sibyls generally re.
fided m the following places, Perfia, Libya, Delphi
Cumae in Italy, Erythraa, Samos, Cumae in ^Eolia’
MarpeiTa on the Hellefpont, Ancyra in Phrygia, and
Tibiutis. I he moft celebrated of the Sibyls is that of
Cumae in Italy, whom fome have called by the different
rames of Amalthaea, Demiphile, Herophile, Daphne
Man to Phemonoe, and Deiphobe. It is faid^that
Apollo became enamoured of her, and that to make her
fenfible of his paffion he offered to give her whatever
ffie fhould alk. The Sibyl demanded to live as many
years as ffie had grams of fand in her hand, but uufij
tunately forgot to affi for the enjoyment of the health
vigour, and bloom, of which ffie was then in poffeffion’
The god granted her requeft, but ffie refilled to gra-
ti y the paffion of her lover, though he offered her per-
petua! youth and beauty. Some time after ffie became
old and decrepit her form decayed, melancholy palenefs
and haggard looks fucceeded to bloom and cheerfulnefs
She had already lived about 700 years when iEneas
eame to Italy, and, as fome have imagined, ffie had three
centunes more .o live before her yjs wer’e as »„
thc^rams o[ fa^ whlch fte had in her hand. She
gave aEneas.inftrudhons how to find his father in the
imernal regions, and even conduced him to the en¬
trance of hell It was ufual for the Sibvl to write her
prophecies on leaves, which ffie placed at the entrance of
her cave ; and it required particular care in fuch aT con-
fulted her to take up thele leaves beiore they were dif
became in-
torians of tK P ^cording to the moft authentic hif-
lo he paLe of T0ma"-TTti!;C’ 0ne °f the S,'b)'Is
which fteTffeL ,aTn r e SeC°nd’ with ni"c Lames,
haroh difre?arded he Ym ,ery h«h Pri«- T11'
g aed her, and ffie immediately difappeared,
f 1
S I G
and foon after returned, when ffie had burned three of
the volumes. She afked the fame price for the remain"
mg fix books ; and when Tarquin refufed to buy them,
ffie burned three more, and flill perfifted in demanding'
the fame fum of money for the three that were left.—
Ihis extraordinary behaviour aftoniffied Tarquin; ’he
bought the books, and the Sibyl inftantly vaniffied ’and
never after appeared to the world. Thefe books were
preferved with great care by the monarch, and called
the Sibylline verfes. A college of priefts was appointed
to have the care of them ; and fuch reverence did the
Romans entertain for thefe prophetic books, that they
were confulted with the greateft folemnity, and only
when the ftate feemed to be in danger. When the ca-
pitol was burnt in the troubles of Sylla, the Sibylline
verfes which were depofited there periffied in the con¬
flagration ; and to repair the lofs which the republic
feemed to have fuftained, commiffioners were immediate¬
ly lent to different parts of Greece to colled whatever
verfes could be found of the infpired writings of the Si-
b>r,,s* yhe fate ot ^efe Sibylline verfes which were
collected after the conflagration of the capitol is un¬
known. There are now many Sibylline verfes extant,
but they are reckoned univerfally fpurious; and it is evi¬
dent that they were compofed in the fecond century
by iome ot the followers of Chriftianity, who wiffied to
convince the heathens of their error, by affifting the
caufe of truth with the arms of pious artifice.
arndme gJvento any inebriating liquor by
the Helleniftic Jews. St Chryfoftom, Theodoret, and
I heophilus ot Antioch, who were Syrians, and who,
therefore ought to know the fignification and nature of
icera, affure us, that it properly fignifies palm-wine.
1 liny acknowledges, that the wine of the palm tree was
very well known through all the eaft, and that it was
made by taking a bnffiel of the dates of the palm-tree
and throwing them into three gallons of water • then
fqueezing out the juice, it would intoxicate, hke wine.'
I he wine of the palm tree is white: when it is drunk
new, it has the tafte of the cocoa, and is fweet as ho¬
ney. When it is kept longer, it grows ftrong, and in*
A' lon? kteP’ng. it becomes vinegar.
. in muhe, denotes a kind of gay fprightlv
air, or dance, probably invented in Sicily, fome what of
the nature of an Enghffi jig ; ufually marked with the
« _ 6 T '7.
It confifts of two ftrains ; the firll
charafters or ~
Sicert
.it
Sicily.
°f ^’a"d ^he {econd of e%ht> bars or meafures.
oJGIDY, is a large ifland in the Mediterranean Sea n j -
adjoining loathe fouthern extremity of Italy, and e^arS’exS
tends from latitude 36° ay' to latitude 38^ a and
from longitude ta0 50' to longitude 160 5' eaft from
London. Its greateft length aio miles, breadth 133,
circumference 6:05 its form triangular, the three la-
gles being the promontories of Pelorum, Pachynum, and
Lilybaeum, or as they are now called the Faro, Capo
1 ctffaro, and Capo Boco. It is divided from Italy bv
the ftraits of Meffina, reaching from the Tower 0/Fa-
[he ^7/^/ m°ft Part °f 1116 ^
the Capo dell Arniiy ox the Cape of Arms, the moft fou-
ern part of Calabria. Thefe ftraits, by the Latins
called breturn Sicu/um, by the Italians // Fare di Mef.
and’,r^lby larl°f MeJfinar are between L
and 15 miles over m the broadeft places, and in the nar-
roweft about a mile and an hatf; iafomugh that when.
Mfffina
Sicily.
Sic [ 456 ] ,51°,
Medina was taken by the Carthaginians many of the didst, laid the foundaton^of Syracufe.
, - . . r a.^ C'wj^A tVjpmfelvPS IjV 1W11TI“
Hi (lory dv.'
rin t the fa.
b 10 as
age*.
MeilmawastaK.cn uy ,
inhabitants are faid to have faved themfelves by fwim-
mine to the oppofite coafts of Italy. Hence has anfen
an opinion that the ifland of Sicily was ongma ly jom-
cd to the continent, but afterwards feparated by an
earthquake or fome other natural caufe. This iepara-
tion however, is reckoned by the moft judicious among
the ancients to be fabulous ; and they content them-
felves with fpeaking of it as a thing faid to have hap-
PC Anciently this ifland was called Sicarna, Sicilia, and
Trinacria or Triquttra; the two former it had from the
1U LUC luuuua^ius.a w.   Seven years
after, a new colony of Chalcidians founded Leontini
and Catana, after having driven out the Sicuh, who in¬
habited that trad. About the fame time Lamis, with
a colony from Megara, a city of Achaia, fettled on the
river Pantacius, at a place called Trotilum, where his
adventurers lived fome time in common with the Chal¬
cidians of Leontini; but, being driven from thence by
the Leontines, he built the city of Thapfus, where he
died. Upon his death, the colony left Thapfus; and
under the condud ofjiyblon king of the Sicuh, found¬
ed Megara Hyblaea, where they refided 245 years, tiU
j •     u,, n.f.’lnn tvrant of Svracufe. Du-
T^'Zor T iqurtras the two former it bed from the £Megara=, f
Sican, and S.cuh, P'^ “ “'’trilmSlir fignre. rinj their abode at Megara, they fent one Pamdus, who
^Sbi^X to the mod refpelab.e ™s^sMThl'h^’^'Tomr/o
, • 1 . 1 r Aftpr them rami
CKcept what is related by the poets. After them came
the Sicani, who called themfelves the original inhabi¬
tants of the country ; but feveral ancient hiftonans in¬
form us that they came from a country in bpain wa-
ana x-nLimusj luc . . . <
tan, led each a colony of their countrymen, and jointly
built the city of Gela on a river of the fame name, elta-
blifhing in their new fettlement the Doric cuftoms,
about 45 years after the founding of Syracufe.* The
• , , Aerricrentum 108 ve;
! a country n Spain wa- about 45 years alter uic fuuuu.. 6 - - -
and improve the ground in the live under the Perf.au
which was the moft fruitful part o . * , J , yome t}me after, \naxales, tyrant of Rhegmm,
built feveral fmall towns and villages on the bids to y • onc;ent proprietors ; and, dividing his
■are themfelvcs agamft thieves and ■'obber,; and we« the cify M'Jfl, or
fy0roedw’„nkingy 0^uPs™hee; l^d^ eL began to ^ "hich was th^nam^of his^n^
£ckam"nderthedircaio"°rSimns'“4
in the time of Thucydides. Some Trojans, after the Sacon
deftrudion of their city, landed in the ifland, fett. d
among the Sicani, and built the c.t.es of Eryx and E-
amongr tiie oicdiii> auu 1 v
r-efta, uniting themfelves with them, and taking the ge¬
neral name of Elymi or Elymxi. 'i hey were after¬
wards joined by fome Phocenfes, who fettled here on
their return from the fiege of Troy. _
After the Sicani had for many ages enjoyed an un-
diftuvbed poffeffion of the whole of Sicily, or fuch Part*
Of it as they chofe to inhabit, they were viiited by the
Siculi, who were the ancient inhabitants ot Aufoma
properly fo called; but being driven out from thence
by the Ooici, they took refuge m the ifland of . u y.
Not being contented with the narrow bounds allowed
is uuuc. t.u   Eucleides, Simus, and
oacon ; but peopled by the Chalcidmns and fome Syra-
culan exiles, who had been driven out by the contrary
^The Syracufians built Acrae, Chafmenae, and Cama-
rina ; the ftrft 70 years, the fecond 90, and the third
nr after the foundation of their own city. _ ibis is
the account which Thucydides, a moft judicious and
exaA writer, gives us ot the various nations, whether
Greeks or Barbarians, who fettled in Sicily. Strabo
counts among the ancient inhabitants of Sicily the idor-
getes, who being driven out of Italy by the Oenotrians,
fettled in that part of the ifland where the ancient c.ty
of Morgantium flood. The Campani, who affumed ihe
name of Mamertini, that is, invincible -warriors, and the
denied with the narrow bound, allowed very carfy in *4, ought
them by the Sicarn, they sjcPanl „ere bkewlfc to be counted among the ancient inhab.tante of
neighbours; upon which a war enfumg, the Sicam we <
utterly defeated, and confined to a corner of the ifland,
the name of which was now changed from uama into
^A bout Too years after the arrival of the Siculi, the
ifland hr ft began to be known to the Greeks, who efta-
felifned various colonies, and bmit many cities in diffe¬
rent parts of the ifland; and it is only from the time
of their arrival that we have any hiftory of the ifland
The firft of the Greeks that came into Sicily were the
Chalcidians of Eubcea, under the conduct of Ehucles,
who built Naxus, and a famous altar of Apolb, which,
as Thucydides tells us, was ftiU Handing m his time
without the city. The year after, which was, accord¬
ing to Dionyiius Halicarnaffenfis, the third of the 17th
Olympiad, Archias the Corinthian, one of the Hera-
(Jartnagimans, wuu .w. 7  7 r o
likewife to be counted among the ancient inhabitants ot
Before this period the hiftory of Sicily is blended
with fables like the early hiftory of almoft every other
country. After the iettlement of the Greeks m the
ifland, its various revolutions have been ^traced from
their feveral fources by many writers ; but by none with
greater accuracy than Mr Swinburne. From his ac¬
count of his Travels in the Two Sicilies, we have there¬
fore taken the following concife hiftory of this king¬
dom, which will at once gratify fuch of our readers as
intereft themfelves in the fate of a generous people
who long ftruggled in vain for freedom ; and at the
fame time afford them a fpecimen of the entertainment
they may receive from the very elegant work of the
author* ‘ „ Ar;.
3
S T C
Sicily- <l Ai-islocracy prevailed at fird fn the Greek fettle
rT: ments, but foon made way for tyranny ; which in its
VuxehZ turn was expelk-d by democracy. One of the earlied
tie Tti-o Si- deftroyers of common liberty was Phalaris of Agrtyen-
e/lits, vol li.tum, who reigned 600 years before Chrift : his example
176. • • 1 •
[ 457 1
3
r c
Grecian
lonieS in
■ &icily.
4
Carthagi¬
nians con¬
quers grea
part of it.
fir lo tho-
ten king.
was contagiovjs ; a. legion of tyrants fprang up, and not
a commonwealth in the ilhnd efcaped the lalh of an
ufurper. Syracufe was _ mofc oppreffed and torn to
pieces by diflenbon ; as its wealth and preponderance
in the general fcale held opt a greater temptation than
other cities to the ambition of wicked men. It reepurcs
the combined teltimony of hiftonans to enforce our be¬
lief of its wonderful profperity, and the no lefs extraor¬
dinary tyranny of foine of its fovereigns. Thefe Gre¬
cian colonies attained to filch excellence in arts and
fciences as emboldened them frequently to vie with the
learned and ingenious in the mother country ; nay, often
enabled them to bear away the palm of vidfory: there
needs no ftronger proof of their literary merits than a
bare recital of the -names of Archimedes, Theocritus,
Gorgias, and Charondas.
Lut the Sicilian Greeks were not dellined to en-
joy the fweets of their fituation without molellation.
parTotyr V<:ry foorl after lheiV arrival> the inhabitants of the
neighbouring coaft of Africa began to afpire to a fhare
of Sicily. Carthage fent large bodies of forces at dif¬
ferent times to eftablifli their power in the ifland, and
about 500 years before the Chriftan era had made
themfelves mafters of all the weftern parts of it. The
Siculi retained polleffion of the midland country, and
the fouthern and ealtern coafts were inhabited by the
Greeks. c '
“ About that time Gelo was chofen prince of Syra¬
cufe on account of his virtues, which grew frill more
confpicuous after his exaltation : had the example he
fee been followed by his iuccefibrs, the advantages of
freedom would never have been known or wifhed for by
the Syracufans. The Carthaginians found in him a vi¬
gorous opponent to their project of enflaving Sicily, a
6 project invariably purfued but never accomphlhed. '
Is fiicceedsd “ Hiero fucceeded his brother Gelo, and, contrary
by Hiero. to the ufual progreflion, began his reign by a difplay
of bad qualities. Senfible of his error, and improved
by experisnee, he afterwards adopted more equitable
meafures. At his death the Syracufans threw off the
yoke, and for fixty years revelled in all the joys of
freedom. Their peace was, however, difturbed by the
Athenians and the Carthaginians. The latter plunder¬
ed Agrigentum, and threatened ruin to the reft of the
Grecian ftates ; but a treaty of peace averted that ftorm.
1 he Athenians, under pretence of fupporting their al¬
lies the^ people of Segeila, but in reality from a thirft
of dominion, inverted Syracufe with a formidable land
and naval armament under the command of Nicias ; in
confequence of a rafh indigefted plan, ill conduced at¬
tacks, and inadequate fupplies, their whole holt was cut
" to pieces ©r led away into captivity.
“ Syracufe had fcarce time to breathe after her vic¬
tory ere inteftine wars broke out, and raifed Dionyiius
to fupreme command. Avarice, defpotifm, and cruel¬
ty, marked every day of his reign ; but his military en-
terpriies were crowned with conliant iuccefs. He died
in peace, and bequeathed a powerful fovereignty to a
on o! his name tainted with the fame and worie vices,
Lut not endowed with equal capacity and martial abilri
VOi. XVII. Part II.
Dionyfius
She elder
and
younger..
ty ; in fuck hands the rod of tyranny ceafed to be for- Sicily,
midable, and the tyrant was driven out of Sicily by the
patriotic party ; but matters were not fufficiently fet¬
tled for popular government, and .Dionyfiu* refumed
the feeptre lor a while, till Timoleon forced him into
perpetual exile.,, g
Liberty i’eemed now to be eftabliflied on a permanent Agathcde#
bans ; but in Syracufe fuch profpedts always proved il- die tyrant.
lufory._ Agathocles, a tyrant more inhuman than any
preceding ufurper, feized the throne, and deluged the
country with blood. He was involved in a perilous
conteft with the Carthaginians, who obtained many ad¬
vantages over him, drove his troops from port to port,
and at laft blocked up his capital. In this defperate
fituation, when all foreign helps were precluded, and
hardly a refource remained at home, the genius of A-
gathocles compafled his deliverance by a plan that was
imitated among the ancients by Hannibal, and among
the moderns by the famous Cortes. He embarked with
the flower of his army ; forced his way through innu¬
merable obftacles ; landed in Africa ; and, having burnt
his fleet, routed the Carthaginians in a pitched battle,
and laid their territory wafte. Carthage feemed to he
on the brink of ruin, and that hour might have mark¬
ed her down fal had the Sicilian holt been compofed of
patriotic foldiers, and not of ungovernable affaffins ; dif-
cord pervaded the victorious camp, murder and riot en-
fued; and the tyrant, after beholding his children and
friends butchered before his face, efcaped to Sicily, to
meet a death as tragical as his crimes deferved.
Anarchy now raged throughout the ifland, and eve. Pyrrhus
ry faction was reduced to the neceffity ot calling in the king of
affiftance of foreign powers; amoncr whom Pyrrhus kimr £f,irus de"
of Epirus took the lead, and reduced all parties to
degree of order and obedience. But ambition foon
prompted him to invade thole rights which he came to
defend; he caff off the mailt, and made Sicily feel un¬
der h,s fway as heavy a hand as that of its former op-
preffors; but the Sicilians foon affumed courage and
Itrength enough to drive him out of the iffand. ^ Tn
About, this period the Mamertini, whom Mr Swiff-The Ma-
urne indignantly ftyles a crew of mifereants, furprifed nTI tlB* fur*
n .K4,?’ a^ter a £cneral maffacre of the citizens, Fnfe 1Vdcfli-
eftabhlhed a republican form of government. Their com- affifteli by 6
monwealth became fo troublelome a neighbour to the tire Ro- 7
fj-ieeks, that Hiero II. who had been railed to themans»
chief command at Syracufe in confideration of his fupe-
rior wifdom and warlike talents, found himfelf neceflita-
ted to form a league with Carthage, in order to deftroy
this nelt of villains. In their diftrefs the Mamertini
implored the affiftance of Rome, though the fenate had
recently puniffied with exemplary Severity one of
their own legions, for a fimilar outrage committed at
Khegium. the virtue of the Romans gave way to the
temptation, and the defire of extending their empire be¬
yond the limits ot Italy, cart a veil over every'odious
circumitance attending this alliance. ' "
crofted the Faro, relieved Meffina,
thaginiaus, and humbled Hiero iiito
public.
Thus began the firft Punic, war, which was carried Whfth
or many years in Sicily with various fuccefs. The gives ,ifc t©
genius or Hamilcar Barcas fupported the African caufethc flr(t
under numberlefs difappointments, and the repeatedPumc war-
overthrows of his colleagues ; at laft, finding his exer-
3 M tions
A Roman army
defeated the Car-
an ally of the re-
XI
S I c
[ 458 ]
S T C
Sicily.
raided by
Hannibal.
. . 13
Sicily con.-
quered by
the Sara¬
cens, and
afterwards
mans.
tions ineffectual, he advifed the Carthaginian rulers to
^—v—' purchafe peace at the price of Sicily. Such a treaty
The'Vccondwas not to '3e ohferved longer than want of
Punicw.ir ftrength ihould curb the animolity of the vanquilhed
party : when their vigour was recruited, Hannibal fon
of Hamilcav eaiily perfuaded them to refume the con-
teft, and for 16 years waged war in the heart of the
Roman territories. Meanwhile Hiero conducted him-
felf with fo much prudence, that he retained the friend-
fliio of both parties, and pieferved his portion of Sicily
in "perfeCt tranquillity. He died in extreme old age,
beloved and reipefted both at home and abroad.
His granffon Hieronymus, forfaking this happy line
of oolitics, and contracting an alliance with Carthage, fell
an early victim to the troubles which his own folly had
excited. Once more, and for the lalt time, the Syracu-
fans found themfelves in poffefiipn of their indepen¬
dence: but the times were no longer fuited to fuch a lyf-
tem ; diffenfions gained head, and diftraCted the public
councils. Carthage could not fupport them, or pre¬
vent Marcellus from undertaking the fiege of Syracufe,
immortalized by the mechanical efforts of Archimedes,
and the immenfity of the plunder. See Syracuse.
The Sicilians after this relinquifhed all martial ideas,
and during a long feries of generations turned their at¬
tention folely to the arts of peace and the labours of
, agriculture. Their poiition in the centre of the Ro¬
by The Nor- iTian empire preferved them bath from civil and foreign
foes, except in two inftances of a fervile war. The ra¬
pacity of their governors was a more conttant and in-
fupportable evil. In this ftate of apathy and opulence
Sicily remained down to the 7th centmy of our era,
when the Saracens began to difturb its tranquillity.
The barbarous nations of the north had before invaded
and ravaged its coalts, but had not long kept poffef-
fion. The Saracens were more fortunate. In 827
they availed themftlves of quarrels among the Sicilians
to fubdue the country. Palermo was chofen for their
capital, and the ftandard of Mahomet triumphed about
200 years. In 1038 George Maniaces was fent by the
Greek emperor with a great army to attack Sicily.
He made good his landing, and pufhed his conqueffs
with vigour : his fuccefs arofe from the valour of fome
Norman troops, which were at that time unemployed
and ready to fell their fervices to the beft bidder. Ma¬
niaces repaid them with ingratitude ; and by his abfurd
conduft gave the Muffulmen time to breathe? and the
Normans a pretext and opportunity of invading the
Imperial dominions in Italy. Robert and Roger of
Hauteville afterwards eonquerfcd Sicily on their own ac¬
count, not as mercenaries ; for having fubftantially fet¬
tled their power on the continent, they turned their
arms againft this Hand in obedience to the dictates of
zeal and ambition. After ten years ftruggle, the Sa¬
racens yielded up the rich prize, and Robert ceded it
to his brother Roger, who affumed the title of Great
Earl of Sicily, ruled the ftate with wifdom, and ranks
defervedly among the greateft chara&ers in hikory. He
raifed himfelf from the humble ftation of a poor young¬
er fon of a private gentleman, to the exalted dignity of
a powerful monarch, by the foie force of his own ge¬
nius and courage ; he governed a nation of ftrangers
with vigour and juftice, and tranfmitted his poffeflions
undifputed to his poflerity. Such an affemblage of
great qualities is well intitled to our admiration.
He was fuceceded by his for) Simon, whofe reign was Sidly.
fhort, and made way for a fecond fon called Roger. In “ *
1127 this prince joined to his Sicilian poffeffions theun(j^t(,
whole inheritance of Robert Guifcard (fee Naples,dominioB
n° 23.), and affumed the regal ftyle. The greateft<>f d'ffe-
part of his reign was taken up in quelling revolts in Ita-
ly, but Sicily enjoyed profound peace. In 1154 his
fon William afeended the throne, and paffed his life in
war and coirufion. William II. fucceeded his father,
hnd died without iffue. Tancred, though bafely born, v
was eletted his fucceffor, and after him his fon Wil¬
liam III. who was vanquifhed by Henry of Swabia.
During the troubles that agitated the reign of his fon
the emperor Frederic, peace appears to have been the
lot of Sicily. A fhort lived fedition, and a revolt of
the Saracens, are the only commotions of which we
read. For greater fecurity, the Saracens were removed
to Puglia 400 years after the conqueft of Sicily by their
anceftors. Under Conrad and Manfred Sicily remained
quiet ; and from that time the hiftory of Sicily is rela¬
ted under the article Naples, nJ 26, See.
At the death of Charles II. of Spain, his fpoils be-i3at length
came an objeft of furious contention ; and at the peace conquered
of Utrecht, Sicily was ceded to Vifftor duke of Savoy,
who, not many years after, was forced by the emperor
Charles VI. to relinquifh that fine Hand, and take Sar¬
dinia as an equivalent. But as the Spaniards had no
concern in thefe bargains, they made a hidden attempt
to recover Sicily, in which they failed through the vi¬
gilance of the Englxfh admiral Byng. He deftroyed
their fleet in 1718, and compelled them to drop their
fcheme for a time. In 1734 the Spanifh court refumed
their defign with fuccefs. The infant Don Carlos drove
the Germans out, and was crowned king of the two Si¬
cilies at Palermo. When he paffed into Spain to take
poffeffton of that crown, he transferred the Sicilian dia¬
dem to his fon Ferdinand III. of Sicily and IV. of Na¬
ples, and it has ever fmee remained in the poffeffion of
the fame family. 16
Sicily is feparated, as we have already obferved, from Account of
Italy by a narrow ftrait called the Faro of Meffina. Thisrhe^”|“
ftrait is ftill remarkable for the rapidity of its currents01 ^ 1Ha*
and the irregular ebbing and flowing of the fea, which
fometimes rufhes in with fuch violence as to endanger
fhips riding at anchor. Anciently it was much more •
remarkable for Scylla and Charybdis, the one a rock,,
and the other a whirlpool, between which it was very
dangerous to fteer, and concerning which fo many fables
have been related by the ancients. Scylla is a rock on
the Italian fide, oppofite to Cape Pylores, which runs
out into the fea on the Sicilian fide. Mr Brydone in¬
forms us, that the navigation of the ftraits is not even
yet performed without danger. He informs us, that
the noife of the current which fets through the ftraits
may be heard for feveral miles, like the roaring of fome-
large impetuous river confined between narrow banks.
In many places the water rofe into whirlpools and ed¬
dies, which are dangerous to fhipping. The current fet
exaftly for the rock of Scylla, and would certainly have
carried any thing thrown into it againft that point.
Our author, however, is by no means of opinion that
the ftrait is fo dangerous as the ancients have reprefent-
ed it ; though he thinks that the ftrait is now probably
much wider than formerly, which may have diminifhed
the danger. See Scylla. There are many fmall rocks,
which
S I c
Sicil;'.
wlilcli (how their heads near the bafe of the lara:e ones.
Thefe are probably thy dogs defcnbed by the ancient
poets as howling round Scylla. The rock is near
200 feet high, and has a kind of caftle or fort built on
its fummit with a town called Sty//a or Sciglio, contain¬
ing 300 or 400 inhabitants on its fouth fide, which
gives the title of prince to a Calabrefe family.
[ 459 ]
S I C
Of the mountains in this ifland the moil noted is Sicily.
Mount Etna, now called Monte Gibelto, or Mongibello, a  v——^
volcano whofe eruptions have often proved fatal to the
neighbouring country. See Etna.
Were the Sicilians a cultivated people, among whom Conftftu-
thofe arts were encouraged which not only promotet «n and go-
the wealth and comfort of a nation, but alfo exercife the ve™ment..
. * , ,,, * V-H4-WA.1 ciiiw. v-11 -1W1 L cx iiatiuil, l./UL dlLU CXCl CilC LilC **
Charybdis is now 10 much diminilhed, that it feems nobler faculties and extend the views of mankind, the Water's
noil reduced to nothincr in comoanion of what- it-was. rimimOarw-PQ nf tKcV -
.
Clirratea
product.
IVat kin's
‘Travels
through
Ski itzer-
fond, Italy
Sicily, tgf,
l8
River* and
mountains.
* #  7     
ahnoft reduced to nothing in comparifon of what it was,
though even yet it is not to be palled without danger.
See Charybdis.
In the ftraits, Mr Brydone informs us, a moll furpri-
fing phenomenon is to be obferved. In the heat of fum-
mer, after the fea and air have been much agitated,
there appears in the heavens over the {traits a great va¬
riety of lingular forms, fome at reft and others moving
with great velocity. ’I hefe forms, in proportion as the
light increafes, feem to become more aerial, till at laft,
fome time before fun-rife, they totally difappear. The
Sicilians reprefent this as the molt beautiful fight in
nature. Leonti, one of their bell and lateft writers,
fays, that the heavens appear crowded with a variety of
objedts, fuch as palaces, woods, gardens, &c. befides
the figures of men and other animals that appear in mo¬
tion among them. Some treatifes have been written
concerning this phenomenon ; but nothing fatisfattory
has been delivered concerning its caufe.
d Though Sicily lies in a warm climate, the air is
healthful, being refrelhed with fea-breezes on every fide.
It has at all times been remarkably fertile ; but the era
of its greateft ptofperity was from the fiege of Syracufe
by the Athenians to the Carthaginian conquefts. Then
and long after it fupplied with grain in years of fear-
city all the countries upon the Mediterranean except
, Egypt and the coafts of Afia, and Rome and Carthage
, continually. Even now, under all the impediments of
fuperftition and bad government, its produdtions are,
in quantity and quality, the bell in Europe. Of the
vegetable are grain, wines, oil, fruits, tobacco, mulber¬
ry trees for the filkworm, cotton, medicinal roots-, and
fugar canes. The laft of thefe flourilh near Avola and
Merilli. They are of an inferior quality to thofe of
the Weft Indies, but their lugar is fweeter than any
other. The animal prgdudlion is fimilar to that of
Italy, but the horned cattle are a fmaller breed. The
coafts abound with fifh, particularly with tunney and
anchovies ; the export of which forms a very lucrative
branch of commerce. There are mines of filver, copper,
and lead, but none are worked. Near Palma are'beds
of the bell fulphur : at the mouth of the river Giaretta
is found a yellow amber, preferable to that of the Bal¬
tic ; and in every part of the illand quarries of marbles,
that have fuinilhed materials for all the noble edifices of
Sicily. I he moll beautiful are in the neighbourhood of
Palermo, particularly the yellow, and thole that refemble
the verde antique, porphyry, and lapis lazuli. The popu¬
lation of the illand amounts to 1,300,000 fouls ; not as
much again as the fingle city of Syracufe formerly con¬
tained. k
Here are feveral rivers and good fprings ; but few of
the rivers are navigable, having but a Ihort courfe, and
delcending precipitately from the mountains. The chief
are the Cantera, the Jarretta, and the Salfo ; of which,
the two former run from weft to call, and the third
from north to fouth.
.   ~ ’ ^ Tissue, J
circumftances of their government are fuch, that it Memoirs rf
might gradually he improved into a free conftitution :la*lve t0
but to this, the ignorance, fuperftition, and poverty, of an
the people feem to be invincible obftacles. The mo¬
narchical power in Sicily is far from being abfolute ;
and the parliament claims a lhare of public authority
independently of the will of the king, deduced from a
compact made between Roger and the Norman barons
after the expulfion of the Saracens, This claim is de¬
nied by the king, who wifhes the nobles to coniider
their privileges as derived folely from his favour. Hence
the government is in a fituation which greatly refembles
that of our own and the other kingdoms of Europe in
the feudal times ; there are continual jealoufies and op-
pofitions between the king and the barons, of which an
enlightened people might eafily take advantage, and ob¬
tain that lhare in the conftitution which might fecure
them from future oppreflion. In thefe difputes, the
king has the advantage at leaftof power if not of right;
and feveral works, in which the claims of the Sicilian
barons have been afferted, were publicly burned a few
years ago.
As the fovereign holds his court at Naples, Sicily is
governed by a viceroy, who is appointed only for three
years, though at the end of that term his commilfion is
fometimes renewed. He lives in great Hate, and, as
the reprefentative of the king, his power is very confi-
derabie. He preiides in all the courts and departments
of government, and is commander in chief of all the
forces: he calls or diftblves the parliament when he
pleafes; and by him all orders, laws, and fentences, mull
be figned: but his office is far from being defirable, as
it generally renders him the objeft either of the jealoufy
of the court of Naples, or of the hatred of the Sici¬
lians.
The parliament confifts of the nobles, the bilhops,
and abbots, and the reprefentatives of 43 cities, which
are. immediately fubjed to the crown. Thofe cities
which are fubjed to any ol the nobles fend no members
to the parliament; in theie the king has not much au¬
thority, and derives little advantage from them. Ac¬
cording to the laws, the parliament ought to be afiem-
bled at the end of every three years : but the govern¬
ment pays little attention to this rule. The common
people are in general very much attached to the nobles,
and are inclined to take their part in all their differen¬
ces with the court: but the magiftrates and principal in¬
habitants of the cities which belong to theie feudal
lords, vviffi to get rid of their authority, and imagine
that they Ihould be lefs. oppreffed, if immediately iub-
jedt to the king: thefe inclinations are not difagreeable
to the court, and are encouraged by moll of the law.*
yers, who are o! great fervice to government in conteft-
ing the privileges of the nobles. Many of thefe privi¬
leges are now abridged ; and the power of the barons
with refpedl to the adminiftration of juftice in their do¬
mains, was very properly limited by the viceroy Ca-
3 ^ 2 raccioli.
Sicily.
70
In<juifidon
21
Abolifhed
by Carac*
cioii.
SIC T 460 1 SID
nccioli, in the rear 178 The government of this Fifty-eight princes, 27 dukes, 37 marquifles, 27 counts, Sicinnlu*
nobleman was very beneficial to Sicily, as he, in a great I vlfcomrt, and 79 barons, form the militaire ; and the II
meafure, cleared the ifland of the banditti that ufed to demaniale confills of 4$ reprefentatives of free towns. i>ula■
jnfell it, and made feveral excellent regulations for the Out of each bracchio four deputies are chofen to con-
ehablifliment of i'oeial order and perfonal fecurity. He dutf public bufinefs. But the viceroy, the prince of
deferves the thanks of every well-wifher to mankind for Butera, and the prtEtor of Palermo, are always the three
having abolifhed the court of inquifition, which had firft. Ah A. 'I here are many titled perfons that have
been eftablifhed in this country by Ferdinand the Ca- no feat in the afiembly, viz. 62 princes, 55 dukes, 87
tholic, and made dependent on the authority of the marquiffes, 1 count, and 282 other feudatories. There
grand inquifrtor of Spain. Its laft auto da fe was held are three archbifhoprics and feven bifhoprics; and the
in the year 1724, when two perfons W'ere burned. At ifland, ever fince it was conquered by the Saracens, has
length Charke III. rendered it independent of the Spa- been divided into three parts or valleys-; namely, the
nifh inquifitor, and abridged its power, by forbidding it Val di Demons^ Val di Noto, and Val di Ma%%ara.
to make ufe of the torture, and to inflift public punifh- SICINNIUS (Dentatus), a tribune of the people,
ments. The Marchefe Squillace, and his fucceffor the lived a little after the expullion of the kings from Rome.
Marchefe Tanucci, were both enemies to the hierarchy; He was in 1 20 battles andfkirmifhes, befides Tingle com-
and, during their viceroyalties, took care to appoint fen- bats, in all of which he came off conqueror. He ferved
fible and liberal men to the office of inquifitor : the laft under nine generals, all of whom triumphed by his-
of whom was Ventimiglia, a man of a moft humane and means. In thefe battles he received 45 wounds in the
amiable charafter, who heartily vvifhed for the abolition fore-part of his body, and not one in his back. The
of this diabolical court, and readily contributed toward fenate made him great prefents, and he was honoured
it. While he held the office of inquifitor, he always with the name of the Roman Achilles,
endeavoured to procure the acquittal of the accufed; and SICYOS, in botany : A genus of plants belonging
when he could fuceed no other way, would pretend fome to the clafs of monoecia, and to the order of fyngenefia *,
informality in the trial. The total annihilation of this and in the natural fyllem arranged under the 34th or-
inftrument of the worft of tyranny was referved for Ca- der, Cucurbit ace<s. The male flowers have their calyx
raccioli. A pried being accufed to'the inquifition, was quinquedentated, their corolla quinquepartite, and there
dragged out of his houfe and thrown into the dungeon, are three filaments. The female flowers have their calyx
He was condemned; but, on account of informality, and and corolla fimilar ; but their ftyle is trifid, and their
a violation of juftice in the trial, he appealed to the drupamonofpermous. There are three fpecies, the
viceroy, who'appointed a committee of jurifts to exa- lata, laciniata, v.x\&garcini, which are all foreign plants,
mine the procefs. The inquifitor retufed to acknow- SIDA, Yeliow or Indian Mallow, in botany : A
ledge the authority of this commiffion ; pretending that genus of plants belonging to the clafs of monadelphia,.
to expofe the fecrets of thg holy office, and to fubmit and to the order of polyandria ; and in the natural fyf-
its decifions to the examination of lay judges, would be tern ranging under the 37th order, Columnfera. The
fo inconfiftent with his duty, that he would fee the in- calyx is Ample and angulated; the ftyle is divided into
quifition aboliftied rather than confent to it. Caraccioli many parts ; there are feveral capfuks, each containing
took him at his word, and procured a royal mandate one feed. There are 27 fpecies. 1. The Spinofa j
by which the holy office was at once annihilated. He 2. Anguftifolia ; 3. Alba ; 4. Rhombifolja ; 5. Alni-
affembkd all the nobility, judges, and bifhops, on the folia; 6. Ciliaris; 7. Retufa ; 8. Triquetra ; q.JamaU
27th of March 1782, in the palace of the inquifition, cenfis; 10. Carpinifolia ; 11. Vifcofa; 12. Cordifolia;
and commanded the king’s order to be read; after 13. Umbellatse ; 14. Paniculata ; 15. Atrofanguinea 4
which he took poffeffion of the archives, and caufed all 16. Periplociiolia ; 17. Urens ; 18. Arborea ; 19. Oc-
the prifons to be fet open : in thefe were at that time cidentalis ; 20. Americana ; 21. Abutilon ; 2 2. Mau-
only two priToners, who had been condemned to per- ritiana ; 23. Afiatica ; 24. Indica ; 25. Ciifpa; 26.
petual confinement for-witchcraft. The papers rela- Criftata; 27. ieinata. Ihe fiift 18 fpeciea have 15
ting to the finances were preferved; but aft the reft were capfuks; the reft are multicapfular. They are aft na-
publicly burned. The poffeffions of the holy office were tives of warm climates ; and moft of them are found m
affio-ned to the ufe of churches and charitable inftitu- the Eat! or Weft Indies.
tions: but the officers then belonging to it retained The Chinefe make cords of the fida abutilon. This
their falaries during their lives. The palace itfelf is plant loves water, and may be advantageoufly planted
converted into a cuftomhoufe, and the place where he- in marffies and ditches, where nothing elfe will grow,
reties were formerly roafted alive for the honour of the From experiments made by the Abbe Cavamlks, a Spa-
Catholic faith, is now changed into a public garden, niard, which are infer ted in the Mm. de V Acad. Roy ale.
The cognizance of offences againft orthodoxy is com- it appears that the plants fucceed beft when Town in
mitted to the bifhops : but they cannot cite any one to May, and they arrive at perfe&ion m three months and
appear before them without permiffion from the vice- a half. The maceration of the fmaller ftalks is fimfhed
rov: neither can they confine any perfen to a folitary in about 15 days; of the larger m a month. The
prifon nor deny him the privilege of writing to his ftrength and goodnefs of the thread appeared to be m
friends, and converfing freely with his advocate. The propottion to the perfection of the vegetation, and to
nobilitv are fo numerous in this ifland, th^t Labat fays the diftance the plant was kept at from other plants,
it is paved with noblemen. The general affembly of The fibres he in ftrata, of which there are fometimes
parliament is compofed of 66 archbifhops, bifhops, ab- fix : they are not quite ftraight, but preierve an undu ?.-
bots, and priors, which form the Bracchio ecckfiaftieo. ting direction, 10 as to foim a network in their natn-
5
SID [461
»?.l pofitions. Their fmdl refembles that of hemp ; the
fibres are whiter, bat more dry and harfir than thofe of
hemp. The harfhnefs is owinof to a greenifh gluten
which conne&s the fibres; and the rchite colour mull
always be obtained at the expence of having this kind
of thread lefs hippie ; when ot its natural hue, it is very
foft and flexible. This defeription belongs chiefly to
the fida ; but it will alfo apply to the malva crifpa, Pe¬
ruviana, and Mauritiana. 1 he malva crifpa gave, how¬
ever, the greateft quantity of fibres, and its gluten was
]
s
r d
native of Spain ; $. The Hyflbpifolia, a native of Italy Sick-oxr.
and the Pvrenefc . rp],„ O.. 3- ■! ■ - . ' J
molt copious. The fibres of the fida abutilon, and the
malva crifpa, are the Ion-eft and the flrongeft ; thofe of
the Peruviana and Mauritiana are the fhorteft and weak-
eft. d'he fibres of thofe plants which had loft their
leaves are lei's ftron r, though of equal length with thofe
which had preferved them.
SIDDEE, or Sedee : an Arabic title, by which
the Abyffinians or Habaflrysare always diftinguifhed in
the courts ofHindoftan ; where, being in great repute
for firmnefs and fidelity, they are generally employed as
commanders of farts or in polls of great truft.
SIDE REAL year. See ■/!stronomt- Imkx.
• SIBERIA, in natural hiftory, the name of a genus
of cry (Eds, ufed to exprefs thofe altered in their figure
by particles of iron. Thefe are of a rhomboidal fieure,
and compofed only of fix planes. Of this genus there
are four known fpecies. 1. A coloutlefs, pellucid, and
thin one; found in confiderable quantities among the
iron ores of the forefl of Dean in Gloucefterfliiref and
in feveral other places. 2. A dull, thick, and brown
one ; not uncommon in the fame places wdth the for¬
mer. And, 3. A black and very glofiy kind, a foffil of
great beauty ; found in the fame place with the others,
as alfo in Leiccfterfhire and Suflex.
SIDE RITE, a fubftance difeovered by Mr Meyer,
and by him luppofed to be a new metal; but Mefirs
Bergman and Kirwan have difeovered that it is nothing
elfe than a natural combination of the phofphoric acid
with iron.. Mr Klaproth of Berlin alfo came to the
lame conclufion, without any communication with Mr
Meyer. It is extremely difficult to feparate this acid
from the metal ; however, he found the'* artificial com¬
pound of phofphoric acid and iron to agree in its pro¬
perties with the calx fideri alba obtained by Bergman
and Meyer from the cold-fhort iron extracted from the
fwampy or marffiy ores. The difeovery of this fub-
ftance, however, may be accounted an important affair
in chemiftry, as we are thus furniflred with an immenfe
quantity of phofphoric acid, which might be applied to
ufeful purpofes if it could.be feparated from the me¬
tal.
SIDERITIS, Ironwort, in botany; A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of didynamia, and to the
order of gymnofpennia ; and in the natural fyftem ran¬
ging under the 4id order, VerticiUata. The ftamina are
within the tube of the corolla. 1 here are two ibiTmas,
one of which is cylindrical and concave ; the other, which
is lower, is membranous, Ihorter, and Ibeathing the other.
The fpecies are 13. 1. The Canarienfis, or Canary
ironwort, which is a native of Madeira and the Canary
3(lands ; 2. The Candicans, which is alfo a native of
Madeira; 3. The Syriaca, a native of the Levant ; 4.
I he Perfohata, a native of the Levant ; 5. The Mon-
tana, a native of Italy and Auftria ; 6. The Elegans ;
7- I he Romans, a native 0f Laly ; 8. The Inc.ana, a
and the Pyrenees ; 10. The Scordioides, a native of the
fouth ol I* ranee ; 11. The Hirfuta, which is indige-
nousin the fouth of Europe; 1 2. The Ciliata ; i t.
i he Lanata. J
SIDixROXYLON, Irox-Wood, in botany: A oe.
nus o. plants belonging to the clefs of pentandria, and
to the order or mondgyma ; and in the natural fyftem
ranging under the 43d onder, D,nvof«. fhe corolla is
cut into o parts, the lacimas or fegments beino- incur-
vated alternately ; the ftigma is fimple ; the berry con¬
tains five feeds 1 here are ten fpecies • 1 Mite •
2. Inerme, fmooth iron-wood ; 3. MelanophleUm, laurcll
leaved iron-wood ; 4. Fcetidiffimum ; 5. Cymofum—
both natives of the Cape of Good Hope ; 6. Sericeum,
iiiKy iron-wood, a native of New South Wales ; 7. Te-
nax iilyery-leaved iron wood, a native of Carolina ; 8.
Lycioides, wallow-leaved iron-wood, a native of North
America ; 9. Spmofum, thorny iron-wood or argan,
a native of Morocco ; 10. Decandrum.
The wood of thefe trees being very clofe and folid,
has given occafion for this name to be applied to them,
it being lo heavy as to. link in water. As they a’-e na
tives of warm countries, they cannot be preferved in this*
country unlefs they are placed, the two former in a ’
warm Itove, the others in a green-houfe. They are
propagated by feeds, when thefe can be procured from
abroad.
SIDNEY (Sir Philip), was born, as is fuppofed, at
Knfhurft in Kent in the year 1754; His father was
M a? Irift ^ntlemaG and his.mother
Mary the eldeft daughter of John Dudley duke of Nor-
humherland. He was fent when very young to Chrift-
church college at Oxford, but left the univfrfity at 17
to let out on his travels. After vifiting France, Ger¬
many, Hungary, and Italy, he returned to England in
1575, and was next year fent by Queen Elizabeth as
hei ambaffador to Randolph emperor of Germany On
2 KtT ^ Df J°hn °f Auftria' governor of
e Netherlands, by whom he was received with great
refpeft. In 1579, when Queen Elizabeth feemed on
the pomt of concluding her long projected marriage
with the duke of Anjou, Sir Philip wrote her a letter
in which he difiuaded her from the match with imufual
elegance of expreffion, as well as force of reafonino-.
Aoout this time a quarrel with the earl of Oxford <£-
cauoned his withdrawing from court ; during which re¬
tirement he is fuppofed to have written his celebrated
romance called Arcadia. ' Ca
In 1585, after the queen’s treaty with the United
The hn V5S mfe governor of Fluihing and mailer of
the horfe. Here he diftingmffied himfelf fo much both
by his courage and conduct, that his reputation rofe to
the lugheft pitch He was named, it is pretended, by
the republic of 1 eland as one of the competitors for that
crown, and might even have been elected had it not
been for the interference of the queen. But his illu-
iluous career was foon terminated ; for in 1586 he was
wounded at the battle of Zutphen, and carried to Arn!
bean, where he foon after died. His body was brought
to London, and buried in St Paul’s cathedral. He is
defenbed by the writers of that age as the moft perfeT
model of an accompliffieT gentleman that could be form-
e even by the .wanton imagination of poetry or fic
twn. V irtuous conduL, polite converfation, heroic va¬
lour, .
sid r 46
Si.lrtY, lour, anti elegant emditioti, all concurred to render him
■—nr—"' the ornament and delight of the Emdifh court: anc as
the credit which he enjoyed with the^ queen and the
earl of Leicefter was wholly employed in the encourage¬
ment of genius and literature, his praifes have been tranf-
mitted with advantage to pofterity _ No pevfon was fo
low as not to beconte an objeA of his humanity. Al¬
ter the battle of Zutphen, while he was lying, on the
held mam-led with wounds, a bottle of water was
brou ht him to relieve his third ; but observing a fol-
dier near him in a like miferable condition, he faid,
This man's neceflity is fiili greater than mine ; and re-
figned to him the bottle of water. 'Befides bis Arcadia^
be wrote feveral fmaller pieces both in profe and verfe,
which have been publifhed
Sidney (Algernon), was the fecond fon of Robert
earl of Leicefter, and of Dorothy eldeft dau hter of the
earl of Northumberland. He was born about the year
1617. Daring the civil wars he took part againft the
king, and diftinguilhed himfelf as a colonel in the aimy
of the parliament. He was afterwards appointed one
of king Charles’s judges, but declined appearing m that
court. During the ufurpation of Cromwel, Sidney,
who was a violent republican, retired to the country,
and fpent his time in writing thofe difeourfes on go¬
vernment which have been fo defervedly celebrated.
After the death of the Proteftor, he again took part
in the public tranfaftionsof his country, and was abroad
on an embaffy to Denmark when king Charles was re-
ftored Upon this he retired to Hamburgh, and after¬
wards to Francfort, where he refidedtill 1677, when he
returned to England and obtained from the king a par¬
don. It has been affirmed, but the ftory deferves no
credit, that during his refidence abroad king Charles
hired ruffians to affaffinate him. After his return he
made repeated attempts to procure a feat in parliament,
but all of them proved unfuccefsful After the inten¬
tion of the commons to feclude the duke of York from
the throne had been defeated by the fudden diffolution
of parliament, Sidney joined with eagernefs ^ ce¬
cils of Ruflel, Efiex, and Monmouth, who had reiolved
to oppofe the duke’s fucceffion by force of arms. Fre¬
quent meetings were held at London; while, at the
fame time, a let of fuboidinate confpirators, who were
not, hswever, admitted into their confidence, met and
embraced the moft defperate refolutions. _ Keihng, one
of thefe men, difeovered the whole confpiracy ; and Al¬
gernon Sidney, together with his noble affociates, was
immediately thrown into prifon, and no art was le t
unattempted in order to involve them m the guilt of
the meaner confpirators
Floward, an abandoned nobleman, without a imgle
r fpark of virtue or honour, was the only witnefs againft
Sidney ; but as the law required two, his dilcourfes on
government, found unpubhfhed in his clofet, were con-
itrued into treafon, and declared equivalent to another
witnefs. It was in vain for Sidney to plead that pa¬
pers were no legal evidence ; that it could not be pro¬
ved they were written by him ; and that if they were,
they contained nothing treafonable. The defence was
ever ruled ; he was declared guilty, condemned, and ex¬
ecuted ! Flis attainder was reverfed in the firft year of
king William.
Fie was a man of extraordinary courage ; fteady eren
to ©bitinacy; of a fincere but rough and boifterous
2 1 . SIB
temper. Though he profefied his belief in the Chri-
ftjan religion, he was an enemy to an eftabliihed church,
and even, according to Burnet, to every kind of public
worlhio. In his principles he was a zealous republican;
government was always his favourite ftudy ; and fits ef-
fays on that fubjeft are a proof of the progrefs which
he made. . .
SIDON (anc. geog.), a city of Phoenicia in Afia,
famous in Scripture for its riches, arifing from the ex-
tenfive commerce carried on by its inhabitants. Heavy
judgments were denounced againft the Sidonians on ac¬
count of their wickednefs, which were accomplifhed in
the time of Ochus king of Perfia : for that monarch ha¬
ving come againft them with an army on account of
their rebellion, the city was betrayed by its king ; up¬
on which the wretched inhabitants were feized with
defpair ; they fet fire to their houfes, and 40,000,
with their wives and children, perilhed in the flames.
This city is now called Saide, and, according to Mr
Bruce’s account, not only its harbour is filled up^with
fand, but the pavement of the ancient city flood yd feet
lower than the ground on which thepiefent Cit^ Hands.
Volney deferibes it as an ill-built dirty city. Its
lenpth along the fea-ftiore is about 600 paces, and its
breadth 150. At the north-weft fide of the town is
the caftle, which is built in the fea itfelf, 8^ paces from
the main land, to which it is joined by arches. To the
weft of this caftle is a fhoal 15 feet high above the lea,
and about 2co paces long. Ihe fpacc between this
ffioal and the caftk forms the road, but veffels are not
fafe there in bad weather.. The fhoal, which extends
along the town, has a bafon inclofed by a decayed pier.
This was the ancient port; but it is fo choaked up by
fand, that boats alone can enter its mouth near the
caftle. Fakr-el-din, emir of the Drufes, deftroyed all
thefe little ports from Bairout to Acre, by finking boats
and ftones to prevent th.e ri urkifh fhips from entering
them. The bafon of Saide, if it were emptied, might
contain 2 o or 25 fmall veffels. On the fide of the fea,
the town is abfolutely without any wall; and that which
enclofes it on the land fide is no better than a pnfon-
wall. The whole artillery does not exceed fix cannons,
and thefe are without carriages and gunners, ihe.gar-
rifon fcarcely amounts to 1 co men. I he wrater comes
from the river Aoula, through open canals, from which
it is fetched by the women. Thefe canals ferve alfo to
water the orchards of mulberry and lemon ti ees. >
Saide is a confiderable trading town, and is the chief
emporium of Damafcus and the inferior country. The
French, who are the only European^to be found there,
have a conful, and five or fix commercial houfes. Their
exports confift in filks, and particularly in raw and fpun
cottons. The manufaaure of this cotton is the princi¬
pal art of the inhabitants, the number of whom may be
eftimated at about 5000. It is 45 miles weft from Da¬
mafcus. E. Long. 36. 5. N. Eat. 37.
SIDUS Georgium, in aftronomy, a new primary
planet, difeovered by Dr Herfchell in the year 1781.
By moft foreign, and even by feme Britifh philofophers,
it is known by the name of Herfchel/, an honour which is
due to the difeoverer. As the other planets are di-
ftinguifhed by marks or charaaers, the planet Herlchell
is diftinguifhed by an H, the initial letter of the difco-
verer’s name, and a crofs to {how that it is a Cnriftian
planet. From many calculations of our belt aftrono-
* ^ mers
S’don,
Sicius.
S I E
r 4*3 1
S I E
Sie?8
5'erra.
mers and mathematicians, fays Dr Herichell, I have
collefted the following particulars, as moll to be de¬
pended upon.
Place of the node - - I5 iid 49' 3c"
Inclination of the orbit - 43' 33/
Place of the perihelion - I72d 13' 17"
Time of the perihelion paflage Sep. 7. 1799
Eccentricity of the orbit ,82034
Half the greater axis 19,07904
Revolution - 83*3364 frderial years.
From my own obfervations on this planet’s apparent
diameter, which I have found cannot well be lefs than
4", nor indeed much greater, we infer, that its real dia¬
meter is to that of the earth as 4,454 to 1 ; and hence
it appears to be of very conliderable bulk, and, except
Saturn and Jupiter, by tar the largeft of the remaining
planets. Its light is of a bluifh-white colour, and in
brilliancy between that of the Moon and of Venus.
With a telefcope v/hich magnifies about 300 times, it
appears to have a very well defined vifible dilk ; but with
infiruments of a fmall power, it can hardly be dirtin-
guilhed from a fixed ftar of between the fixth and fe-
venth magnitude. In a very fine clear night, when
the moon is abfent, it may alio be feen by the naked
eye.
SIEGE, in the art of war, is to furround a fortified
place with an army, and approach it by pafiages made
in Ee ground, fo as to be covered againll the fire of the
place.
SIEGEN, a town of Germany In Wetteravia, with
a caftle and the title of a principality, which it gives
to a branch of the houfe of Naflau. It is feated on a
river of the fame name, in E. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat.
50- 53
on the fouth call to Cape Verga or Vega on the north-
weft, /. e. between 70 and io° N. Lat. Others, how¬
ever, confine the country between Cape Verga and Cape
Tagrin. There runs through it a great river of the
fame name, of which the fource is unknown, but the
mouth is in longitude 12. 30. weft, lat. 8. 5. north, and
is nine miles wide. The climate and foil of this tra<ft of
country appear to be, on both fides of the river, among
the beft in Africa, or at leaft the moft favourable to
European conftituttons. The heat is much the lame as
that of the Weft Indies; but on the higher grounds
there is a cool fea breeze, and in the mountainous parts
the air is very temperate. According to Lieutenant
Matthew, “ Sierra Leona, if properly cleared and cul¬
tivated, would be equal in falubrity and fuperior in pro¬
duce to any of the iflands in the Weft Indies and
others have affirmed, that “ the air is better fora man’s
health than in many places of Europe.” Thefe advan¬
tages of climate induced the Englilh to eftablifh a facto¬
ry at Sierra Leona ; but they chofe not the moft health- _
ful fituation. For the benefit of a fpring of good wa¬
ter they fixed their refidence in a low valley, which is
often overfpread with mifts and noifome vapours, while
the air is clear and ferene on the fummits of the hills, to
which water from the well might be eafily carried.
The animal produftions of this country are lions,
from which it has its name ; leopards, hyaenas, mufic
cats, and many kinds of weafels ; the japanzee or chim¬
panzee, a fpecies of fimia, which has a ftill more ftri-
king refemblance to the human figure than even the
ouran outang ; porcupines, wild hogs, fquirrels, ami
antelopes. Beiides thefe, which are natives of the
country, oxen thrive in it, and even grow fat; affes
too are employed in labour, and do not fuffer by the
climate ; but Iheep fuffer much from the heat, change
S/crra.
SIENNA, a large, ancient, and celebrated city of their wool into hair, grow lean and increafe very little;
Tufcany in Italy ; capital of the Siennefe, with an
archbifhop’s fee, a famous univerfity, and a citadel. It
is about four miles in circumference, and furrounded
with an oW wall. The metropolitan church is much
efteemed by travellers ; and though it is a Gothic ftruc-
ture, the architefture is admirable. It is built with
black and white marble, and the pavement is of Mofaic
work. The town is adorned with a great number of
palaces, fountains, and fuperb churches, as alfo a mag¬
nificent hofpital. The great area is round, and the houfcs
about it are oi the fame height, fupported by piazzas,
under which people may walk in hot or rainy weather ;
in the middle is a bafon, which can be filled with water
at any time, to reprefent a fea fight with fmall veffels.
The Italian language is taught here with fuch purity,
that a great many foreigners frequent it on that ac¬
count. It is feated on three eminences, in a fertile foil,
in E. Long. 11. 11. N. Lat. 43. 10.
SIENNESE, a duchy in Italy ; bounded on the
north by the Florentino, on the fouth by the Mediter¬
ranean fea and the duchy of Caftro, on the eaft by the
Perugino and Orvietano, and on the weft by the Flo¬
rentino and the Tufcan fea; being about 55 miles in
length, and as much in breadth. The foil is pretty fer¬
tile, efpecially in mulberry trees, which feed a great
number of filk-worms; and there are feveral mineral
fprings. Sienna is the capital town.
SIERRA leona, a large country on the weft coaft
of Africa, which fome extend from the Grain Coaft
while the hardy goat is here as prolific and large as in
any other country. Of the birds which frequent the
woods of Sierra Leona we can give no perfedl accounr.
A Ipecies of crane is mentioned as eafily tamed ; com¬
mon poultry multiply fall ; ducks thrive well, but geefe
and turkeys feem not to agree with the climate. Tur¬
tles of all kinds are very common, and fometimes of a
large fize. Crocodiles or alligators of a non-defcript
fpecies have been found ten or twelve feet in length, and
lizards of fix different fpecies. Snakes, which are al-
moft innumerable, haunt the hoafes in the night in
feareh'of poultry; and one was obferved which mea-
fured 18 feet, but was happily found not to be venom¬
ous. . Fifties are in great variety both in the fea and in
the rivers. Befides the whale, the ftiark, Hinging ray,
and porpoife, there are eels, horfe-mackarel, tarpoons,
cavillos, mullets, fnappers, yellow-tails, old-maids, ten-
pounders, and fome other fifties ; all of which, except
the eels and ten-pounders, are efteemed fine eating. Gy-
fters are found in great abundance, and another Iheli-
fifh, which the natives eat. Among the zosphites,
none is more worthy of notice than the common fponge,
which covers all the fandy beaches of the river, parti¬
cularly on the Bullom Ihore, and would fetch a high
price in Great Britain.
Of the numerous vegetable productions of Sierra
Leona, our limits will permit us only to mention the
following. Rice, which is the plant chiefly cultivated,
as the natives fubfift almoft entirely upon it, grows both
Sierra.
\
s I K [ 464 1 S I E
m the high and low grounds. It profpers indeed heft terms, and a fum deemed fufficient was fpeedily railed, Srvn
in fwamps, though the grain is better in a drier foil. An adt of parliament was pafTed in- favour of the fub- —-v—4
Next to rice the caflada conftitutes the chief food of the fcribers, by which they were incorporated by the deno¬
inhabitants, and is cultivated with great care. The mination of the Sierra Leona Company ; and in purfu-
country likewife produces yams, various kinds of po- ance of that ael they held their firft meeting at London
tatoes, eddoes, or the arz/?w e/Wefl/Min. Oil palm, plan- on the 19th of October 1791, when the following
tains, and bananas ; papaw, guava, oranges and limes; gentlemen wore chofen directors for that year,
potnpions, melons, and cucumbers ; pine-apples, pigeon- “Henry Thornton, Efq; M. P. chairman— Philio
peas, which dreffed like EnglKh peas are a good pulfe ; Sanfom, Efq; deputy chairman—Sir Charles Middle-
maize or Indian corn ; millet, cocoa-nut trees ; ockra ; ton, Bart.—Sir George Young, Knt.—William Wil-
the tallow-tree ; a great variety of tamarinds; different berforce, Efq; M. P. — Rev. Thomas Clarkfon, A. M.
kinds of fig-trees and plums ; a kind of fruit refembling —Jofeph Hatdcaftle, Efq;—John Kingllon, Efq; —
grapes, but more acid and acrid ; cherries refembling a Samuel Parker, Efq;-—Granville Sharp, Efq;—William
fine neftarine in tafte ; afpecies of the bread fruit-tree; Sandford, Efq;—Vickeris Taylor, Efq;—GeorgeWolf,
the cream fruit, fo called becaufe when wounded it Efq.”
yields a fine white juice refembling fugar or the beft The direftors having ftated the natural advantages
milk, of which the. natives are very fond ; the mala- of Sierra Leona, and its prefent miferable condition,
guetta pepper, or grains of paradife ; a new fpecies of obferved, that they had not merely to eftablifh a corn-
nutmeg, but whether io good as the common fort has mercial factory, but that, to introduce civilization, cul-
not yet been afeertained ; a new fpecies of the Peruvian tivation, and a fare tr ade, the company muff provide
bark,which it is hoped will prove as ufeful as the other ; for the fecurity of the perfons and property of the co-
and cola, a fruit highly efteemed by the natives for the lonifts. The direftors therefore refolved, that three or
fame virtues with that bark ; the ricinus, caffia, dye- four veffels ftiould fail at once, with fuch a number of
ftuffs, and gums, of great value ; cotton, tobacco, and people as would be able to protect and aflift each other;
fugar-canes, which, it is thought, would thrive exceed- with goods both for trade and for the fupply of the co-
> ingly well under proper cultivation. lony. Accordingly feveral veffels failed, having on
Confidgring the ardour of the maritime nations of Eu- board a council for the government of the colony and
rope for fettling colonies in diftant regions of the globe, the management of the company’s affairs ; a number of
it is fomewhat furpriiing that a climate fo temperate artificers and other fervants of the company ; forne fol-
and a foil fo productive as that of Sierra Leona did not diers, and a very few EngUfh fettlers. The directors
long ago attrarft their notice. But it was left to be co- were laudably cautious in the choice of colonifts. They
•Ionized for a better purpofe than that which firft drew admitted into the fociety no white man of bad charac-
the natives of Europe to the Weft Indies and the Arne- ter, or who was not a declared enemy to the Have trade;
rican continent. Being thinly inhabited, Sierra Leona and as the chief objedft of their enterprife was the civili-
appeared to fome benevolent gentlemen in England a zation of the natives, it was with great propriety that
place where, without incommoding the natives, a fuffi- they chofe more than three-fourths of their fettlers from
cient quantity of ground might be bought on which to the free negroes in Nova Scotia, who had borne arms
fettle a great number of free negroes, who in 1786 for the Britifti government during the American war.
fwarmed in London in idlentfs and want. About The fuperintendant and council were particularly in-
400 of thefe wretches, together with 60 whites, moft- ftru&ed to fecure to all blacks and people of colour, at
ly women of bad charafter and in ill health, were ac Sierra Leona, equal rights and equal treatment, in all
eordingly fent out, at the charge of government, to refpefts, with whites. They were to be tried by jury.
Sierra Leona. Neceflity, it was hoped, would -make as well as others ; and the council was defired to allot to
them induftrious and orderly; and Captain Thomfon the blacks employments fuited to their prefent abilities,
of the navy, who conduced them, obtained, for their and to afford them every opportunity of cultivating their
life, a grant of land to his majefty from king Tom, the talents. All practicable means of maintaining fubordi-
neighbouring chief, and afterwards from Naimbanna, nation were directed to be ufed ; and the council was
the king of the country. The colony, however, foon efpecially inftrudted'to promote religion and morals, by
went to ruin; but the land which they occupied being fupporting. public, woifhip and the due obfervance of
about 20 miles fquare, his majefty was enabled to grant the Sabbath, and by the inftruCtion of the people, and.
by adft of parliament to another colony founded on bet- the education of children. But no perfon was to be
ter principles and for a ftill nobler purpofe. prevented from performing or attending religious wor-
The moft intelligent members of that fociety, which Ihip in whatever place, time, or manner, he might think
has laboured fo ftrenuoufiy to procure an abolition of fit, or from peaceably inculcating his own religious opi-
the flave-trade, juftly concluding that the natives of nions. Orders were given in choofing the feite of a
Guinea would reap very little benefit from the attain- town, to confider health as the firft objeCt; and the
merit of their objeft, unlefs they fhould be taught the firft town was direfted to be called Free-Town. Arti-
principles of religion and the arts of civil life, which cles for building and cultivation were fent out, befides
alone can render them really free, conceived the plan the cargoes for profecuting the company’s commerce ;
of a colony at Sierra Leona to be fettled for the truly and fchools for reading, writing, and accounts, were
generous purpofe of civilizing the Africans by main- ordered to be fet up for the purpofe of inftruCfing the
taming with them a friendly intercourfe, and a commerce children of fuch natives as fhould be willing to put them
in every thing but men. This plan could not be car- under the company’s care.
ried into cfft df but at a very great expence. Subfcrip- The leading objedl of the company was to fubftitnte,
tiuns were therefore opened upon rational and equitable for that difgraceful traffic which has toq long fubfifted,
■2-
S I E r 465 1 S I E
Sierra, a fair commerce with Africa, and all the blefiings which
might be expefted to attend it. Confiderable advan¬
tages appeared hereby likely to refuk to Great Britain,
not only from our obtaining feveral commodities cheap¬
er, but alfo from opening a market for Britifh manu-
fa&ures, to the increaling demands of which it is diffi¬
cult to affign a limit. From this connexion, Africa
was likely to derive the Hill more important benefits of
religion, morality, and civilization. To accompliffi
thefe purpofes, it was neceflary for the company to
poffefs a traft of land, as a repofitory for their goods,
and which the Africans might cultivate in peace, fecure
from the ravages of the Have-trade. It had been afcer-
tained, beyond a doubt, that the climate and foil of
Africa were admirably fuited to the growth of fugar,
fpices, coffee, cotton, indigo, rice, and every other fpe-
cies of tropical produce. The company propofed to
iiftruct the natives to raife thefe articles, and to fet them
the example, by a fpirited cultivation, on its own ac¬
count. Direftions were given to the company’s commer¬
cial agent to pufh forward a trade, in a mode prefcribed,
in the prefent produce of Africa. Meafures were taken
for cultivating, on the company’s account, the moll
profitable tropical produce ; and in particular, a perfon
of long experience in the Weft Indies was ordered to
begin a fugar plantation. A mineralogift and botanift
were likewife engaged to go out and explore the coun¬
try for new articles of commerce.
Every thing being thus fettled upon the moft equita¬
ble and benevolent principles, the {hips failed with the
Britiih colonifts, to whom, in March 1792, were added
1131 blacks from Nova Scotia. The native chiefs be¬
ing reconciled to the plan, and made to underftand its
beneficent tendency towards their people, the colony
proceeded to build Free-Town^ on a dry and rather ele¬
vated fpot on the fouth fide of the river. It occupied
between 70 and 80 acres, its length being about one-
third of a mile, and its breadth nearly the fame ; and it
contained near 40© houfes, each having one-twelfth of
an acre annexed, on which a few vegetables were raifed.
There were nine ftreets running from north-weft to fouth-
eaft, and three crofs ftreets, all 80 feet wide, except one
of 160 feet, in the middle of which w'ere all the public
buildings. Thefe confifted of a governor’s houfe and
offices; a large ftore-houfe; a large hofpital; fix or
eight other houfes, offices, and /hops, occupied by the
company’s fervants ; and a church capable of contain¬
ing 80c people. The colonifts at firft fuffered much
from the rainy feafon, againft which it was not in their
power to provide fufficient proteftion ; but at the end
of it they recovered in a great meafure their health and
fpirits, and proceeded with alacrity to execute the va¬
rious purpofes of their fettlement. To excite emulation
in culture, the government gave premiums to thofe co¬
lonifts who raifed the greateft quantities of rice, yams,
eddoes, cabbages, Indian corn, and cotton, refpe&ively.
To limit the exceffes of the fiave-trade, and gain the
favour of the neighbouring chiefs, the dire&ors inftruft-
ed the governor and council to redeem any native from
the neighbourhood, who fhould be unjuftly fold either
to or by a Britifh fubjeft. The fervants of the compa¬
ny conducted themfelves with the utmoft propriety, be¬
ing fober, moral, and exemplary ; and from the labours
of the cleigymen were derived fervices highly important
izi every point of view. Before the end of two years
Vox.. XVII. Bart It.
from the inftitution of the colony, order and induftry
had begun to ffiow their effedfs in an increafing profpe-
rity. The woods had been cut down to the diftance of
about three Englifh miles all round the town. By thefe
means the climate had become healthier, and ficknefs
had diminifhed. The fame of the colony had fpread not
only along the whole weftern coaft of Africa,but alfo to
parts far diftant from the coafl; embaffies had been re¬
ceived of the moft friendly nature from kings and prin¬
ces feveral hundred miles diftant; and the native chiefs
had begun to fend their children to the colony, with
full confidence, to be taught reading, writing, and ac¬
counts, and to be brought up in the Chriftian religion.
In a word, it was not without grounds that the direc¬
tors looked forward to that joyful period when, by the
influence of the company’s meafures, the continent of
Africa ffiould be refcued from her prefent ftate of dark-
nefs and mifery, and exhibit a delightful fcene of light
and knowledge, of civilization and order, of peaceful
induftry and domeftic comfort. On their beneficent
exertions they hoped with confidence for the bltffing of
Providence ; they were countenanced and fupported by
the Britiffi government; and upon the breaking out of
the prefent war, the French Convention authorifed one
Sierra,
of their agents to write to the dire&ors, requefting a
full account of the defign of the inftitution, and the
names of the ffiips employed in their fervice, and allu¬
ring them of the good wifties of the French government
to fo noble an undertaking. How completely that
government fulfilled its promife is very generally known.
Having vindicated the rights of 1 an in Europe by the
violation of every principle of truth and juftice, they de¬
termined by the fame means to give light and liberty to
the Africans ; and that they have fully carried their de¬
termination into effedl will be feen by the following ex¬
tract of a letter from Mr Afzelius, the company’s bota¬
nift, dated Sierra Leona, 15th November 1794. “ The Wadftrom,
French have been here and have ruined us. They ar-Part U.
rived on the 28th of September laft, early in the morn-P* 28°-
ing, with a fleet confifting of one large ffiip, two fri¬
gates, two armed brigs, and one cutter, together with
two large armed merchant {hips, taken by them at the
Ifles de Lofs, an Englifti flave faftory to the north of
our colony, and which they have alfo deftroyed and
burnt. So well had they concealed their nation, that
we took them at firft; for Engliffi. They had Engliffi-
built veffels, which were rigged in the Englifh way.
They {bowed the Englifh flag, and had their failors, at
leaft thofe we faw on deck, dreffed like Engliffi. In ffiort,
we dffi not perceive our miftake till we obferved them
pointing their guns. We had not ftrength fufficient to
refift, and therefore our governor gave orders, that as
foon as they ffiould begin to fire, the Britiffi flag ffiould
be ftruck, and a flag of truce lioifted. Accordingly
this was done, but ftill they continued firing, and did
much damage, both within and without the town.
Theykilled’two people and wounded three or four. But,
as we did not underftand the meaning of this proceed!
ing, we afked them for an explanation ; and they an-
fwered us, that we ffiould difplay the flag of liberty, as a
proof of our fubmiffion. We allured them that it
ffiould already have been done, if we had had any,
which terminated the hoftilities from the ffiips. In the
mean time, moft of the inhabitants had fled from the
the town, having taken with them as much of their
3 N
property
S I E [ 466 ] S I F
property as they conveniently could in fuch a hurry. I
was with the governor, together with a number of q--
thers ; but as foon as I was certain they were enemies,
T went towards my own houfe with a view to fave as
much as poflible of my property and natural colleftions;
but was received in fuch manner, that I could not ven¬
ture to proceed. My houfe was fituated near the fiiore,
and unfortunately juft oppofite the frigate which fired.
T faw the balls paffing through the houfe, and heard
them whizzing about my ears. I faw that I fhouid
lofe all my property ; but life was dearer to me, and I
haftened to the woods.
“In the afternoon the enemy landed, finding the town
almoft deftitute of people, but rich in provifions, cloth¬
ing, and other ftores. They began immediately to break
open the houfes and t© plunder. What they did not
want, they deftroyed, burnt, or threw into the river.
They killed all the cattle and animals they found in the
fields or ftreets, yards, or elfewhere, not fparing even
afles, dogs, and cats. Thefe proceedings they conti¬
nued the whole fucceeding week, till they had entirely
ruined our beautiful and profpering colony ; and when
they found nothing more worth plundering, they fet
fire to the public buildings and all the houfes belong¬
ing to the Europeans ; and burnt, as they faid, by mif-
take nine or ten houfes of the colonifts. In the mean
time, they were not lefs adlive on the water. They
fient three of their veffels to Bance ifland, an Englifh
have faftory higher up the river, which they plundered
and burnt, together with feme Have flops lying there.
They took belides about 10 or 12 prizes, including
the company’s veffels. Moft of thefe they unloaded
and burnt. They took along with them alfo two of
our armed veffels, one of which was a large fhip, laden
with provifions, and which had been long expetted;
but fhe unfortunately arrived a few days too foon, and
was taken with her whole cargo. We expedted at leaft
to receive our private letters, but even this was refufed,
and they were thrown overboard. At laft, after in-
flidting on us every hardftiip we could fuffer, only fpa¬
ring our lives and the houfes of the colonifts, they failed
on the 13th of Odtober laft, at noon, proceeding down¬
wards to the Gold Coaft, and left us in the moft dread¬
ful fituation, without provifions, medicines, clothes,
houfes, or furniture, &c. &c. and I fear much, that moft
of us (hould have perifhed, had not our friends in the
neighbourhood^ both natives and Europeans, who were
fo happy as to efcape the enemy, been fo kind as to
fend us what they could fpare. In the mean time, moft
of us have either been, or ftill are, very fick, and many
have died for want of proper food and medicine. The
worft, however, is now paft. At leaft we are not in
any want of provifion, although of the coarfeft kind,
but are deftitute of the moft neceffary articles and uten-
fils for the houfe, the table, and the kitchen.”
It was thus that the Convention executed their pur-
pofe of fprending light and liberty through the world. The
Sierra Leona colony was eftablifhed for no other end
than to abolifh the flave-trade, to enlighten the Afri¬
cans, and to render them virtuous, rational, free, and
happy ; and thofe powerful patrons of the rights of
man deftroyed that colony with many circumftances of
the moft, wanton cruelty. Though Mr Afzelius is a
Swede, and ought therefore to have been protedfed by
the laws of neutrality, they burnt his houfe with the
reft ; deprived him of In's trunks, hjs clothes, and his Ski-fa
bed ; deftroyed the natural curiofities which he had col- . II
ledted at the hazard of his life ; and carried away the 1 ^ai|3'
inftruments by means of which only he could colleft
more. It is with pleafure, however, that we learn from
the proceedings of the general court held on the 25th
of February 1795, that the diredWs do not yet defpair
of the colony ; and that they have adopted the moft
prudent meafures to avert all fuch calamities in future.
That their benevolent labours may be finally crowned
with fuccefs is our earneft prayer, in which we fhall,
doubtlefs, be joined by every good Chriftian.
SIERRA morena, mountains of Andalufia in
Spain.
SIEUR, a title of refpedt among the French, like
that of majler among us. It is much ufed by lawyers,
as alfo by fuperiors in their letters to inferiors.
SIFANTO, or Siphanto, an ifland of the Archi¬
pelago, to the weft of Paros, to the north-eaft of
Milo, and to the fouth-weft of Serphanto. The air is
fo good here, that many of the inhabitants live to the
age of 120; and their water, fruits, wild fowl, and
poultry, are excellent, but more efpeeially the grapes.
It abounds with marble and granite, and is one of the
moft fertile and heft cultivated of thefe iflands. The
inhabitants employ themfelves in cultivating olive-trees
and capers ; and they have very good filk. They trade
in figs, onions, wax, honey, and ftraw-hats; and may
be about 8000 in all. E. Long. 25. 15. N. Lat.
37- 9-
SI-FANS, or t^u-fans, a people inhabiting the ,- ,
country on the weft of China. Their country is only Gen'll
a continued ridge of mountains, inclofed by the rivers De/iriptim
Hoang-ho on the north, Ya-long on the weft, and Cb.ind'
Yang tfe-kiang on the eaft, between the 30th and 35 th Vo1'
degrees of north latitude. 1 ’ ,0^’
The Si-fans are divided into two kinds of people ;
the one ate called by the Chinefe Black Si-fans, the
other Tellow ; names which are given them from the
different colours of their tents. The black are the moft
clownifh and wretched ; they live in fmall bodies, and
are governed by petty chiefs, who all depend upon a
greater.
The yellow Si-fans are fubjeft to families, the oldeft
of which becomes a lama, and affumes the yellow drefs.
Thefe lama princes, who command in their refpe&ive
diftrifts, have the power of trying caufes, and puniih-
ing criminals ; but their government is by no means
burdenfome ; provided certain honours are paid them,
and they receive pun&ually the dues of the god Fo,
which amount to very little, they fnoleft none of their
fubjedts. The greater part of the Si-fans live in tents
but fome of them have houfes built of earth, and even
brick. Their habitations are not contiguous; they
form at moft but fome fmall hamlets, confifting of five
or fix families. They feed a great number of flocks,
and are in no want of any of the neceffaries of life. The
principal article of their trade is rhubarb, which their
country produces in great abundance. Their horfes
are fmall; but they are well fhaped, lively, and robuft.
Thefe people are of a proud and independent fpirit,
and acknowledge with reluftance the fuperiorky of the-
Chinefe government, to which they have been fubjedt-
ed : when they are fummoned by the mandarins, they
rarely appear $ but the government, for political reafons,
winks
S I G
Sii<n,
Sigaultian winks at this contempt, and endeavours to keep thefe
" intractable fubjefts under by mildnefs and moderation :
j it would, befides, be difficult to employ rigorous means
in order to reduce them to perfeft obedience; their
wild and frightful mountains (the tops of which are al¬
ways covered with fnow, even in the month of July)
would afford them places of ihelter, from which they
could never be driven by force.
The cuftoms of thefe mountaineers are totally diffe¬
rent from thofe of the Chinefe. It is, for example, an
adt of great politenefs among them to prefent a white
handkerchief of taffety or linen, whe^ they accoft any
perfon whom they are delirous of honouring. All their
religion coniifls in their adoration of the god Fo, to
whom they have a fingular attachment: their fuperfti-
tious veneration extends even to his minifters, on whom
they have confidered it as their duty to confer fupreme
power and the covernment of the nation.
SIGAULTIAN operation, a method of delivery
in cafes of difficult labour, firft praCtifed by M. Sigauk.
It confifts in enlarging the dimenlions of the t h'k.
order to procure a fafe paffage to the child without in¬
juring the mother. See Midwifery, chap. vii.
S1GESBECKIA, in botany: A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of fyngenefia, and to the order of
polygamia fuperflua; and in the natural fyftem ranging
under the 49^ order, Compo/ite. The receptacle is pa¬
leaceous ; the pappus is wanting ; the exterior calyx is
pentaphyllous, proper, and fpreading ; the radius is hal¬
ved. There are three fpecies : I. The orient alls, which
is a native of India and China. 2. The occidentalism
which is a native of Virginia. 3. The flofculofa, a na¬
tive of Peru.
SIGETH, a town of Lower Hungary, and capital
of a county of the fame name. It is feated in a morafs,
and has a triple wall, with ditches full of water ; and
is defended by a citadely being one of the ftrongeft pla¬
ces in Hungary. It now belongs to the houfe of Au-
xtria, and was retaken from the Turks in 1669, after it
had been blocked up twm years. In fome maps it is
called Zigat. E. Long. 18. 58. N. Lat. 46. 17.
SIGHING, an effort of nature, by which the lungs
are put into greater motion, and more dilated, fo that
the blood paffes more freely, and in greater quantity,
to the left auricle, and thence to the ventricle. Hence
we learn, fays Dr Hales, how fighing increafes the
force of the blood, and confequently proportionably
cheers and relieves nature, when opprefled by its too
flow motion, which is the cafe ofthofe who are deie&ed
and fad.
SIGHT, or Vision. See Anatomy, n0 142. and
Index fubjoined to Optics.
Imperfsflion of Sight ivith regard to Colours. Under
the article Colours, is given an inftance of a ftrange
deficiency of fight in fome people who could not diltin-
guiffi between the different colours. In the Phil. Tranf.
V ol. LXVIII. p. 611. we have an account of a gentle¬
man who could not diftinguifh a claret colour from
black. Thefe imperfections are totally unaccountable
from any thing we yet know concerning the nature of
this fenfe.
Second Sight. See Second Sight.
SIGN, in general, the mark or charafter of fome-
thing abient or invifible. See Character.
Among phyficians, the term fign denotes fome ap¬
pearance in the human body which ferves to indicate or
C 467 1
S I G
point out the condition of the patient with regard to
health or difeafe.
Sign, in algebra. See Algebra, Part I.
Sign, in aftronomy, a conftellation containing a 12th
part of the zodiac. See Astronomy, n° 318.
Naval SIGNALS. When we read at our fire-
fide the account of an engagement, or other intereffing
operation of an army, our attention is generally fo much
engaged by the refults, that we give'but little to the
movements which led to them, and produced them, and
we feldom form to ourfelves any diffinCI notion of the
conduCt of the day. But a profeffional man, or one ac-
cuftomed to reflection, and who is not fatisfied with the
mere indulgence of eager curiofity, follows every regi¬
ment in its movements, endeavours to fee their connec¬
tion, and the influence which they have had on the fate of
the day, and even to form to himfelf a general notion
of the whole feene of aCtion at its different interefting
periods. He looks with the eye of the general, and
.ees his orders fucceed or fail.
Put few trouble themfelves farther about the narra-
I he movement is ordered ; it is performed ; and
tion.
the fortune of the day is determined. Few think how
all this is brought about; and when they are told that
during the whole of the battle of Cuftrin, Frederic the
Great was in the upper room of a country inn, from
whence he could view the whole field, while his aids
de camp, on horfeback, waited his orders in the yard
below, they are ftruck with wonder, and can hardly
conceive how it can be done : but, on refle&ion, they
fee the poffibility of the thing. Their imagination ac¬
companies the meffenger from the inn yard to the feene
ol aClion ; they hear the General’s orders delivered,
and they expeiff its execution.
But when we think for a moment on the fituation
of the commander of a fleet, confined on board one
fliip, and this fhip as much, or more clofely, engaged,
than any other ol the fleet ; and when we refleft that
here are no meffengers ready to carry his orders to
(hips of the fquadron at the diltance of miles from him,
and to deliver them with precilion and diftinanefs, and
that even if this were poffible by fending fmall Ihips or
boats, the viciffitudes of wind and weather may lender
the communication fo tedious that the favourable mo¬
ment may be irretrievably loft before the order can be
conveyed.—When we think of all thele circumftances,
our thoughts are bewildered, and we are ready to ima¬
gine that a fea-battle is nothing but the unconnected
ftruggle of individual ffiips; and that when the admiral
has once “ cried havoc, and let flip the dogs of war,”
he has done all that his fituation empowers him to do,
and he mull leave the fate of the day to the bravery and
/kill of his captains and failors.
Yet it is in this fituation, apparently the moft unfa- SiVnah a
vourable, that the orders of the commander can bela i. uage
conveyed, with a difpatch that is not attainable in theCo the eye,
operations of a land army. The feene of aClion is un¬
incumbered, fo that the eye of the General can behold
the whole without interruption. The movements which
it is poffible to execute are few, and they are precife.
A few words are fufficient to order them, and then
the mere fighting the Ihips muft always be left to their
refpedive commanders. This fimplicity in the duty to
be perioi med has enabled us to frame a language fully
adequate to the buimefs in hand, by which a correfpon-
dence can be kept up as far as the eye can fee. This is
3 N 2 the
S I G
[ 468 ]
S I G
Naval
Signals.
1
TJfed in
ancient
times,
3
As well
as in mo¬
dem :
the language of signals, a language by writing, addref-
fed to the eye, and which he that runneth may read. As
' in common writing certain arbitrary marks are agreed
on to exprefs certain founds ufed in fpeech, or rather,
as in hieroglyphics certain arbitrary marks are agreed
on to exprefs certain thoughts, or the fubje&s of thefe
thoughts ; fo here certain exhibitions are made, which
are agreed on to exprefs certain movements to be exe¬
cuted by the commander to whom they are addreffed,
and all are enjoined to keep their eyes fixed on the fhip
of the condudor of the fleet, that they may learn his
will.
It is fcarcely poflible for any number of flrips to aft
in concert, without fome fuch mode of communication
between the general and the commanders of private
Ihips. We have no direft information of this cir-
cumilance in the naval taftics of the ancient nations,
the Greeks and Romans ; yet the neceflity of the thing
is fo apparent, that we cannot fuppofe it to have been
omitted by the moft ingenious and the moft cultivated
people who have appeared on the great theatre of the
world; and we are perfuaded that Themiftocles, Conon,
and other renowned fea commanders of Athens, had
iignals by which they direfted the movements of their
fleets. We read, that when Atgeus fent his fon Thefeus
to Crete, it was agreed on, that if the fnip fhould bring
the young prince back in fafety, a white flag Ihould be
difplayed. But thofe on board, in their joy for revifit-
ing their country after their perilous voyage, forgot to
hoift the concerted fignal. The anxious father was every
day expefting the (hip which fiiould bring back his
darling fon, and had gone to the fhore to look out for
her. He faw her, but without the fignal agreed on.
On which the old man threw himfelf into the fea. We
find, too, in the hiltory of the Punic wars by Poly¬
bius, frequent allufions to fuch a mode of communica¬
tion ; and Ammianus Marcellinus fpeaks of the [pecu¬
lator es and vexillaniy who were on board the fhips in
the Adriatic. The coins both of Greece and Rome
exhibit both flags and ftreamers. In fhort, we cannot
doubt of the ancients having praftifed this hieroglyphi-
cal language. It is fomewhat furprifing that Lord Dud¬
ley, in his Arcano del Mare, in which he makes an of-
tentatious difplay of his knowledge of every thing con-
nefted with the fea fervice, makes no exprefs mention
of this very efiential piece of knowledge, although he
mull, by his long refidence in Italy, have known the
marine difeipline of the Venetians and Genoefe, the
greateft maritime powers then in Europe.
In the naval occurrences of modern Europe, men¬
tion is frequently made of fignals. Indeed, as we have
already obferved, it feems impoffible for a number of
fhips to aft in any kind of concert, without fome me¬
thod of communication. Numberlefs fituations muft
occur, when it would be impofiible to convey orders or
information by meflengers from one fhip to another,
and coaft and alarm fignals had long been praftifed by
every nation. The idea was, therefore, familiar. We
find, in particular, that Queen Elizabeth, on occafion
of the expedition to Cadiz, ordered her fecretaries to
draw up inftruftions, which were to be communicated
to the admiral, the general, and the five counfellors of
war, and by them to be copied and tranfmitted to the
feveral Ihips of the navy, not to be opened till they
fhould arrive in a certain latitude. It was on this oc-
iafion, (fays our hiftorian Guthrie), “ that we meet
4
But firft
with the firjl regular fets of fignals and orders to the com¬
manders of the Engltfh feet. But, till the movements
of a fleet have attained fome fort of uniformity, regu¬
lated and connefted by fome principles of propriety,
and agreed on by perfons in the habit of direfting a
number of fhips, we may with confidence affirm that
fignals would be nothing but a parcel of arbitrary
marks, appropriated to particular pieces of naval fer¬
vice, fuch as attacking the enemy, landing the foldiers,
&c. ; and that they would be confidered merely as re¬
ferring to the final refult, but by no means pointing out
the mode of execution, or direfting the movements
which were neceflary for performing it.
It was James II. when duke of York, who firfl
confidered this praftice as capable of being reduced in- formed in.
to a fyftem, and who faw the importance of fuch at0 a fyfton
compolition. He, as well as the kinjr his brother, had b7jam«,ll>
* ., . ® 7, when duke
always (flowed a great prediieftion for the fea fervice ; 0f yor^
and, when appointed admiral of England, he turned
his whole attention to its improvement. He had flu-
died the art of war under Turenne, not as a paftime,
but as a fcience, and was a favourite pupil of that
moft accomplifhed general. Turenne one day pointed
him out, faying, “ Behold one who will be one of the
firft princes and greateft generals of Europe.” When
admiral of England, he endeavoured to introduce into
the maritime fervice all thofe principles of concert and
arrangement which made a number of individual regi¬
ments and fquadrons compofe a great army. When he
commanded in the Dutch war, he found a fleet to be
little better than a colleftion of flrips, on board of each
of which the commander and his (hip’s company did
their bed to annoy the enemy, but with very little de¬
pendence on each other, or on the orders of the Gene¬
ral ; and in the different aftions which the Englifh fleet
had with the Dutch, every thing was confufion as foon
as the battle began. It is remarkable that the famous
penfionary De Witt, who from a ftatefman became a na¬
vigator and a great fea commander in a few weeks, made
the fame reprefentation to the States General on his re¬
turn from his firft campaign.
In the memoirs of James II. written by himfelf, we
have the following paffage : “ 1665. On the 15th of
March the duke of York went to Gunfleet, the gene¬
ral rendezvous of the fleet, and haftened their equip¬
ment. He ordered all the flag officers on board with
him every morning, to agree on the order of battle and
rank. In former battles, ,no order was kept, and this
under the duke of York was the firft in which fighting
in a line and regular form of battle was obferved.”
This muft be confidered as full authority for giving
the duke of York the honour of the invention. For
whatever faults may be laid to the charge of this unfor¬
tunate prince, his word and honour (lands unimpeached.
And we are anxious to vindicate his claim to it, becaufe
our neighbours the French, as ufual, would take the me¬
rit of this invention, and of the whole of naval taftics,
to themfelves. True it is, that Colbert, the great and
juftly celebrated minifter of Louis XIV. created a navy
for his ambitious and vain-glorious mafter, and gave it
a conftitution which may be a model for other nations
to copy. By his encouragement, men of the greateft.
fcientinc eminence were engaged to contribute to its
improvement: and they gave us the firft treatifes of
naval evolutions. But it muft ever be remembered, that
our accomplilhedj though mifguided foverdgn, was then
refiding
S I G
Naval
Signals.
■f- Pepys
was fecre-
t ;ry to the
duke ef
York.
Wonderful
fimplicity
of his fyf-
cem j
6
Yet as an
art has
fince his
time recei¬
ved couli-
derable
smprove-
Srcnts.
refiding at the court of Louis; that he had formerly
aded in concert with the French as a commander and
flag officer, and was at this very time aiding them with
his knowledge of fea affairs. In the memorable day at
La Hogue, the gallant Ruffel, obferving one of Tour-
ville’s movements, exclaimed, “ There ! they have got
Pepys f among them.” This anecdote we give on the
authority of a friend, who heard an old and refpe&able
officer (Admiral Clinton) fay, that he had it from a
gentleman who was in the a&ion, and heard the words
fpoken ; and we truft that our readers will not be dif-
pleafed at having this matter of general opinion efta-
blifhed ton fome good grounds.
It was on this occafion, then, that the duke of York
made the movements and evolutions of a fleet the ob-
jeft of his particular ftudy, reduced them to a fyftem,
and compofed that “ Syflem of Sailing and Fighting
InUruftions,’ wffiich has ever fince been confidered as
the code of difeipline for the Britifh navy, and which
has been adopted by our rivals and neighbours as the
foundation of their naval taftics. It does great honour
to its author, although its merit will not appear very
eminent to a carelefs furveyor, on account of that very
ilmplicity which conftitutes its chief excellence. It is
unqueftionably the refult of much fagacious reflection
and painful combination of innumerable circumftances,
all of which have their influence ; and it is remarkable,
that although fucceeding commanders have improved
the fubjedt by feveral fubordinate additions, no change
has to this day been made in its general principles or ma¬
xims of evolution.
Till fome fuch code be eftablifhed, it is evident that
lignals can be nothing but arbitrary and unconnected
hieroglyphics, to be learned by rote, and retained by me¬
mory, without any exercife of the judgment; and the
acquisition of this branch of nautical fkill mutt be a
more irkfome talk than that of learning the Chinefe
writing. But iuch a code being once fettled, the cha¬
racter in which it may be exprdfed becomes a matter of
rational difeuffion.
Accordingly, the failing and fighting inftruftions of
the duke of York were accompanied by a fet of fignals
for directing the chief or moft frequent movements of
the fleet. Thefe alfo were contrived with fo much
judgment, and fuch attention to diftinanefs, limplicity,
and propriety, that there has hardly been any change
found neceffary ; and they are ftill retained in the Bri-
tilh navy as the ufual lignals in all cafes when we are
not anxious to conceal our movements from an enemy.
Notwithftanding this acknowledged merit of the duke
of York’s fignals, it mull be admitted that great im¬
provements have been made on this fubjeCt, confidered
as an art. The art military has, in the courfe of a
century pall, become almoft an appropriate calling,
and has therefore been made the peculiar ftudy of its
profell'ors. Our rivals the French were fooner, and
more formally, placed in this fituation, and the minifters
of Louis XI V. took infinite and moft judicious pains
to make their military men fuperior to all others by
their academical education. A more feientifie turn was
given to their education, and the affiftance of fcientific
men was liberally given them ; and all the nations of
r 469 i
S I G
Nava!
Signal*
new principle into the art; and by this means have re-
duced it to the moft fimple form of reference to the
code of failing and fighting inftruftions, by making the
fignals immediately expreffive, not of orders, but of
fimple numbers. Thefe numbers being prefixed to the
various articles of the code of inftru&ions, the officer
who fees a fignal thrown out by the admiral reads the
number, and reports it to his captain, perhaps without
knowing to what it relates. Thus fimplicity and ffc-
crecy, with an unlimited power of variation, are com¬
bined. We believe that M. de la Bourdonnais, a brave
and intelligent officer, during the war 1758, was the
author of this ingenious thought.
We do not propofe to give a fyftem of Britifh fig¬
nals. This would evidently be improper. But we fhall
fhow our readers the prafticability of this curious lan¬
guage, the extent to which it may be carried, and the
methods which may be pra&ifed in accomplifhing this
purpofe. This may make it an object of attention to
fcientific men, who can improve it; and the young offi¬
cer will not only be able to read the orders of the com¬
mander in chief, but will not be at a lofs, fhould cir¬
cumftances place him in a fituation where he muft iffue
orders to others.
Signals may be divided into,
I. Day Signals.
II. Night Sig nals ; and,
III. Signals in a Fog.
They muft alfo be diftinguifhed into, t. Signals of
Evolution, addreffed to the whole Fleet, or to
Squadrons of the fleet, or to Divisions of thefe
fquadrons. 2. Signals of Movements to be made by
particular fhips; and, 3. Signals of Service, which
may be either general or particular.
The great extent of a large fleet, the fmoke in time During aai
of battle, and the fituation of the commander in chief, engage_
who is commonly in the midfl of the greateft confufion !l'e‘u.th'
and hotteft fire, frequently makes it very difficult for SeAdmi-
the officers of diftant fhips to perceive his fignals withral are re-
diftin&nefs, Frigates, therefore, are ftationed out ofP^atc‘H,y
the line, to windward or to leeward, whofe foie office it (rigatf8
is to obferve the admiral’s fignals, and inftantly to repeat ofThe line,
them. The eyes of all the fignal officers in the piivate
fhips of war are dire&ed to the repeating frigates, as well
as to the admiral; and the officers of the repeating fri¬
gate, having no other duty, obferve the admiral incef- *
fantly, and, being unembarrafied by the aftion, can dif-
play the fignal with deliberation, fo that it may be very
diftinftly feen. Being minutely acquainted wdth the
fubftitutions which muft be made on board the admiral
when his mafts and rigging are indiforder, his (perhaps
imperfedt) fignal is exhibited by the repeating frigate
in its proper form, fo as to be eafily underftood. And
to facilitate this communication, the commanders of the
different fquadrons repeat the fignals of the commander
in chief, and the commanders of divifion repeat the fig¬
nals of the commanders of their fquadron.
Every evolution fignal is preceded by a fignal of ad-Evolution-
vertisement and preparation, which is general, andhgnab arc
frequently by a gun, to call attention ; and when all the Preceded
fignals have been made which dire<ft the different parts a,flgnai
of that Pvr,!,,*;™ : J- f .‘-“ofadver-
n 0 , .    - "““''“a ^ of that evolution, another fignal is made, whirh marU ?-rVer*
Europe muft acknowledge feme obligation, ,o them for the clofe of the complex fignai, and d™de ftfrom other n«cm-
mformatton on every thmg connefted with the art of which may immediately follow * : and a, the oX, of^'.Uh
. . 1 hey have attended very much to this fubjeft, the commander in chief may relate either to the move 3 d,reaiv*~
have greatly unproved it, aad have even introduced a ments of the whole fleet, thole of a Angle diviL7
thofe.
S I G [ 47° ] S I G
Naval thofe of certain private (hips, the Executive Sig-
, Slgnal3- [ nal, which diftates the particular movement, is accom-
" " v panied by a Directive Signal, by which thefe fhips
g are pointed out, to which the order is addreffed.
Anfwered The commander of the (hip to which any iignal is
by the com- addreffed, is generally required to fignify by a fignal
whom'they (which is general) that he has obfetved it. And it'
are addref- he does not thoroughly underitand its meaning, he in-
Ced. timates this by another general fignal. And here it is
to be obferved, that as foon as the fignal is anfwered
by the (hips to which it is addreffed, it is ufual to haul
it down, to avoid the confufion which might arife from
others being hoifted in the fame place. The order re¬
mains till executed, notwithstanding that the fignal is
IO hauled down.
Annulling It may happen that the commander who throws out
lignaL the iignal for any piece of fervice, fees reafons for al¬
tering his plan. He intimates this by a general An¬
nulling iignal, accompanying the fignal already gi¬
ven. This will frequently be more fimple than to make
the fignals for the movements which would be required
for re-eilabliihing the fhips in their former fituation.
All thefe things are of very eafy comprehenfion, and
require little thought for their contrivance. But when
we come to the particular evolutions and movements,
and to combine thefe with the circumftances of fitua¬
tion in which the fleet may be at the time, it is evi¬
dent, that much reflection is neceffary for framing a
Body of fignals which may be eafily exhibited, diftindt-
ly perceived, and well underftood, with little rifle of be¬
ing miftaken one for another. We fhall take notice of
the circumftances which chiefly contribute to give
them thefe qualities as we proceed in delcribing their
different claffes.
I. Of Day Signals.
These are made by means of the fhip’s fails, or by
colours of various kinds.
Thofe made with fails are but few in number, and
are almoft neceffarily limited to the fftuation of a fleet
at anchor. Thus,
The following Signals
Main top gallant ftayfail >
hoifted
Fore top-fail loofe
Main top-fail loofe
Main top-fail fheets haul¬
ed home
Main top-fail ftieets clew¬
ed up, and the yard
hoifted
Top-gallant fails loofe, and
the fheets flying
Main top-gallant fail loofe
and hoifted. Topfail- i
yard down
Mizen top fail hoifted, and S
| the fheets clewed up 1
ufuallyfignfy,
Officers and men belong¬
ing to the fhip to come
on board.
To prepare for failing.
To unmoor.
To weigh.
Annul the former fignal,
and the fhip to come to
an anchor.
Difcovering flrange fails.
Recal fhips in chafe.
Moor.
Before we proceed to the defeription of the fignals
by means of colours, fuch as flags, banners (or trian¬
gular flags), pendants or vanes, we muff; take notice
of the oftenfible diftin&ions of the various divifions and
fubdivilions of a fleet, fo that we may underftand how Naval
the fame fignal may be addreffed to a fquadron, divi- &jtfnah.
fion, or Angle fhip or fhips. We fuppofe it known that * 1
a fleet of fhips of war is diftributed into three grand di¬
vifions (which we fhall term fquadrons), called the van,
centre, and rear. Thefe denominations have not always
a relation to the one being more advanced than the
ether, either towards the enemy, or in the direftion of
their courfe.
In a land army, the pofition of every part is concei-jyjeanin^
ved from its reference to the enemy; and the reader, of the termj
conceiving himfelf as facing the enemy, eafily under-van, centre,
Hands the terms van, centre, and rear, the right and left ^r, pU
wing, &c. But the movements of a fea army having j,attje at°
a neceffary dependence on the wind, they cannot befea.
comprehended unlefs expreffed in a language which
keeps this circumftance continually in view. The fim¬
ple ft and moft eafily conceived difpofition of a fleet, is
that in which it is almoft indifpenfably obliged to form
in order to engage an enemy. This is a ftraight line,
each fhip direftly a-head of its neighbour, and clofe
hauled. This is therefore called the line of battle. In
this pofition, the two extremities of the fleet correfpond
to the right and left wings of an army. Suppofe this
line to be in the direction eaft and weft, the wind blow¬
ing from the north-north-weft, and therefore the fleet
on the ftarboai-d tack ; the fhips heads are to the weft,
and the weftermoft divifion is undoubtedly the van of
the fleet, and the eaftermoft divifion is the rear. And
it is in conformity to this arrangement and fituation
that the list of the fleet is drawn up. But the fhips
may be on the fame eaft and weft line, clofe hauled, with
their heads to the weft, but the wind blowing from the
fouth-fouth-weft. They muft therefore be on the lar¬
board tack. The fame fhips, and the fame divifion, are
ftill, in fad, the van of the fleet. But fuppofe the fhips
heads to be to the eaftward, and that they are clofe
hauled, having the wind from the fouth-fouth-eaft or
the north-north-eaft, the fhips which were the real
van on both tacks in the former iituation are now, in
fa<ft, the rear on both tacks; yet they retain the deno¬
mination of the van fquadron of this fleet, and are under
the immediate diredf ion of the officer of the fecond rank,
while the other extremity is under the direftion of the
third officer. This fubordination therefore is rather an
arrangement of rank and precedence than of evolution.
It is, however, confidered as the natural order to
which the general fignals muft be accommodated. For
this reafon, the divifion which is denominated van in the
lift of this fleet, is generally made to lead the fleet when
in the line of battle on the ftarboard tack, and to form
the weathermojl column in the order of failing in co¬
lumns ; and, in general, it occupies that ftation from
which it can moil eafily pafs into the place of the lead¬
ing divifion on the ftarboard line of battle ahead. Al¬
though this is a technical nicety of language, and may
frequently puzzle a landfman in reading an account of
naval operations, the refledting and intelligent reader
will fee the propriety of retaining this mode of concei¬
ving the fubordinate arrangement of a fleet, and will
comprehend the employment of the fignals which are
neceffary for re-eftablifhing this arrangement, or direc¬
ting the movements while another arrangement is re¬
tained.
This being underftood, it is eafy to contrive various
methods
s I G [ 471 ] S 1 G
Naval methods of diftingiufhing every Chip by the place which
S'g”316' , (he occupies in the fleet, both with refpeft to the whole
line, with refpeft to the particular fquadron, the parti-
Howfi*- cular divifion of that fquadron, and the particular place
pai» are ad-in that divifion. This may be done by a combination
<hfdto 0f the pofition and colour of the pendants and vanes of
thefedivi- eac^ ^1US t^ie P°lour °f the pendants may indi-
fioiis. cate the fquadron, their pofition or mad on which they
are hoifted may mark the divifion of that fquadron,
and a diftinguifhing vane may mark the place of the pri¬
vate {hip in her own divifion. The advantages attend¬
ing this method are many. In a large fleet it would
hardly be poffible for the commander in chief to find a
fufficient variety of fingle fignals to mark the fhip to which
an order is addreffed, by hoifting it along with the fig-
ral appropriated to the intended movement. But by this
contrivance one-third part of thefe fignals of addrefs is
fufficient. It alfo enables the commander in chief to or¬
der a general change of pofition by a fingle fignal, which
otherwife would require feveral. Thus, fuppofe that
the fore, main, and mizen mafts, are appropriated (with
the proper modifications) for exhibiting the fignals ad-
drefled to the van, the centre, and the rear fquadrons
of the fleet, and that a red, a white, and a blue flag,
are chofen for the diftinguifhing flags of the officers
commanding thefe fquadrons ; then, if the commander
in chief fliall hoift a red flag at his mizen top-gallant
mart; head, it muft direct the van fquadron to take the
pofition then occupied by the rear fquadron, the evolu¬
tion neceffary for accompliffiing this end being fuppo-
fed known by the commander of the fquadron, \vho
will immediately make the neceflary fignals to the fqua¬
dron under his particular direction. In the fame man¬
ner, the diftinguifliing fignal for the leading {hip of a
fquadron being hoifted along with the figna! of addrefs
to the whole fleet, and the fignal for any particular fer-
vice, will caule the three or the nine leading {hips to ex¬
ecute that order, &c. See.
All that has been faid hitherto may be confidered as
fo many preparations for the real ifluing of orders by
the commander in chief. The moft difficult part of
the language remains, viz. to invent a number of fig.
nals which {hall correfpond to that almoft infinite va¬
riety of movements and fervices which muft be per-
1- formed.
Effential Diftindtnefs, fimplicity, and propriety, are the three
of effrntial qualities of all fignals. A fignal mu ft be fome
sre 'di'ftiijc- obie<a ea% feen> ftfongly marked, fo that it may be
Ed's, readily underftood, with little rifle of its being miftaken
for another. When made by flags, banners, or pen¬
dants, they muft be of the fulleft colours, and ftrongeft
contrails. The fliips are frequently'at a very great di-
flance, fo that the intervening air occalions a great de¬
gradation of colour. They are feen between the eve
and a very variable fl<y ; and in this fituation, efpecially
in the morning or evening, or a dark day, it is not eafy
to diftinguifli one full colour from another, all of them
approaching to the appearance of a black. At the di-
ftance of a very few miles hardly any full colours can
be diftinguiffied but a fcarkt and a blue. Red, blue,
yellow, and white, are the colours which can be diftin-
guiftied at greater diftances than any others, and are
therefore the only colours admitted as fignals. Even
thefe are fometimes diftinguiflied with difficulty. A
yellow is often confounded with a dirty white, and a
blue with a red. All other dark colours are found to. Naval
tally unfit. But as thefe afford but a fmall variety, we , ^ignals’ <
muft combine them in one flag, by making it ftriped, v
fpotted, or chequered, taking care that the oppofition
of colour may be as great as poffible, and that the pieces
of which the flags are made up may not be too minute.
Red muft never be ftriped nor fpotted with blue, and
the ftripes, fpots, or chequers, fhould never be lets than
one-third of the breadth of the flag. Plate CCCCLXVI.
is a feletftion by an officer of experience as a fet very
eafily recognifed, and little liable to be confounded.
Their colours are reprefented by hatching, in the fame
manner as in heraldry (Sec Heraldry).
Difference of fhape, as flags, banners, or pendants,
is another diftindlion by which the expreffion may be
varied. And in doing this, we muft recollect, that in
light winds it may be difficult to diftinguifh a flag from
a banner, as neither are fully difplaysd tor want of wind
to detach the fly from the ftaff.
And, laftly, fignals may be varied by their pofition, simplicity,,
which may be on any lofty and well detached part of
the mafts, yards, or rigging.
Simplicity is an eminent property in all fignals. They
are addreffed to perfons not much accuftomed to com-
binations, and who are probably much occupied by
other preffing duties. It were to be wiihed that every
piece of fervice could be indicated by a fingle flag.
This is peculiarly defirable with refpect to the fignals
ufed in time of battle. The rapid fucceffion of events
on this occafon call for a multitude of orders from the
commander in chief, and his flip is frequently clad over
with flags and pendants, fo that it is exceedingly dif¬
ficult for the fignal officer of a private fhip to diftin¬
guifli the different groups, each of which make a parti¬
cular fignal.
Thefe confiderations are the foundation of a certain And pre-
propriety in fignals, which direfts us to a choice amongPricty,
marks which appear altogether arbitrary. Signals
which run any rifk of being confounded, on account of
fome refemblance, or becaufe their pofition hinders us
from immediately perceiving their difference, fhould be
appropriated to pieces of fervice which are hardly pof¬
fible to be executed, or can hardly be wanted, in the
fame fituation. No bad confequence could eafily refult
though the fignal for coming to clofer action fhould re¬
ferable that for unmooring, becaufe the prefent fituation
of the fhips makes the laft operation impoffible or ab-
furd. Such confiderations diredt us to feledt for battle
fignals, thofe which are of eafieft exhibition, are the moft
Ample, and have the lead dependence on the circum-
ftance of pofition ; fo that their fignification may not
be affedted by the damages fuftained in the mafts or
rigging of the flag {hip. Such fignals as are lefs eafily
feen at a diftance, Ihould be appropriated to orders
which can occur only in the middle of the fleet, &c.
&c. Signals which are made to the admiral by pri¬
vate {hips may be the fame with fignals of command
from the flag fliip, which will confiderably diminifh the
number of fignals perfedlly different from each other. 16
With all thefe attentions and precautions a fyftem of % what
fignals is at laft made up, fitted to the code of failing meam fl^jr
and fighting inftrudtions. It is accompanied by ano am
ther fmall fet for the duty of convoys. It muft be en-conveyed,
groffed m two books ; one for the officer of the flag
fhip, who is to make the fignals, and the other is
8 deli.
Itfaval
Signals;
>7
And un¬
derflood.
18
The art of
fignals
much im¬
proved
lince the
publication
of the Tac-
tique Na-
vale.
S I G [ 47
delivered to every private fhip. In the firft, the evo¬
lutions, movements, and other operations of fervice, are
fet down in one column, and their correfponding fig¬
nals in another. The firft column is arranged, either
alphabetically, by the diftinguifhing phrafe, or fyltema-
tically, according to the arrangement of the failing and
fighting inftruftions. The officer whofe duty it is to
make the fignals, turns to this column for the order
which he is to communicate, and in the other column
he finds the appropiiated lignal.
In the other book, which is confulted for the inter¬
pretation of the fignals, they are arranged in the lead¬
ing column, either by the flags, or by the places of
their exhibition. The firfl: is the beft method, becaufe
the derangement of the flag fhip’s mails and rigging in
time of aftion may occafion a change in the place of
the fignal.
The TaSlque Navale of the Chevalier de Morogues
contains a very full and elaborate treatife on fignals.
We recommend this work to every fea-officer, as full of
inllruction. The art of fignals has been greatly Am¬
plified fince the publication of this work, but we can¬
not but afcribe much of the improvements to it.' We
believe that the author is the inventor of that fyftema-
tic manner of addreffing the order or effedive fignal to
the different fquadrons and divifions of the fleet, by
which the art of fignals is made more concife, the exe¬
cution of orders is rendered more fyllematic, and the
commanders of private fhlps are accuftomed to confider
themfelves as parts of an army, with a mutual depend¬
ence and connedtion. We are ready enough to ac¬
knowledge the fuperiority of the French in manoeuv¬
ring, but we affedl to confider this as an imputation on
their courage. Nothing can be more unjull; and dear-
bought experience fhould long ere now have taught us
the value of this fuperiority. What avails that cou¬
rage which we would willingly arrogate to ourfelves, if
we cannot come to adlion with our enemy, or mult do
it in a fituation in which it is almoft impoffible t© fuc-
ceed, and which needlefsly throws away the lives of our
gallant crews? Yet this mull happen, if our admirals
do not make evolutions their careful ftudy, and our
captains do not habituate themfelves, from their firft:
hoifting a pendant, to confider their own Ihip as con-
nedled with the moft remote Ihip in the line. We can¬
not think that this view of their fuuation would in the
leaft leffen the charadler which they have fo juftly ac¬
quired, of fighting their Ihip with a courage and firm-
nefs unequalled by thofe of any other nation. And
we may add, that it is only by fuch a rational ftudy of
their profeffion, that the gentleman can be diftinguilhed
from the mercenary commander of a privateer.
II. Night Signals.
It is evident, that the communication of ©rders by
night mull be more difficult and more imperfedt than
by day. We mult, in general, content ourfelves with
fuch orders as are neceffary for keeping the fleet toge¬
ther, by directing the more general movements and
evolutions which any change of circumftances may ren¬
der neceflary. And here the divifion and fubordinate
arrangement of the fleet is of indifpenfable neceffity,
it being hardly poffible to particulariie every fhip by a
fignal of addrefs, or to fee her fituation. The orders
are therefore addrefled to tire commanders of the diffe-
19
i ] S I G ,
rent divifions, each of whom is diftinguifhed by his poop
and top-lights, and is in the midft of, and not very re¬
mote from, the fhips under his more particular charge.
Yet even in this unfavourable fituation, it is frequently
neceflary to order the movements of particular fhips.
A&ions during the night are not uncommon. Purfuits
and rallyings are ftill oftener carried on at this time.
I he common dangers of the fea are as frequent and
more dilaftrous. The fyftem of fignals therefore is
very incomplete till this part be accompliffied.
Night fignals mull be made by guns, or by lights,
or by both combined.
Gun fignals are fufceptible of variety both in num- How gun-
ber and in difpofition. The only diftindt variation which finals may
can be made in this difpofition, is by means of the e varit:i^
time elapfed between the difeharges. This will eafily
admit of three varieties, flow, moderate, and quick.—
Half-minute guns are as flow as can eafily be hftened
to as appertaining to one fignal. Quarter-minute guns
are much better, and admit of two very diftind fub-
divifions. When the gunners, therefore, are well train¬
ed to this fervice (efpecially fince the employment of
firelocks for cannon), intervals of 15 or 12 feconds
may be taken for flow firing, 8 or 10 feconds for mo¬
derate, and 4 or 5 feconds for quick firing. If thefe
could be reduced one half, and made with certainty and
precifion, the expreffion would be incomparably more
diftind. A very fmall number of firings varied in this
way will give a confiderable number of fignals. Thus
five guns, with the variety of only quick and moderate,
will give 20 very diftinguiftiable fignals. The fame
principle mull be attended to here as in the flag fignals.
The moft Ample muft be appropriated to the moft im¬
portant orders, fuch as occur in the worft weather, or
fuch as are moft liable to be miftaken. Quick fi¬
ring ffiould not make part of a fignal to a very diftant
ftiip, becaufe the noife of a gun at a great diftance is
a lengthened found, and two of them, with a very fhort
interval, are apt to coalefce into one long continued
found. This mode of varying gun-fignals by the time
muft therefore be employed with great caution, and
we muft be very certain of the fteady performance of
the gunners.
Note, that a preparatory fignal or advertifement
that an effedive fignal is to be made, is a very necefla¬
ry circumftance. It is ufual (at leaft in hard weather)
to make this by a double difeharge, with an interval of
half a fecond, or at moft a fecond.
Gun-fignals are ieldom made alone, except in or¬
dinary fituations and moderate weather ; becaufe ac¬
cident may derange them, and inattention may caufe
them to efcape notice, and, once made, they are over,
and their repetition would change their meaning. They
are alfo improper on an enemy’s coaft, or where an ene¬
my’s cruifers or fleets may be expeded. a#
Signals by lights are either made with lights fimplysignab bj
fo called, i. e. lanthorns fhown in different parts of the lights,
ftiip, or by rockets. Lights may differ by number, and
by pofition, and alfo by figure. For the flag fliip al¬
ways carrying poop or top-lights, or both, prefents an
objed in the darkeft night, fo that we can tell whether
the additional lights are exhibited about the mainmaft,
the foremaft, the mizenmaft, &c. And if the lights
ftiown from any of thefe fituations are arranged in cer¬
tain diftinguilhable fituations in refped to each other, the
7 number
ttva! Sig¬
nals
ir
fhefe two
pedes of
eht fig.
ils.
S I G
ny^feer ®f fignals may be greatly increafed.  
three lights may be in a vertical line, or in a horizon¬
tal line, or in a triangle, and the point of this triangle
may be up, or down, or forward, or aft, and thus may
have many fignifications.
Lights are alfo exhibited by falfe fires or rockets:
Thefe can be varied by number, and by fuch differen¬
ces of appearance as to make them very diftinguilh-
able. Rockets may be with ftars, with rain fire, or
fimple fquibs.
By varying and combining thefe, a very great num-
f her of fignals may be produced, fully fufficient to diredt
Ee conihT* every general movement or evolution, or any ordinary
icd. and important fervice. The Chevalier de Morogues
has given a fpecinjen of fuch a fyftem of night fignals,
into which he has even introduced fignals of addrefs or
» ' direction to every fhip of a large fleet; and has alfo gi¬
ven fignals of number, by which depths of foundings,
points of the compafs, and other things of this kind,
may be expreffed both eafily and diflinftly. He has
made the fignals by rockets perfedlly fimilar in point of
number to thofe by lanthorns, fo that the commander
can take either ; a choice which may have its ufe, be-
caufe the fignals by rockets may caufe the prefence of a
fleet to be more extenlively known than may be conve-
lz nient.
eneral ©b- The commander in chief will inform the fleet by fig-
irvations nal, that guns, or perhaps rockets, are not to be ufed
mcernmg that night. This fignal, at the fame time, direfts
the fleet to clofe the line or columns, that the light fig¬
nals may be better obferved.
It is indeed a general rule to fhow as few lights as
poffible ; and the commander frequently puts out his
own poop and top-lights, only (bowing them from time
to time, thajt his (hips may keep around him.
The fignal lanthorns on board the flag (hip, and
-a lanthorn kept in readinefs on board of every pri¬
vate (hip, to anfwer or acknowledge fignals from the
commander in chief, are all kept in bags, to conceal
their lights till the moment they are fixed in their
places, and the preparatory or advertiling fignal has been
made.
The commander in chief fometimes orders by fignal
every (hip to (how a light for a minute or two, that he
may judge of the pofition of the fleet; and the admiral’s
fignal muft always be acknowledged by thofe to whom
it is addrefled.
Tt is of particular importance that the fleet be kept
together. Therefore the leading (hips of the fleet, on ei¬
ther tack, are enjoined to acknowledge the (ignals of
the commander in chief by a (ignal peculiar to their
flation. Thus the commander in chief learns the pofi¬
tion of the extremities of his fleet.
In framing a fet of night fignals, great attention
muft be given to their pofition, that they be not obfcu-
red by the fails. The nature of the order to be given
will frequently determine this. Thus, an order for the
rear (hips to make more fail, will naturally direft us to
exhibit the fignal at the mizen peek ; and fo of other
pieces of fervice. Lanthorns expofed in groups, fuch
as triangles, lozenges, &c. are commonly fufpended at
the corners of large frames of laths, at the diftance of a
fathom at leaft from each other. Attempts have been
made to fhow lights of different colours; but the rifk «f
sniftake or failure in the compofition at the laboratory,
Vot. XVII. Part II, J
G
r 473 1 . si
Thus makes this rather hazardous. Coloured lanthorns are Niva) Sig-
more certain ; but when the glades are made of a colour , nais-
fufficiently intenfe, the vivacity of the light (which at ' *
no time is very great) is too much diminifhed. Re-
fides, the very diftanee changes the colour exceedingly
and unaccountably.
III. ©/"Signals in a Fog.
These can be made only by noifes, fuch as the fi¬
ring of cannon and mufkets, the beating of drums and
ringing of bells, &c. Fog fignals are the moft diffi¬
cult to contrive of any, and are fufceptible of the leaft
variety. The commander in chief is principally con-
cerned to keep his fleet together; and unlefs fomething
very urgent requires it, he will make no change in his
courfe or rate of failing. But a fhift of wind or other
caufes may make this necedary. The changes which
he will order, it will be prudent to regulate by fome
fixed rule, which is in general convenient. Thus, when
a fleet is in the order of failing upon a wind, and a
fog comes on, the fleet will hold on the fame courfe.
If the wind fhould come a little more on the beam, the
fleet will ftill keep clofe to the wind. Certain general By oMer-
rules of this kind being agreed on, no fignals are ne-ving cer-
cedary for keeping the fleet together; and the (hips cantaJn ?ene-
feparate or run foul of each other only by diderence in pal ‘'i116*
their rate of failing, or by inaccurate fteerage. To,-gna * dU'
prevent this, the commander in chief fires a gun from are8in many
time to time, and the fhips of the fleet judge of his fi. cafes unne-
tuation and diftance by the found. The commanders
of divifions fire guns, with fome diftin&ion from thofe
of the commander in chief. This both informs the
commander in chief of the pofition of his fquadrons,
and enables the private (hips of each divifion to keep in
the neighbourhood of their own flag (hip. On board
of every private (hip the drum is beaten, or the bell is
chimed, every quarter of an hour, according as the
(hip is on the (larboard or larboard tack. By fuch
contrivances, it is never difficult to keep a fleet in very
good order when failing on a wind. The wind is al-
moft always moderate, and the (hips keep under a very
eafy fail. It is much more difficult when going large,
and reparation can be prevented only by the moft urn
wearied attention. The greateft rifle is the falling in
with ftrange (hips fleering another courfe.
But evolutions and other movements are frequently
indifpenlable. The courfe muft be changed by tack¬
ing or wearing, and other fervices muft be performed.
None, however, are admitted but the mod probable,
the moft fimple, and the moft neceffary.
The commander in chief firft informs the fleet by How they
the preparatory fog Jignal, that he is about to order an^e given
evolution, and that he is to dired it by fogjigna/s. wh.en n®’
This precaution is indifpenfable to prevent miftakes. ceffary*
Along with this advertifing fignal he makes the fignal
of the movement intended. This not only calls the
attention of the fleet, but makes the (hips prepare for
the precife execution of that movement. The com¬
manders of divifions repeat the advertifing fignal, which
informs their, (hips of their fituation, and the private
(hips beat their drums or chime their bells. Thus the
whole (hips of the fleet clofe a little, and become a little
better acquainted with their mutual pofition. It is
now underftood that a movement is to be made precife-
ly a quarter of an hour after the advertifement. At
3 O
s I G- [ 474
Naval Sig- the expiration of this time, the eflt&ive fignal for this
, ndls‘ , movement is made by the commander in chief, and muil
*' be inftantly repeated by the commanders of dmfions,
and then the movement muft be made by each (hip, ac¬
cording to the failing and fighting xnllruitions. This
mull be done with the utmoft attention and precifiou,
becaufe it produces a prodigious change in the relative
pofition of the fhips ; and even although the good fenfe
of the commander in chief will feledt fuch movements
for accomplifhing his purpofe as produce the fmalleft
alterations, and the lead rifle of feparation or running
foul of each other ; it is Hill extremely difficult to avoid
thefe misfortunes. To prevent this as much as pof-
fible, each (hip which has executed the movement, or
which has come on a courfe thwarting that of the fleet,
intimates this by a fignal properly adapted, often add¬
ing the fignal of the tack, on which it is now handing,
and even its particular fignal of recognizance. This is
particularly incumbent on the flag Ihips and the leading
fliips of each division.
After a reafonable interval, the commander in chief
will make proper fignals for bringing the fleet to a
a? knowledge of their reunion in this new pofition.
Improper This muft ferve for a general account of the circum-
a p'riutlar ^ances wh’ch muft be attended to in framing a code of
account of fignals. The arbitrary chara<9ters in which the lan-
figcals. guage is written muft be left to the fagacity of the
gentlemen of the profeffion. It muft be obferved, that
the ftratagems of war make fecrecy very neceflary. It
may be of immenfe hazard if the enemy fhould under-
ftand our fignals. In time of battle it might frequent¬
ly fruftrate our attempts to deftroy them, and at all
times would enable them to efcape, or to throw us into
diforder. Every commander of a fquadron, therefore,
rflues private fignals, fuited to his particular deftina-
tion ; and thererore it is neceftary that our code of fig-
rals be fufceptible of endlefs variations. This is ex¬
ceedingly eafy without any increafe of their number.
The con inlander needs only intimate that fuch and
fuch a fignal is fo and fo changed in its meaning du-
16 rmg command.
'Signalsmay We cannot leave this article without returning to an
be made obfervation which we made almoft in the beginning,
v*2, the fyftem of fignals, or, to fpeak more pro*
preffions of perly? the manner of framing this fyftem, has received
numbers, much improvement from the gentlemen of the French
navy, and particularly from the moft ingenious thought
cf M. de la Bourdoanais, of making the fignals the
immediate expreffions of numbers only, which numbers
may be afterwards ufed to indicate any order whatever.
We fhall prefent our readers with a fcheme or two of
the manner in which this may be done for all fignals,
both day, night, and fog. This alone may be confider-
ed as a fyftem of fignals, and is equally applicable to
every k:nd of information at a diftance. Without de¬
tracting in the fmalleft degree from the praife due to
M. de la Bourdonnais, we muft: obferve, that this prin¬
ciple of notation is of much older date. Bifhop Wil¬
kins, in his Secret and Swift Meffenger, exprefsly re¬
commends it, and gives fpecimens of the manner of ex¬
ecution ; fo does Dr Hooke in fome of his propofals to
the Royal Society. Gaipar Schottus alfo mentions it
in his Techetka Curiofa ; and Kircher. among others of
his Curious Brojedts,
] s i G
M. de la Bourdonnais’s method is as follows : Naval Sig,
He choofes pendants for his cffe&ive fignals, becaufe , 1 a'8,
they are the moft cafily difplayed in the proper order. ’
Several pendants, making part of one fignal, may be m. de la
hoifted by one hallyard, being flopped on it at the dr- Bourdon,
ftance of four or fix feet from each other. If it be”*|\!,,mc*
found proper to throw out another fignal at the fame^jj,
time and place, they are feparated by a red pendant °
without a point. His colours are chofen with judge¬
ment, being very diftindtly recognifed, and not liable
to be confounded with the addreffing fignals appro¬
priated to the different (hips of the fleet. They are.
For N3 i. Red. ForN0 6. Red, with blue tail.
2. White.
3. Blue.
4. Yellow.
5. Red, with
white tail.
7. White, with blue tail.
8. White, with red tail.
9. Blue, with yellow tail,
o. Yellow, with blue tail.
is
Three fets of fuch pendants will exprefs every num¬
ber under a thoufand, by hoifting one above the other,
and reckoning the uppermoft hundreds, the next below
it tens, and the loweff units. Thus the number 643
will be expreffed by a pendant red with blue tail, a
yellow pendant below it, and a blue one below the laft.
This method has great advantages. The fignals may
be hoifted in any place where beft feen, and therefore
the fignification is not affedfed by the derangement of
the flag {hip’s malls and rigging. And by appropri¬
ating the fmaller numbers to the battle fignals, they are
more fimole, requiring fewer pendants.
As this method requires a particular fet of colours, Might be
it has its inconveniences. An admiral is often obliged rendered
to ftiift his flag, even in time of adlion. He cannotmuc^ fim-
eafily take the colours along with him. It is therefore^
better to make ufe of fuch colours as ever^-private ftiip colours
is provided with. One fet of 11 will do, with the ad¬
dition of three, at moft of four pendants, of Angular
make, to mark 100, zoo, 300, 400. Two of thefe
flags, one above the other, will exprefs any number un¬
der 100, by ufing the x ith as a fubftitute for any flag
that ftiould be repeated. Thus the nth flag, along
with the flag for eight or for fix, will exprefs the num¬
ber 88 or 66, &c. Thus we are able to exprefs every
number below 500, and this is iufficient for a veiy large
code of fignals.
And in order to diminifh as much as poffible the
number of thefe compound fignals, it will be proper
that a number of Angle flag fignals be preiervtd, and
even varied by circumftances of pofition, for orders
which are of very frequent occurrence, and which can
hardly occur in fituations where any obftruttions are
occalioned by lofs of malts, &c. And farther, to
avoid all chance of miftake, a particular fignal can be
added, intimating that the fignals now exhibited are
numeracy fignals; or, which is Itiil better, all fignals
may be confidered as numerary fignals; and thofe which
we have juft now called Jingle Jag Jgna/s maybe fet
down oppolite to, or as exprefling, the largelt numbers
of the Code.
This method requires the fignal of advertifement,
the annulling fignal, the fignal of addrefs to the parti¬
cular Ihip or divifion, the fignal of acknowledgment,
the fignal of indiftindtaefs, of diftrefs, of danger, and
one
*
S I G [ 475
Naval'S;?- one or two more 'which, in every method, mud be
employed.
Another method of exprefiinfr numbers with fewer
colours is as follows: Let the flags be A, B, C, D, E,
F, and arrange them as follows :
*9
Another
meth d of
“xprefling
mbers by
ewer co-
^jurs,
... This method may b
e alfo im- ranging the flags thus :
roved.
A
B
C
D
E
F
i
7
I3
>9
25
31
37
B
2
8
H
20
26
32
38
C
3
9
J5
21
27
33
39
D
4
1 3
l6
22
28
34
40
E
5
11
17
23
29
35
4i
F
6
12
18
24
30
36
42
The number exprefled by any pair of flags is found in
the interfeddion ol the horizontal and perpendicular co¬
lumns. d hus the flag D, hoifted along with and above
the flag F, exprefles the number 40, &c. In order to
exprefs a greater number (but not exceeding 84) fup-
pofe 75, hoifl: the flags jr, which exprefles 33, or 75,
wanting 42, and above them a flag or fignal G, which
alone exprefles 42.
T. his method may be Hill farther improved by ar-
*
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
100,
See.
A
A
B
C
D
E
F
B
2
8
13
C
3
9
M
18
D
4
10
15
J9
22
E
5
11
16
20
23
25
F
6
12
17
21
24
26
27
31
third
ech®d.
In this laft method the fignification of the fignal is to¬
tally independent of the pofition of the flags. In
whatever parts of the Ihip the flags D and E are feen,
they exprefs the number 23. This would fuit battle
fignals.
Another method {till may be taken. Flags hoifted
anywhere on the foremaft may be accounted units, thofe
on the mainmaft tens, and thofe on the mizenmalt hun¬
dreds. I hus numeral fignals may be made by a ihip
difmafted, or having only poles in their place.
Many other ways may be contrived for exprefling
numbers tiy colours, and there is great room for ex-
ercifing the judgment of the contriver. For it mull
always be remembered, that thefe fignals mull be ac¬
companied with a fignal by which it is addrefled to
iome particular ftnp or divilion of the fleet, and it may
be difficult to conneft the one with the other, which is
perhaps fhovvn in another place, and along with other
executive fignals.
^vantages One great advantage of thefe numeral fignals is, that
numeral they may be changed in their fignification at pleafure.
1 hus, in the fir A method, it can be fettled, that on ,
Sundays the colours A, B, C, I), &c. exprefs the cy¬
phers , 2, 3, 4, &c. but that on Mondays they ex-
prels the cyphers o, 1, 2, 3, &c. and on I'uefdays the
cyphers 9, o, 1, 2, &c. ; and fo on through all the days
of the week. J his mean or fecrecy is mentioned by
Er Hooke for the coaA and alarm fignals, where, by
t e by, he (hews a method for conveying intelligence
over land very fimilar to what is now pradiled by the
French with their telegraph.
2
3*
] S I G
It is equally eafy to exprefs numbers by night fignals. Naval Sig-
Thus M. de la Bourdonnais pvopofes, that one dif-
charge of a great gun fhall exprefs 7, and that x, 2, 3, ‘ 11
4, 5, 6 lhall be exprefled by lights. Therefore, to ex-Number*
prefs 24, we mult fire three guns, and (how three may be alfo
lights. This is the moft perfed of all forms of night exPiffle<i
and fog fignals. For both the manner of firing guns
and of exhibiting lights may be varied to a fuflicient ex- 0 ^ *
tent with very few guns or lights, and with great di-
ftindnefs.
Thus, for guns. Let. F mark the firing of a fingle
gun at moderate intervals, and //a double gun, that is,
two difeharged at the interval of a fecond. We may
exprefs numbers thus t
F.
F, F.
F, F, F.
F, F, F, F.
F,//-
F, F,/f.
F,//, F.
F,//, F, F.
F,//, F,//.
//•
//>//> or///.
It might be done with fewer guns if the ff were ad¬
mitted as the firlt firing. But it feems better to be¬
gin always with the fingle gun, and thus the double
gun beginning a fignal dittingmfhes the tens, &c.
xii like manner, a Imall number of lights will admit
of a great variety of very diftind pofitions, which may
ferve for all fignals to fhips not very remote from the
commander in chief. For ordefs to be underflood at
a very great diflance, it will be proper to appropriate
the numbers which are indicated by fignals made with
rockets. Thefe can be varied in number and kind to a
fufficient extent, fo. as to be very ealily diltinguiffied
and under flood. It is fuflicient to have fliown how the
whole, or nearly the whole, notation of fignals may be
limited to the expreflion of numbers.
We have taken little notice of the fignals made byConcMim*
private ffiips to the commander in chief. This is a remarks. ^
very eafy bufinefs, becaufe there is little rifle of con¬
founding them with other fignals. Nor have we fpo-
ken of fignals from the flag (hips whofe ultimate inter¬
pretation is number, as when fhips are direded to
change their courfe fo many points. Thofe alfo are
eafily contrived in any of the methods already deferi-
bed ; alfo when a private ffiip wiffies to inform the com¬
mander m chief that foundings are found at fo many
fathoms. In like manner, by numbering the points
of the compafs, the admiral can dired to chace to any
one of them, or may be informed of ftrange fhips bein^
Icen in any quarter, and what is their number.
Signals by the Drum, made life of, in the exercifc
of the army, inflead of the word of command, viz.
Sjgnals- ‘ _ Operations.
To caution.
To perform any diftind thing.
To form the line or battalion.
A Jhort roll,
A jlam.
To arms.
The march.
The quick march.
The point of ’war.
r\ To advance, except when in.
£ tt ’ ’ -
tended for a falate.
1 o advance quick.
To march, and charge.
3 0 2
Thee
S I G
[ 476 ]
S I L
Signature, The retreat,
1 et' , Drum ceafing.
Two Jhort rolls.
The dragoon march.
The grenadier march,
The troop.
The long roll.
The grenadier march,
The preparative,
The general,
Two long rolls.
To retreat.
To halt.
To perform the flank firing.
To open the battalion.
To form the column.
To double divifions.
To form the fquare.
TTo reduce the fquare to the
[_ column.
To make ready and fire.
To ceafe firing.
To bring or lodge the colours.
SIGNATURE, a fign or mark impreffed upon any
thing, whether by nature or art. Such is the general
fignification of the word ; but in the plural number it
has been ufed, in a particular fenfe, fo denote thofe ex¬
ternal marks by which phyfiognomifts and other dabblers
in the occult fciences pretend to difcover the nature and
internal qualities of every thing on which they are
found. According to Lavater, every corporeal objed
is charaderized by fignatures peculiar to itfelf.
The dodrine of fignatures, like alchemy and aftrolo-
gy, was very prevalent during the 15'th and 16th cen¬
turies ; and was confidered as one of the occult fciences
which conferred no fmall degree of honour on their re-
fpedive profeffors. Some of thefe philofophers, as they
thought fit to ftyle themfelves, maintained that plants,
minerals, and animals, but particularly plants, had fig¬
natures impreffed on them by the hand of nature, indi¬
cating to the adept the therapeutic ufes to which they
might be applied. Others, fuch as the myftic theofo-
phifts and chemifts of that day, proceeded much farther
in abfurdity, maintaining that every fubftance in nature
had either external fignatures immediately difcernible,
or internal fignatures, which, when brought into view
by fire or menftrua, denoted its cbnnedion with fome
iiderial or celeftial archetype. Of the dodrine of fig¬
natures, as it relates merely to the therapeutic ufes of
plants and minerals, traces are to be found in the works
of fome of the greateft authors of antiquity ; but the
celeftial fignatures, we believe, were difcovered only by
Afaf. the moonlight of the monkifh ages. Pliny informs us*,
2ib. ^4. that the marble called ophites, from its being fpotted
like a ferpent, was difcovered by thofe fpots to be a
fovereign. remedy for the bite of that animal; and that
the colour of the hematites or blood-ftone intimated that
it was fit to be employed to ftop an hemorrhagy ; but
we do not recoiled his attributing the virtues of thefe
minerals to a fiderial or celeftial influence.
Signature, a figning of a perfon’s name at the bot¬
tom of an ad or deed written by his own hand.
Signature, in printing, is a letter put at the bot¬
tom of the firft page at leaft, in each fheet, as a direc¬
tion to the binder in folding, gathering, and collating,
them. The fignatures confift of the capital letters of
the alphabet, which change in every fneet: if there be
more Iheets, than letters in the alphabet, to the capital
letter is added.a fmall one of the fame fort, as A a, B b;
which are- repeated as. often as neceffaiy. In large vo¬
lumes it is eafy to diftingvnfil the number of alphabets,
after the firft'three or four, by placing a figure before
the fit?nature, as 5 B, 6 B,
SIGNET, one ot the
lg
s feals^ made ufe of in
-ealing his private letters, and all grants that pafs by
bill figned under his majefty’s hand : it is always in the
cuftody of the fecretaries of ftate.
Signet, in Scots law. See Law, Part III. § 17. ^
SILENE, Catchfly, or Vifcous Campion, in bo¬
tany : A genus of plants belonging to the clafs of de-
candria, and order of trigynia ; and in the natural fyf-
tem arranged under the 22d order,caryophyllat. The ca¬
lyx is ventricofe; the petals are five in number, bifid and
unguiculated, and crowned by a neftarium ; the capfule
is cylindrical, covered, and trilocular. There are 26
fpecies, of which 7 are natives of Britain and Ireland,
j. Anglica, the fmall corn campion or catchfly. The
ftem is weak, hairy, and above a foot high ; the leaves
are oblong, and grow in pairs at the joints; the flowers
are fmall, white, and entire; they ftand onifbotftalks
which iffue from the alas of the leaves ; they are ereft,
alternate, Angle, and lateral. It grows in corn-fields,
and flowers in June and July. 2. Nutans, Nottingham
catchfly. The ftem is about two feet high, and firm ;
the radical leaves are broad, obtufe, and grow in a tuft;
thofe on the ftem are narrow and acute : the flowers
are white, and grow in lateral panicles; the petals are
bifid and curled ; the calyx is long, bellying a little,
writh ten longitudinal ftriae. It grows in paftures, and
flowers in June and July. 3. fea-campion. The
ftem is two or three feet long, flender, procumbent, and
branched alternately : the leaves are long and narrow:
the flowers are white, and grow on oppofite footftalks,
three on each, in unilateral bunches: the calyx is
hairy and purplifh, and has ten angles. It grows on
the fouth coaft, and flowers in June and July. 4. Co¬
noidea, greater corn catchfly, or campion. The leaves
are narrow and foft; the calyx is conical, with 30 ftria:;
the flowers proceed from the divarications of the ftem ;
the petals are entire. It grows in corn fields, and
flowers in June. 5. NoElijlora, night-flowering catch¬
fly. The ftem is about two feet high, and forked ; the
calyx has ten angles, is fomewhat clammy, and oval,
with longer teeth than the other fpecies ; the petals are
of a reddifh white. 6. Armenia, broad-leaved catchfty.
The ftem is about 18 inches high, and ereft, with few
branches ; the leaves are fmooth, feflile, and broad at
the bafe ; the flowers terminal, in faftigiate bundles,
fmall, and red. It may be feen on the banks of rivers, „
and is in flower in July and Auguft. 7. Acaulis, mofs
campion. The radical leaves are fpread on the ground
like a tuft of mofs; the ftalks are about an inch long,
and naked, bearing each a Angle purple flower. This
laft fpecies grows on mountains, and has been found, in
Wales and Scotland, within half a mile from their top.
It is in flower in July.
SILESIA, a duchy of Germany, bounded on the
eaft by Poland ; on the weft, by Bohemia and Lower'
Lufatia oa the fouth, by a chain of mountains,,
and a thicket of confiderable extent which feparates it
from Hungary; and to the north, by the, marquifate
of Brandenburg and Poland. From north-weft to foutlv-
eaft it is about 274 miles, and about 100 where broad-
eft : but it is much contrasted at both ends. Upon the.
frontiers of this-country, to the weft and fouth, are ve¬
ry high mountains, and fome likewife in other parts of
it. One of the ridges upon the frontiers 13 ftyled the
Riphsean Mountains, another the Moravian, another the
Bohemian, and another the Hungarian, Qrapack, or Car-
patbian*.
Signet
II
Silefia.
S I L r 477 1 S I L
SUeSa. path'um. A branch of the Bohemian is called the Giant
» " Mountains. rrhe winter on thefe hilly tracks is more
fevere, fets in fooner, and lafts longer, than in the low
lands. The inhabitants ufe a kind of Ikates when the
fnow is deep, as they do in Carniola. Little or no
grain is raifed in the mountains and fome fandy tracks;
but the reft of the country is abundantly fruitful, not
only in grain* but fruits, roots, pafture, flax, hops, mad¬
der, tobacco, and hemp, yielding alfo fome wine, with
confiderable quantities of filk and honey. In many
places are great woods of pines, fir, beech, larch, and
other trees, affording tar, pitch, rofin, turpentine, lamp¬
black, and timber for all ufes. In this country alfo is
found marble of feveral forts, fome precious ftones, lime-
ftone, millftone, pitcoal, turf, vitriol, fome filver ore,
copper, lead, iron, and mineral fprings. Great num¬
bers of black cattle and horfes are brought hither from
Poland and Hungary for fale, thofe bred in the coun¬
try not being fufficient; but of fheep, goats, game, and
•venifon, they have great plenty. As for wild beafts,
here are lynxes, foxes, weafels, otters, and beavers. The
rivers, lakes, and ponds, yield fifh of feveral forts, parti¬
cularly flurgeons feveral ells in length, and falmon. Be-
fides a number of fmaller ftreams to water this country,
there is the Oder, which traverfes it almoft from one
end to the other; and the Viftula, which after a pretty
long courfe through it enters Poland. The number of
the cities and market-towns is faid to be about loo, the
county of Glatz included, and that of the villages 5000.
The inhabitants, who are computed to be about a mil¬
lion and an half, are a mixture of Germans, Poles, and
Moravians. The language generally fpoken is Ger¬
man ; but in fome places the vulgar tongue is a dialeft
of the Sclavonic. The Hates coniift of the prioces and
dukes, and fthofe called Jlate-lords, with the nobili¬
ty, who are immediately fubjedt to the fovereign, and
the reprefentatives of the chief cities; but fince the
country fell under the dominion of the king of Pruf-
fia, no diets have been held. The king, however,
when he took poffeffion of the country, confirmed all
the other privileges of the inhabitants. With refpe<fl
to religion, not only Proteftants, but Papifts, Jews, and
Greeks, enjoy full liberty of confidence. The greateft
part of Silefia lies in the diocefe of Breflaw, but fome
part of it in the Polifh diocefes of Pofen and Cracow.
The bifhop ofBreflaw Hands immediately under the pope
with regard to fpirituals ; but all ecclefiaftical benefices,
not excepting the fee of Breflaw, is in the king’s gift.
BefidesLatin fchools, colleges, and feminaries,at Breflaw
is an univerfity, and at Lignitz an academy for martial
exercifes. The principal manufaftures here are wool¬
lens, linens, and cottons of feveral forts, with hats, glafs-
ware, gunpowder, and iron manufadfures. Of thefe
there is a confiderable exportation. Accounts are ge¬
nerally kept in rix-dollars, filver grofehens, and du¬
cats. With refpedl to its revolutions and prefent go¬
vernment, it was long a part of the kingdom of Poland;
afterwards it had feveral dukes and petty princes for its
fovereigns, who by degrees became fubjedt to the kings
of Bohemia, until at laft king Charles IV. incorporated
the whole duchy with Bohemia ; and thus it continued
in the poffeffion of the houfe of Aufiria, until the king
of Prulfia in 1 742, taking advantage of the troubles that
enfued upon the death of the emperor Charles VI. and
pretending a kmd of claim, wreifed a great part of it,
together with the county of Glatz, from his daughter Silefia
and heirefs Maria Therefa, the late emprefs-dowager; . jl
fo that now only a fmall part of it is poffeffed by the
houfe of AuAria, and connected with the empire, the
refl being governed by the king of Pruffia, without ac¬
knowledging any fort of dependence on the crown ot
Bohemia or the empire. For the adminiflration of
juftice in all civil, criminal, and feudal cafes, and
fuch as relate to the revenue, the king of Pruflia has
eflabliflied three fupreme judicatories, to which an ap¬
peal lies from all the inferior ones, and from which,
when the fum exceeds 500 rix-dollars, caufes may be
moved to Berlin. The Lutheran churches and fchoolsl
are under the infpeftion of the upper confiflories, and
thofe of the Papifts under that of the bifhop’s court at
Breflaw ; but from both an appeal lies to the tribunal
at Berlin. As to the revenue, the excife here is levied
only in the willed towns, “being on the fame footing ar
in the marquifate of Brandenburg ; but in the reft of the
country the contributions are fixed, and the fame both
in peace and war. The feveral branches of the revenue
are under the management of the w^ar and domain of¬
fices of Breflaw and Glogau. The whole revenue ari-
fing to the king of Pruffia from Silefia and the county
of Glatz amounts to about four millions of rix-dollars
per annum.
Silefia is divided into Upper and Lower, and each of
thefe again into principalities and lordfhips ; of fome of
which both the property and jurifdi&ion belong imme¬
diately to the fovereign, but of others to his fubjeifls and',
vaffals. In regard to the charafter of the people, the
boors are accounted very dull and ftupid ; but of thofe
of a higher rank, many have diftinguiffied themfelves by
their wit and learning, as well as by their military and
political talents. However, in general, like their neigh¬
bours the Germans and Bohemians, they have more of
Mars than Mercury in their cornpolition, and their parts
are more folid than fhinimr.
SILESIAN e ARTH, in the materia medica, a fine
aftringent bole. It is very heavy, of a firm compaft
texture, and in colour of a brownifh yellow. It breaks-
eafily between the fingers, and does not ftain the hands;
is naturally of a fmooth furface, is readily difl'ufible in
water, and melts freely into a butter-like fubftance. in >
the mouth. It leaves no grittinels between the teeth,
and does not ferment with acid menftrua. It is found
in the perpendicular fiffures of rocks near the gold,
mines at Strigonium in Hungary, and is fuppofed to
be impregnated with the fulphur of that metal. It is
a good aftringent,. and better than moft of the boles in
uie.
SILICERNIUM, among the Romans, was a feaft
of a private nature, provided for the dead fome time af¬
ter the funeral. It confided of beans, lettuces, bread,
egSs> Thefe were laid upon the tomb, and they
foolifihly believed that the dead would come out for the
repalt What was left was generally burnt, on the
Hone. The word filkem'wm is derived from /ilex and
ccena, i. .e “ a fupper upon a Hone ” Eating what had
thus been provided for the dead, was efteemed a mark of
the moil miferabie poverty. A fimilar entertainment
was made by the Greeks at the tombs of the deceaied ‘.
but it was ufual among .them to treat the ghofts with«
the fragments from the feaft of the living, See Fir.
NERAL a*nd iNfSJU^E..
Ji
SILLX.
S I L
[
Siler
.It
Siliiif.
SILEX. See Flint.
SILICEOUS ear i hs. See Mineralogy, Part IT.
Order 4.
SILIUS (Italicus Caius), an ancient Roman poet,
and author of an epic -poem in 17 books, which con¬
tains an hiftory of the fecond Punic war, fo famous for
having decided the empire of the world in favour of the
Romans. He was born in the reigri of Tiberius, and
is fuppofed to have derived the name of Italicus from
the place of his birth ; but whether he was born at Ita-
lica in Spain, or at Corfinium in Italy, which, accord¬
ing to Strabo, had the name of Italica given it during
the Social war, is a point which cannot be known :
though, if his birth had happened at either of thefe
places, the grammarians would tell us, that he {hould have
been called Italicenfis, and not Italicus. When he came
to Rome, he applied himfelf to the bar ; and, by a clofe
imitation of Cicero, fucceeded fo well, that he became
a celebrated advocate and moll accomplilhed orator.
His merit and charafter recommended him to the high-
eft offices in the republic, even to the confullhip, of
which he was poffeffed when Kero died. He is faid to
have been aiding and affifting in accuftng perfons of
high rank and fortune, whom that wicked emperor had
devoted to deftrucfion : but he retrieved his charafter
afterwards by a long and uniform courfe of virtuous be¬
haviour. Vefpafian fent him as proconful into Afia,
where he behaved with clean hands and unblemilhed re¬
putation. After having thus fpent the belt part of his
life in the fervice of his country, he bade adieu to public
affabs, refolving to confecrate the remainder to polite
retirement and the mufes. He had feveral fine villas in
the country : one at Tufculum, celebrated for having
been Cicero’s ; and a farm near Naples faid to have
been Virgil’s, at which was his tomb, which Silius
often vifited. Thus Martial compliments him on both
thefe accounts;
Silius hac magni celebrat monumenta Maronis^
yugera facundi qui Ciceronis habet.
Hceredem Dominumque fui tumuliquc larifque
Non ahum mallet nec Maro nec Cicero.
Epigr. 49. lib. xi.
Of Tully’s feat my Silius is poflefs’d.
And his the tomb •where Virgil’s afhes reft.
Could thole great lhades return tochoofe their heir,
The prefent owner they would both prefer.
In thefe retirements he applied himfelf to poetry : led
not fo much by any great force of genius, which would
certainly not have fuffered him to ftay till life was in
the wane and his imagination growing cold, as by his
exceeding great love of Virgil, to whofe memory he
paid the higheft veneration. He has imitated him in
his poem ; and though he falls infinitely Ihort of him,
yet he has difcovered a great and univerfal genius,
>vhich would have enabled him to fucceed in fome de¬
gree in whatever he undertook.
Having been for fome time afflidled with an im-
pofthume, which was deemed incurable, he grew weary
of life, to which, in the language of Pliny, he put an
end with determined courage.
There have been many editions of Silius Italicus. A
neat and correft one was publilhed atLeipficin 1696, in
•8vo, with Ihort and ufeful notes by Cellarius; but the
Silk.
478 ] S I L
bell is that cum noils int^yris variorum et Arnoldi Drd-
kenborch. Traieft. ad Rhen. 17x7, in 4to. ^ v
SILK, a very foft, fine, bright thread, the work of
an infedt called bombyx, or the iilk worm.
As the filk worm is a native of China, the culture of
filk in ancient times was entirely confined to that coun¬
try. We are told that the emprefles, furrounded by
their women, fpent their leifure hours in hatching and
rearing filk worms, and in weaving tiffues and filk veils.
That this example was foon imitated by perfons of all
ranks, we have reafon to conclude ; tor we are informed
that the Chinefe, who were formerly clothed in fkins,
in a fhort time after were dreffed in veftments of filk.
'Pill the reign of Juftinian, the filk worm was unknown
beyond the territories of China, but filk was introduced
into Perfia long before that period. Alter the conquefl
of the Perfian empire by Alexander the Great, this va¬
luable commodity was brought into Greece, and thence r
conveyed to Rome. The firft of the Roman writers °f
extant by whom filk is mentioned, are Virgil and H°- concernmg*
race ; but it is probable that neither of them knew the t;aiur&
from what country it was obtained, nor how it was oi filk.
produced. By fome of the ancients it was fuppofed to
be a fine down adhering to the leaves of certain trees or
flowers. Others imagined it to be a delicate fpecies of
wool or cotton; and even thofe who had learned that.'
it was the work of an infedl, fhow by their defcriptions
that they had no diftindt idea of the manner in which it
was formed. Among the Romans, filk was deemed a
drefs too expenfive and too delicate for men, and was
appropriated wholly to women of eminent rank and opu¬
lence. Elagabulus is faid to have been the firft man
among the Romans who wore a garment of fine filk:
Aurelian complained that a pound of filk was fold at
Rome for 1 2 ounces of gold ; and it is faid he refufed
to give his wife permiffion to wear it on account of
its exorbitant price. *
For feveral centuries the Perfians fupplied the Re- Brought
man empire with the filks of China. Caravans tra-from China
verfed the whole latitude of .\fia, in 243 days, from
the Chinefe ocean to the fea-coaft of Syria, carrying rimeofju.
this commodity. Sometimes it was conveyed to theftinian.
ports of Guzerat and Malabar, and thence tranfported
by fea to the Perfian Gulph. The Perfians, with the f ,
ufual rapacity of monopolifts, raifed the price of filk to
fuch an exorbitant height, that Juftinian, eager not only co„cer„i„g
to obtain a full and certain fupply of a commodity which /»(&», p. 88.'
was become of indifpenfable ufe, but folicitous to deliver
the commerce of his fubjefts from the exactions of his
enemies, endeavoured, by means of his ally, the Chrif-
tian monarch of Abyffinia, to wreft feme portion of
the filk trade from the Perfians. In this attempt he
failed ; but when he leaft expected it, he, by an unfore-
feen event, attained, in iome meafure, the objedt which
he had in view. Two Perfian monks having been em- 3
ployed as miffionaries in forne of the Chriftian churches,
which were eitablifhed (as we are informed by Colmas) jnt0Europe
in different parts of India, had penetrated into the coun-by two
try of the Seres, or China. There they obferved the -nonks.
labours of the filk worm, and became acquainted with
all the arts of man in working up its productions into
fuch a variety of elegant fabrics. The profpedt of gain,
or perhaps an indignant zeal, excited by feeing this lu¬
crative branch of commerce engrailed by unbelieving
cations.
s I L r 479 1 S r L
Silk, nations, prompted them to repair to Conflantlnople.
There they explained to the emperor the origin of jilk,
as well as the various modes of preparing and manufac¬
turing it, myfteiies hitherto unknown, or very imper-
ftftly underltood in Europe ; and encouraged by his
liberal promifes,%they undertook to bring to the capital
a fufficient number of thofe wonderful infefts, to whofe
labours man is fo much indebted. This they accom-
plifhed, by conveying the eirgs of the filk worm in a
hollow cane. They were hatched by the heat of a
dunghill, fed with the leaves of a wild mulberry tree,
and they multiplied and worked in the fame manner as
in thofe climates where they firil became objects of hu¬
man attention and care. Vail numbers of thefe infe&s
were foon reared in different parts of Greece, particu¬
larly in the Peloponnefus. Sicily afterwards undertook
to breed filk worms with equal fuccefs, and was imitated,
from time to time, in feveral towns of Italy. In all
thefe places extenfive manufactures were eft;.bliihed and
carried on with filk of domeftic production. The de¬
mand for filk from the eaft diminifhed of courfe, the
fubjeCts of the Greek emperors were no longer obliged
to have recourfe to the Perfians for a fupply of it, and
a confiderable change took place in the nature of the
commercial intercourfe between Europe and India.
As hlk is the production of a worm, it will be firft
neceffary to given defeription of its nature and mode of
manufacturing, liut before we give any account of the
, moft approved methods of managing filk worms in Eu-
clZLhy. roPe’ lt Wl1-1 be proper to prefent a fhort defeription of
the methods praClifed in China, the original country of
the filk worm. Thefe are two : they either permit
them to remain at liberty on mulberry trees, or keep
them in rooms. As the fineil filk is produced by worms
confined in rooms, and as the firft method is very fim-
^ pie, it will fuffice to deferibe the fecond
Method of To begin with the eggs, which are laid on large fheets
rearing’ filk of paper, to which they firmly adhere. The fheets are
Chiiu5 in °n a keam t^ie room> with the eggs inward,
^ and the windows are opened in the front to admit the
wind ; but no hempen ropes muft ever come near the
worms or their eggs. After fome days the fheets are
taken down, rolled up loofely with the eggs inward,
and then hung up again, during the fummer and autumn.
Ait the end of December, or the beginning of January,
the eggs are put into cold water, with a little fait diffcJ-
ved in it. Two days after they take them out, hang
them up again, and when dry roll them a little tighter,
and enclofe each feparatdy, ftanding on one end in an
earthen veflel. Some put them into a lye made of mul¬
berry tree afhes, and then lay them fome moments in
fnow-water, or elfe hang them up three nights on a
mulberry tree to receive the fnow or rain, if not too
violent. 1 he time of hatching them is when the leaves
of the mulberry trees begin to open, for they are bat¬
tened or impeded according to the different degrees of
heat or cold to which they are expofed. When they
are ready to come forth, the eggs fwell, and become a
little pointed.
I he third day before they are hatched, the rolls of
paper are taken out of the veffel, ftretched out, and hung
up with their backs toward the fun, till they receive
a kindly warmth ; and then being roiled up clofe, they
are fet upright in a veffel in a warm place. This is re¬
peated the ne*t day, and the egg$ change to an afh-
grey, They then put two fheets together, and rolling Silk,
them clofe tie the ends. y—■
'I he third day, towards night, the fheets are unroll¬
ed and ftretched on a fine mat, when the eggs appear
blackiih. They then roll three fheets together, and
carry them into a pretty warm place, flickered from the
fouth wind. The next day the people taking out the
rolls, and opening them, find them full of worm* like
finall black ants.'
1 he apartment chofen for filk worms is on a dry
ground, in a pure air, and free from noife. The rooms
are fquare, and very clofe, for the fake of warmth ; the
door faces the fouth, and is covered with a double
mat, to keep out the cold; yet there fhould be a win¬
dow on every fide, that when it is thought neceffary the
air may have a free paiTagc. In opening a window to
k-t in a refrefhing breeze, care muft be taken to keep
out the gnats and flies. ’I he room muft be furnilhed
with nine or ten rows of frames, about nine inches one
above the other. On thefe they place rufh hurdles, up¬
on which the worms are fed till they are ready to fpia ;
and, to preferve a regular heat, ftove fires are placed at
the corners of the room, or elfe a warming pan is car¬
ried up and down it ; but it muft not have the leaft
flame or fmoke. Cow-dung dried in the fun is efleemed
the moft proper fuel.
The worms eat equally day and night. The Chi-
nefe give them on the firft day forty-eight meals/ that
is, one every-half hour ; the next thirty ; the third day
they have flul lels. As cloudy and rainy weather takes
away their ftomach, juft before their reoaft a wffp'of
very dry ftraw, the flame of which muft be all alike, is
held over the worms to free them from the cold and
moifture that benumbs them, or elfe the blinds are ta¬
ken from the windows to let in the full day-light.
Eating fo often haftens their growth* on which the
chief profit of the filk worm depends. If they come to
maturity in 23 or 25 days, a large flieet of paper cover¬
ed with worms, which at their fivft coming from the
eggs weigh little more than a drachm, will produce 2 5
ounces of filk ; but if not till 28 days, they then yield
only 20 ounces ; and if they are a month or 40 days in
growing, they then produce but ten.
They are kept extremely clean, and are often removed;
and when they are pretty well grown,the worms belong¬
ing to one hurdle are divided into three, afterwards they
a* e placed on fix, and fo on to the number of 20 or more ;
for being full of humours, they muft be kept at a due
diftar.ee from each other, i he critical moment for re¬
moving them is when they are of a bright yellow and
icady to fpin ; they muft be furrounded with mats at a
fmall di fiance, which rouil cover the too of the place to
keep off the outward air ; and becaufe they love to wTork
in the dark. However, after the third day’s labour,
the mats are taken away from one o'clock till three, but
the rays of the fun muft not fliine upon them. They
are at this time covered with the ftieets of paper that
were ufed on the hurdles.
The cocoons are completed in feven days, after which
the worm is metamorphofed into a chryfalis; the co¬
coons are then gathered, and laid in heaps, having firft
fet apart thofe defigned for propagation upon a hurdle,
in a cool airy place. The next care is to kill the moths
in thofe cones which are not to be bored. The heft
way of doing this is to fill’ large earthen veflels with
cones
S I L
[ 456 ]
S I L
rhe Bee,
S!lk, cones m layers of ten pounds each, throwing; in four
ounces of fait with every layer, and covering it with
large dry leaves like thofe of the water-lily, and clofely
flopping the mouth of the veffels. But in laying the
cones into the veifels, they feparate the long, white, and
glittering ones, which yield a very fine filk, from thofe
that are thick, dark, and of the colour of the fkin of an
5 onion, which produce a coarfer lilk.
Befeription The filk worm is a fpecies of caterpillar, which, like
a'fdhhinTy all others of the fame ciafs, undergoes a variety of
worm. changes, that, to perfons who are not acquainted with
objects of this kind, will appear to be not a little fur-
prifmg.
It is produced From a yellowifh coloured egg, about
the fize of a fmall pin head, which has been laid by a
kind of greyifh coloured moth, which the vulgar con¬
found with the butterfly.
Thefe eggs, in the temperature of this climate, if
kept beyond the reach of the fire and fun fliine, may be
preferved during the whole of the winter and fpring
months without danger of hatching : and even in fum-
mer they may eafily be prevented from hatching if they
be kept in a cool place ; but in warmer climates it is
fcarcely poffible to preferve them from hatching, even
for a few days, or trom drying fo much as to deftroy
them. Hence it is eafy for a native of Britain to keep
the eggs till the food on which the worm is to feed be
ready for that purpofe. When this food is in perfec¬
tion, the eggs need only be expofed to the fun for a day
or two, when they will be hatched with great facility.^
When the animal is firft protruded from the egg, it
is a fmall black worm, which is active, and naturally af-
cends to the top of the heap in fearchof food. At this
ftage of his growth the filk worm requires to be fed
with the youngeft and moft tender leaves. On thefe
leaves, if good, he will feed very freely for about eight
■days, during which period he increafes in fize to about
a quarter of an inch in length. He is then attacked
with his firft ficknefs, which confifts in a kind of le¬
thargic fleep for about three days continuance ; during
which time he refufes to eat, and changes his fkin, pre-
ferving the fame bulk. This fleep being over, he begins
to eat again, during five days, at which term he is
grown to the fize of full half an inch in length ; after
which follows a fecond ficknefs in every refpe£t like
the former.
He then feeds for other five days; during which time
he will have increafed to about three quarters of an inch
in length, when he is attacked with his third ficknefs.
"This being over, he begins to eat again, and continues
to do fo for five days more, when he is attacked by his
fourth ficknefs, at which time he is arrived at his full
growth. When he recovers this ficknefs, he feeds once
more during five days with a moft voracious appetite ;
after which he difdains his food, becomes tranfparent,
a little on the yellowifh caft, and leaves his filky traces
on the leaves where he pafles. Thefe figns denote that
be is ready to begin his cocoon, and will eat no more.
Thus it appears that the whole duration of the life
of the worm, in this ftate of its exiftence, in our climate,
is ufually about 46 days ; 28 of which days he takes
food, and remains in his fick or torpid ftate 1 8 ; but it
ns to be obferved, that during warm weather the periods
of ficknefs are fhortened, and in cold weather lengthen¬
ed, above the terms here fpecified. In yery hot cli¬
mates it may be faid to live fafter, and fooner to attain Shk,
maturity, than in thofe that are colder. Dr Anderfon
informs us, that at Madras the worm undergoes its
whole evolutions in the fpace of 22 days. It appears,
however, that it feeds fully as many days in India as in
Europe, the difference being entirely occafioned by
Ihortening the period of ficknefs. The longeft ficknefs
he had feen them experience there did not exceed two
days ; and during lummer it -only lafts a few hours.
When the worm has attained its full growth, it
fearches about for a convenient place for forming its co¬
coon, and mounts upon any branches or twigs that are
put in its way for that purpofe. After about two days
fpeni in this manner, it fettles in its place, and forms
the cocoon, by winding the filk which it draws from
its bowels round itfelf into an oblong roundifti ball.
During this operation it gradually lofes the appear¬
ance of a worm ; its length is much contracted, and its
thicknefs augmented. By the time the web is hniihed,
it is found to be transformed into an oblong roundifti
ball, covered with a fmooth flielly fldn, and appears to
be perfeftly dead. In this ftate of exiftence it is called
an aurelia. Many animals in this ftate may be often
feen (ticking on the walls of out-houfes, fomewhat re-
fembling a fmall bean.
In this ftate it remains for feveral days entirely mo-
tionlefs in the heart of the cocoon, after which it burfts
like an egg hatching, and fr®m that comes forth a
heavy dull looking moth with wings ; but thefe wings
it never ufes for flying ; it only crawls flowly about in
the place it has been hatched. This creature forces its
way through the filk covering which the worm had
woven, goes immediately in queft of its mate, after
which the female lays her eggs; and both male and fe¬
male, without tailing food in this ftage of their exift¬
ence, die in a very ftiort time.
The filk worm, when at its full fize, is from an
inch and a quarter to an inch and a half in length, and
about half an inch in circumference. He is either of a
milk or pearl colour, or blackifh ; thefe laft are efteem-
ed the beft. His body is divided into feven rings, to
each of which are joined two very fhort feet. He has
a fmall point like a thorn exa&ly above the anus. The
fubftance which forms the filk is in his ftomach, which
is very long, wound up, as it were, upon two fpindles,
as fome fay, and furrounded with a gum, commonly yel¬
lowifh, fometimes white, but feldom greenifh. When
the worm fpins his cocoon, he winds off a thread from
each of his fpindles, and joins them afterwards by
means of two hooks which are placed in his mouth, fo
that the cocoon is formed of a double thread. Having
opened a filk worm, you may take out the fpindles,
which are folded up in three plaits, and, on ftretching
them out, and drawing each extremity, you may extend
them to near two ells in length. If you then ferape the
thread fo ftretched out with your nail, you ferape off
the gum, which is very like bees wax, and performs
the fame office to the filk it covers as gold leaf does to
the ingot of filver it furrounds, when drawn out by the
wire drawer. This thread, which is extremely ftrong
and even, is about the thicknefs of a middling pin. 5
Of lilk worms, as of moft other animals, there is a Particular
confiderable variety of breeds, fome of which are much attention ^
more hardy, and poffefs qualities confiderably differentou.^
from others. This is a particular of much importance !reed of
to filk worms*
S I L
[ 481 1
S I L
!5i’V.
7
The ma¬
nagement
effilk
Worms
muft be
different
in different
climates;
But may be
cafily rt ar-
ed in tem¬
perate
dimes.
to be adverted to at the time of beginning t© breed
' thefe creatures in any place ; for it will make a great
difference in the profit on the whole to the undertaker
if he rears a good or a bad fort(A). This is a department
in refpeft to the economy of animals that has been in
every cafe much lefs adverted to than it deferves ; and in
particular with regard to the lilk worm it has been al-
moft entirely overlooked. A few eggs of the filk worm
can be eafily tranfported by pod: in a letter from any
part of Europe to another, efpecially during the winter
ieafon. It would therefore be an eafy matter for any
patriotic fociety, fuch as the Society of Arts in Lon¬
don, to obtain a fpecimen of the eggs from every coun¬
try in which filk is now reared, to put thefe under the
care of a perfon who could be depended upon, and who
underitood the management of them, with orders to
keep each kind diftinCl from another, and advert to every
particular that occurred in their management, fo as to
make a fair eilimate of their rtfpe&ive merits. By thefe
means the beft might be felefted, and thofe of inferior
value reje&ed. Forty or fifty of each fort might be
enough for the experiment ; but it ought to be repeat¬
ed feveral times before conclufions could be drawn from
it that might be altogether relied upon ; for it is well
known that a variation of circumftances will make a
change in the refult; and it is by no means certain that
the fame particular would affeft thofe of one breed ex-
adtly in the fame manner as it would do thofe ot a dif¬
ferent breed. One may be more hardy with regard to
cold, another more delicate in refpedt to food, and fo
on. It is experience alone that can afeertain the cir¬
cumftances here inquired for.
From the above-mentioned particulars, it is evi¬
dent, that the management of filk worms muft be very
different in hot climates from what is required in thofe
that are colder. At Madras, it appears from Dr An-
derfon’s experiments that it is very difficult to prevent
the eggs from hatching for a very few days, fo that
many generations of them muft be propagated in one
year. “ In this hotteft feafon,” fays he, in a letter to
Sir Jofeph Banks, dated July 6. 1791, f‘ the fhorteft
time I have been able to remark for the whole evolu¬
tions of the filk worm is 40 days; that is to fay, fix
days an egg, 22 a worm, 11 a grub in the cocoon,
and one a moth or butterfly.’, Fortunately, where the
climate forces forward their prodmftion fo rapidly, na¬
ture hath been equally provident of food for their fub-
fiftence ; for in thefe regions the mulberry continues to
grow and pufh out leaves throughout the whole year.
Though the filk worm be a native of China, there
is no doubt but it might eafily be propagated per¬
haps in moft parts of the temperate zones. The eggs
Vol. XVII. Part II.
of this inff-$, indeed, require a confidcrable degrei of L
warmth to hatch them, but they can alfo endure a fr- w—v~*
vere froft. No lefs than 5400 lbs of filk was raifed in
1789 in the cold, fandy territories ot Pruffia. In the
province of Pekin, in China, where great quantities of
filk are fabricated, the winter is much colder than even
in Scotland. From the information of ft me Ruffians
who were fent thither to learn the Chinefe language, we
find that Reaumur’s thermometer was obferved from 10
to 15, and even 20 degrees below the freezing point.
Nor is it difficult to rear the food of the filk worm in ^ee> N*
a temperate clime. The mulberry-trte is a hardy vege-1-5^*
table, which bears, without injury, the winters of Sweden,
and even of Siberia. Of the feven fpecies of the mulber¬
ry (fee Morus) enumerated by Linnaeus, four of thefe
(viz. the white, red, black, and Tartarian), there is e-
very reaion to believe could be reared both in Britain
and Ireland. The u'/jite grows in Sweden ; the red is
abundant round Quebec ; the i/ack delights in bleak fi-
tuations, expofed to wind on the fea Ihore ; and the
Tartarian mulberry is reprefented as growing in the
chilly regions of Siberia. ^
As to the fuperior qualities of the different fpecies, Wherher*
probably there is very little to be pointed out amongft anv fpecirf*
the four juft mentioned with regard to nom ifhment,
cept what may be drawn from the following faft : that fuperior to
if the firft three are laid down together, the filk worm other*
will firft eat the white, then the red, and next the black,
in the order of the tendernefs of the leaves. The Tar¬
tarian feems to hold as high a place in its efteem as ei¬
ther the red or black ; but all muft yield to the white,
which feems to be its natural food.
In Calabria the red mulberry is ufed ; in Valencia
the white; and in Granada, where excellent filk is pro¬
duced, the mulberries are all black. The white feems
to profper very well in a moift ftiff foil: the black agrees
well with a dry, fandy, or gravelly foil; and the white
is moft luxuriant in a moift rich loam. I(J
It may juftly be aiferted, that Britain poffeffes feme Britain pof-
advantages in the railing of raw filk which are not en-kffes fome
joyed by warmer countries. Even in the fouth 0fa^vantage*
France, Mr Arthur Young informs us, the mulberry er countrjC8
leaves are often nipped by froft in the bud; but this is for railing
fcarcely ever the cafe with us. It is well known that filk.
thunder and lightning are hurtful to the filk worm.
Now our climate can boaft that it is almoft wholly ex¬
empted from thofe dreadful ftofms of thunder and light¬
ning which prevail fo much in hot climates. Nature
has then furnifhed us with every thing requifitc for the
filk manufa&ure; it remains only for us to improve the
advantages which we poffefs. Let mulberry trees be
planted by proprietors ©f lands, and let a few perfons
3 P of
(a) As the fuceefs of the filk manufa&ure muft depend on the breed of worms, it is of great confequence to
bring them from thofe countries where they are reckoned beft.
Mr Andrew Wright, an ingenious filk manufafturer of Paifley, has given the following directions for convey in or
th£ eggs of the filk worm from diftant countries by fea : As foon as the moth has laid her eggs, dry them im¬
mediately, and put them into glafs vials ; feal them fo clofe that damp air or water will not penetrate jin to them.
Put thefe phials that contain the eggs into earthen pots filled with cold water ; and as often as the water becomes
warm renew it. Place the earthen veffels in the coldeft place of the fhip, and let them remain until the end of
the voyage. It muft be obferved, that the fhip chofen for this purpofe ought to be one that would arrive ja Bri-
tain in the months of June or July.
S I L
[ 482 ]
S I L
sm*.
11
Method of
raifing
mulberry-
trees in the
fouth of
of fit ill and attention devote their time to the raifing of
hlk worms. This is an employment that will not in¬
terfere with any manufacture already etlablifhed ; on the
contrary, it would afford a refpe&able, a lucrative, and
agreeable employment to ladies, or to females in gene¬
ral, who have at prefent too few profeflions to which
they can apply. The fociety inllituted at London for
the encouragement of arts, manufactures, and com¬
merce, much to their honour, have offered premiums
to thofe who (hall plant a certain number of mulberry
trees.
The following method of raifing mulberry trees from
feed is praCtifed in the fouth of France, and has been
repeated with fuccefs in the Eaft Indies by Dr Ander-
fon of Madras. “ Take the ripe berries of the mulber¬
ry when it is full of juice and of feeds. Next take a
silk.
13
1'ra.nc e.
Lettcn on rough horfe hair line or rope, fuch as we dry linen on,
tbt Culture and "with a good handful of ripe mulberries run your
hand along the line bruifing the berries and mafhing
1} * dr oman- them as much as poffible as your hand runs along, fo
del.
that the pulp and feeds of the berries may adhere in
great abundance to the rope or hair line. Next dig a
trench in the ground where you with to plant them,
much like what is pra&ifed in kitchen gardens in Eng¬
land for crops of various kinds. Next cut the rope or
hair line into lengths according to the length of the
trench you think fit to make, and plunge the line full
of mafhed berries into the trench, and then cover it over
well with earth, always remembering afterwards to wa¬
ter it well, which is effential to the fuccefs. The feeds
of the berries thus fown will grow, and foon (hoot out
young fuckers, which will bear young leaves, which are
the beft food for the filk woi*m.
‘f The facility and rapidity with which young leaves
may by this means be produced is evident, for as many
rows of trenches may thus be filled as can be wifhed ;
and it can never be neceflary to have mulberry trees
higher than our rafpberries, currants, or goofeberry bufh-
es. Whenever they get beyond that, they lofe their
value ; and if thefe trenches fucceed, you may have a
fupply coming frefh up day after day, or any quantity
you pleafe.” Thus abundance of thefe trees might be
reared. But as mulberry trees are not yet found in abun¬
dance in this country, it were to be wifhed that fome
other food could be fubftituted in their place : attempts
have accordingly been made by thofe who have reared
filk worms, and it has been found poffible to fupport
the filk worm upon lettuce (b).
Mifs Henrietta Rhodes, a lady who has made fome
fuccefsful experiments on raifing filk worms in England,
had found that the filk worm could with fafety be kept
See, N° 70.
11
Mifs
ftik°worms on lettuce for fome time. This is pretty generally
on lettuce known by ladies who have turned their attention to this
fubjedl; but fhe found that in general they could not
with fafety be kept upon that food above three weeks.
If longer fed upon that plant, the worms for the moll
part die without fpinning a web at all. She found,
however, that they did not always die, but that in fome
cafes they produced very good cocoons, even when fed
entirely on lettuce. She therefore with reafon lufpedt-
ed that the death of the animal mull be occafioned by
fome extraneous circumftance, and not from the poi-
fonous quality of the food itfelf; the circumftance fhe
fufpebted, from fome incidental obfervations, was tire
coldnefs of that food ; and therefore fhe thought it was
not impoffible, but if they were kept in a very warm
place, while fed on lettuce, they might attain, in all
cafes, a due perfedftion.
General Mordaunt having been informed of this con- General
jedture, refolved to try the experiment. He got fome Mordaunt
filk worms eggs, had them hatched in his hot-houfe, and^
caufed them to be all fed upon lettuce and nothing elfe.
They profpered as well as any worms could do, iew or
none of them died; and they afforded as fine cocoons
as if they had been fed upon mulberry leaves. As far
as one experiment can go, this affords a very exhilara-
ting profpedl in many points of view. If one kind of
food has been noxious, merely on account of an impro¬
per temperature, others may be found which have been
hurtful only from a fimilar cattle ; fo that it is not im-
pofiible but we may at laft find that this delicate crea¬
ture may be fupported by a variety of kinds of food.
Few, however, could be more eafily obtained than let¬
tuce ; and this plant, when cabbaged (the cofs, or ice
lettuce efpecially), would pofllfs one quality that the
mulberry leaf never can poffels from the want of which
many millions of worms die in thofe countries where
filk is now reared ; for it is obferved, that when the
leaves are gathered wet, it is fcarcely poffible to pre-
ferve the wmrms alive for any length of time ; fo that
during a continuance of rainy weather many of them
are unavoidably cut off; but a lettuce, wdien cabbaged,
refills moifture. If gathered, even during rain, the
heart of it is dry ; fo that if the outer leaves be thrown
afide at that time, the worms would be continued in
perfedt health. The expence, too, of cultivating and
gathering lettuce, would be fo much left than that of
gathering mulberry leaves, as to occafion a faving that
would be much more than fufficient to counterbalance
the expence of heating the confervatory, as a little re¬
flection will Ihow.
But the great point to be now afcertamed is, whe¬
ther it is a faft that worms fed on lettuce, if kept in a
due temperature, will continue in good health, in gene¬
ral, till they lhall have perfected their cocoon ? One
experiment is too little to eftablilh this fad with perfect
certainty. It would therefore be neceffary that more
experiments Ihould be made on this fubjeCl. 14
It is faid that Dr Lodovico Bellardi, a learned and Mlk worms
ingenious botanift of Turin, has, after a number of ex-fa^- ^ ^
for fome
time.
peuments, difcovered a new method of feeding e(j muiber-
filk1
worms, when they are hatched before the mulberry ry leaves,
trees have produced leaves, or when it happens that
the froft deftroys the tender branches. This new me¬
thod confifts in giving the worms dried leaves of the
mulberry-tree. One would think that this dry nouriih-
ment
(b) It is not improbable, fays Dr Anderfon, to whofe valuable work entitled the Bee, we have been much
indebted in the drawing up of this article, that other kinds of food may be found which will anfwer the fame
purpofe. The chicorium intybus and common endive might be tried, as they have the fame laCtefcent quality
with the lettuce.
8 Ik-
15
Proper ex
pcrimentu
ought to b
piade on
various ve¬
getables.
16
; What fiiu
ation and
apartment-
, proper
for thefe
uikets.
S I L [ 483 1 ' s I L
nient would not be much relifhed by thefe infers ; but
repeated experiments made by our author, prove that
they prefer it to any other, and eat it with the greateft
avidity. The mulberry leaves mull be gathered about
the end of autumn, before the frofts commence, in dry
weather, and at times when the heat is greateft. They
muft be dried afterwards in the fun, by fpreading them
upon large cloths, and laid up in a dry place after they
have been reduced to powder. When it is neceffary to
give this powder to the worms, it Jhould be gently moi-
itened with a little water, and a thin coat of it mult be
placed around the young worms, which will immediate*
ly begin to feed upon it.
We have mentioned all the different kinds of food,
which, as far as we have heard, have been tried with
eany fuccefs to nouiifh the filk worm; not, however,
with great confidence, but as experiments which it might
be worth while carefully to coniider and perform. We
muft not omit to mention that one perfon, who has had
much experience in the managing of filk worms, affures
us, that the filk produced from any other food than
mulberry leaves is of an inferior quality, and that the
worms are iickly. We think, however, that there is
reafon to fufpedt that the experiment has not been fkil-
f ully performed ; and therefore, before every other food
except mulberry leaves is difearded, the experiment
ought to be performed with more attention and care.
We know that many animals in a domeftic ftate can live
upon food very different from that which fupported
them when running wild m the fields. Certain it is,
however, that every animal, in its Hate of nature, par¬
takes of a food peculiar to itfelf, which is rejected by
other animals as if it were of a poifonous quality ; and
it may be mentioned as a curious faff, as well as an ad¬
mirable inftance of the care of that Being who feeds
the fowls of heaven, that notwithftanding the number-
lefs infedts that piey upon animals and vegetables, the
mulberry tree is left untouched by them all, as the ex-
clufive property of the filk worm, the chief of the infedl
tribe, which toils and fpins for the ufe or man.
Having now coniidered the food proper for the filk
worm, we {hall next confider what iituation is molt fa¬
vourable to them. In the opinion of fome perfons
in this country who have been in the practice of rearing
filk worms, they ought always to be kept in a dry place,
well fhellered, and poffeffing a conliderable degree of
warmth, and which is not expofed to fudden tranfitions
from heat to cold. If the weather be too cold, a fmall
fire muft be made : this is of moil importance when the
worms are ready for fpinning. A iouthern expofure
is therefore preferable. Some think light is of great
utility to filk worms, others think that they thrive bet¬
ter in the dark. As to what apartments are belt ac¬
commodated for promoting the health of filk worms,
and molt convenient for thole who have thecare of them,
they may be various according to the extent oi the ma-
mifadture or the wealth of the proprietors. Silk worms
may be kept in-boxes or in fhelves. When fhelves are to
be ufedjthey may be conftrudted in the following manner:
The Ihelves may be of wicker, ranged at the diltance
of a foot and a half, and fixed in the middle ot the
room : their breadth ought to be fuch, that any perfon
cun eaiily reach to the middle from either' fide. This
is perhaps the fimplell and cheapell apparatus for rear¬
ing filk worms; but there is another apparatus which
may be recommended to thofe who are anxious to unite Silk.
fome degree of elegance with convenience. This appa-  v-—J
ratus is the invention of the Rev. George Swayne of
Puckle-church, a gentleman who, greatly to his honour,
has Itudied this fubjedt much, in order to find out the
way for promoting the culture of filk among the poor.
This apparatus, with the defeription of it, we have
borrowed from that valuable and patriotic work, the
Tranfadtions of the Society for encouraging Arts, Ma- 17
nufadtures, ahd Commerce, Vol. VII. p. 148. The ap. Mr
paratus confifts of a wooden frame four feet two inches Swaync’s
high, each fide 16 inches and a half wide, divided into^j^-^*
eight partitions by fmall pieces of wood which form
grooves, into which the Hides run, and are thus eafily thrull
into or drawn out of the frame. The upper Hide (a) in Plate
the model fent to the fociety by Mr Swayne is of pa*CCCCLXVI‘
per only, and defigned to receive the worms as foon'as
hatched ; the two next (t>, 6) are of catgut, the threads
about one-tenth of an inch diltant from each other :
thefe are for the infedts when a little advanced in lize:
the five lower ones, marked c, c, c, c,c, are of wicker
work; but, as Mr Swayne afterwards found, netting may
be fubftituted with advantage inltead of wicker bot¬
toms. Under each of thele, as well as under thofe of
catgut, are Aiders made of paper, to prevent the dung
of the worms from tailing on thole feeding below them. ts
The management of filk worms is next to be at- Proper
tended to. The proper time for hatching them istimc for
when the leaves of the mulberry are full grown, orp/chm?
nearly fo; that as foon as thefe infedts are capable of 11 wo,inf“
receiving food they may obtain it in abundance. To
attempt to hatch them fooner would be hurtful, as the
weather would not be fufficiently warm. Befides, as
leaves are neceflary to the life of a vegetable, if the
young leaves of the mulberry-tree are cropped as foon
as they are unfolded, the tree will be fo much weaken¬
ed as to be incapable of producing fo many leaves as it
would otherwife have done ; and if this pradtice be fre¬
quently repeated, will inevitably be deftroyed. Ip
When the proper feafon is arrived, the eggs may be How they
hatched either by the heat of the fun, when it happens ouSht: t0 bc
to be ftrong enough, or by placing them in a imall^ied.
room moderately heated by a ftove or fire; and after be¬
ing expofed for fix or feven days to a. gentle heat, the
filk worm iffues from the egg in the form of a fmall
black hairy caterpillar. When Mr Swayne’s apparatus
is ufed, the worms are to be kept on the drawers with
paper bottoms till they are grown fo large as not rea¬
dily to creep through the gauze-bottomed drawers : ■
they are then to be placed on thofe drawers, where they
are to remain till their excrements are fo large as not
readily to fall through ; when this is the cafe, they muft
be removed to the drawers with the wicker or net¬
ting bottoms, and fed thereon till they (how fymptoms
of being about to fpin. It is fcarcely neceffary to men¬
tion, that the paper Hides beneath the gauze and wick¬
er drawers are intended to receive the dung, which
Hiould be emptied as often as the worms are fed, at
kail once a-day ; or to direft, that when the worms are
led, the Hides are to be firft drawn out a conliderable
way, and the drawers to left upon them. •
It has been already mentioned, that wet or damp Wet or
food is exceedingly prejudicial to thefe infeits. It pro-tl‘<mP lo°d
duces contagious and fatal difeafes. To prevent the!?r°?uce*
necefiity of giving them wet or damp food, attention
3 P 2 ought
41
Outiht to
bf kept as
vlean as
poflibdc.
j5«, N« 95.
a
How they
may l-ie
cleaned
wnhout
bruifing
them.
S I L
[ 484 ]
S I L
PUght to be paid to die weather, fo that when there
is an immediate profpeft of rain, a fufficicnt quantity
of leaves may be gathered to ferve the worms two or
three days. In this country, the leaves of the black or
red mulberry tree may be preferved good for food, al¬
though kept four or five days, by the following method;
When new gathered, lay them joofely in glazed earth¬
en veflels, place thefe iu a cold place, well aired, not
expofed to drought.
The utmoft attention muft be paid to preferve the
place where filk worms are kept as clean as poffible: the
houfe or room mull be well ventilated, that no noxious
vapours be accumulated. By fome experiments of M.
Faujas de St Fond, which are recorded in his hiftory
of Languedoc, it appears that the filk worm is much in¬
jured by foul air. All decayed leaves mult be removed
from them, as it is now well known that they emit bad
Uir in great abundance.
One of the molt difficult branches of the management
of filk worms has hitherto been the cleaningwithout brui¬
ting them. To avoid this inconvenience, the peafants
in France and Italy hequently allow the whole litter to
remain without ever cleaning them, which is the caule
of that unwholefome itench that has been fo often re¬
marked by thofe wdio vifit the places for rearing
ffik worms in thefe countries. This difficulty may
be effettually removed by providing a net, or, what
would be Hill better, a wire-bottomed frame, wrought
into large melhes like a riddle. Have that made of a
fize exactly fufficient to cover the wooden box in wffiich
the worms are kept. When you mean to ihift them,
fpread frelh leaves into the wire balket ; and let it down
gently over the worms till it comes within their reach.
They no fooner perceive the frelh food than they aban¬
don the rubbilh below, and creep through the melhes,
fo as to fix themfelves upon the leaves ; then by gently
railing the frelh balket, and drawing out the board be¬
low (which ought to be made to flip out like the flip
bottom of a bird’s cage), you get off all the excrements
and decayed leaves, without incommoding the worms in
the imalleft degree ; and along with the litter you will
draw off an inch or two in depth of the fouleft mephitic
vapours. To get entirely rid of thefe, the board, when
thus taken out, ftiould be carried without doors, and
there cleaned ; and the flip board immediately replaced
to receive all the excrements and offals. After it is re¬
placed, the wire frame that had been elevated a little,
may be allowed to defeend to a convenient diftance a-
bove the board without touching it. Thus will there
be left a vacant fpaee for the mephitie air ta Ml belew Silk,
the worms, fo as to allow' them to inhabit a whokfome
region of the atmofphere.
When a frelh fuppiy of food is to be given before
cleaning, the ware frame ought to be let down as clofe
to the board as can be lately done, and another wire-
bottomed frame put over it, with freffi leaves, as before
defevibed. When the worms have abandoned that in
their turn, let the flip-board, together with the lower
wire frame, be drawn out and removed, and lo on as
often as neceffary. To admit of this alternate change,
every table, confifting of one flip-board, ought to have
two fets of wire-bottomed frames of the fame /ize ; the
flip board to be always put into its place immediately
after it is cleaned, and the wire frames referved to b<r
afterwards placed over the other. By this mode of ma¬
nagement, it is probable that the worms would be faved
from the difeafes engendered by the mephitic air, and
the numerous deaths that are the conlequence of it
avoided. 2j
Hr Anderfoa, to whom we have already acjcnowled- Quicklime
ged our obligations, and to whom this country has been would ab-
much indebted for valuable works on agriculture, the ^ ^ th*
fliherics, &c. advifes thofe who have the management which fur*
of ftlk worms to ftrew a thin ffratum of frefli flaked rounds
quicklime upon the flip-board each time it is cleaned, im-them*
mediately before it is put into its place. i his would
abforb the mephitic gas, for as foon as it is generated it
would defeend upon the furface of the quicklime. Thus
would the worms be kept continually in an atmofphere
of pure air (c). Were the walls of the apartments to
be f requently wafhed with quicklime and water, it would
tend much to promote cleanliuefs at a fmall expence,
and augment the healthinefs of the worms as well as
that of the perfons who attend them.
When the filk worm refufes its food, and leaves fdky Mr
traces on the leaves over which it pafles, it is a proof ,wayne ®
that it is ready to begin its cocoon. It is now neceffa- C
ry to form a new receptacle, which is commonly done worms
by pinning together papers in the fliape of inverted cones when po-
with broad bafes. “ This method (fays Mr Svvayne),i>'.g tofpin,
where there are many worms, is exceedingly tedious, TrunfaB'mi
waltes much paper, and ufes a large number of pins ; of the Socit-
belides, as the iilk worm always weaves an outer cover-
ing or defenfive web before it begins the cocoon or
oval ball, I apprehended that it cauled a needlels waffe Arts, vol.
of lilk in forming the broad web at the top. The me-vii. p, nj.
thod I make ufe of is, to roll a fmall piece of paper (an
uncut odiavo leaf, inch as that of an old magazine, is
fufficient
(c) To put this queftion beyond a doubt, Mr Blancard made the following comparative experiments, wine
were feveral times repeated. “ I procured (fays he) four glafs jars nine inches high and five in diameter, clofing
the mouth with cork ftoppers. After which I placed in each of them, in their fecond life (fo mm may be tranflate
which means the ftage between the different fiekntffes), twelve filk worms, which were fed tour times a-day, an
which I confined in this kind of prilon all their life, without taking away either their dead companions or t eir
ordure or litter. I fprinkled with chalk the worms of only two of thele jars, and kept the twro others to com¬
pare with them. .
“ In thofe without lime, I never obtained neither more nor lefs than three fmall and imperfecl cocoons (c ’ques
cu boujfard), and in the two that were fprinkled with lime, I had very often twelve, and never lets than nine me
full-fized firm cocoons.” . . ,
This experiment affords the moff fatisfaftory proof of the utility of this procefs. From a number of tna s e
found, that even when the worms were covered with a very large proportion of lime, they never wrere m any way
incommoded by it.
S 1 L [ 48 j
|Hk. fufficient for three), round ray fore finger, snd to give
—v  it a tyvift at the bottom ; which is done with the utmoft
expedition, and gives no occalion for the ufe ot pins,
Thefe rolled paper-cafes being like wife of a form more
nearly refembling that of a cocoon, with a much narrow¬
er opening on the top than the others, takes away the
neceffity of walling much lilk in the outer web, and
confequently leaves more to be employed in forming the
ball The filk is readily taken out of thefe cales by
untwifting the bottom ; and if this be done with mode¬
rate care, and the papers are preferved, they will ferve
feveral times for the like purpofe.”
Others advife, that'when the filk worms are prepa¬
ring to fpin, little bullies of heath, broom, or twigs,
Ihould be iluck uptight near the Ihelr or box in which
they are inclofed : the worms mount thefe, and attach
their web to them.
When the worms are ready to mount, in order to
*7
lit
kind* of
T S I L
The wcoons which are kept for breeding are sailed Silk.
royal cocoons- For felecling and preferving thefe, we
have been favoured with fume valuable imlrudfions by ^
Mr Wright of Failley, which we lhail ptefent to our Wright’s
readers.—The largeft and bdl cocoons ought to beinftru6Uo-n«
kept for breed, about an equal number ol males and^
females ; the cocoons that contain the former are Sharp- 1V
Others re¬
commend
bullies ot
heath.
16
How filk
---ripin, if the weather be hot, attended with thunder, you
vvhet^af- will fee them in a languifhing condition ; your care mult
fetfled by then be to revive them, which is effedted thus : Take a
thunder. few eggs and onions, and fry them in a pan with fome
7"ranfailiom Hale hog’s lard, the ranker the better, and make pan-
oj the Ame- cake ; which done, carry it fmoakinghot into the room
'hphicalsZ- W^ere they are kept, and go round the chamber with
(itty°vo\/n.it* You wall be furprifed to fee how the fmell revives
them, excites thofe to eat who have not done feeding,
and makes the others that are ready to fpin climb up
the twigs.
In about ten or twelve days, according to the ac¬
counts which we have received from Mr Andrew Wright
of Pailky, it may be lafely concluded, that if the worms
have finilhed their work, the cocoons may be colledled.
We fhall now diflinguifh the cocoons from one another
according to their value or their ufe, and confider the
method of managing each. They mxy be diltinguifhed
into the good and bad. The goodcoccons maybe known
by thefe marks : they are little, ftrong, and firm j have
a fine grain, both ends are round, and they are free
irorn fpots. Among the good cocoons alfo may be ar¬
ranged thofe which are called calcined cocoons, in which
the worm, in confequence of ficknefs, is petril ed or re¬
duced to a fine powder. Thefe cocoons produce more
filk them others, and are fold in Piedmont at hair as much
again. They may be dillinguilhed by the noife which
the worm makes when the cocoon is lhaken. Of the bad
coccons there are fix fpecies ; \.'Ylxt pointed cocoons,
one extremity of which ends in a point; the filk which
Covers the point is weak, and loon breaks or tears. 2.
The coca lorn, which are bigger, but the contexture is
weak. 3. The dupions, or double cocoons, which have
been formed by the joint labour of two and fometimes
of thiee worms. 4. The Jovjjlons, which have a loole con¬
texture, fometimes fo looie that they are tranfparent.
5. r{\\z perforated cocoons, which have a hole at one end.
6. The bad choquette, which is compofed of defective
cocoons, fpotted or rotten. Befides thfile there is the
good choquette, which does not properly belong to ei¬
ther of thefe two clafies : it is formed ol thole cocoons
in which the worm dies before the filk is brought to
perfection. The worms adhere to one fide of the co¬
coon, and therefore when the cocoon is lhaken will not
rattle : the filk is as fine, but is not of fo bright a co¬
lour, nor is fo Itrong and nervous, as that which is ob¬
tained from good cocoons.
rp, beintr
-l wound.
prefer vine
er pointed at the ends than thofe that contain the lat-the royal
ter. Although it Ihould happen that there are more cocoon--,
females than males, little inconvenience or ill confe-
quencescan arile from it, as one male will lerve two or
three females, it the time or their coming out of the
cocoons anlwer. About 12 or * 5 days after they be¬
gin to fpin, the cocoons lor breed ma> be laid on Iheeta
of white paper ; about this time the moth opens lor it-
felf a paliage through the end of its cocoon, and
ifiues out. When the female has laid her eggs, which,
on an average may amount to 250, they are fpread
upon fheets of paper and hung up to dry in fome
place where they may not be expofed to the heat of
the fun : after being dried they mult be kept in a cool
well-aired place, where neither vapours nor moillure
can reach them. That they may be preferved from ex¬
ternal accidents, as infedts of different kinds will deftroy
them, and mice is their enemy in all the ftages of their
exillence, they Ihould be kept in ftone pots or glafa
bottles with their mouths Hopped, and there remain un¬
til brought out next feafon to be hatched.
The cocoons from which the !ilk is 'eo be immediately How to
wound mull beexpoledto the heat ol an oven, in order PrePar* die-
to kill the chrylahs or aurelia, which would other wife eat *ue-
its way through the eocoon, and render it ufelefs.
following dircciions are given for managing this proeeis-
by one of the firft filk manufacturers in Italy.
Put your cocoons in long !ha!low baikets, and fill cTranf..S}'ioti*
them up within an inch of the top. You then cover ■Amc-
them with paper, andput a wrapper over that. Theft baf- t*"
kets are to be difpoled in an oven, whofe heat is as near^j, Vol, ii,.
as can be that of an oven from which the bread is juit
drawn after being baked. W hen your cocoons have re¬
mained therein near an hour, you mult draw them out;
and to fee whether all the worms are dead, draw out a
dupion from the middle of your balket and open it: if
the w'ormbe dead, you may conclude all the relt are fo;
becaufe the contexture at the dupion being Itronger
than that of the other cocoons, it is conlequently lefs
eafy to be penetrated by the heat. You mult obferve
to take it from the middle of the balket, becaufe in
that part the heat is lealt perceptible. Alter you have
drawn your baikets from the even, you mull firft cover
each of them with a woollen blanket or rug, leaving
the wrapper befides, and then you pile them above one
another. If your baking has fucceeded, your woollen
cover will be all over wet with a kind dew, the thick-
nels cf your little finger If there be lefs, it is a ligu
your cocoons have been too much or too little baked.
If too much baked, the worm, being over-dried, cannot
trantpire a humour he no longer contains, and your co¬
coon is then burnt. If not enough baked, the worm
has not been fufficiently penetrated by the heat to di-
ftil the liquor he contains, and in that cale is not dead.
You mull let your bafkets Hand thus covered five or
fix hours if poffible, in order to keep in the heat, as this
makes an end of Hilling thofe worms which might have
avoided the firft: impreflion of the fire. You are like-
4 wifs
S I L [ 436 ] S I L
S lit. wife to take great care to let your cocoons Hand in the
-v—“~ oven the time that is neceffary; for if they do not Hand
Ion T enough, your worms are only ft tinned for a time and
will afterwards be revived. If, on the other hand, you
leave them too long in the oven, you burn them : many
inftances of thefe two cafes are frequently to be met
with. It is a good fign when you fee fome of the
butterflies fpring out from the cocoons which have
been baked, becaufe you may be certain they are
not burnt. For if you would kill them all to the laft
worm, you would burn many cocoons which might be
more expofed to the heat than that particular worm.
30 The next operation is the winding of the filk. Be-
How the pore you begin to vvjnc[, you muft prepare your cocoons
fiik Is to be r n
wound 38 f’0h°ws :
from the i. In ftripping them of that wafte filk that furrounds
cocoons. them, and which ferved to fallen them to the twigs.
This burr is proper to fluff' quilts, or other fuch ufes ;
\ou may hkewite (pin it to make ftockings, but they
will be coarfe and ordinary.
2. You muft fort your cocoons, feparating them into
different claffes in order to wind them apart. Thefe
claffes are, the good white cocoons ; the good co¬
coons of all the other colours; the dupions; the
cocalons, among which are included the weak cocoons ;
the good choquette; and, lattly, the bad choquette.
In forting the cocoons, you will always find fome per¬
forated cocoons amongft them, whofe worm is already
born ; thofe you mull fet apart for fleuret. You wall
hkewife find force foufflons, but very few ; for which
reafon you may put them among the bad choquette,
and. they run up into wafte.
The good cocoons, as well white as yellow, are the
eafieft to wind ; thofe which require the greateft care
and pains are the cocalons; you muft wind them in
cooler water than the others, and if you take care to
give them to a good windfter, you will have as good
filk from them as the reft. You muft hkewife have
careful windfters for the dupions and choquettes. 1 hcfe
two fpecies require hotter water than the common co¬
coons.
The good cocoons are to be wound in the following
manner : Firft, choofe an open convenient place for your
filature, the longer the better, if you intend to have
many furnaces and coppers. The building ftiould be
high and open on one fide, and walled on the other, as
well to fcreen you from the cold winds and receive the
fun, as to give a free paffage to the fleam of your ba-
fons or coppers.
Thefe coppers or bafons are to be difpofed (when the
building will admit of it) in a row on each fide of the
filature, as being the molt convenient method of pla¬
cing them, for by that means in walking up and down
you fee what every one is about. And thefe bafons
fhould be two and two together, with a chimney be¬
tween every couple.
fflaving prepared your reels (which are turned by
hands, and require a quick eye), and your fire being a
light one under every bafon, your windfter muft flay
till the water is as hot as it can be without boiling.
When every thing is ready, you throw into your
baions two or three handfuls of cocoons, which you
gently brufh over with a wifk about fix inches long,
cut ftumpy like a broom worn out : by thefe means tlte
threads of the cocoons flick to the wifk. You jnuft
difengagc thefe threads from the wifk, and purge them Silk,
by drawing thefe ends with yrour fingers till they
come off entirely clean. This operation is called la
Battue.
When the threads are quite clear, you muft pafs four
of them (if you will wind fine filk) through each of the
holes in a thin iron bar that is placed horizontally at
the edge of your bafon ; afterwards you twift the two
ends (which confift qf four cocoons each) twenty or
twenty-five times, that the four ends in each thread
may the better join together in crofting each other, and
that your filk may be plump, which otherwife would
be flat.
Your windfter muft always have a bowl of cold wa¬
ter by her, to dip her fingers in, and to fprinkle very
often the find bar, that the heat may not burn the
thread.
Your threads, when thus twilled, go upon two iron
hooks called rampiiis, which are placed higher, and
from thence they go upon the reel. At one end
of the axis of the reel is a cog-wheel, which catching in
the teeth of the pofl-rampin, moves it from the right to
the left, and confequently the thread that is upon it;
fo that your filk is wound on the reel crolsways,
and your threads form two hanks of about four fingers
broad.
As often as the cocoons you wind are done, or break
or diminifh only, you muft join frefh ones to keep up
the number requifite, or the proportion ; becauie, as
the cocoons wind off, the thread being finer, you muft
join two cocoons half wound to replace a new one :
Thus you may wind three new ones and two halt
wound, and your filk is from four to five cocoons.
When you would join a frefn thread, you mull lay
one end on your finger, which you throw lightly on
the other threads that are winding, and it joins them
immediately, and continues to go up with the reft.
You muft not wind off yrour cocoons too bare or to
the laft, becaufe. when they are near at an end, the
balrre, that is, the hufic, joins in with the other threads,
and makes the filk foul and gouty.
When you have finiflied your firft parcel, you muft
clean your bafons, taking out all the ftriped worms, as
well as the cocoons, on which there is a little filk,
which you firft open and take out the worm, and then
throw them into a baflcet by you, into which you like-
wife call the loofe filk that comes off in making the
battue.
You then proceed as before with other two or three
handfuls of cocoons; you make a.new battue; you
purge them, and continue to wind the fame number of
cocoons or their equivalent, and fo to the end.
As was already mentioned, the windfter muft always
have a bowl of cold water by her, to fprinkle the bar,
to cool Iyer fingers every time file dips them in the hot
water, and to pour into her bafon when neceffary, that
is, when her water begins to boil. You muft be very
careful to twift. your threads a fufficient number of
times, about 25, otherwife your filk remains flat, ia-
ftead of being round and full ; befides, when the filk is
not well croffed, it never can be clean, becaufe a gout
or nub that comes from a cocoon will pals through a
ihiall number of thefe twills, though a greater will
flop it. Your thread then breaks, and you pafs what
feulnefs there may be in the middle of your reel be-
‘V tween
S I L
31
What nutri'
her of
worms pro.
duce a cer¬
tain quan
tity of filk.
3*
Length of
the threadt.
a 33
Ad van ta¬
pes of Mr
Sholl’s ini-
Koved filk
loom.
tween the two hanks, which ferves for a head-band to
tie them.
You muft obfervethat your water be juft in a proper de¬
gree of heat. When it is too hot; the thread is dead, and
has no body ; when it is too cold, the ends which form
the thread do not join well, and form a harfa ill-qualifi¬
ed filk.
You muft change the water in your bafon four times
a-day for your dupions and choquette, and twice only
for good cocoons when you wind fine filk ; but if you
wind coaife filk, it is neceftary to change it three or
four times. For if you were not to change the water, the
filk would not be fo bright and glofly, becaufe the worm
contained in the cocoons foul it very confiderably. You
muft endeavour as much as poffible to wind with clear
water, for if there are too many worms in it, your filk
is covered with a kind of dull which attracts the moth,
and deftroys your filk.
You may wind your filk of what fize you pleafe,
from one cocoon to 1000 ; but it is difficult to wind
more than 30 in a thread. The nicety, and that in
which confifts the greateft difficulty, is to wind even ;
becaufe as the cocoon winds off, the end is finer, and
you muft then join other cocoons to keep up the fame
fize. This difficulty of keeping the lilk always even is
fo great, that (excepting a thread of two cocoons,
which we call fuch) we do not fay a filk of three, of
four, or of fix cocoons ; but a filk of three to four, of
four to five, of fix to feven cocoons. If you proceed
to a coarfer filk, you cannot calculate fo nicely as to
one cocoon more or lefs. We fay, for example, from
12 to 15, from 15 to 20, and fo on.
What number of worms are neceffary to produce a
.certain quantity of filk has not been afeertained. And
as different perfons who wifhed to determine this point
have had different refults, the truth feems to be, that
from various circumftances the fame number of worms
may produce more filk at one time than at another. It
is related in the fecond volume of the Tranfadtions of
the Society for encouraging Arts, &c. that Mrs Wil¬
liams obtained nearly an ounce and a half of filk from
244 cocoons. Mr Swayne from 50 cocoons procured
100 grains. Mifs Rhodes obtained from 250 of the
largeft cocoons, three quarters of an ounce and a dram.
From a paper in the fecond volume of the Ameri¬
can Franfaftions, which we have before referred to in
the courfe of this article, we are informed that 1 $0
ounces of good cocoons yield about 11 ounces of filk
from five to fix cocoons : if you wind coarfer, fomething
more. But what appears aftoniftiing, Mr Salvatore
Bertezen, an Italian, to whom the Society for encou-
raging Arts, &c. adjudged their gold medal, raifed five
pounds of excellent filk from 12,000 worms.
The cocoons produce a thread of very unequal
length ; you may meet with fome that yield 1200 ells,
whilft others will fcarcely afford 200 ells. In general,
you may calculate the produdlion of a cocoon from^oo
to 600 ells in length.
As there is every reafon to hope that the filk manu-
fadlure will foon be carried on with ardour in this
country, and to a great extent, we are happy to learn
that the filk loom has been much improved lately by Mr
Sholl of Bethnal-Green. It appears from the evidence
of feveral gentlemen converfant in that branch of filk
weaving to which this loom is particularly adapted, that
[ 4S7 1
S I L
Silk
- li
Silphium-
the advantages of this conftru&ion are, the gaining
light, a power of ftiortening the porry occafionally, fo
as to fuit any kind of work, being more portable, and  
having the gibbet firmly fixed, together with the r^faaion*
diminution of price ; which, compared with the old V the So-
loom, is as five pounds, the price of a loom on the old^-V/0r en'
conftru&ion, to three pounds ten ftiillings, the price of^/Z^Jcc
one of thofe contrived by Mr Sholl; and that, as the CJl/viii. *
proportion of light work is to ftrong work as nine to
one, this fort of loom promifes to be of very confiderable
advantage, particularly in making modes, or other black
work. ,4
As a plate of this loom, with proper references, willDe/cnptioH
render its advantages moft intelligible, we (hall fubjoin it"
thefe : Plate CCCCLXVI. A, A, The fills; B, B, The
breaft-roll polls: C, The cut tree; D, I), The up¬
rights ; E, The burdown ; F, The batton ; G, The
reeds; H, The harnefs; I, The breaft-roll; K, The
cheefe ; jL, The gibbet: M, The treddles ; N, The
tumblers ; O, Short counter-mefhes ; P, Long counter-
mefhes ; Q^The porry ; R, R, Cane-roll polls ; S, The
cane-roll; T, The weight bar and weight; U, U»
Counter-weights ; W, The breaking rod ;"X, X, Crofa
rods. ,
SiLK-V/orm. See Silk.
SILPHA, Car rion-beetle, in natural hiftory ; a
genus of" animals belonging to the clafs of infeSa, and t<x
the order of coleopter*. The antennas are clavated; the cla-
va are perfoliated; the elytra marginated ; the head is
prominent; and the thorax marginated. ; here are 94 fpe-
cies, of which feven only are natives of Britain and Ire¬
land. 1. The vefpillo. The margin of the thorax
broad. The (hells abbreviated, black, with two yel¬
low belts. The thighs of the hind legs large, with a
fpine near their origin. Length near one inch. It in-
fefts dead bodies. 2. The biphujlulata, is black; the
antennae are long and fmall, and there are two red fpots
on the middle of each fhell. The length is one-third
of an inch. 3. The pujlulata, is black and oblong :
there are four brown fpots on the fhells : the length is
one-fifth of an inch. It lives on trees. 4. The qua-
dripundata. The head, antennae, and legs black. Mar- Berkenhouf,
gin of the thorax and (hells are of a pale yellow, with vo1, u
four black fpots. The length half an inch. It is found
in Cain-wood, near Fkmpftead. 5, The Jabulofa, is
black; the antennae are fhort and globular ; there are
five ftriae on each fhell. The fhells "and wings are (hort.
There are five joints on the two firft feet, four on the
reft. It lives in (and. 6- I he aquatica, is brown, with
a green bronze tinge. There are four ribs on the tho¬
rax. On each fhell there are 10 ftriae. The length is
one-fifth of an inch. 7. The puttcaria^ is black and ob¬
long ; the fhells are abbreviated; the abdomen is round¬
ed at the extremity ; the thorax and fhells are fcarce
marginated; the length is one line. It is found fre¬
quently running on flowers.
SILPHIUM, in botany A genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of fyngeneiia, and to the order of poly-
gamia necefiaria; and in the natural fyftem arranged un-
der the 49th order, compqftta. The receptacle°is pa¬
leaceous ; the pappus has a two-horned margin, and the
calyx is fquarrofe.. There are eight fpecies ; the laci-
niatum, terebinthinum, perfoliatura, connatum, afterif-
cum, trifoliatum, foldaginoides, and trilobatum. The
firft fix of thefe are natives of North America.
SILs
Silver,
S I L [ 488 ] S I L
SILVER, one of the perfect metals, and the whi- ftallizes into quadrangular pyramids.
.    ,.11 L-, fir* '*
tell and moll brilliant among them all, is of the fpecific
gravity, according to Bergman, of 10.552 ; but accord-
ing to Kinvan, of 1».095. Its duftility is not greatly
inferior to that of gold, as a grain of lilverleaf mealures
fomewhat more than 51 fquare inches ; and the filver
wire ufed for aftronomical purpofes meafures only the
7 ^oth part of an inch in diameter ; which is no more
than half the thicknefs of the hair of the human head.
Cropjltdt't Jt is harder and more elaftic than lead, tin, or gold ; but
Mineralogy,f0 COpper, platina, or iron : like other metals it
vo1-^ grows hard by hammering, but is eafily reduced to its
^ ** ’ former Hate by annealing. It is more deftrudlible than
gold, and is particularly a&ed upon by fulphureous va¬
pours ; hence its furface tarnilhes in the air, and ailumes
a dark brown colour.
“It has been long thought (faysMr Fourcroy) that iii-
ver is indeftr uttible by the combined adion of heat and
air. It is certain, that this metal kept in fution, with¬
out contad of air, does not appear to be lenfibly alter¬
ed ; yet Junker had affirmed, that by treating it a long
time in the reverberatory furnace, in the manner of 1-
faac Holland us, filver was changed into a vitreous calx.
This experiment has been confirmed by Macquer. That
learned chemift expofed filverrao times fucceffively in a
porcelain crucible to the fire of the furnace at Seves;
and at the 20th fufion he obtained a vitrifoim matter
ef an olive green, which appeared to be a trGe glafs of
filver. This metal, when heated in the locus of a burn*
incr glafs, has always exhibited a white pulverulent mat¬
ter on its furface, and a greeniih vitreous covering on
the fupport it relied upon. Theie two lads remove ail
doubt refpeding the alteration of filver : though it is
much more difficult to calcine than other metallic mat¬
ters, yet it is capable of being converted alter a long
time into a white calx, which, treated in a violent fire,
affords an olive-coloured glais. It may be poffiblepei-
haps to obtain a calx of filver by heating this metal
when reduced into very line laminiE, or into leaves, lor a
very long time m a matrals, as is done with mercuiy.
Magellan informs us, that by melting in a due pro¬
portion with gold or Heel, filver becomes greeniffi or
bluiffi ; fo that it is capable of producing the white,
yellow, red, green, blue, and olive colours, more or leis
confpicuoufly according to the various circumtlances of
heat and proportions of the mixture. Though he
makes mention of the vitrifications by Macquet alrea¬
dy taken notice of, he denies that it can be calcined by
heat alone. “ Silver (fays he) is fo fixed by itfelf in
the fire, that, after being kept a whole month in fu-
fion, it had only loft one 60th part of its weight, which
might be on account of fome alloy. It is therefore in¬
capable of being calcined by mere heat; and the calx
offilver, which can only be made by means of its folu-
tion in acids, is reducible to its metallic form without
the addition of any oxigenous fubftance. But when
filver is expofed to the violent heat of the folar rays
colle&ed by a powerful lens, a kind of fmoke is feen
furrounding it, which proves at laft to be the minute
particles of the metal raifed and difperfed by heat, as is
evident if a thin plate of gold be expofed to it ; for
then the particles of filver are feen upon the gold in the
fame manner as thofe of gold are feen upon filver in a
fimilar experiment."
   Q  rj   M. Baunrf ob* Silvw.
ferves, that, in cooling, it aflumes a fymmetrical form,
obfervable on the furface by final] fibres refembling the
feathers of a pen. M. Fourcroy obferves, that the fine
button obtained by cupellation, often prefents on ita
lurface five or fix fides arranged amongft each other like
a pavement ; but the cryftallization in tetrahedral pyra¬
mids has not been obferved particularly excepting by
Meffrs Tillet and Mongez. it has been fuppofed that
filver melts with a fmaller degree of heat than copper ;
but the late improved thermometer of Mr Wedgewood
fhows that this is a miftake ; filver requiring 130° of
Fahrenheit more than copper to bring it into fufion It
is found in the earth,
I. Native, generally of the finenefs of. 16 carats ;
and of this there are feveral varieties. 1. Thin plated
or leaved. 2. Capillary filver, of fine or coarfe fibres
or arborefeent, from Potofi in America and Kunf-
berg in Norway. 3. A kind is alfo met with refem¬
bling coarfe linen in the furface, which in Saxony is call¬
ed knit cobalt. Abundance of this kind is to be met
with in Potofi, but more rarely in Saxony and Norway.
4. Sometimes native filver is met with in a cryftalline or
regularly figured ftace with filming furfaces. This is
found at Kunfberg, but is very fcarce. There appears
likewife a kind of cryftallization on the thin plates of
native filver, their furfaces being full of minute pyra¬
midal cryftals. Moil of the American filver is of the
native kind; fo is that at Kunfberg in Norway. It
is not, however, met with native fo commonly in other
European mines. A very fmall quantity of it is found
in the mines of Salberg in Wdlmanland, and or Lo-
fafen in Dalarne, and feveral other places in Sweden.
It has been found in pretty large lumps in clay mixed
with nickel, partly decayed or withered ; in which fitu-
ation it formed the compound called the Jlercus anjeri-
num, or goofe dung ore. 5. A piece of native filver in
coal is fitown in the mineralogical academy at Frey-
berg; and Lahman, quoted by Le Camus, ipeaks alfo
of a fimilar filver ore found in a mine of pit-coal f. f Cronjhddt
The capillary filver, according to the obfervations oliyll',e,al0Syi
Henckel and Rome de Lifle, feems to have been pro-p‘ £41‘
duced by a decompofition of red lilver ore ; andW alle-
rius affirms, that if fulphur is mixed in a gentle heat
with filver, the latter takes a capillary form. 6. Native
filver is likewife fometimes found in the form of fpider’s
webs, and for that leafon called by the Spaniards arum.
7. It is met with in branches formed by oftaedrons
inferted into one another. Some of thefe fhow the
mark of a leaf of fern or of a tree ; others are cubes
or fingle odlaedrons, whofe angles are truncated, tho’
thefe laft are but rare. 8. It is often found diiperfed
through land and ochre, as well as in grey limeftone in
Lower Auilria, and in a greeniffi clay near Schemnitz,
or mixed with ochre, clay, and calciform nickel. It is
generally alloyed with copper, fometimes with gold,
iron, or regains of antimony ; and fometimes it con¬
tains even five per cent, of arfenic. That found near
Kunffierg contains fo much gold, that the colour of
it is yellow.
Wallerius diftinguiffies feven fpecies of native filver ;
viz. 1. In irregular mafies and lumps, at Kunfberg in
Norway and other places, in a bed of clay. 2. In a
granular and jagged form in America and Norway. 3
.
11UU    J OO .
By flow cooling after it has been melted, filver cry- • Arborefeent, in the places already mentioned.
4. In
thin
!
S I L
[ 489 ]
S l L
Id. p. S44
Sld^atfon s
£Jfayt>
'^ai. iii.
thin leaves, between the fi{Tares of Hones, in Norway
' and Germany. In a capillary form, in the places al¬
ready mentioned, including the cobweb filver of the
Spaniards already mentioned. 6. Cryftallized. 7. Su¬
perficial. Mr Daubenton enumerates eight varieties of
native white filver, of different forms, mod of which
have been already enumerated. Tire materials in which
this metal is molt commonly found in its native date
are, baro-felenite, limedone, felenite, quartz, chert, flint,
terpentine, gneifs, agate, mica, calcareous fpar, pyrites,
jchiitus, clay, &c. Sometimes it is met with in large
maffes, of the weight of 60 pounds or more, in or near
the veins of mod metallic ores, particularly in Peru and
in various parts of Europe, of a white, brown, or yel-
lowifh colour. In Norway and at Alface it is found in
the form of folitary cubes and o&ahedral lumps, of 50
and 60 pounds weight.
2. Native filver alloyed with other metals. 1. With
gold, as in Norway, where it contains fo much as to
appear of a yellow colour. 2. With copper. 3. With
gold and copper. 4. Amalgamated with mercury, as
in the mines of Salberg. M. Rome de Lifle men¬
tions a native amalgam of filver and mercury found at
Mufchel Landfberg in the duchy of Deux Fonts, in a
ferruginous matrix, mixed with cinnabar, and crydalli-
zed in a hexagonal form, and of a large fize. It was
before the French revolution preferred in the king’s ca¬
binet at Paris. 5. With iron. According to Bergman,
this ore contains two per cent, of iron; but Mongez in¬
forms us, that it often does not exceed one per cent.
■ 6. With lead. “ Silver (fays Mr Magellan) is always
contained in lead, though the quantity is generally in-
fuflicient to defray the expence of feparating it. In
the reign of Edward I. of England, however, near i6co
pounds weight of lilver were obtained, in the courfe of
three years, from a lead mine in Devonfhire, which had
been difcovered about the year 900. The lead mines
in Cardiganfhire have at different periods afforded great
quantities of filver ; fo that Sir Hugh Middleton is faid
to have cleared from them L. 2000 in a month. The fame
mines in the year 1745 yielded 80 ounces of filver out of
every ton of lead. The lead in only one of the fmelt-
ing houfes at Holywell in Flintfhire produced no lefs
than 37521 ouncfcs, or 3x26^ pounds of filver from the
year 1754 to 1756, and from 1774 to 1776. There
are fome lead ores in England, which, though very poor
in that metal, contain between 300 and 400 ounces of
filver in a ton of lead ; and it is commonly obferved,
that the poorefl lead ores are the richeff in filver; fo
that a large quantity of filver is probably thrown
away in England by not having the pooreft fort of
lead (ires properly eflayed.” 7. Mr Monnet found fil¬
ver united with arfenic among the ores which came
from Guadanal canal in Spain, and an ore of the fame
kind is furnifhed by the Samfon mine near Andreaberg
in the Hartz : but Mr Mongez very properly remarks,
that thefe ores muff be diffinguifhed from fuch as have
the arfenic in the form of an acid ; for in this cate they
are properly mineralized by it, wlulft there can only be
a mixture of native filver, or fome of its calces with ar¬
fenic in its reguline form. 8. Bergman mentions lilver
in a Rate of union with antimony. The ore yiolds fome
fmoke when roafted, but has not the garlic fmell obfer-
vable in the arfenical ores. 9. The white filver ore,
found in the mines near Freyberg, has the metal united
Vol.XAII. Part II.
Silver.
to the regains of arfenic and iron, the three metallic in¬
gredients being nearly in equal proportions. All the v~
extraneous matters with which the filver' is united are
fornetimes in exceedingly fmall proportion, but not to
be neglefted where they exceed the hundredth part of
the whole mafs. 10. A particular kind of flony filver
ores is mentioned by Wallerius under the title of lapis
dea, and which contain the following varieties, viz.
the calcareous filver ore at Annaberg in Auftria, when
the metal is mixed with an alkaline limeftone ; the fpa-
thofe ore, either white, variegated, or yellowifh, found
at Schemnitz in Hungary; the quartzofe white ore in
a powdery form, mixed with ferruginous fcoria, found
at Potoli in America ; the dark and variegated quartz¬
ofe filver ores, with many other fubdivifions diflinguifh-
ed from one another by little elfe than their colour.
Silver is found mineralized by various fubftances; as,
1. With fulphur in the glaffy or vitreous filver ore ;
though this name feems rather to belong to the minera
argenti cornea or horn filver ore, to be afterwards taken
notice of more particularly. It is duddile, and of the
fame colour with lead, but quickly becomes very black
by expofure to the air ; though fometimes it is grey or
black even when firlt broken. It is found either in
large lumps, or inhering in quartz, gypfum, gneifs, py¬
rites,'&c. Its fpecific gravity, according to Kirwan, is
7,200. An hundred parts of it contain from 72 to 77 of
filver, and it is rarelyr contaminated with any other metal.
Profeffor Brunnich fays that it contains 180 merks
of filver in the hundred weight. The medium between
the glafs ore and the red gilder ore is called rofcb-gewceihs
in Hungary, and brittle glafs ore in Saxony. It is black,
and affords a powder of the fame colour when pounded.
In the mines of Himmelfurft near Freyberg, it is faid
to have held 140 merks, but thefe pieces are very fcarcc
at preient; and indeed the Flungarian glafs ores in ge¬
neral are now very fcarce, as Profeffor Brunnich informs
us, though they are now and then found in the wind-
fhafts, which are frequently covered with a thin mem¬
brane or rather cruft, of the colour of pyrites. Mr Ma¬
gellan fays that this ore is nothing elfe but native filver
penetrated by fulphur; for, on being expofed to a flow
heat, the latter flies off, and the filver fhoots into fila¬
ments. There are nine varieties of it. 1. Like black lead.
or plumbago, the moft common kind of any. z.Bruckman
mentions a kind brown on the outfide and greenifh
within. 3. rY\\t yellow ore has its colour from fome ar¬
fenic contained in it, which forms an orpiment with the
fulphur. 4. It is alfo found of agreent/h, and 5. bluijh co¬
lour ; the latter is friable, like the fcoria of metals, and is
called at Freyberg Schlarekcnerzi or the ore of fcoria.
6. It is found alfo in the arborefeent. 7. Lamellated. 8. Cry
Jlahized into octaedral or hexaedral prifms, and into ten
pyramids with ten iides. 9. Lallly, it is found fuperficicil,
or covering the ftones or maffes of other ores.
2. The pyrites argenteus of Henckel contains filver
and iron mineralized with arfenic. There are three va- r« 35o.
rieties of it. 1. Flard, white, and fhining ore, of a
compact, lamellar, or fibrous texture. The bright eft
kind has lead filver, only giving 6 or 3 ounces per quin¬
tal, and the richeft about ten per cent. It is found in
Germany and Spain. It contains no fulphur. 2. Of
a yeilovvifli white colour, and ftriated texture reft mb! mg
bifmuth, but much harder. It is found in Spain, and
yields about 6o per cent, of filver. f In another kind
3 the
$ I L ' [ 490 ] S I L
Silver, tlje quantity of arfem’c is fo great, that it would fcarce-
—v 1 jy the name of iilver ore if the arfenic were not
very eafily diffipated. It is foft and eafily cut; has a
brilliant metallic appearance, and confifts of conchoidal
laminae. A quintal contains only from four to fix
ounces of filver, but it is eafily reduced by evaporating
the arfenic, after which the iilver is left behind flightly
contaminated with iron.
3. The red or ruby filver ore, the roth^ulden of the
Germans, has the metal combined with fulphur and ar¬
fenic It is a heavy fhining fubftance, fometimes trani-
parent, and foraetimes opaque ; the colour Generally
crimfan, though fometimes grey or blackifh. It is
found in fhapelefs malies, or cryllallized in pyramids or
polygons, fometimes dendritical or plated, or with ra¬
diated incruftations. It is found in quartz, flint, fpar,
pyrites, fparry iron ore, lead ore, cobalt ore, jafper^ba-
ro-felenite, gneifs, &c. When radiated or ftriated, it is
called rothgulden bluth. It cracks in the fire, and deto¬
nates with nitre. Its fpecific gravity is from 9,400 to
5,684. Bergman informs us, that this kind contains,
in the hundred, 60, fometimes 70, pounds of,filver, 27
of arfenic, and 13 of fulphur. The darkeft: coloured
ores are the richell, the yellow kinds much poorer ; but
tbe mod yellow do not belong to this fpecies, being in
fail an orpiment with 6 or 7 per cent, of filver. This
laft kind is brought chiefly from Potofi in America,
and is called rofi-cler by the Spaniards.
4. The fchuart% gulden, or Ji!ber mulm, contains the
metal mineralized by fulphur and a fmall quantity of ar¬
fenic and iron. It is of a black footy colour, and was
fuppofed by Cronfcedt to contain a good quantity of
copper, to which its colour was owing ; but later expe¬
riments have evinced, that there is no copper at all in it.
jZnwaii's It is either of a folid or brittle confluence, and of a
J'eluierulogy. glafly appearance when broken, or of a loofer texture,
and footy or deep black colour; or it is found like
mofs, or thin leaves, lying on the fnrface of other iilver
ores, or thofe of lead and cobalt, or in clays, ponderons
fpar, gneifs, &c. It contains from 25 to 60 per cent,
of iilver.
5. The minera argent! alba, the Weijfgulden ore of the
Germans, is a heavy, foft, opaque fubilance, fine grained
or fcaly, bright and fhining in its fraftures, of a whitifh,
fteely, or lead colour ; fometimes cryilallized in pyra-
midical or cylindrical forms, but often in amorphous
grains, or refembling mofs, or in the form of thin la¬
minae incruftating other bodies, found in quartz, fpar,
itelitein, pyrites, blend, lead-ore, cobalt-ore, fparry iron
ore, fluors, &c. It is very fufible. Its fpecific gravity
is from 5 to 5,300. Its proportion of filver from 10
to 30 per cent. It is found, though not commonly, in
Saxony, Hungary, the Hartz, and St Marie aux
Mines.
6. The weifertx, or white filver ore, is an arfenical
pyrites, containing filver. It is met with in the Saxon
mines fo exaftly refernbling the common arfenical py¬
rites, that it cannot be diftinguiihed from it by infpec-
tion. Cronftedt fuppofes that the filver it contains may
exift in a capillary form ; but Profeflbr Brunnich thinks
this is not altogether the cafe. It is very fcarce, but
met with near Freyberg. There is likewife a brown
mulm having the appearance of rags, met with in the
crevices and upon the lumps of cubic lead ore in a mine
near Claufthal and other places, which contains a great Silver,
quantity of filver. It is of a whitilh fhining colour; —v—
hard, granulated, and folid, fometimes linking fire with
Heel. It difeovers a mixture oi arfenic, by emitting a
garlic fmell when heated.
7. The lel>erert% of the Germans has the metal com¬
bined with fulphurated antimony. It is of a dark grey
and fomewhat brownifh colour. A variety of a blackifh
blue colour is found in the form of capillary cryllals,
and called federertz or plumofe filver ore. It is met with
in Saxony, and contains fometimes a mark or half a
pound, fometimes only two, three, or four ounces, and
fometimes only a mere trifle of filver, per cent. There
is another filver ore, alfo called leberertz by the Ger¬
mans, which contains arfenic and regulus ot antimony.
This ore is fometimes alfo found of a dark grey colour;
for the moll part amorphous, but fometimes cryftallh
zed into pyramids It appears red when feraped, and
contains from one to five per cent, of iilver. The great-
eft part of this ore is copper, and the next arfenic. Ac¬
cording to Bergman, the copper amounts to 24 per
cent. It is found in Tranfylvania ; and a kind was
lately difeovered in Spain, of a hard folid confiflence,
and of a greyifh blue colour.
8. The gooje dung ores contain filver mineralized with
fulphur in combination with iron, arfenic, and cobalt.
It looks like the weifsgulJen, excepting that the cobalt,
by its decompofition, gives it a rofy appearance. There
are two varieties; one of a dull tarnifhed furface and fer¬
ruginous look ; the other has a fhiuing appearance like
the leberertz. It contains from 10 to 40 or 50 per
cent, of filver. The arfenic is in an acid ftate, and
united to the cobalt.
9. The dal fahkrlz contains filver mineralized with
fulphmated copper and antimony, and refembles the
dark-coloured avejfgulden, giving a red powder when
rubbed. It is found either folid or cryftallized, and is
met with in the province of Dal, where it is melted by
a very difficult procefs, calculated to preferve the diffe¬
rent metals it contains. There is another kind which
has arfenic united to the reit of the ingredients. It is
only the grey copper ore impregnated with iilver, of
which it contains from one to twelve per cent, the
quantity of copper being from 12 to 24 per cent, and
the remainder confiliing either of fulphur or arfenic,
with a little iron. It is the meft common of all filver
ores; and M. Monnet remarks, that where copper is
united to arfenic, filver is always to be found. A va¬
riety has been found at Schemnitz, containing a portion
of gold alfo.
1 o. The pecheblende is an ore of zinc containing fil¬
ver, and is met with in the Saxon and Hungarian mines
among the rich gold and filver ores. It is either of
a metallic changeable colour or black. Ot thefe there
were formerly two varieties, viz. either in the form of
fine feales or in balls, but the latter is now entirely un¬
known. A black blend is found in Bohemia, which is
very heavy, with the furface fomewhat elevated like
fome kinds of Hematites, but no filver has yet been ex¬
tracted from it,
11. The bleyglanz, potters ore, or galena, contains fil¬
ver mineralized with fulphurated lead. It is alio called
pyntous fiber, and is of a brown colour, yielding but a
very fmall portion of metal. It is met with at Kunf-
6 berg
s I L r 491 1 s I L
''Silver, bercr In Norway. When the filver is combined wit
fulphurated lead and antimony, the ore is called Jiri-
perz.
12. The marcafite containing filver has the metal uni¬
ted with fulphurated iron. There are great varieties of
this ore holding different proportions of the metal ;
fome produce only half an ounce of fdver per cent. A
liver-coloured marcafite is found at Kunfberg in Nor¬
way, containing from three to three ounces and a half
of filver per cent.
13. Silver is found mineralized with fulphurated and
arfenical cobalt ; the flone fometimes containing den-
driles. Thefe kinds keep well in water, but generally
decay in the air, and lofe the filver they contain. It is
found at Morgenftern near Freyberg and Annaberg.
14. The butter-milk ore contains filver mineralized by
fulphur, with regulus of antimony and barytes. It is
found in the form of thin particles or granular fpar.
Wallerius fays that it is foft like mud, and feels like
butter. He fufpefts it to be produced from other filver
ores wafhed away by running waters. Bomare adds,
that the miners look upon it as a certain fign of other
ores in the neighbourhood, though fome are perfuaded
that it is only an unripened filver ore, which would foon
become perfeft.
15. The combujlibk filver ore is a black brittle fub-
ftance, leaving about fix per cent, of filver in its afhes.
it is in faft a perfeft coal in which filver is found.
16. The hornertz, or horn filver ore, in which the fil-
ver is united with the muriatic acid, is the fcarceft of
all the filver ores. It is fometimes found in fnowy cu¬
bical cryftals, but is met with of many different colours.
Its principal charafteriftic is to change to a violaceous
brownifh colour when expofed to the funbeams, as hap¬
pens alfo to the artificial luna cornea. It is frequently
cryftallized in a cubic form, though not always of a
■white colour. Sometimes it refembles an earth eafily
fufible without fmoke. There is a black kind, friable,
and eafily reducible to powder; the other is in fome
degree malleable, may be cut with a knife, and takes a
fort of polilh when rubbed. The vitreous filver ore,
which is fometimes mixed with the horn filver, is fo-
luble in nitrous acid ; and this affords a method of fe-
parating them, the horn filver ore being infoluble in that
menftruum. When the horn filver is free from iron, it
generally contains 70 per cent, of filver at leaff ; but
thefe ores moftly contain fome portion of iron, a fmall
part of which is even united to the marine acid. This
kind of ore was firft analyfed by Mr Woulfe, who dif-
PM. T/vm/covered the prefence of the vitriolic acid in it.
for i77<S. j ^ Another kind of horn filver ore is mentioned by
Mr Bergman, in which the metal is mineralized by the
vitriolic and marine acids, along with fome fulphur. Fie
doubts, however, whether the mineralization be perfedl
. in this cafe, as the fait and fulphur do not admit of any
other than a mechanical union. But fince iron is often
found in thefe ores, a marcafite may thus be fometimes
formed.
18. The fther goofe dung ore is of a greenifh colour,
V'ith a mixture of yellow' and red. Some think it is a
mixture of red filver ore and calx of nickel.
19 The/o/Wd6«.r filver ore. The colour of this ore
is mortdore. Some imagine it to be a native filver ore ;
others that it is a mixture of galena, ochre, and filver.
ft is fometimes found in the mountain cork, and is fo
light that it will fwdm upon water. It contains but Silver,
one ounce of filver per quintal. ——
Thefe are all the varieties hitherto obferved in which
filver is met with in the earth, though it may perhaps
occur in various other forms. It would be worth while
to examine whether, in thafe countries w'here gold and fil¬
ver are found in large quantities, the precious metals may
not be contained in fome proportion in the moft com
mon ores, more efpecially when the particles of gold and
filver have not been able to extricate themfelves in fuch
a manner as to lie feparate in fiffures, veins, or hollow
places of the mine. A mineralization of filver with al¬
kali is faid to have been lately met with at Annaberg
in Auftria ; but the account of it as yet can fcarcely be
depended upon. Profeffor Brunnich fays, that the fil¬
ver contained in the limeftone at that place appears to
be native when the ftone is polifhed.
The pureft filver is that which is ex traded from lu-
na cornea, and is the only kind that ought to be truft-
ed in the nice operations of chemiftry. The procefs,
however, is very tedious, and prefents a very unexped-
ed phenomenon, as this metal, though one of the rr.oft
fixed, is neverthelefs volatilized in the operation in fuch
a manner that it exhales through the oorcs of the cru¬
cible ; and fmall globules of filver are afterwards found
in the cover, and even in the fupport of the crucible.
According to Cramer, this lofs may be prevented by
fmearing the crucible with black foap, and mixing with
the luna cornea half its weight of oil or tallow, w'hich
laft muff alfo be added by little and little during the
operation.
M. Magellan takes notice of a remarkable appearance CronfieSf
obfervable in diffoPing filver in the nitrous acid. He p. 537. ‘
obferves, that this acid is its fpecific menttruum, at¬
tacking it even wdien cold with confiderable effervefcence,
growing hot, and emitting a confiderable quantity of
orange-coloured fumes, which diminifh in proportion as
the faturation advances. The metal appears of a pale
brown colour in the conflid, and the folution becomes
quite black. This lait appearance, however, is owing
to a thin, black, fuliginous fubflance, like fmut, w'hich
is at once formed into a cruft on the furface of the thin
plates of filver in the firft attack of the acid upon
them. This is a very lingular phenomenon, and hither¬
to unaccounted for, thefe black crufts being commi¬
nuted into fmaller and fmaller particles by the adion of
the acid ; and, when the effervefcence is over, they are
feen diftindly to fall to the bottom of the veffel, and to
form a black fediment, leaving the liquid folution quite
tranfparent, but of a blue colour inclining, to green. 
This colour might be attributed to fome fmall mixture
of copper, though the filver ufed in the experiment was
of the purer kind. The chemifts of Dijon fay, that the
nitrous folution of filver looks of a fine blue colour, if
the acid be pure and well concentrated; but if it has
any mixture of vitriolic or marine, a precipitation of
vitriolated filver or luna cornea takes place. 1\ ftei w-ards
the lolution becomes as colourlefs as water, but gives a
lafting black tinge to animal fubftances. This folution is
of great ufe in chemiftry, fervingto form the lunar cau-
flic, to purify the common aquafortis from a mixture
of the vitriolic and marine acids, and is a very nice teft
of the exiftence of thefe acids in mineral waters.
Silver does not combine with earths, even by the moil
violent heat, though Mr Fourcroy fuppofes that its calx
3 Qt might
1
S I L f 492 1 S I M
Silver, might give an olive green to glafs. Mr Magellan in*
SiWeri'.j. forms USj that its calx, precipitated by volatile alkali,
v™"~ gives a yelfow colour to glafs, and that he has feen it
Sained in-this manner fo high as almoft to appear of a
red colour. It unites with moft metals, even with iron.
The nstm-e of this alloy has been but little inquired in¬
to, though. Fourcroy is of opinion that it may probably
be of the greatefl utility in the arts. It combines in
all proportions with copper, by which it is not deprived
of its duftility, but renders it harder and more fonorous;
by which means it is often ufed in bells. It is other-
wife highly ufeful, on account of its indeftrudfibility by
fire and air, and its extreme duftility. Its fine colour
renders it extremely proper for ornamental puroofes,.
and it is applied like g-old on the furface of different
bodies, and even on copper. It likewife enters the tex¬
ture of rich filks ; but its moft confiderable ufe is that
of being employed as money of an inferior value to
gold. In this cafe, it is alloyed with one-twelfth part
of copper. It is likewife often employed in making
houfebold utealils of all kinds, though its great price
renders it lefs common than it would otherwife be for
this purpofe. For plate, it is ufually alloyed with one
twenty-fourth of copper, which gives it a greater degree
of hardnefs and coherence, without rendering it in the
leaft noxious.
Silver has alfo been ufed in medicine ; but its extreme
caufticity, when diffolved in the nitrous acid, and its
inactivity otherwife, have brought it into difufe. The
cryftals of filver have been recommended in very fmall
quantity in dropfical cafes ; but they are by, no means
luperior, or even equal in efficacy, to much fafer medi¬
cines. The folution of filver, under the name, of Greek
water, has been ufed for the pnrpofe of dying hair of a
dark colour ; and the fame folution evaporated to a con-
fiftencc, and fufed, forms the lunar cauftio of the fhops.
Shell Silver, is prepared of the flireds of filver leaf,
or of the leaves themfelves, for the ufe of painters, after
the fame manner as (hell gold. See Shell-GoiD.
SILVERING, the covering of any thing with fil-
ver. It is ufual to filver metals, wood, paper, &c.
which is performed either with fire, oil, or lize. Metal-
gilders filver by the fire ; painter-gilders all the other
ways. See Gii/ding.
To filver copper or brafs. 1. Cleanfe the metal with
aquafortis, by waftiing it lightly, and immediately
throwing it into pure water ; dr by heating it red-hot,
and fcouring it with fait and tartar and pure water
with a fmall wire brufh. 2. Diffolve fome filver in
aquafortis, in a broad-bottomed glafs veffel, or of gla¬
zed earth ; then evaporate away the aquafortis over a
chaffing difh of coals. 3. Put five or fix times its quan¬
tity of water, or as much as will be neceffary to diffolve
it perfectly, on the remaining dry calx ; evaporate this
water with the like heat; then put more frefh water,
and evaporate again ; and, if need be, the third time,
making the fire towards the latter end fo ftrong as to
leave the calx perfectly dry, which, if your filver is
good, will be of a pure white. 4. Take of this
calx, common fait, cryftal of tartar, of each a like
quantity or bulk, and mixing well the whole compofi-
tion, put the metal into pure water, and take of the faid
powder with your wet fingers, and rub it well on, till
you find every little cavity of the metal fufficiently lil-
vered over. 5. If you would have it richly done, you
muft rub on more of the powder ; and in the laft place Silvering
wafh the filvered metal in pure water, and rub it hard li
with a dry cloth. Simla-
Silvering of Glaffes. See Foliating of Looking-
glajfts.
SILURIS, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the
order of pifees abdomihales. The head is naked tli
mouth let round with hairy filaments; the bronchia: have
from 4 to 14 rays ; the ray of the peCloral fins, or the
firft dorfal one, is prickly, and dentated backwards.—
There are 21 fpecies, moft of them natives of the In¬
dian and American feas. Mr Haffelquift mentions one
called the c lari as by Linnaeus, and fchedan by the Ara¬
bians. If it pricks one with the bone of the breaft-fin,
it is dangerous ; and our author faw the cook of a Swe-
dilh merchant {hip die of the poifon communicated by
the prick of one of thefe fiftr. See Electricity,
n° 261.
SIMEON of Durham, the cotemporary of William
of Malmftmry, took great pains in collecting the mo¬
numents of our hiftory, efpecially in the north of Eng¬
land, after they had been fcattered by the Danes. From
thefe he compofed a hiftory of the kings of England,
from A. D. 6f6 to 1130 ; with fome fmaller hiftori-
cal pieces. Simeon both ftudied and taught the fciences*
and particularly the mathematics at Oxford; and be¬
came precentor of the church at Durham, where he
died, probably foon after the conclufion of his hiftory,
which was continued by John, prior of Hexham, to
A. D. 1156.
SIMIA, the Monkey, a genus of quadrupeds be¬
longing to the clafs of mammalia, and order of primates,
in the Linnasan fyftem, but by Mr Pennant arranged
under the digitated quadrupeds. According to the
Einnasan fyftem, the charaCteriftics of this genus are
thefe : There are four clofe fet fore-teeth on each jaw ;
fingle tulles on each fide in Loth jaws, which are longer
than the reft, and iomewhat remote from them. The
grinders are obtufe, and the leet are formed like hands.
Mr Pennant gives the following generic defeription of
the fimia. There are four cutting teeth in each jaw,
and two canine. Each of the feet are formed like
hands, generally with flat nails, and, except in one in-
ftance, have four fingers and a thumb. There are eye¬
brows both above and below.
They are a numerous race ; but almoft all confined
to the torrid zone. They fill the woods of Africa
from Senega.l to the Cape, and from thence to jEthio-
pia. They are found in all parts of India, and its
iflands ; in Cochin-China, in the fouth of China, and
in Japan ; (and one is met with in Arabia) ; and they
fwarm in the forefts of South America, from the ifth-
mus of Darien as far as Paraguay. They are lively,
agile, full of frolic, chatter, and grimace. From the
ftrufture of their members, they have many aftions in
common with the human kind. Moft of them are fierce
and untameable ; fome are of a milder nature, and will
fhow a degree of attachment; but in general they are
endowed with mifehievous intellects; and are filthy, ob-
feene, lafeivious, and thieving. 'They inhabit the woods,
and live on trees ; feeding on fruits, leaves, and infebts.
In general, they are gregarious, going in vaft compa¬
nies ; but the different fpecies never mix with each
other, always keeping japart and in different quarters.
They leap with vaft adivity from tree to tree, even
when
S I M
r 493 1
S I M
Simis.
Gmrfih s
Edition of
tie Animal
Kingdom of
Linnaus,
Ker.
f Part ii.
P »7*-
Plate
CCCCLXV] J,
%. i.
when loaded with their young, which cling to them.
They are the prey of leopards and others of the feline
race ; and of ferpents, which purfue them to the fum-
mits of the trees, and fwallow them entire. They are
not carnivorous, but for mifehief’s fake will rob the nefts
of birds of the eggs and young. In the countries where
they mod abound, the fagacity of the feathered tribe
is more marveloufly fhown in their contrivances to hx
the nell beyond the reach of thefe invaders.
rihe hmiae being more numerous in their fpecies than
any other animals, and differing greatly in their ap¬
pearances, it feemed neceffary to methodize and fubdi-
vide the genus. Accordingly Mr Ray firft diffributed
them into three clafl'es.
-Simile, Apes, fuch as wanted tails.
Cenopitheciy Monkeys, fuch as had tails.
Papisms, Baboons, thole with fhort tails ; to diffin-
guiff them from the common monkeys, which have verv
long ones.
T he principal marks by which the fpecies of this ge¬
nus are diffinguilhable from each other, are derived,
I ft, from the tail, which is either long, ftiort, or alto¬
gether wanting, or is ftraight, or prehen file ; 2dly,
from the buttocks, which are naked, and furnilhed with
calloiities, or are covered with hair ; 3-dly, from the
nails, which are flat and rounded like thole of man,} or
fharp pointed like the claws of beafts in general ;
4thiy, from the prefence or abfence of a beard on the
chin ; and, Jthly, from the cheeks being provided with,
or wanting, pouches in their under parts. For greater
convenience, the fpecies of this genus,. which are very
numerous, are arranged under five fubordinate divifions,
confidered as diftinft genera by fome authors, and not
without reafon. Three of thefe fubdiviiions were adopt¬
ed by Linnaeus ; but Dr Gmelin, following Buffon, has
added other two taken from the third civifion of his
gieat preeurfor. Thefe fubdivifions are the Jinia, pa-
planes, cercopifheci, Japaji, and fagoini.
I. The Simue, or Apes. They have no tails. The
visage is flat ; the teeth, hands, fingers, feet, toes, and
nails, referable thofe of man, and they walk naturally
erebt. This divilion includes the fimise, or apes pro¬
perly fo called, which are not found in America.
1. The chimpanzee, the fimia troglodytes of Lin¬
naeus, common in the mountains of Sierra Leona, re-
fembles man more than the orang-outang. This animal
was firft brought to Europe in 1738, when it was ex¬
hibited as a ftiow in London. The following deferip-
tion of one that was kept forre months at the colony
of Sierra Leona is given by Wadftrom, in his Efl'ay
on Colonization f. He was nearly.two feet high ; but
the full ftature is nearly Hve feet. He was covered
with black hair, long and thick on the back, but ftiort
and thin on the breaft and belly. His face was bare ;
his hands and his head refembled thoie of an old black
man, except that the hair on his head was ftraight. Fie
ate, drank, llept, and fat at table, like a human being.
At firft he crept on all fours, on the outfide of his
hands ; but, when grown larger, he endeavoured to go
erebt, fupporting himfdf by a ftick. He was melan¬
choly, but always good natured.
2. The fatyrus, orang-outang, or great ape, has a
flat face, and a deformed refemblance of the human ;
ears like thofe of a man ; the hair on the head
longer than on the body. The body and limbs are
covered with reddifh and ftaggy hair; iongeft on the Simla,
back, thiuneft on the fore parts. The face and pawns ^
are iwarthy ; the buttocks covered with hair. They
"inhabit the interior parts of Africa, the ifles of Suma¬
tra, Borneo, and Java. Are fohtary, and live in the
molt defert places. They grow to the height of fix
feet ; have prodigious llrength, and will overpower the
ftrongeft man. The old ones are ftot with arrows,
the young alone can be taken alive. They live entirely
on fruits and nuts. They will attack and kill the ne¬
groes who wander in the woods ; will drive away the
elephants, and heat them with their lifts or pieces of
wood ; and will throw Hones at people that offend
them. They fleep in trees ; and make a fort of foelter
from the inclemency of the weather. They are of a
grave appearance and melancholy difpofition, and even
when young not inclined to frolic. They go erebf, and
are vaftly fwift and agile. Thefe accounts are chiefly
taken from Andrew Battel, an Englifh failor, who was
taken prifoner 1589, and lived many years in the inner
parts of Congo; his narrative is plain, and feems very
authentic. It is pieferved in Purchas’s colleblion.
Froger * informs us, “ that thofe along the banks of§ Defcnpt.
the river Ganges are larger and more mifbhievous than Hi/orique’
111 any part or Africa: the negroes dread them, and^ Enyaume
cannot travel alone in the country without running the'* Macacar*
hazard of being attacked by thefe animals, who often P‘ Sl'
prefent them with a ftick, and force them to fight. I
have heard the Portuguefe fay, that they have often
feen them hoift up young girls, about feven or eight
years old, into trees, and that they could not be wreft-
ed from them wuthout a great deal of difficulty. The
moft part of the negroes imagine them to be a foreign
nation come to inhabit their country, and that they do
not fpeak for fesr of being compelled to work.” When
taken young, they are capable of being tamed, and
taught to perform many menial offices. Francis Pyrard f f Voyages ds
relates, “ that in the province of Sierra Leona, there {^Francois
a fpecies fo ftrong limbed, and fo induftrious, that, pdrarJ>
when properly trained and fed, they work like fervants; ‘K
that they generally walk on the two hind feet; that they' * ^ J
pound any fubftances in a mortar; that they go to
bring water from the river in fmall pitchers, which they
carry full on their heads. But when they arrive at the
door, if the pitchers arc not foon taken off, they allow
them to fall ; and when they perceive the pitchere over¬
turned and broken, they weep and lament.” Father
Jarric quoted by Nieremberg, fays the fame thing, - „ ^
nearly in the fame terms. With regard to the educa-
tion of thefe animals, the teftimony of Shoutten f ac- Hift. Nat.
cords with that of Pyrard. “ They are taken (he Peregria. j
marks) with fnares, taught to walk on their hind feet,1,b'
and to ufe their fore feet as hands in performing diffe-
rent operations, as rinfing glaffes, carrying drink’round A Gulf!"
the company, turning a fpit, &c.” “ I faw at Java Shoutten ;
(lays Gnat j) a very extraordinary ape. It was a fe-<‘ux In(les
male. She was very tall, and often walked erebt on her ^VoylllTde
hind feet. On thefe occafions, fte concealed with htv FrillGuat}
hands the parts which diftinguifh the fex. Except thetem- H.
eye-brows, there was no hair on her face, which pretty P 96-
much refembled the grotefque female faces I faw among
the Hottentots at the Cape. She made her bed very
neatly every day, lay upon her fide, and covered herfelf
with the bed cloaths. When her head ached, fire bound
it up with a handkerchief; and it was amufing to fee
5 her
SIM [ 494 ] SIM
S*mi1u Irer thus hooded in bed. I could relate many other lic-
l'Jl1 ""v tie articles which appeared to me extremely lingular.
But I admired them not fo much as the multitude ; be-
caufe, as I knew the defign of bringing her to Europe
to be exhibited as a fhow, I was inclined to think that
fhe had been taught many of thefe monkey tricks, which
the people confidered as being natural to the animal —
She died in our fhip, about the latitude of the Cape of
Good Hope. The figure of this ape had a very great
refemblance to that of man, &c.” Gmelli Carreri tells
us, that he faw one of thefe apes, which cried like an
infant, walked upon its hind'feet, and carried a matt
under its arm to lie down and fleep upon.
Stiffens An orang-outang which Buffon faw, is defcribed by
iW. HiJI him as mild, affeftionate, and good-natured. His air
wol tvas melancholy, his gait grave, his movements meafured,
^ 1 his difpofitions gentle, and very different from thofe of
other apes. He had neither the impatience of the Bar¬
bary ape, the malicioufnefs of the baboon, nor the ex¬
travagance of the monkeys. “ It may be alleged,
(fays our author), that he had the benefit of inflruc-
tion ; but the other apes which I fitall compare with
him, were educated in the fame manner. Signs
and words were alone fufficient to make our orang-ou¬
tang aft ; but the baboon required a cudgel, and
the other apes a whip ; for none of them would obey
without blows. I have feen this animal prefent his
hand to conduft the people who came to vifit him, and
walk as gravely along with them as if he had form¬
ed a part of the company. I have feen him fit down
at table, unfold his towel, wipe his lips, ufe a fpoon or
a fork to carry the viftuals to his mouth, pour his li¬
quor into a glafs, and make it touch that of the perfon
who drank along with him. When invited to take tea,
he brought a cup and a faucer, placed them on the
table, put in fugar, poured out the tea, and allowed it
to cool before he drank it. All thefe aftions he per¬
formed without any other mitigation than the figns or
verbal orders of his mafter, and often of his own ac¬
cord. He did no injury to any perfon : he even ap¬
proached company with circumfpeftion, and prefented
himfelf as if he wanted to be careffed. He was very
fond of dainties, which every body gave him : And as
his breaft was difeafed, and he was afflifted with a tea-
zing cough, this quantity of fweetmeats undoubtedly
contributed to fhorten his life. He lived one fummer
in Paris, and died in London the following winter. He
eat almoft every thing ; but preferred ripe and dried
fruits to all other kinds of food. He drank a little
wine ; but fpontaneoufiy left it for milk, tea, or other
mild liquors.” This was only two feet four inches
high, and was a young one. There is great pofiibility
that thefe animals may vary in fize and in colour, fome
being covered with black, others with reddilh hairs.—
They are not the fatyrs of the ancients ; which had
tails (a), and were a fpecies of monkey. Linnaeus’s
homo noBurnuS) an animal of this kind, is unnecetTarily
feparated from his fatyrus.
lo enable the reader to form a judgment of this
animal, which has lo great a refemblance to man, it
may not be unacceptable to quote from Buffon the dif¬
ferences and conformities which make him approach or
recede from the human fpecies. “ He differs from/*/, p. 95
man externally by the flatnefs of his nofe, by the Ihort-
nefs of his front, and by his chin, which is not elevated
at the bafe. His ears are proportionally too large, his
eyes too near each other, and the diftance between
his nofe and mouth is too great. Thefe are the only
differences between .the face of an orang-outang and
that of a man. With regard to the body and mem¬
bers, the thighs are proportionally too ffort, the arms
too long, the fingers too fmall, the palm of the hands
too long and narrow, and the feet rather refemble hands
than the human foot. The male organs of generation
differ not from thofe of man, except that the prepuce
has no frsenum. The female organs are extremely limi-
lar to thofe of a woman.
“ The orang-outang differs internally from the hu¬
man fpecies in the number of ribs: man has only 1 2,
but the orang-outang has 13. The vertebra of the
neck are alfo fhorter, the bones of the pelvis narrow,
the buttocks flatter, and the orbits of the eyes funk
deeper. He has no fpinal procefs on the firfl vertebra
of the neck. The kidneys are rounder than thofe of
man, and the ureters have a different figure, as well as
the bladder and gall-bladder, which are narrower and
longer than in the human fpecies. All the other parts
of the body, head, and members, both external and in¬
ternal, fo perfeftly refemble thofe of man, that we can¬
not make the comparifon without being aftonifhed that
fuch a fimilarity in ftrufture and organization fhould
not produce the fame effefts. The tongue, and all the
organs of fpeech, for example, are the fame as in man ;
and yet the orang-outang enjoys not the faculty of
fpeaking ; the brain has the fame figure and propor¬
tions ; and yet he poffeffes not the power of thinking.
Can there be a more evident proof than is exhibited in
the orang-outang, that matter alone, though perfeftly
organized, can produce neither language nor thought,
unlefs it be animated by a fuperior principle ? Man and
the orang-outang are the only animals who have but¬
tocks and the calf of the legs, and who, of courfe, are
formed for walking ereft ; the only animals who have
a broad chefl, flat fhoulders, and vertebra of the fame
ftrufture ; and the only animals whofe Train, heart,
lungs, liver, fpleen, ftomach, and inteftines, are perfeft¬
ly fimilar, and who have an appendix vermiformis, or
blind-gut. In fine, the orang-outang has a greater re¬
femblance to man than even to the baboons or monkeys,
not only in all the parts we have mentioned, but in the
largenefs of the face, the figure of the cranium, of the
jaws, of the teeth, and of the other banes of the head
and
(a) ./Elian gives them tails, lib. xvi. c. 21. Pliny fays they have teeth like dogs, lib. vii. c. 2. circumftanccs
common to many monkeys. Ptolemy, lib. 7. c. 1. fpeaks of certain iflatds in the Indian ocean inhabited by
people with tails like thofe with which fatyrs are painted, whence called the ijles of fatyrs. Keeping, a Swede,
pretended to have difeovered thefe homines caudati; that they would have trafficked with him, offering him live
parrots ; that alterwards they killed fome of the crew that went on fhore, and eat them, &c. &c. Amcen. Acad,.
n- 71.
SIM
Simla, and face ; in the thicknefs of the fingers and thumb, the
—-'V figure of the nails, and the number of vertebra ; and,
laftly, in the conformity of the articulations, the mag¬
nitude and figure of the rotula, fternum, See. Hence,
as there is a greater fimilarity between this animal and
man, than between thofe creatures which refemble him
moft, as the Barbary ape, the baboon, and monkqr,
who have all been defigned by the general name of apes,
the Indians are to be excufed for aflbeiating him with
the human fpecies, under the denomination of orang¬
outang, or aut/cl man. In fine, if there were a fcale by
which we could defeend from human nature to that of
the brutes, and if the efience of this nature confifted
entirely in the form of the body, and depended on its
organization, the orang-outang would approach nearer
to man than any other animal. Placed in the fecond
rank of beings, he would make the other animals feel
his fuperiority, and oblige them to obey him. If the
principle of imitation, by which he feems to mimic hu¬
man aftions, were a refult of thought, this ape would
be Hill farther removed from the brutes, and have a great¬
er affinity to man. But the interval which feparates
them is immenfe. Mind, refieftion, and language, de¬
pend not on figure or the organization of the body.
Thefe are endowments peculiar to man. The orang¬
outang, though, as we have feen, he has a body, mem¬
bers, fenfes, a brain, and a tongue, perfectly fimilar to
thofe of man, neither fpeaks nor thinks. Though he
counterfeits every human movement, he performs no
aftion that is charadteriftic of man, no aftion that has
the lame principle or the fame defign. With regard to
imitation, which appears to be the moll ftrikin x cha-
rafter of the ape kind, and which the vulgar have at¬
tributed to him as a peculiar talent, before we decide,
it is neceffary to inquire whether this imitation be fpon-
taneous or forced. Does the ape imitate us from incli¬
nation, or becaufe, without any exertion of the will, he
feels the capacity of doing it? I appeal to all thole who
have examined this animal without prejudice ; and I am
convinced that they will agree with me, that there is
nothing voluntary in this imitation. The ape, having
arms and hands, ufes them as we do, but without think¬
ing of us. The fimilarity of his members and organs
neceffiuily produces movements, and fometimes fuccef-
fions of movements, which refemble ours. Being en¬
dowed with the human ftruclure, the ape mull "move
like man ; but the fame motions imply not that he afts
from imitation. Two bodies wffiich receive the fame
impulfe, twm fimilar pendulums or machines, will move
in the fame manner ; but thefe bodies or machines can
never be faid to imitate each other in their motions.
The ape and the human body are two machines fimilar-
ly conlfruffed, and necefiarily move nearly in the fame
manner ; but parity is not imitation. The one depends
on matter, and the other on mind. Imitation prefup-
pofes the defign of imitating. The ape is incapable of
forming this defign, v/hich requires a train of thinking ;
confequently man, if he inclines, can imitate the ape ;
but the ape cannot even incline to imitate man.”
j-jj, 2 3* Bongo, or Jocko, are confidered as one fpecies by
Pennant and Gmelin. It inhabits the ifland of Java,
and the interior parts of Guinea. Has no pouches
within his cheeks, no tail, and no callofities on the but¬
tocks ; w hich lalt are plump and flefhy. All the teeth
are fimilar to thofe of man. The face is flat, naked,
and tawny j the ears, hands, feet, breaft, and belly, are
[ 495' 1
S I M
with
hair
nails
moft
likewife naked ; the hair of the head defeends on both Simfa.
temples in the form of treftes ; the hair on the back and
loins is in fmall quantities. It is five or fix feet high,
and walks always ereff on the two hind leet. It has not
been afeertained whether the females, of this fpecies or
variety, are fubjefl to periodical difeharges; but analogy
renders this almoft unqueftionable. This animal is, by Dr
Gmelin, conldered only as a variety of the orangoutang.
4* "The great gibbon, long-armed ape, or fimia lar, Fig. 3.
a flat Iwarthy face furrounded with grey hairs :
on the body black and rough; buttocks bare ;
on the hands fiat; on the feet long ; arms of a
difproportioned length, reaching quite to the
ground when the animal is ereft, its natural pofture ;
of a hideous deformity.— Inhabits India, Malacca, and
the Molucca iftes ; a mild and gentle animal ; grows to
the height of four feet. The great black ape of Mangfi,
a province in China, feems to be of this kind.
5. The lefler gibbon, or fimia lar minor, but is much Fig. 4^
lefs, being only about a foot and a half high ; the body
and lace are of a brown colour, refembks the former. The
fimia lar argentea is probably a variety of this fpecies.
6. The pigmy, or fimia filvanus, has no tail; the Fig. 5, -
buttocks are naked ; the head roundifii, and the arms
firorter than the body. It inhabits Africa ; and is not un¬
common in our exhibitions of animals ; is very traftable
and good-natured, and wras meft probably the pigmy of
the ancients. It abounds in iEthiooia, one feat of that
imaginary nation; wras believed to dwell near the foun¬
tains of the Nile, whence it defeended annually to make
war-on the cranes, t. e. to fteal their eggs, wTich the
birds may be fuppofed naturally to defend ; whence the
fidftion of their combats.
7. The magot, fimia inuus, or Barbary ape, has a Fig. 6.
long face, not unlike that of a dog ; canine teeth, long and 7^
and ftrong; ears like the human ; nails flat; buttocks
bare; colour of the upper part of the body a dirty greeniffi
brown ; belly, of a dull pale ellow ; grows to above-
the length of four feet. .habit many parts of
India, Arabia, and all .a of Africa except Egypt,
where none of this genus are found. A few are found
on the hill of Gibraltar, which breed there ; probably
from a pair that had efcaped from the towm ; as they
are not found in any other part of Spain.—They are
very ill-natured, mifehievous, and fierce ; agreeing with
the charaffer of the ancient Cynocephali. They are a
very common kind in exhibitions. By force of difcipline
they are made to play fome tricks ; otherwlfc they are
more dull and fullen than the reft of this genus. They
afiemble in great troops in the open fields in India, and
will attack women going to market, and take their pro-
vifions from them. The females carry the young in
their arms, and will leap from tree to tree with them.
Apes were worfhipped in India, and had magnificent
temples erefted to them. When the Portuguefe plun¬
dered one in Ceylon, they found in a little golden caf-
ket the tooth of an ape ; a relic held by the natives in
fuch veneration, that they offered 700,000 ducats to
redeem it, but in vain ; for it was burnt by the viceroy,
to ftop the progrefs of idolatry.
II. Pap jones, or Baboons. Thefe have ffiort tails, a
long face ; a broad high muzzle; longlfh dog-like tufks,
or canine teeth ; and naked callofities on the buttocks.
They are only found in the old world, and are the pa-
piones and K.mox.vpxta of the ancients* Hit*
8.. I he maimon, fimia pagio nemeftrinaj or pig-tailed eccci.xvmi.
jaabooxij %
S I M
S I M [ 496 ]
baboon, with a pointed face, which is naked; of a fwar- naked ears ; the hair on the body is yellow, tipt with
thy rednefs ; two fliarp canine teeth ; ears like the hu- black ; the face is brown, and aim oft naked, having on-
man ; hair on the limbs and body brown inclining to ly a few fcattered hairs ; the nails are all comprefted and
alh-colour, paleft on the belly; fingers black ; nails long oblong, except on the thumbs and great toes, the nails
and flat ; thumbs on the hind-feet very long, connefted of fwhich refemble man; the tail is very fhort, being
Siarai,
-“v-—■
tig- 9-
Rennant'*
Quadrupeds
vol. i.
p.172
Kg. IOc
to the neareft toe by a broad membrane; tail four inches
long, {lender, exadftly like a pig’s, and almoft naked ;
the bare fpaces on the rump red, and but fmall: length,
from head to tail, 27 inches. Inhabits the ifles of Su¬
matra and Japan ; is very docile. In Japan it is taught
feveral tricks, and carried about the country by moun¬
tebanks. Kempfer was informed by one of thefe peo¬
ple, that the baboon he had was 102 years old.
9. The great baboon, or firnia papio fphinx, with
hazel irides; ears fmall and naked ; face canine, and
very thick ; middle of the face and fore head naked ;
and of a bright vermilion colour ; tip of the nofe of
the fame, and ending truncated like that of a hog; fides
of the note broadly ribbed, and of a fine violet hue ; the
opening of the mouth very fmall ; cheeks, throat, and
goat-like beard yellow ; hair on the fore-head very long,
turns back, is black, and forms a kind of pointed creft.
Head, arms, and legs, covered with fhort hair, yellow
and black intermixed ; the breaft with long whxtifh yel¬
low hairs, the (boulders with long brown hair. Nails
flat; feet and hands black ; tail four inches long, and
very hairy; buttocks bare, red, and filthy; but the
fpace about them is of a moft elegant purple colour,
which reaches to theinfide of the upper partot the thighs.
This was defcribed by Mr Pennant from a fluffed
fpecimen in Sir Afhton Lever's mufeum. In Auguft
1779, a live animal of this fpecies was fhown at Edin¬
burgh, and in Odlober following at Chefter, where be¬
ing feen by Mr Pennant, that inquifitive naturalift has
defcribed it in his Hiftory of Quadrupeds. “ It differ¬
ed little (he obferves) in colour from the above, being
in general much darker. Eyes much funk in the head,
and fmall. On the internal fide of each ear was a white
line, pointing upwards. The hair on the fore-head
turned up a like a toupee. Feet black ; in other re-
fpefts refembled the former. In this I had an oppor¬
tunity of examining the teeth. The cutting teeth were
like thofe of the reft of the genus; but, in the upper
and lower jaw, were two canine, or rather tufks, near
three inches long, and exceedingly {harp and pointed.
This animal was five feet high, of a moft tremendous
ftrength in all its parts ; was exceffively fierce, libidi¬
nous, and ftrong.”
Mr Schreber fays, that this fpecies lives on fucculent
fruits, and on nuts ; is very fond of eggs, and will put
eight at once into its pouches, and, taking them out
one by one, break them at the end, and fwallow the
yolk and white ; rejects all fiefh-meat, unlefs it be dref-
fed ; would-drink quantities of wine or brandy; was
iefs agile than other baboons ; very cleanly; for it would
immediately fling its excrements out of its hut. That
which was flrown at Chefter was particularly fond of
cheefe. Its voice was a kind of roar, not unlike that of
a lion, but low and fomewhat inward. It went upon
all fours, and never flood on its hind legs, unlefs forced
by the keeper ; but would frequently fit on its rump in
a crouching manner, and drop its arms before the belly.
Inhabits the hotter parts of Africa.
10. The little baboon, or flmia papio apedia, has a
ro.undifh head, with a projedting muzzle, and roundifh
efemble
hardly an inch long; the body is about the fize of a
It is uncertain, fays Gmelin, if this animal (horrid
cat.
be confidered as a diftindl fpecies, or only as a varrety
of the fimia fciurea.
11. 1 he mantegar, or fimia papio mention, common-P'g- ***
ly called the tufted ape, but it is improperly named an
ape, as it has a tail. It is defcribed in the abridgment ol
the Philofophical Tranfadlions, n? 290. It had a nofc
and head 14 inches in length ; the nofe of a deep red,
face blue, both naked ; black eye-brows ; ears like the
human ; on the top of thp head a long upright tuft of
hair ; on the chin another ; two long tufks in the upper-
jaw ; fore feet exadlly refembling hands, and the nails
on the fingers flat ; tire fore-part of the body, and the
iniide of the legs and arms, iraked ; the outiide covered
with mottled brown and olive hair. Length, from the
nofe to the rump, three feet two inches. It was very-
fierce and falacrous ; went on all fours, but would fit
up on its ramp, and fupport itfelf with a (lick ; in this
attitude, it would hold a cup in its hand, and drink out
of it. Its food was fruits.
1 2.The mandril, fimia papio maimon, @r ribbed nofeFl£- r**
baboon, has a (hort tail, and a thin beard on the chin ;and I3’
the cheeks are bhie and ftriped, and the buttocks are
naked. This fpecies of baboon is found on the Gold
Coaft, and in the other fouthern provinces of Africa,
where he is called bog go by the negroes, and mandril
by the Europeans. Next to the orang-outang, he 13
the larged of all the apes or baboons. Smith relates,
that he had a prefent of a female mandril, which war?
only fix months old, and that it was as large as an adult
baboon. He adds, that thefe mandrils walk always on
two feet; that they weep and groan like men ; that
they have a violent paffion for women, which they ne¬
ver fail to gratify when they find a woman at a dillance
from relief. We have given figures both of the male
and female, which may be eallly dillinguiffed by their
fize and appearance.
13. The wood-baboon, or fimia papio fylvatica, with1^* ^
a long dog-like face, covered with a fmall gloffy black
fkin ; hands and feet naked, and black like the face ;
hair on all parts long, elegantly mottled with black and
tawny ; nails white : about three feet high when ere61;
tail not three inches, and very hairy on the upper top.
Inhabits Guinea, where it is called by the Englifh the
man of the wood.
\ 4. The brown baboon, or fimia papio platypygos,
with pointed ears; face of a dirty white ; nofe large and
broad; hairs round the face fhort and ftraight; colour of
■ the upper part of the body brown ; of the under, a(h-
colour: tail about four inches long ; taper, and almoft:
bare of hair ; beneath is quite naked. The animal
which Mr Pennant called the new baboon, in the firft
edition, feems by the tapernefs of the tail, and general
form,' to be of this kind.
I 5. Tire hoggifh baboon, or fimia papio porcaria, has
a fhort tail, and coloured buttocks; the head is like
that of a hog, with a naked fnout ; the body is of au
olive brown colour; the nails are fhavp and compteffed.
Inhabits Africa, and is about three feet and a half high
when
S I M
Plate
ecccLxix
ij-
Iig.16.
freft. This, in ^11 probability, is the
fame animal with the hog-faced ape, adopted from
Pennant.
III. Monkeys,Cfrcopithecj, have long tails,'which
are not prehenfile ; the under parts of their cheeks are
furmfhed with pouches, in which they can keep their
victuals ; the partition between the noftrils is thin, and
the apertures are, like thofe of man, placed in the un-
der part of the nofe j the buttocks are naked, and pro-
vided with callofities. ^ Thefe animals, which are never
found native in America, are the cercopitheci, and
of the ancients. ’
16. TheTartarin, dog faced baboon of Pennant, and
cercopithecus hamadryas of Gmelin, with a long, thick,
and Itrong nofe, covered with a fmooth red fkin ; ean.
pointed, and hid in the hair ; head great, and flat ; hair
on the head, and fore part of the body as far as the
wand, very long and fhaggy ; grey and olive-brinded ;
the fides of the bead very full, the hair on the limbs and
hind part of the body very fcort; limbs ftrdfig and
thick ; hands and feet duflcy ; the nails on the fore-feet
flat; thofe on the hind like a do«’s ; buttocks very
bare, and covered with a {kin of a bloody colour; tail
icarce the length of the body, and carried generally
tteft. 1 hey inhabit the hotteft parts of Africa and
Aha ; where they keep in vafl troops, an I are very
fierce and dangerous. rJ’hey rob gardens. They will
run up trees when paflengers go by, fhake the boughs
at them with great fury, and chatter very loud. They
are exceflively impudent, indectent, lafcivious ; moft de-
tehable animals in their manners as well as appearance,
ihey range the woods in hundreds ; which obliges the
owners of the coffee-plantations to be continually on
their guard agamft their depredations. One of them
was mown in London fome years ago: it came from
Mokha in the province of Yeman, in Arabia Felix in
the erhan gulph ; and was above five feet h*gh. It
was very fieice and untameable ; fo ftrong as eafily to
malter its keeper, a flout young man. Its inclinations
to women appeared in the moft violent manner. A
footman, who brought a girl to fee it, in order to teaze
the animal, kiffed and hugged her: the beaft, enraged
at being fo tantalized, caught hold of a quart pewter-
pot, which he threw with fuch force and fo fare an aim,
that, had not the man’s hat and wig foftened the blow,
his flaill muft have been fra&ured ; but he fortunately
elcaped with a common broken head.
17. The white-bearded black wanderu, the fimia ft-
lenus Linnaeus, the ouanderou of Buffon, and lion-
tailea baboon of Pennant, the cercopithecus filemis al-
bibarbatus of Gmelin, has a dog-like face, is naked, and
of a duflty colour ; a very large and full white or hoary
heard ; large Canine teeth ; body covered with black
ban*; belly of a light colour ; tail terminated with a
t 497 ]
S I M
x9. Malbrouk, or cercopithecus faumis, has it Utr Shmi.
y, and ,s bearded: the tail is buihy at the extremitv? ^v-
lt ,s a native of Bengal. This fpecies has cheek-
pouches, and callofities on the buttocks ; the tail is
nearly as ong as the body and head ; and it is a mif-
take of Clufius that it terminates in a tuft; the face is
at a cinereous grey colour, with a large muzzle, and
large eyes, which have flefh-coloured eyelids, and it
irrey hand crofs the forehead in the place of eye-brows-
the ears are arge, thin, and flefh-coloured ; the upoer
parts of the body are of a uniform yellowiflt brown co¬
lour, and the lowor of a yellowifh grey: It walks on all
fours, and is about a foot and a half from the muzzle
to the extremity of the tail. The females menftruate.
20. Macaque, or cercopithecus cynomologus, the Fig 17*
hare-lipped monkey of Pennant, has no beard ; the no- 7
Arils are thick and divided ; the tail is long and arched
and the buttocks are naked. He has cheek pouches and
cal ofities on the buttocks. His tail is from 18 to 10
inches long. His head is large, his muzzle very thick,
and his face naked, livid, and wrinkled. PI is ears ar-
covered with hair. His body is ftiort and fqust, and
h.s hmbs thtek and Ihort. The hair on the fuperior
pans a his body is of a greemfti afh-colouf, and of H
yeuowifh grey on the breaft and belly. He has a fmali
creft of hair on the top of the head. He walks on form
and fometimea on two feet. The length of his body'
comprehending that of the head, is about 18 or
inches.
The dog-headed monkey, or cercopithecus cynd- i3»
L1S« ha-? no to .71 1 .
?ujt of hair like that or a lion. Its bulk that of a mid-
chmg hzed dog. It inhabits the Eaft Indies and the
hotter parts of Africa.
18. The purple-faced monkey, or cercopithecus fiJe-
nus purpuratus, with a great triangular white beard,
Tort and pointed at the bottom, and on each fide of
Te ears, extending a winged falhion far beyond them;
ace and hands purple, body black. Inhabit Ceylon.
I iey are very harmlefs ; live in the woods, and’feed
on leaves and buds of trees ; and when taken foon be¬
come tame.
^ol. XVII. Part 1L
, " - >-LTi.opn.necus cyno-
ccphalus, has no beard, and is of a yellow colour : the
muzzle is long j the tail long and ftralght, and the but-
locks naked. It is a native ot Africa.
•A2‘ ,Lhe fPi°-tet? m°nke>T» or cercopithecus Diana,
w ith a long white beard : colour of the upper parts of
the body reddifti, as if they had been finged, marked
with white ipecks ; the belly and chin whit iff ; tail
very long ; is a fpecies of a middle fize. It inhabits Gui¬
nea and Congo, according to Marcgrave ; the Con^efe
cad it exquima. M. de Buffon denies it to be of that
country ; but from the circumflance of the curl in its
tail, in Marcgrave’s figure, and the defeription of fome
voyagers, he fuppofes it to be a native of South Arne
nca Linmeus defenbes his S. Diana fomewhat diffe¬
rently : he lays it is or the fize of a large cat; black,
fpotted with white ; hind paft of the back ferruginous;
lace black ; from the top of the nofe is a white line
palling over each eye to the ears, in an arched form ;
beard pointed, black above, white beneath, placed on a
attifh excrefcence ; breaft and throat white ; from the
rump crofs the thighs, a white line ; tail long, ftraight'
and black ; ears and feet of the fame colour ; canine
teeth, large.
23 The green monkey, or cercopithecus fabceus, has
a black and flattifh face : the fide of it Vmnded bv lon.r
wtme hairs, falling backwards, and almoft covering- the
ears, which are black, and like the human r htad, limbs
and whole upper part of the body and tail covered with
loft hair, o. a yellowifh green aolour at their ends ci¬
nereous at their roots : under fide of the body and tail
and inner fide of the limbs, of a filverv colour ; tad'
very long and fiender. Size of a fmali cat. Inhabit
different parts of Africa : keep in great flocks, and live
in ie woods : are fcarce difcermble when among the
leaves, except by their breaking the boughs w ith their
3 ^ gambols #
3im'a.
I'ig. 10.
Tig. II.
SIM [
gambols: in which they are very a-ile and filent: even
1 when (hot at, do not make the leaft noife : but will
unite in company, knit their brows, and gnafh their
teeth, as if they meant to attack the enemy : are very
common in the Cape de Verd iflands.
24.. The muftache, or cercopithecus cephus, has a
beard on the cheeks ; the crown of the head is yellow-
itb : the feet are black, and the tip of the tail is oi an
a(h colour. Its tail is much longer than the body and
head, being 19 or 20 inches in length. I he female
menftruates. _ .
25. The mancrabey, cercopithecus aetluops, or white¬
eyed monkey, has a long, black, naked, and dog-like
face : the upper eye lids of a pure white : ears black,
and like the human : no canine teeth : hairs on the fides
of the face beneath the cheeks, longer than the reft :
tail long : colour of the whole body tawny and black :
flat nails on the thumbs and fore-fingers ; blunt claws
on the others: hands and feet black —Shown in Lon¬
don fome years ago : place uncertain : that defcribed by
M. de Baffon came from Madagafcar; was very good-
natured ; went on all-fours. -
26. The egret, or cercopithecus aygula, has a long
face, and an upright (harp-pointed tuft of hair on the top
of the head. The hair on the forehead is black : the
tuft, and the upper part of the body light-grey ; the
belly white : the eye brows are large; the beard very
fmall. Size of a fmall cat. They inhabit Java. They
fawn on men, on their own fpecies, and embrace each
other. They play with dogs, if they have none of
theft own fpccies with them. If they fee a monKey
of another kind, they greet him with a thoufand gri¬
maces. When a number of them fleep, they put their
heads together. They make a continual noife during
flight* . . m • r
27. The rillow, cercopithecus fimcus, or Chinele
bonnet, has a long fmooth nofe, of a whitifh colour ; hair
on the crown of the head long, lying flat, and paited
like that of a man ; colour, a pale cinereous brown,
Inhabit Ceylon. They keep in great troops ; and rob
gardens of their fruit, and fields of their C‘ rn; to prevent
which, the natives are obliged to watch the wdiole day :
yet thefe animals are fo bold, that, when driven from
one end of the field, they will immediately enter at the
other, and carry off with them as much as their mouth
and arms can hold. Boiman, fpeaking of the thefts
of the monkeys of Guinea, fays, that they will take
in each paw one or two ftalks of millet, as many under
their arms, and two or three in their mouth ; and thus
laden, hop away on their hind-legs : but, if purfued,
they fling away all, except what is in their mouths,
that it may not impede their flight. They are very
nice in the choice of the millet ; examine every ftalk:
and if they do not like it, fling it away: fo that
this delicacy does more harm to the fields than their
thievery.
Xer's Tran- 28. The tawny monkey, or cercopithecus fulvus, has
jlation of long tufks in the lower jaw: the vifage is long and flefh
Gmeliris coioUred, with flefh coloured ears, and a flattifh nofe.
lAnntus. kihabits India. This is a very ill natnred animal,
498 " ] SIM
about the flze of a cat; it was lately in the pofTeflion of
Mr Brook, an animal merchant and exhibitor in Lon¬
don : The upper parts of the body are covered with a
pale tawny coloured fur, which is afh colouied at the
roots ; the hinder part of the back is orange coloured,
the legs afh coloured, the belly white, and the tail
{hotter than the body.
29. King monkey, full-bottom monkey, or cercopi¬
thecus recalls, has no thumb on the hands; the Kad,
cheeks, throat, and (boulders, _ are covered with long,
flowing, coarfe hairs. Inhabits the forefts of Sierra
Leona’in Guinea, where it is called bey, or king monkey.
It is above three feet high when eicCt : Ihe head is
fmall, with a (hort, black, naked race ; and the head,
cheeks, throat, neck, and (boulders, are covered with
long, coarfe, flowing hairs, of a dirty yellowifti colour,
mixed with black, and refembling a full-bottomed wig;
the body, arms, and legs, are covered with (hort hairs
of a fine gloffy black colour ; the hands are naked, and
have no thumbs ; the feet have five very long flender
toes, which are armed with narrow pointed claws; the
tail is very long, and is covered with fnow white hairs,
having a tuft at the end ; the body and limbs are very
flender : Its (kin is held in high eftimation by the ne¬
groes for making pouches and gun cafes.
IV. Sapajqus, Sapaji, have pvehenfile tails, and
no cheek-pouches. Thefe animals have long tails,
which, at the extremity, is generally deprived of hair
on the under fide, and covered with a fmooth fkin ; this
part they can fold, extend, curl up, and unfold at plea-
lure ; by which they are enabled to hang upon branches,
or to lay hold of any thing which is beyond the leach
of their hands, uflng the extremity of the tail like a fin¬
ger or hand ; the partition between the noftnls is very
thick, and the apertures are fituated on the fides of
the nofe ; the buttocks are clothed with hair, and have
no callofities; the females of this fubgenus do not men-
ftruate ; and this race of animals is only to be found in
America : This fubdivifion of the genus is made with
great propriety by Dr Gmelin, in imitation of the Count
de Buffon. , ,
30. The guariba, fapajus Beelzebub, or the preacher
monkey, has black fhining eyes ; (hort round ears ; and
a round beard under the chin and threat. The hairs
on the body are of a (hining black, long, yet lie foclofe
on each other that the animal appears quite fmooth:
the feet and end of the tail are brown ; the tail very
long, and always twilled at the end.. Size of a fox.
Inhabit the woods of Brazil and Guiana in vaft num*
bers and make a mod dreadful howling. Sometimes
one mounts on a higher branch, the reft feat themfelves
beneath : the firft begins as if it was to harangue, and
fets up fo loud and (harp a howl as may be heard a vaft
way, and a perfon at a diftance would think that a hum
dred joined in the cry : after a certain fpace, he gives
a fignal with his hand, when, the whole affembly joins
in chorus ; but on another fignal is filent, and the oratos
finifties his addrefs (b ). Their clamour is the mod dif-
aoreeable and tremendous that can be conceived ; ow¬
ing to a hollow and hard bone placed in the throat.
Sunis,
Fig.
Plate
CCCCLXX*
Fig. 13.
(b) A fingular account, yet related by Marcgrave and
firft authority, and a moft able naturalift, long rsfident in
feveral other writers. Marcgrave is a writer of the
the Brafils, and fpeaks from his own knowledge.
S 1 M t 499 ] SIM
S"”1' , " hldl l,15 r-”8“A ral1 UrMiaonf. Tlitfc monkeys limbs tinyed with red: tail black, and much lomrer than
-y—are very fierce, ur,tameable, and bite dreadfully. There the head and body: the young excemvelydefomed
'V ,T”e7 / a °r. redd;,h “lour, their hair very long, and tWnly dirperfed.-In the Bril
and ahs . u1"''1”'!,5the' “ 's.large, ti(h Mufeum are fpecimens of old and young. M. de
and as no.fy as the former. The nat.ves eat this (pe- Buffon ha, a varieiy with a white throat. ’ ■
Simla.’
F;g- 24
and as noify as the former. The natives’ eat this
cies, as wed as leveral other forts of monkeys, but are
particularly fond of this. Europeans will alfo eat it,
efpecially in thofe parts of America where food is
fcarce : when it is fealded in order to get off the hair,
it looks very white ; and has a refemblance fhocking to
humanity, that of a child of two or three years old
when crying (c).
31 • rhe quato, fapajus panifeus, or four-fingered
monkey, has a long flat face, of a fwarthy fleih colour:
the eyes are funk in the head ; ears like the human ;
limbs of a great length, and uncommonly flender: the
ban is black, long, and rough. There are only four
fingers on the hands, being quite deftitute of a thumb ;
five toes on the feet. The tail is long ; and naked be-
low, near the end. The body is flender ; about a foot
and a half long ; the tail near two feet, and fo prehen-
file as to ferve every purpofe of a hand. They inhabit
the neighbourhood of Carthagena, Guiana, Brafil, and
Peru ; affociate in vaft herds ; and are fcarce ever feen
on the ground. Dampier deferibes their gambols in
a lively mariner: “ There was (fays he) a great com-
pany dancing from tree to tree over my head, chat¬
tering, and making a terrible noife and a great many
grim faces and antic geftures ; feme broke down dry
fticks and flung them at me, others fcattered their urine
and dung about my ears : at laft one bigger than the
reft came to a fmall limb juft over my head, and leap¬
ing dire&ly at me, made me leap back ; but the mon¬
key caught hold of the bough with the tip of its tail,
and there continued Twinging to and fro, making
mouths at me. The females with their young ones are
much troubled to leap after the malesfor they have
commonly two, one flie carries under her arm, the other
nts on her back, and claps its two fore-paws about her
neck : are very fullen when taken ; and very hard to
be got when (hot, for they will cling with their tail
or feet to a bough as long as any life remains. When
. have fhot at one, and broke a leg or arm, I have pi¬
tied the poor creature to fee it look and handle the
broken limb, and turn it from fide to fide.” They are
the molt active of monkeys, and quite enliven the fo»
tefts of America. In order to pafs from top to top of
loity trees, whofe branches are too diftant for a leap,
*hey will form a chain, by hanging down, linked to
each other by their tails, and Twinging in that manner
till the loweft catches hold of a bough of the next tree,
and draws up the reft; and fometimes they pafs rivers
by the fame expedient. I hey are fometimes brought
to Europe ; but are very tender, and feldom live long
m our climate. &
32. I he fai, fapajus, capucinus, or weeper, with a
round and flat face, of a reddifti brown colour, very de-
foi med : the hair on the head and upper part of the
body black, tinged with brown ; beneath and on the
. Inhabits Su¬
rinam and Brafil: appear as if it was always weep-
ing ; of a melancholy difpofition ; but very full of imi¬
tating what it fees done. Thefe probably are the
monkeys Dampier faw in the Bay of All Saints, which
he fays are very ugly, and fmell ftrongly of imifk. They
keep in large companies ; and make a great chatter¬
ing^ efpecially in ftormy weather; refide much on a
Ipecies of tree which bears a podded fruit, which they
feed on.
33. Sapajus fatuellas, or horned fapajou, has two] Fig. 25,
tufts of hair on the head, refembling little horns: Is*
beardlefs. Inhabits South America. The face, fides,
belly, and fore-parts of the thighs are brown ; the top of
the head, midefte of the back, tail, legs, and poftenor
parts of the thighs, are black ; the nails are long and
rather blunt; the tail is prehenfile and twifted fpirally.
Perhaps of the fame fpecies with the fimia apella or ca¬
puchin (G/n.)'. q his, in all probability, is one of the
factitious fpecies, purpofely deformed, by exhibitors of
wild beafts, to impofe on the public.
34. Saimiri, fapajus feiureus, or orange monkey, has
no beard ; the hinder part of the head is prominent;
and the nails on the four toes of the hind paws are nar¬
row and pointed. It inhabits South America, and is
the moft beautiful of all the fapajous ; its movements
aie graceful; its fize fmall; its colour a brilliant yel¬
low ; its vifage round, with large vivacious eyes, fur-
rounded by flefh-coloured rings; it has hardly any fore¬
head the nofe is elevated at the bafe, and flattened at
the point : the mouth is fmall, the face flat and naked,
and the ears are garnifhed with hair, and a little point¬
ed ; the tail is only half prehenfile : It ftands with eafe
on tvvo^feet, but commonly walks on all four.
\. Sagoins, Sagoini. Thefe have long tails,jr -
which are proportionally longer than thofe of the Tapa-/,,^ 0/
jous, ftraight, flaccid, entirely covered with hair, and
not prehenfile ; that is, incapable of laying hold of any Linr‘*ut-
objeeft : the cheeks have no pouches ; and the buttocks,
which are covered with hair, have no callofities: the
partition between the noftrils is very thick, and the
apertures are placed on the fides of the nofe. The fe¬
males do not menftruate. This race of animals is only
round in America. J
• l5’ Trhe fakl'’ %01’nus pithecia, or fox-tailed monkey,
with a fwarthy face, covered with fhort white down:
roiehead and fides of the face with whitifh, and pretty
long hair : body with long dulky brown hairs ; white or
yellowifh at their tips : hair on the tail very lomr and
burhy ; fometimes black, fometimes reddifti : belly and
lower part of the limbs a reddifti White: length from
nofe to tail near a foot and a half: tail longer," and like
1 rat °, a : hands and feet black, with claws inftead
or nails. Inhabits Guiana.
36. I he fanglin, fagoinus iacchus, or ftriated mon- FA
3 K- * key, J<!’
wllibe fold'af^od aVan'y oL^foot’hi'/378’ “'"S’ a"d that a
leok very like tMe of little children 7 C°"q ^ aierC°n t0 the of which
SIM [ 500 ] SIM
Simla, l^ey, with a very round head : about the ears two very
■^Y—^Jon^ full tufts of white hairs (landing out on each fide:
irides reddifh : face a fwarthy flefh colour : ears like the
human : head black : body afti coloured, reddifh, and
dufky ; the lad forms ftriated bars crofs the body : tail
full of hair, annulated with a(h colour and black : body
fevcn inches long ; tail near eleven : hands and feet co¬
vered with fhort hairs : fingers like thofe of a fquirrel:
nails, or rather claws, fharp. Inhabits Brafii: feeds on
vegetables ; will alio eat fi(h: makes a weak noife : very
rejllefs : often brought over to Europe.
yj- Pinche, fagoinus mdipus, or red-tailed.monkey,
’is beardlefs ; has’ a flowing head of hair, which hangs
down on each fide; a red tail and fharp claws. It has
neither cheek-pouches nor callofities on the buttocks.
His tail is not prehenfile, and is more than twice the
length of the head and body. The partition of the no-
ftrils is thick, and the apertures are placed at a fide.
The face, throat, and ears are black ; on the head are
long white hairs. The muzzle is broad, and the face
round. The hair on the body is pretty long; of a yellow-
ilh brown or reddifh colour till near the tail, where it
becomes orange; on the bread, belly, hands, and feet, it
is white, and fhorter than on the body. The tail, from
the origin to one-half of its length, is a vivid red, then
brqwnifh red, and toward the point it is black. He is
about nine inches in length, and walks on four feet.
The females are not fubjett to the mendrual evacua¬
tion.
Fig. aS. 38. The marikina, fagoinus rofalius, or filky mon¬
key, is beardlefs ; has a very hairy head: the circum¬
ference of the face and the feet are red ; and the claws
are (harp and narrow. It inhabits t>outh America.
A bnfk animal, lefs impatient of cold than the red of
this race : the body is of a yellowifh white colour ; the
nails on the thumbs and great toes are rounded ; the
ears are naked, but are hidden beneath the fur : It has
a round head, and a brown face, which is furrounded
with a kind of mane of a bright red colour ; the hair
on the body and tail is long, filky, and of a pale but
vivid yellow colour, aimed: white, with a confiderable
tuft at the extremity of the tail. It walks on four feet,
and is eight or nine inches in length, from the muzzle
to the rump ; and the tail is above 13 inches long. This
fpecies has the fame manners and vivacity with the
other fagoins, but is more robufl in conftitution, as an
individual lived five or fix years in Pans, being kept in
a warm room during winter.
39. The mico, fagoinus argenteus, or fair monkey,
with a fmall round head : face and ears of the mod live¬
ly vermilion colour: body covered with mod beautiful
long hairs of a bright and filvery whitenefs, of match-
lefs' elegance : tail of a fhinmg dark chefnut : head
and body eight inches long; tail 12. Inhabits the
banks of the Amazons ; difeovered by M. de Conda-
mine.
40. The tamarin, fagoinus Midas, or great-eared
monkey, with a round head, fwarthy, flefh coloured,
naked face : upper lip a little divided : ears very large,
ere£t, naked, and almod fquare : hair on the forehead
upright and long ; on the body foft, but (baggy : the
head, whole body, and upper part of the limbs black,
except the lower part ot the back, which is tinged
with yellow : hands and feet covered with orange-co¬
loured hairs, very fine and fmooth : nails long and
crooked : tail black, and twice the length of the body: Sral!*.
teeth very white. It is of the fize o( a fquirrel. It in. 1! !
habits the hotter parts of South America, and thf (fle t
of Gorgona, fouth ot Panama, in the South Sea. 1 here ' v~~ J
are, fays Dampier, a great many little black monkeys ;
at low-water they come to the fea iide to take mufcleg
and perriwinkhs, which they dig out of the (hells with
their claws.
Bdides thefe which we have deferibed, there are a
great many fpecies which we have omitted. Thofe
who wilfi to be better acquainted with the fimiac, may
confult Buffon, Pennant, and Gmelin’s edition of tilt;
Zoology of Linnaeus by Mr Ker.
SIMILE, or Similitude, in rhetoric, a compa-
rifon of two things, which though different in other
refpedls, yet agree in (ome one. The difference be.
tween a fimile and comparifon is (aid to coniiit in this,
that the fimile properly belongs to whatever we call
the quality of a thing, and the comparifon to the quan¬
tity. See Comparison ; and Oratory, n° 1.18.
SIMILOR, a name given to an alloy of red cop¬
per and zinc, made in tht; bed proportions, to imitate
iilver and gold. *
SIMON Maccabeus, a celebrated leader and high,
priell of the Jews, who, after rendering the moil im¬
portant fervices to his country, was at lalt treacherpufly
(lain by his fon-in-law. See the Hijiory oj the Jaws,
n» 15.
Simon Magus, or the Sorcerer, was a native of Git-
ton, a village of Samaria. According to the utual prac¬
tice of the Aiiatics of that age, he vilited Egypt, and^^yy
there probably became acquainted with the fahVimz-Hi/lory tf
myderies taught in the Alexandrian fchool, and learned Pbihjogh^
thofe theurgic or magical operations by means ot which
it was believed that men might be delivered horn the!
power of evil demons Upon his return into his own
country, the author of the Clementine Recognitions
relates, that he impofed upon his countrymen by high
pretenfions to fupernatural powers. And St Luke at-
teds, that this artful fanatic, ufing forcery, had be¬
witched the people of Samaria, giving out that he was
fame great one; and that he obtained fuch general atten¬
tion and reverence in Samaria, that the people all gave
heed to him from the lead to the greated, faying, “ This,
man is the great power of God.”
By the preaching of Philip the Deacon, he was with
other Samaritans converted to the Chridian faith, and
admitted into the infant church by the ordinance of
baptifm. His convevfion, however, feems not to have
been real; for, upon feeing the miraculous efledls of
the laying on of the. apodle’s hands, he offered them mo¬
ney, faying, “ Give me alfo this power, that on whom-
foever I lay hands he may receive the Holy Ghod.”
He probably thought Peter and John magicians like
himfelf, but better (killed in the art of deceiving the
multitude.
Being (harply reproved for this impiety, he feems by
his aufwer to have been made fenfible of his fin ; but
his repentance, if fincere, was of fhort duration. Re¬
turning to his former pradtices of impodure, he travel¬
led through various provinces of the empire, oppofing
the progrefs of the gofpel; and arriving at Rome, he
kd adray vad numbers of people by his pretended mi¬
racles. How long he lived in that metropolis of the
world, or in what manner he died, we have no accounts
« that
8 1 ^ r 501 ] sim
beiiltiw if t!,n'vThe W'kT ,hc ch“rch of Rot“* particularly in hi. c&avgnr. to S«^I,
e V 111 t5ltf air by two demons, he prove the uncertainty of the Heb-ew lancruaa’e Thefe Simon’
, a Jsrfa°u % Str ^ >»« b“" very jaftiylpoM and SfutTd by ——
he is ti on.hr’tt b S’ <1 r ^ ^ ^ Dr CamPbdI’in »‘^ntous Preliminary Diflertationa
\'UJ1 S/ h;iVe ^i n xhe Prton mentioned by to his new Tranflation of the Gofpek I. Critical Hi
xrJ r ?,’ *h°l undertak.in-sr. ,t0, m. 6.he pteftnee of ftory of the Text of the New Teftament. 4. Critical
Hilt or y of the Veriions of the New Teftament.
jNcro, fell to the ground with fuc'h violence, that his
blood fpurted up to the gallery where the emperor was
fitting.
1 he fum of this impoftor’s doftrine, diverted of al-
legory, was, that from the Divine Being, as a fountain
of light, flow various orders ot seons, or eternal na-
tures, lubfilting within the plenitude of the divine ef-
lence ; that beyond thefe, in the order oi emanation,
are different clafles of intelligences, among the lowell
of which are human fouls ; that matter is the moft re¬
mote production of the emanative power, which, on ac¬
count of its infinite diftance from the Fountain of
Tight, pofieffes fluggifh and malignant qualities, which
oppofe the divine operations, and are the canfe of evil;
tnat it is the great defign of philofophy to deliver the
foul) from its imprifonment in matter, and reftore it to
that divine light from which it was derived ; and that
for this purpofe God had fent him one of the firft sons
among men. nr’ 1 • •" ” *
Critical Hiftory of the principal Commentators on the
New Teftament. 6. Inlpiration of the Sacred Books.
7. A tranfiation of the New Tdtament. This book
was cenfured by Cardinal Noailles and Boffuet. 8.
The Hi (lory of the rife and progrefs pf Eccleliafticai
Revenues, which is commended by Voltaire, as is his
Critical Hiftory of the Old Teftament,. It refulted
from a quarrel with a community of BenediCtines. 9.
A new feleft Libraiy, which points out the good books
in various kinds of literature, and the ufe to be made of
them. 10. Critical Hiftory of the Belief and Cuftoms
of the Nations 011 the Levant. 1 1. Critical Tetters,
&c.
SiMONICAL, is applied to any perfon guilty of
fimony. See Simony".
, SIMONIDES, the name of feveral poets celebrated •
a"tiql»ty > but by the Marbles it appears that the
rp„ 1 • -r tt 1 1 r , wuc uy me marorcs it appears that the
To h,s wile HeCna lie alio afcnbtd a fi. elddl and moft illuftrlou, of thorn Wa. bo™ in the tctS
divine nature, nretendimr tb3r « fi-.r.;, «   d ^  35ul
milar kind of divine nature, pretending that a female
a;on inhabited the body of this woman, to whom he
gave the name of W/dom ; whence fome Chri-
itiau fathers have faid, that he called her the Holy Spi¬
rit. ' He alfo taught the tranfmigration of fouls, and
denied the refurretfion of the body.
^Simon (Richard), was born at Dieppe the 15th
.'lay 1638. lie began his ftudies among the priefls
<>f the Oratory in that city, but quitted their foc-'ety
m a fiiort time P rom Dieppe he went to Paris, where
he made great progrefs in the ftudy of the oriental lan
guages 0 ' ^ . . . .
of the awry again, ana became a   
1660. In 167c he publifhed fome pieces of a fmaller
Olympiad, 538 years B. C. and that he died in his 90th
year ; which nearly agrees with the chronology of Eu-
febnis. He was a native of Ceos, one of the Cyclades*
m the neighbourhood of Attica, and the preceptor of
Pindar. Both Plato and Cicero give him.the charac-
ter not only of a good poet and mufician, but lipeak
ot him as a perfon of great virtue and wifdom. Such
longevity gave him an opportunity of knowing a great
number of the firft characters in antiquity with whom
he was in fome meafure connected. It appears in Fa-
.Some" time afterwards he jo^d VlmTe,^
Oratory agam, and became a pneft of it rn lene, HippLhus tyrant of Athens, SanL ife
-es oi a (maUer Sparta, Htero tyrant of Syracufe, with Themiitocles,
mem appeared,kut5 wlf.wSl^pmSd bylhe' “iV",
Hitngues of Meffieur, do Port Rovai. It seas rek„, “S
intrigues of Meffieurs du Port Royal. Tt was reprint¬
ed the year after, and its excellence foon drew the at¬
tention of foreigners ; an edition of it was accordingly
pubhfhed at Amfterdam in Latin, and at London in
Englifh.
He died at Dieppe in 1712, at the age of 74.
Ide certainly pofieffed a vaft deal of learning : his
criticifm is exact, but not always moderate ; and there
reigns in his writings a fpirit of novelty and fmgularity
which railed him a great many adv.erfiries. The molt
celebrated of thefe were Le Clerc, Vofiius, Jurieu, Du
Pm, and Bofluet. Simon wrote an anfwer to moft of
the books that were publifited againft him, and difplays
a pride and obftinacy in his controverfial writings which
do him little honour
Inero king of Syracufe. Cicero alleges, what has of-
ten been quoted in proof of the modefty and wifdom
ot Simonides, tliat when Hiero afked him for a defini¬
tion of God, the poet required a whole day to medi¬
tate on io important a queftion : at the end of which*
upon the prince putting the fame queftion to him a
lecond time, he afked two days refpite ; and in this
manner always doubled the delay each time he was re¬
quired to anfwer it ; till at length, to avoid offending
his patron by more difappointments, he frankly con-
tiled that he found the queftion lo difficult, that the
more he meditated upon it, the lefs was his hope of
being able to folve it.
In his old age, perhaps from feeing the refpea which
lowing™'SrpHncip^ T TVC ^ T Tb pr“Ctt"dyouS -
JewASatd iJamor LTofMl^ h^btrLthT "“"‘‘“I ^ ^
ttstatri-TSSSa
aean-
S I M
[ ]
S I M
Simonides, tneannefs, lie fald, that he had two coffers, in one of
^ Simony. which he had for many years put his pecuniaiy re-
v wards ; the other was for honours, verbal thanks, and
promifes ; that the firft was pretty well filled, but the
laft remained always empty. And he made no fcruple
to confefs, in his old age, that of all the enjoyments of
life, the love of money was the only one of which time
had not deprived him.
He was frequently reproached for this vice; how¬
ever, he always defended himfelf with good humour.
Upon being afked by Hiero’s queen, Whether it was
molt defirable to be learned or rich ? he anfwered, that
it was far better to be rich; for the learned were al¬
ways dependent on the rich, and waiting at their
doors ; whereas, he never faw rich men at the doors of
the learned. When he was accufed of being fo fordid
as to fell part of the provifions with which his table
was furnifhed by Hiero,, he faid he had done it in or¬
der “ to difplay to the world the magnificence of that
prince and his own frugality.” To others he faid, that
his reafon for accumulating wealth was, that “ he would
rather leave money to his enemies after death, than be
troublefome to his friends while living.”
He obtained the prize in poetry at the public games
when he was fourfcore years of age. According to Sui-
das, he added four letters to the Greek alphabet ; and
Pliny affigns to him the eighth firing of the lyre ; but
thefe claims are difputed by the learned.
His poetry was fo tender and plaintive, that he ac¬
quired the cognomen of Melicertes “ fweet as honey
and the tearful eye ofhismufe was proverbial. Dio*
nyfius places him among thofe polifhed writers who ex¬
cel in a fmooth volubility, and flow on like plenteous
and perennial rivers, in a courfe of even and uninterrupt¬
ed harmony.
It is to Dionyfius that we are indebted for the pre-
fervation of the following fragment ot this poet. Da-
nae being by her mercilefs father inclofed in a cheft,
and thrown into the fea with her child, when night
fComes on, and a ftorm arifes which threatens to overfet
the cheft, fhe, weeping and embracing the young Per-
feus, cries out:
Sweet child ! what anguifh does thy mother know,
Ere cruel grief has taught thy tears to flow !
Amidft the roaring wind’s tremendous found,
Vrhich threats deftruftion as it howls around ;
In balmy fleep thou Heft, as at the breaft.
Without one bitter thought to break thy reft. 
The glimm’ring moon, in pity hides her light.
And Ihrinks with horror at the ghaftly fight.
Didll thou but know, fweet innocent! our woes,
Not opiate’s pow’r thy. eyelids now could clofe.
Sleep on, fweet babe 1 ye waves in filence roll}
And lull, O lull, to reft my tortur’d foul 1
There is a fecond great poet of the name of Simo¬
nides recorded on tlie Marbles, fuppofed to have been
his grandfon, and who gained, in 478 B. C. the prize
in the games at Athens.
SIMONY, is the corrupt prefentation of any one to
an ecclefiaftical benefice for money, gift, or reward. It
is fo called from the refemblance it is faid to bear to
the fin of Simon Magus, though the purchaling of holy
orders feems to approach nearer to his offence. It was
by the canon law a very grievous crime; and is fo much
Simony,
Simoom,
the more odious, becaufe, as Sir Edward Coke obferves,
it is ever accompanied with perjury ; for the prefentee
is fworn to have committed no fimony. However, it
was not an offence puniftiable in a criminal way at the
common law: it being thought fufficient to leave the
clerk to ecclefiaftical cenfures. But as thefe did not
affeftthe fimoniacal patron, nor were efficacious enough
to repel the notorious pra&ice of the thing, divers ads
of parliament have been made to reftrain it by means of
civil forfeitures ; which the modern prevailing ulage,
with regard to fpiritual preferments, calls aloud to be
put in execution. The ftatute 31 Eliz. c. 6. enads,
that if any patron, for money or any other corrupt con-
ftderation or promife, diredly or indirectly given, fhall
prefent, admit, inftitute, indud, inftall, or collate any
perfon to an ecclciiaftical benefice or dignity, both the
giver and taker fhall forfeit two years value of the be¬
nefice or dignity ; one moiety to the king, and the
other to any one who will fue for the fame. If perfona
alfo corruptly refign or exchange their benefices, both
the giver and taker fhall in like manner forfeit double
the value of the^oney or other corrupt confideration.
And perfons who fhall corruptly ordain or licenfe any
minifter, or procure him to be ordained or licenled
(which is the true idea of fimony), fhall incur a like
forfeiture of forty pounds; and the minifter himfelt of
ten pounds, befides an incapacity to hold any ecclefiaf¬
tical preferment for feven years afterwards. Corrupt
eledtions and refignations in colleges, hofpitals, and
other eleemofynary corporations, are alfo puniffied, by
the fame ftatute, with forfeiture of the double value,
vacating the place or office, and a devolution of the
right of eledion, for that turn, to the crown.
SIMOOM, a hot v/ind which blows occafionally in
the deferts of Africa, and probably in other widely ex¬
tended countries parched in the fame manner by a ver¬
tical fun. Its effeds on the human body are dreadful.
If inhaled in any quantity, it produces inftant fuffoca-
tion, or at leaft leaves the unhappy fufferer oppreffed
with afthma and lownefs of fpirits. The approach of
this awful fcourge of God is indicated by a rednefs in
the air, well underftood by thofe who are accnftomed to
journey through the defert; and the only refuge which
they have from it, is to fall down with their faces clofe
to the ground, and to continue as long as poffible with¬
out drawing in their breath.
Mr Bruce, who, in his journey through the defert,
fuffered from the fimoom, gives of it the following gra¬
phical defeription : “ At eleven o’clock, while we con- £ruce>s
templated with great pleafure the rugged top of Chig- Trave!rt
gre, to which we were fall approaching, and where we vol. iv.
were to iolace ourfelves with plenty of good water,P’559*
Idris our guide cried out, with a loud voice, fall upon
you faces, for here is the fimoom. I faw from the
louth-eaft a haze come, in colour like the purple part
of the rainbow, hot not fo compreffed or thick. It
did not occupy twenty yards in breadth, and was about
twelve feet high from the ground. It was a kind of
blufh upon the air, and it moved very rapidly ; for I
fcarce could turn to fall upon the ground with my
head to the northward, when i felt the heat ot its cur¬
rent plainly upon my face. We all lay flat on the
ground as if dead, till Idris told us it was flown over.
The meteor or purple haze which I faw was indeed
paffed, but the Hght air that -ftill blew was of heat to
threaten
o>
(y/f/ ’■ Y/ /
t .^o//y oc>Y *- /cr/tY.
(/u ■ (/' //■
.' //////a as1’ '(//
//for <>r /yt//*
(
YY/
^
3! ?_ //////// ^Jar <>/• r/retiruYOi
r ///////') iT'.,
// f/fZ/f f/rJ O!' r. . 6^y^/i
/ Or// /Wf,. ‘I//- ■/«//,U, frr/l.
Plate CCCCLXVH.
SIMM,, Aprs.
S 3 MIA'*, Baboons
Plale CCCCBXVIU
^ i////f') //v///((/r' y/y /(///s// /3fi/^/f/ny. <y, * (/'//£'* or y^/Ytty . jo, ^y^bcc/ccL/ or
^/o /3a/mmy. //, r or- '/f/an/ryary. J2, r f/tJ/' r/lfl/ or 2 4far>r/rt b.
rX 14, odt/iwT/ciio or if loots/ /3aitrony. . .,.. l
)"j
. IJUt ti;„rW«l. .Llp&r fi'tt.
ri ate CCCCI/XIX
^ //r^y. /6. ’ Js7e?uM rf/^r/r//■/<////,t „ //£w^. ^yr/^/yi/Ysy//^ <>,*
' f-yrimv/iAa/^ orQ^-A**Au/Ulnty. ;9,Ua/wsM w. Jjtiwfts ^
t //aytr/ey. %/. t
c*r Qy rtf. 22, (JAz^ccytj/AerzM rz’y/zzArJ ? e*i^ ' f y .
«l ^/^e// (A/*? v ?*. //a & ^'/cu^kforyfecit'.
* 6
23.
>ap«jau« ^%4, &tJai or/fc/itAztit
, Sagoins *6. r ?r,rr/„t, ,„4f //^. 2?,d?C</</„M . /Up. 2<9, t tyoeKl&M ,r t/Z/yS
//n/ry . xy, f //ff/y'J of. '(yrr,,/ '■«,*. f/ , //<>,?/■ y .
S IVlliSj, S ap aj o u s.
23.
Plate CCCCLXX.
P4-
SIMI.®!, Sag*oms.
28.
rx/,?<■// 8U. //a/XCy^U •
Simp’e,
Simplicity,
Simpfon,
I M [ 5°3 ] SIM
For my part, I found diftin&ly moft other writings are impaired by a literal tranflationj Simplicity
whereas giving only a due regard to the idiom of diffe¬
rent languages, the facred writings, when literally trans¬
lated, are then in their full perfection.”
Now this is an internal proof, that in all other wri¬
tings there is a mixture of local, relative, exterior orna¬
ment, which is often loft in the transfnfron from one lan¬
guage to another. But the internal beauties, which
depend not on the particular conftruftion of tongues,
no change of tongue can deftroy. Hence the Bible
preferves its native beauty and ftrength alike in every
language, by the foie energy of unadorned phrafe, natu¬
ral images, weight of fentiment, and great fimplicity.
It is in this refpeeft like a rich vein of gold, which,
under the fevered trials of heat, cold, and moifture, re¬
tains its original weight and fplendour, without either
lofs or alloy; while bafer metals are corrupted by earth,
air, water, fire, and affimilated to the various elements
through which they pafs.
This circumftance, then, may be juftly regarded as
fufficient. to vindicate the compofition of the facred
Scriptures, as it is at once their chief excellency and
greateft fecurity. It is their excellence, as it renders
them intelligible and ufeful to all; it is their fecurity,
as it preve nts their being difguifed by the falfe and ca¬
pricious ornaments of vain or weak tranflators. We
may fafely appeal to experience and faft for the confir¬
mation of thefe remarks on the fuperior limplicity, uti¬
lity. and excellence, of the ftyle of the Holy Scripture.
Is there any book in the world fo perfectly adapted-fa
all capacities ? that contains fuch fublime and exalted
precepts, conveyed in fuch an artlefs and intelligible
ftrain, that can be read with fuch pleafure and advan¬
tage by the lettered 1'age and the unlettered peafant ?
SIMPLOCE. See Oratory, n° 72.
SIMPSON (Thomas), profeifor of mathematics at
the royal academy at Woolwich, fellow of the Royal
Society, and member of the Royal Academy at Stock¬
holm, was born at Market Bofworth in Leicefterftxire
in 1710. His father, a ftuif-weaver, taught him only
to read Englifh, and brought him up to his own bull-
nefs; but meeting with a fcientifical pedlar, who like-
wile pradftifed fortune-telling, young Simpfon by his af-
fillance and advice left off weaving, and profelfed aftro-
logy. As he improved in knowledge, however, he grew
difgufted with his pretended art; and renouncing it,
was driven to fuch difficulties for the fubfiftence of his
family, that he came up to Eondon, where he worked
as a weaver, and taught mathematics at his fpare hours.
As his fcholars increafed, his abilities became better
known, and he publilhed his Treatife on Fluxions, by
fubfeription, in 1737 : in 1740, he publilhed his Trea¬
tife on the Nature and Laws of Chance ; and Elfays
in Speculative and Mixed Mathematics. After thefe
appeared his Do&rine of Annuities and Reverfions *
Mathematical Dilfertations ; Treatife on Algebra ; E-
lements of Geometry ; Trigonometry, Plane and Sphe¬
rical ; Seleft Exercifes; and his Doftrine and Appli¬
cation of Fluxions, which he profeffes to be rather a
new work, than a fecond edition of his former publica¬
tion on fluxions, In 1743> he obtained the mathema¬
tical profefforfhip at Woolwich academy ; and foon af¬
ter was chofen a member* of the Royal Society, when
the prefident and council, in confideration of his mode¬
rate circumftancesj were pleafed to cxcufe his admiffion.
threaten fuffocation. , x.t .   
in my bread; that I had imbibed a part of it, nor was I
free of an afthmatic fenfation till I had been feme
months in Italy, at the baths of Poretta, near two years
afterwards.” Though the feverity of this blaft feems
to have palled over them almoft inffontaneoudy, it con¬
tinued to blow fo as to exhauft them till twenty minutes
before five in the afternoon, lading through all its ftages
very near fix hours, and leaving them in a ftate of the
utmoft defpondency.
SIMPLE, fomething not mixed or compounded ; in
which fenfe it ftands oppofed to compound.
Simple, in the materia medica, a general name for
all herbs or plants, as having each its particular virtue,
whereby it becomes a fimple remedy.
SIMPLICITY IN writing. If we examine the
writers whofe compofttions have flood the teft of ages,
and obtained that higheft honour, “ the concurrent ap¬
probation of diftant times and nations,” we lhall find
that the character of fimplicity is the unvarying circum-
flance which alone hath been able,to gain this univerfal
homage from mankind. Among the Greeks, whofe
writers in general are of the fimple kind, the divined
poet, the mod commanding orator, the fined hidouan,
and deeped philofopher, are, above the reft, conlpicu-
oufiy eminent in this great quality. The Roman wri¬
ters rife towards perfeAion according to that meafure
of fimplicity which they mingle in their works } indeed
they are all inferior to the Greek models. But who
will deny that Lucretius, Horace, Virgil, Livy, Te¬
rence, Tully, are at once the fimpleft and bed of Ro¬
man writers ? unlefs we add the noble annalift who ap¬
peared in after-times; who, notwithftanding the politi¬
cal turn of his genius, which fometimes interferes, is ad¬
mirable in this great quality, and by it far fuperior to
his contemporaries. It is this one circumftance that
hath railed the venerable Dante, the father of modern
poetry, above the fucceeding poets of his country, who
could never long maintain the local and temporary ho¬
nours beftowed upon them ; but have fallen under that
jyft negleft which time will ever decree to thofe who
defert a juft fimplicity for the florid colourings of ftyle,
contraded phrafes, affecled conceits, the mere trappings
of compofition and Gothic 'minutiae. It is this hath
given to Boileau the mod lading wreath in France, and
to Shakefpeare and Milton in England ; efpecially to
the former, whofe writings contain fpecimens of per¬
haps the pureft and fimpleft Englifh that is anywhere
to be found, except in the Bible or Book of Common
Prayer. As it appears from thefe inftances, that fim¬
plicity is the only univerfal charafteriftic of juft writing,
fo the fuperior eminence of the facred Scriptures in this
quality hath been generally acknowledged. One of
the gieateft critics in antiquity, himfelf confpicuous
in the fublime and fimple manner, hath borne this tefti-
mony to the writings of Mofes and St Paul ; and by
parity of reafon we muft conclude, that had he been
converfant with the other facred writers, his tafte and
candour would have allowed them the fame encomium.
It hath been often obferyed even by writers of no
mean rank, that the “ Scriptures fuffer in their credit
by the diladvantage of a literal verfion, while other an¬
cient writings enjoy the advantage of a free and embel-
hfliedtranflation.” But in reality thefe gentlemens con-,
sern is dl-placed and groundlefs; for the truth is, u that
8
foes-
STM [ 504 ] S r M‘
filrrifiTon, fe5g. at1cJ giving bonds for tba fettled future pay-
L Simf ,n« ments. At the academy he exerted all his abilities in
v~“ inftrucling the pupils who were the immediate obje&s
of his duty, as well as others whom the fuperior officers
of the ordnance permitted to be boarded and lodged in
his hoofe. In his manner of teaching he had a peculiar
and happy addrefs, a certain dignity and perfpicuity,
temoered with foch a degree of mildnds, as engaged
the attention, eflieem, and friendfhip, of his fcholars.
He therefore acquired great applaufe from his fuperiors
in the difeharge of his duty. His application and clofe
confinement, however, injured his health. EKeteife and
a proper regimen were preferibed to him, but to little
purpofe : for his fpirits funk gradually, till he became
incapable of performing his duty, or even of reading
the letters of his friends. The effedts of this decay of
nature were greatly increafed by vexation of mind, ow¬
ing to. the haughty and infulting behaviour of his fupe¬
rior the firft profeffor of mathematics. This perfonp
greatly his inferior in mathematical accOmplifhments,
did what he could to make his fituation uneafy, and
even to depreciate him in the public opinion : but it
was a vain endeavour, and only ferved to deprefs him-
felf. At length his phyficians advifed his native air for
bis recovery, and he let out in February 1761; but was
fo fatigued by his journey, that upon his arrival at Bof-
worth, he betook himfelf to his chamber, and grew con¬
tinually worfe till the day of his death, which happened
on the 14th qf May, in the 51 It year of his age.
^fsIMSON (Dr Robert), profeffor of mathematics in
the univerfity of Glafgow, was born in the year 1687
of a refpeftable family, which had held a fmall eltate in
the county of Lanerk for fome generations. He was,
we think, the fecond fon of the family. A younger
brother was profellor of medicine in the univerfity of
St Andrew’s, arid is known by fome works of reputa¬
tion, particularly a DifTertation on the Nervous Syftern,
occafioned by the Diffe&ion of a Brain completely Of-
iified.
Dr Simfon was educated in the univeifity of Glaf¬
gow under the eye of fome of his relations who were
profeffors. Eager after knowledge, he made great pro-
grefs in all his ftudies ; and, as his mind did not, at
the very firft openings of fcience, ftrike into that path
which afterwards fo ftrongly attracted him, and in
which he proceeded fo far almoft without a companion,
be acquired in every walk of fcience a ftock of in¬
formation, which, though it had never been much
augmented afterwards, would have done credit to a
profcffional man in any of his ftifdies. He became,
at a very early period, an adept in the philofophy
and theology of the fchools, was able to fupply the
place of a fick relation in the clafs of oriental languages,
was noted for hiftorical knowledge, and one of the molt
knowing botanifts of his time.
It was during his'theological ftudies, as preparatory
for his entering into orders, that mathematics took hold
of his fancy. He ufed to tell in his convivial moments
how he amufed himielf when preparing his exercifes
for the divinity hall. When tired with vague fpecula-
tion, in which he did not meet with certainty to re¬
ward his labours, he turned up a book of oriental phi¬
lology, in which he found fomething which he could
dilcover to be true or to be falfe, without going out of
the line of ftudy which was t>o be of ultimate life to
him. Sometimes even this could not relieve his fatigue. S
He then had recourfe to mathematics, which never tail- *—
ed to fatisty and refrelh him. For a long while he re-
ftri&ed himfelf to a very moderate ufe of the cordial,
fearing that he would foon exhauft the fmall ftock
which fo limited and abftraft a fcience could yield ;
till at lall he found, that the more he learned, a
v/ider field opened to his view, and feenes that were in-
exhauftible. Becoming acquainted with fabjedts far be¬
yond the elements of the fcience, and with numbers of
names celebrated during that period of ardent refearch
all over Europe, he found it to be a manly and impor¬
tant ftudy, by which he was as likely to acquire repu¬
tation as by any other. About this time, too, a pro-
fpedt began to open of making mathematics his profeffion
for life. He then gave himfelf up to it without referve.
His original incitement to this ftudy as a treat, as
fomething to pleafe and refrelh his mind in the midft of
feverer talks, gave a particular turn to his mathematical
ftudies, from which he never could afterwards deviate.
Perfpicuity and elegance are more attainable, and more
difcerm’ble, in pure geometry, than in any other parts of
the fcience pf meafure. To this therefore he chiefly
devoted himfelf. For the lame reafon he preferred the
ancient method of ftudying pure geometry, and even
felt a difiike to the Caitefian method of fubftituting
fymbols for operations of the mind, and ftill more was
he difgufted with the fubftitution of fymbols for the
very objeefts of difeuffion, for lines, fuifaces, folids, and
their affections. He was rather difpofed in the fo-
lution of an algebraic problem, where quantity alone
was conlidered, to fubttitute figure and its affeitions
for the algebraic fymbols, and to convert the algebraic
formula into an analogous geometrical theorem. And
he came at laft to confider algebraic analyfis as little
better than a kind of mechanical knack, in which we
proceed without ideas of any kind, and obtain a refult
without meaning, and without being confcious of any
procefs of reafoning, and therefore without any convic¬
tion of its truth. And there is no deny ing, that if ge¬
nuine unfophifticated tafte alone is to be confulted, Dr
Simfon was in the right : for though it muft alio be
acknowledged, that the reafoning in algebra is as ftrict
as in the pureft geometry of Euclid or Apollonius, the
expert analyft has little perception of it as he goes on,
and his final equation is not felt by himfelf as the refult
of ratiocination, any more than if he had obtained it by
Pafcal’s arithmetical mill. This does not in the leaft
diminifh our admiration of tire algebraic analyfis ; for
its almoft: boundlcfs grafp, its rapid and certain proce¬
dure, and the delicate metaphyiics and great addrefs
which may be difplayed in condufting it. Such, how¬
ever, wras the ground of the ftrong bias of Dr Simfon’s
mind to the analyfis of the ancient geometers. It in¬
creafed as he went forward ; and his veneration (we
may call it his love or ajfettion) for the ancient geometry
was carried to a degree of idolatry. His chief labours
were exerted in efforts to reftore the works of the an¬
cient geometers ; and he has nowhere beftowed much
pains in advancing the modern difeoveries in mathema¬
tics. The noble inventions, for example, of fluxions
and of logarithms, by which our progrefs in mathema¬
tical knowledge, and in the ufeful application of this
knowledge, is fo much promoted, attrafted the notice
of Dr Simfon ; but he has contented himfelf with de¬
mon-
S I M
Slmfon.
  monftratmg their truth on the genuine principles of
~ the ancient geometry. Yet was he very thoroughly
acquainted with all the modern difcoveries ; and tliere
are to be feen among his papers difcuffions and invefti*
gations in the Cartefian method, which fhow him tho-
roughly acquainted with all the principles, and even ex-
pert in the tours de main, of the moll refined fymbolical
analyfis (a).
About the age of 25 Dr Simfon was chofen regius
profeffor of mathematics in the univerlity of Giafgow.
He went to London immediately after his appointment,
and there formed an acquaintance with the moft eminent
men of that bright era of Britifh fcience. Among thefe
he always mentioned Captain Halley (the celebrated
Dr Edmund Halley) with particular refoeft ; faying,
that he had the moft acute penetration, and the moft
juft taite in that fcience, of any man he had ever known.
And, indeed, Dr Halley has ftrongiy examplined both
of thefe in his divination of the work of Apollonius de
SeBione Spatii, and the 8th book of his Conics, and in
fome of the moft beautiful theorems in Sir Ifaac New-
ton s Princip'ta. Dr Simfon alfo admired the wide and
mafterly fteps which Newton was accuftomed to take in
his inveftigations, and his manner of fubftituting geome¬
trical figures for the quantities which are obferved in the
phenomena of nature. It was from Dr Simfon that the
Writer of this article had the remarks which has been
oftener than once repeated in the courfe of this* Work,
I hat the 39^ propofition of the firft book of the
Principia was the moft important propofition that had
ever been exhibited to the phyfico-mathematical philo-
fopher;” and he ufed always to illuftrate to his more
advanced fcholars the fupenonty of the geometrical
oyer the algebraic analyfis, by comparing the folution
given by Newton of the inverfe problem of centripetal
forces, in the 42d propofition of that book, with the
one given by John Bernoulli in the Memoirs of the A-
1 ademy of Sciences at Paris for 1713- have heard him
fay, that to his own knowledge Newton frequentlyinvefti-
gated his propofitions in the fymbolical way, and that
it was owing chiefly to Dr Halley that they did not fi¬
nally appear in that drefs. But if Dr Simfon was well
informed, we think it a great argument in favour of the
Embolic analyfis, when this moft fuccefsful pradical ar.
ttjl (for fo we muft call Newton when engaged in a talk
of difcovery)_ found it conducive either to difpatch or
perhaps to his very progrefs.
Returning to_ his academical chair, Dr Simfon dif-
charged the duties of a profeflbr for more than 50 years
with great honour to the univerfity and to himfelf.
It is almoft needlefs to lay, that in his prelettions he
followed ftndfly the Euclidian method in elementary
geometry. He made ufe of Theodofius as an introduc¬
tion to fpherical trigonometry In the higher geome¬
try he prele&ed from his own Conics; and he gave a
fmall fpecimen of the linear problems of the ancients,
by explaining the properties, fometimes of the conchoid,
Vol. XVII. Part II.
f 505 !
S I M
fometimes of the cifToid, with their application to the
folution of iuch problems. In the more advanced clafs
he was accuftomed to give Napier’s mode of con¬
ceiving logarithms, i. e. quantities as generated by
motion ; and Mr Cotes’s view of them, as the furos of
ratiunculae ; and to demonftrate Newton’s lemmas con¬
cerning the limits of ratios ; and then to give the ele¬
ments of the fluxionary calculus ; and to finifli his courfe
with a feleft fet of propofitions in optics, gnomonics,
and central forces. His method of teaching was limple
and perfpicuous, his elocution clear, and his manner
eafy and impreffive. He had the refpeft, and flill more
the affedtion, of his fcholars.
With refpedt to his ftudies, we have already inform¬
ed the reader that they got an early bias to pure geo¬
metry, and to the elegant but fcrupulous methods of
the ancients.
We have heard Dr Simfon fay, that it was in a great
meafure owing to Dr Halley that he fo early direfted
his efforts to the reftoration of the ancient geometers.
He had recommended this to him, as the moft certain
way for him, then a very young man, both to acquire
reputation, and to improve his own knowledge and tafte,
and he prefented him with a copy of Pappus’s Mathe¬
matical Colleftions, enriched with fome of his own notes.
The perfpicuity of the ancient geometrical analyfis, and
a certain elegance in the nature of the folutions which
it affords, efpecially by means of the local theorems,
foon took firm hold of his fancy, and made him, with
the fang nine expe&ation of a young man, direft his
very firft efforts to the recovery of this in toto; and the
reftoration of Euclid’s Porifms was the firft talk which
he fet himfelf. I he accomplifhed geometer knows what
a defperate lafk this was, from the fcantv and mutilated
account which we have of this work in a fingle paffage
of Pappus. . It was an ambition which nothing but fuc-
cefs could juftify in fo young an adventurer. He fuc-
ceeded ; and fo early as 1718 feemed to have been in
complete poffeffion of this method of inveftigation,
which was confidered by the eminent geometers of an¬
tiquity as their fureft guide through the labyrinths of
the higher geometry. Dr Simfon gave a fpecimen of
his difeovery in 1723 in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions. And after this time he ceafed not from his en¬
deavours to recover that choice colleftion of Porifms
which Euclid had colledled, as of the moft general ufe
m the folution of difficult queftions. What fome of
thefe muft have been was pointed out to Dr Simfon by
^ nature ^ie £eneral propofition of Pappus,
which he has reftored. Others were pointed out bv the
lemmas which Pappus has given as helps to the voung
mathematician towards their demonftration. And. be-
ing thus in poffeffion of a confiderable number, their
mutual relations painted out a fort of fyftem, of which
thefe made a part, and of which the blanks now re¬
mained to be filled up.
Dr Simfon, having thus gained his favourite point,
3 S had
Simfon.
W;1 f75.2 *h.e wr.lter °r thls art,cle being then fcholar, requefted him to examine an account which he
g ve him of what he thought _a new curve (a conchoid having a circle for its bafe). Dr Simfon returner it
next day with a regular lift of its leading properties, and the inveftigation of fuch 'as he thought his khoi,-
would not io eaidy trace. In this hafty fcrawl the lines related to the circle were familiarly coffiidere!ras aHth
.0 iuiI fr a chons of the radius confidered as unity. This was before Euler publifhed his Arithnn-fe of h > V '
and Tangents, now in univerfal ufe. F nnttmiehc of the Sines
S I M
r 5o6 i
S I M
had leiture ta torn his attention to the other v/orks of
the ancient geometers, and the porifms of Euclid now
'had only an occafional (hare. The loci p'ani of Apol-
jonius was another talk which he very early engaged in,
and completed about the year 1738. But, after it was
printed, he imagined that he had not given the ipftji<n<e
propofitiones of Apollonius, and in theprecife {pint and
order of that author. The impreflion lay by him for
fome years ; and it was with great reluftance that he
yielded to the intreaties of his mathematical friends,
and publilhed the work, in 1746) with fome emenda¬
tions, where he thought he had deviated fartheit from
his author. He quickly repented of this fcanty con-
ceffion, and recalled what he could of the fmall number
of copies which he had given to the bookfelltrs, and the
imprelhon again lay by him for years. He afterwards
re-corre&ed the work, and ftill with fome reluctance
allowed it to come abroad as the Reftitution of Apol¬
lonius. The public, however, had not been fo falti-
dious as Dr Simfon, and the work had acquired great
celebrity, and he was now confidered as one of the iiril
and the moll elegant geometers of the age : for, in
the mean time, he had publilhed his Conic Sections, a
work of uncommon merit, whether we confider it as
equivalent to a complete reliitution of the celebrated
work of Apollonius. Pergaeus, or as an excellent fyftem
uf this important part of mathematics. It is marked
with the fame features as the loci plan], the moll anxious
folicitude to exhibit the very text of Apollonius, even
in the propolitions belonging to the books which had
been completely loll. Thefe could be recovered in no
other way but by a thorough knowledge oi the precife
plan propoftd by the author, and by taking it for
granted that the author had accurately accomplilhed
this plan. In this manner did Viviani proceed in the
Bril attempt which was made to reftore the conics of
Apollonius ; and he has given us a detail of the procefs
of his conjedlures, by which we may form an opinion
of itsjullnefs, and of the probability how far he has
attained the defired objedl. Dr Simfon’s view in his
performance was fomething different, deviating a little
in this one cafe from his general track. Pie was not
altogether pleafed with the work of Viviani, even as
augmented by the eighth book added by Halley, and his
wifh was to retlore the ancient original. But, in the
mean time, an aeadenveal text book for conic fedlions
was much wanted. He was much diflatished with thofp
in common ufe ; and he was not infenfible of the advan¬
tage refulting from the confideration of thefe fedlions,
independent of the cone hr It introduced by Dr Wallis.
He therefore compofed this excellent treatife as an
elementary book, not to fuperftde, but to prepare for
the lludy of Apollonius*, and accordingly accommodates
it to this purpofe, and gives feveral important propor¬
tions in theii proper places, cxprefsly as rjlitutions of
Apollonius, whom he keeps conilantly in view through
the whole work.
Much about this time Dr Simfon ferioufly began to
prepare a perfect edition of Euclid’s Elements. The
intimate acquaintance which he had by this time
acquired with all the original works of the ancient geo¬
meters, and their ancient commentators and critics, en¬
couraged him to hope that he could reflore to his ori¬
ginal luftre this leader in mathematical fcience ; and the
errors which had.crept inta tins, celebrated work, and
which ftill remained in it, appeared of magnitude fuffi- Simfon.
cient to merit the mofl careful efforts ror their removal. —y—
The data alfo, which were in like manner the intro-
dudlion to the whole art of geometrical inve(ligation,
feemed to call more loudly for his amending hand. For
it appears that the Saracens, who have prelerved to us
the writings of the ancients, have contented themfelves
with admiring thefe celebrated works, and)have availed
themfelves of the knowledge which they contain ; but
they have fhown no inclination to add to the ilock, or
to promote the fciences which they had received. Phey
could not do any thing without the tynthetical books
of the geometers ; but, not meaning to go beyond the
difeoveries which they had made, they negledted all the
books which related to the analytic art alone, and the
greatell part of them (about 25 out of 30) have irre¬
coverably perifhed. The data of Euclid have fortu¬
nately been preferved, but the book was negletled, and
the only ancient copies, which are but three or four, are
miferably erroneous and mutilated. Fortunately, it is
no very arduous matter to reinftate this work in its ori¬
ginal perfeftion. The plan is precife, both in its extent
and its method. It had been reftored, therefore, with
fuccefs by more than one author. But Dr Simfon’s
comprehenfive view of the whole analytical fyftem point¬
ed out to him many occafions for amendment. He
therefore made its inftitution a joint talk with that of
the dements. All the lovers of true geometry will ac¬
knowledge their obligations to him for the edition
of the Elements and data which he publifhed about
1738. The text is corredled with the mofl judicious
and fcrupulous care, and the notes are meftimable, both
for their information, and for the tendency which they
mull have to form the mind of the iludent to a true
judgment and tafte in mathematical fubjefts. The more
accompliihcd reader will perhaps be fametimes difpofed
to fmile at the axiom which feems to pervade the notes,
“ that a work of Euclid mull be fuppofed without ey-
ror or defedl.” If this was not the cafe, Euclid has
been obli ;ed to his editor in more inilauces than oneQ
Nor fhould his greateft admirers think it impoffible that
in the progrefs of human improvement, a geometrical
truth fhould occur to one or thefe latter days, which •
efcaped the notice of even the Lincean Euclid. Such
merit, however, Dr Simfon nowhere claims, but lays
every blame of error, omiffion, or obfeurity, to the
charge of Proclus, Theon, and other editors and com¬
mentators of the renowned Grecian.
There is another work of Apollonius on which Dr
Simfon has bellowed great pains, and. has reftored, as
we imagine, omnibus numeris perfedum, viz. the Sectio
determinata ; one of thofe performances which are
of indifpenfable ufe in the application of the ancient an-
alyfis. This- alio feems to have been an early tafk, tho’
we do not know the date of his labours on it. It did
not appear till after his death, being then publifhed
along with the great work, the Porifms of Euclid, at
the expeuce of the late Earl Stanhope, a nobleman in¬
timately converfant with the ancient geometry, and
zealous for its reception among the mathematicians of
the prefent age. He had kept up a conftant corre-
fpondence with Dr Simfon on mathematical fubjefts ;"
and at his death in 1768, engaged Mr Clow profeffor •
of logic in the univerfity of Glafgow, to whofe care
the Doctor had left all his valuable papers, to make a
Elec-
S I M
feleftion offueh as would ferve to fupport and increafe
—-v his well earned reputation as the Restorer of an-
cient Geometry.
We have been thus particular in our account of Dr
Simfon’s labours in thefe works, becaufe his manner of
execution, while it docs honour to his inventive pow¬
ers, and fliows his juft tafte in mathematical compofi-
tion, alfo confirms our former aftertion, that he carried
his refpeft for the ancient geometers to a decree of
fuperftitious idolatry, and that his fancy, unchecked,
viewed them as incapable of error or imperfedlion.
This is dtftin&ly to be feen in the emendations which
he has pdven of the texts, particularly in his editions
of Euclid. Not only every imperfeftion of the read¬
ing is afcribed to the ignorance of copyifts, and every
indiftinftnefs in the conception, inconcluiivenefs in the
reafoning, and defeft in the method, is afcribed to the
ignorance or miftake of the commentators ; but it is
all along affirmed that the work was perfedl in its kind;
and that by exhibiting a perfedf work, we reftore the
genuine original. This is furely gratuitous ; and it is
very poflible that it has, in fome inftances, made Dr
Simlon fad of his anxious purpofe, and give us even
a better than the original. It has undoubtedly made
him fail in 'wha.t Jhould have been his great purpofe, viz<
to give the world a connefted fyftem of the ancient
geometrical analyiis ; fuch as would, in the firft place,
exhibit it in its moft engaging form, elegant, perfpicu-
ous, and comprehenfive ; and, in the next place, fuch
as fliould engage the mathematicians of the prefent age
to adopt it as die moft certain and fuccefsful conduc¬
tor in thofe laborious and difficult refearches in which
the demands of modern fcience continually engage
them. And this might have been expended, in the pro¬
vince of fpeculative geometry at leaf!;, from a perfon of
fuch extenfive knowledge of the properties of figure,
and who had fo eminently fucceeded in the many trials
which he had made of its powers. We might have ex-
pe&ed that he would at leaft have exhibited in one fy-
ftematic point of view, what the ancients had done in
feveral detached branches of the fcience, and how far
they had proceeded in the folution of the feveral fuc-
ceffive claffes of problems ; and we might have hoped,
that he would have inftrmfted us in what manner we*
ffiould apply that method to the folution of problems
of a more elevated kind, daily prefented to us in the
queftions of phyfico.mathematical fcience. By this he
would have acquired diftinguiftied honour, and fcience
w ould have received the moft valuable improvement.
But Dr Simfon has done little of all this ; and we can¬
not fay that great helps have been derived from his la-
hours by the eminent mathematicians of this age, who
are fueeefsfully occupied in advancing our knowledge
of nature, or in improving the arts oflife. He has in¬
deed contributed greatly to the entertainment of the
fpeculative mathematician, who is more delighted with
the confcious exercife of his own reafoning powers, than
with the final refult of his refearches. Yet we are not
even certain that Dr Simfon has done this to the ex¬
tent he wiffied and hoped. He has not engaged the
liking of mathematicians to this analyfis, by prefenting
it in the moft agreeable form. His own extreme an¬
xiety to tread in the very ioottteps of the original au¬
thors, has, in a thoufand inftances, precluded him from
tiling- his own extenfive knowledge, fchat he might not
r 507 ]
S I M
employ principles which were not of a cl aft itrerior to Simfon.
that ot the queftion in hand. Thus, of necefiity, did
the method appear trammelled. We are deterred from
employing a procefs which appears to reftrain us in the
application ot the knowledge which we have already
acquired ; and, difgufied with the tedious, and perhaps
indirect path, by which we muft arrive at an obieift
which we fee dearly over the hedge, and which we
could reach by a few fteps, of the fecurfty of which
we are otherwife perfe&ly affured. Thefe prepoftef-
lions are indeed founded on miftake ; but the miftake is
filch, that all fall into it, till experience has enlarged
their views. This circumftance alone has hitherto pre¬
vented mathematicians from acquiring that knowledge
of the ancient analyfis which would enable them to pro¬
ceed in their refearches with certainty, difpatch, and
delight. It is therefore deeply to be regretted, that
this eminent genius has occupied, in this fuperftitious
palseology, a long and bufy life, which might have been
employed in original works of infinite advantage to the
world, and honour to himfelf.
. °ur readers will, it is hoped, confider thefe obferva-
tions as of general fcientific importance, and as inti-
mately connetkd with the hiftory of mathematics ; and
therefore as not improperly introduced in the biogra-
phical.account of one of the moft eminent writers on
this icience. Dr Simlon claimed our notice as a ma¬
thematician ; and his affeftionate admiration of the an¬
cient analyfis is, the prominent feature of his literary
chara&er. By this he is known all over Europe; and
nis name 13 never mentioned by any foreign author with¬
out fome very honourable alluiion to his diftinguiftied
geometrical elegance and {kill. Dr James Moor, pm-
feffor of Greek in the univerfity of Glafgow, no left
eminent for his knowledge in ancient geometry than
for his profeffional talents, put the following appofite
infcnption below a portrait of Dr Simfon ;
Geometriam, sun Tyranno barbaro sjeva
Servitute diu sqjjalentem, in Libertatem
Et decus antiquum vindicavit
Unus.
Yet it muft not be underftood that Dr Simfon’s pre-
dileciion for the geometrical analyfis of the ancients did
fo far miftead Kim as to make him negled the iymbo-
hcal analyfis of the prefent times ; on the contrary, he
was completely matter of it, as has been already obfer-
ved, and frequently employed it. In his academical
lectures to. the ftudents of his upper claftes, he ufed to
point out its proper province (which he by no mea^s li¬
mited by a fcanty boundary), and in what cafes it might
be applied with fafety and advantage even to queftions
of pure, geometry. He once honoured the writer of
this article with the light of a very ftrort differtation on
this fubjeSt (perhaps the one referred to in the preface to
his Conic Seftions). In this piece he was perhaps more
liberal than the moft -zealous partifans of the fymbolical
-analyiis could defire, admitting as a Efficient equation
of the Conic Sections L = —, where L is the latus
reffttm, x is the diftance of any point of the curve from
the focus, p is the perpendicular drawn from the focus
to the tangent in the given point, and c is the chord of
the equicurve circle drawn thro’ the focus. Unfortu¬
nately this differtation was not found amona his oa-
3 S ■> o ^
0 0 & pers,.
/
SIM [
Simfon. pei-g. He fpoke in high terms of the Analytical Works
0f Mr Cotes, and of the two Bernoullis. He was con-
fulted by Mr M‘Laurin during the progrefs of his ine-
ftimable Treatife of Fluxions, and contributed not a
little to the reputation of that work. The fpirit of
that moll ingenious algebraic demonllration ol the flu¬
xions of a rectangle, and the very procefs of the argu¬
ment, is the fame with Dr Simfon’s in his differtation
on the limits of quantities. It was therefore from a
thorough acquruntance with the fubjeft, and by a juft
tafte, that he was induced to prefer his favourite analy-
fis, or, to fpeak more properly, to exhort mathematici¬
ans to employ it in its own fphere, and not to become
ignorant of geometry, while they fuccefsfully employ¬
ed the fymbolical analyiis in cafes which did not require
it, and which fuflered by its admiffion. It mult be ac¬
knowledged, however, that In his later years, the dif-
guft which he felt at the artificial and llovenly employ¬
ment on fubjefts of pure geometry, fometimes hin¬
dered him from even looking at the moft refined and in¬
genious improvements of the algebraic analyfis which
occur in the writings of Euler, D’Alembert, and
other eminent matters. But, when properly informed
of them, he never failed to give them their due praife ;
and we remember him fpeaking, in terms of great fa-
tisfaftion, of an improvement of the infinitefimal cal¬
culus, by D’Alembert and De la Grange, in their re-
fearches concerning the propagation of found, and the
vibrations of mufical cords.
And that Dr Simfon not only was matter of tills cal¬
culus and the fymbolical calculus in general, but held them
in proper efteem, appears from two valuable differta-
tions to be found in his pofthumous works; the one on
logarithms, and the other on the limits of ratios. The
laft, in particular, (hows how completely he was fatis-
£ed with refpeCl to the folid foundation of the method
of fluxions ; and it contains an elegant and5 ilrict dc-
monttration of all the applications which have been
made of the method by its illuftrious author to the ob¬
jects of pure geometry.
We hoped to have given a much more complete and
inftru£tive account of this eminent geometer and his
works, by the aid of a perfon fully acquainted with
both, and able to appreciate their value ; but an acci¬
dent has deprived us of this affiitance, when it was too
late to procure an equivalent : and we mutt requeft our
readers to accept of this very imperfedt account, fince
we cannot do juftice to Dr Simfon’s merit, unlefs al-
moft equally converfant in all the geometry of the an¬
cient Greeks.
The life of a literary man rarely teems with anecdote;
and a mathematician, devoted to his ftudies, is perhaps
more abftrafted than any other perfon from the ordina¬
ry occurrences of life, and even the ordinary topics of
converfation. Dr Simfon was of this clafs ; and, having
never married, lived entirely a college life. Having no
occafion for the commodious houfe to which his place
in the univerfity intxtled him, he contented himfelf with
chambers, good indeed, and fpacious enough for his
fober accommodation, and for receiving his choice col-
ledlion of mathematical writers, but without any deco¬
ration or commodious furniture. His official fervant
fufficed for valet, footman, and chambermaid. As this
retirement was entirely devoted to ftudy, he entertained
no company in his chambers, but in a neighbouring
508 '] SIM
houfe, where his apartment was facred to him and his S'mfon,
gucfts. v—
Having in early life devoted hlmfelf to the reftoration
of the works of the ancient geometers, he ftudied them
with unremitting attention ; and, retiring from the pro-
mifcuous intercourfe of the world, he contented hlmfelf
with a fmall fociety of intimate friends, with whom he
could lay afide every reftraint of ceremony or referve, and
indulge in all the innocent frivolities of life. Every Friday
evening was fpent in a party at whift, in which he ex¬
celled, and took delight in inftrufiling others, till, in-
creafing years made him lefs patient with the dulnefs of
a fcholar. The card-party was followed by an hour or
two dedicated folely to playful converfation. In like
manner, every Saturday he had a lefs feletft party to
dinner at a houfe about a mile from town. The Doc¬
tor’s long life gave him occafion to fee the dramatis
perfona of this little theatre feveral times completely
changed, while he continued to give It a perfonal iden¬
tity : fo that, without any delign or wifh of his own,
it became, as it were, his own houfe and his own fami¬
ly, and went by his name. In this ftate did the prefent
writer firft fee it, with Dr Simfon as its father and
head, refpefted and beloved by every branch ; for, as it
was for relaxation, and not for the enjoyment of his
acknowledged fuperiority, that he continued this habit
of his early youth ; and as his notions “ of a fine talk”
did not confitt in the pleafure of having “ totted and
gored a good many to-day,” his companions were as
much at their eafe as he wifhed to be himfelf; and it.
was no fmall part of their entertainment (and of his too),,
to fmile at thofe innocent deviations from common,
forms, and thofe miftakes with refpedl to life and man¬
ners, which an almoft total retirement from the world,,
and inceflant occupation in an abftrafft fcience, caufed-
this venerable prefident frequently to exhibit. Thefe.
are remembered with a more affefling regret, that they
are now “ with the days that are paft,” than the moft.
pithy apophthegms, ufhered in with an emphatical,
“ Why, Sir!” or “ No, Sir!” which precludes all reply..
Dr Simfon never exerted his prefidial authority, unlel's
it were to check fome infringement of good breeding, or
any thing that appeared unfriendly to religion or purity
of manners ; for thefe he had the higheft reverence. We
have twice heard him fnvg (he had a fi/ie voice and moft.
accurate ear) fome lines of a Latin hymn to the divine,
geometer, and each time the rapturous tear flood in his
eye.
But we afk the reader’s pardon for this digreffion; it
is not however ufelefs, fince it paints the man as much as
any recital of his ftudies ; and to his acquaintances we
are certain that it will be an acceptable memorandum.
To them it was often matter of regret, that a perfon of
fuch eminent talents, which would have made him fhine
equally in any line of life, fhould have allowed himfelf
to be fo completely devoted to a ftudy which abftra£led
him from the ordinary purfuits of men, unfitted him for.
the adtive enjoyment of life, and kept him out of thofe
walks which they frequented, and where they would have
rejoiced to meet him.
Dr Simfon. was of an advantageous ftature, with a
fine countenance; and even in his old age had a grace¬
ful carriage, and manner, and always, except when in
mourning, dreffed in white cloth. He was of a cheer¬
ful difpofition; and though he did not make the firil
advances
/
SIN
i Sin,
Sinai.
[ 509 ]
S I N
Niebuhr's
‘Iru’odS)
Vol. i.
P- 15?.
advances to acquaintance, had the moft affable manner ATnrli Pm-' • j r
and Grangers were at perfeft cafe in his company. He nai and^'n the’plain^bm h° ^ T ^
enjoyed a long courfe of uninterrupted health • but tn nf ri;r • C r ^ f 5 nd uch were the ll0Pes ''™“
wards the clofe of li'e fuffered from an acute difeafe,
and was obliged to employ an afliftant in his profelfional
labours, for a few years preceding his death, which hap¬
pened m 1768, at the age of 81. He left to the uni-
verlity his valuable library, which is now arranged apart
from the reft of the books, and the public ufe of it is
limited by particular rules. It is confidered as the moft
choice colled ion of mathematical books and manuferipts
in the kingdom, and many of them are rendered doubly
valuable by Dr Simfon’s notes.
SIN, a breach or tranfgreffion of fome divine law or
command.
SINAI, or Sina, a famous mountain of Arabia Pe-
trsa, upon .which God gave the law to Mofes. It
Hands in a kind of peninfula, formed by the two arms
01 the Red Sea, one of which ftretches out towards the
north, and is called the Gulph of Kolfum; the other ex¬
tends towards the eaft, and is called the Gulph of Elan,
Z the Sea' At this day the Arabians call
Mount Sinai by the name of Tor, that is, the “ moun¬
tain,” by way of excellence ; or Gihel or fiiel Moufa,
the mountain of Mofes.” It is 26c miles from Cairo,
and generally it requires a journey of ten days to travel
. thither. Ihe wildernefs of Sinai, where the Ifraelites
continued mcamped for almoft a year, and where Mofes
ereded the tabernacle of the covenant, is confiderably
elevated above the reft of the country ; and the afeent
to it is by a very craggy way, the greateft part of which
IS cut out of the rock ; then one comes to a large fpace
of ground, which is a plain furrounded on all iides by
rocks and eminences, whofe length is nearly 12 miles
i owards the extremity of this plain, on the north fide,’
two high mountains fiiowr themfelves, the higheft of
which is called Sinai and the other fforeb. The tops of
Horeb and Sinai have a very fteep afeent, and do not
itand upon much ground, in cemparifon to their extra¬
ordinary height: that of Sinai is at leaft one-third part
and dffiJr ’ a"d ^ arCent " m0re “f"*'1'
Twa German miles and a half up the mountain
frauds the convent of St Catharine. The body of this
monaftery^is a building 120 feet in length and almoft
as many m breadth. Before it Hands another fmall
building, m. which is the only gate of the convent,
which remains always fliut, except when the bifhoo is
here. At other times, whatever is introduced within
the convent, whether men or provifions, is drawn up by
the roof in a bafket, and with a cord and a pulley. The
whole building is of hewn ftone ; which, in fuch a de~
lert, muft have coft prodigious expence and pains. Near
this chapel iffues a fountain of very good frefh water •
it is looked upon as miraculous by fome who cannot con¬
ceive how water can flow from the brow of fe high and
arren a mountain. Five or fix paces from ft they
fhow a ftone, the height of which is four or five feet, and
brdth ST thT> whlch> they fay, is the very ftone
whence Mofes caufed the water to gufh out. Its co-
loiir is ofa {potted grey, and it is as it were fet in a
kind of earth, where no-other rock appears. This ftone
has 12 holes or channels, which are about a foot wide,
to diilk?811' the Water came f0rth for If-
r ir ■ -1— 6 wanuciings ux toe i iraentes
from thefe writings, that Dr Clayton bifhop ofClogher
o je.e . 500 Sterling to defray the expences of jour¬
ney to any man of letters who would undertake to co-
py them. No man, we believe, undertook this tafk •
and . the accurate Danifh traveller Niebuhr found no
writings there but the names of perfons who had vifited
the place from curiofity, and of Egyptians who had
chofen to be buried in that region.
S1NAPIS, Mustard, in botany: A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of tetradynamia, and to the or¬
der 01 JtUquofa ; and in the natural fyftem ranged under
the 39th order, Siliquof*. The calyx confifts of four
expanding ftrap-fhaped deciduous leaves; the ungues or
bates of the petals are ftraight ; two glandules between
ie fhorter ftamma and piftillum, alfo between the
longer and .the calyx. There are 17 fpecies ; the arven-
’ 0rieTaIlS; brafficata’ a}ba’ pyrenaica, pubef-
<ens, chinenfis, jun.cea, erucoides, ailioni, hifpanica, mil-
efoha^mcana, laevigata, cernua, and japonica. Three
venfok arC natlVeS °f Britain ’ the alba, nigra, and ar-
,• fhc aIT Z wb;'te muftard, which is generally cul-
t vated as a falad-herb fur winter andfprinir ufe. This
nfes with a branched hairy ftalk two feet high ; the
eaves are deeply jagged on their edges- and rough. The
owers are difpofed in loofe fpikes at the end of the
branches, Handing upon horizontal foofftalks; they
have four yellow petals in form of a crofs, which ari
fed pOCJS’ that end with lon^ compref-
white feX ; " P°d3 g'ne,all>’ ^
2. The nigra, or common muftard, which is fiyquent-
ly found grmying naturally in many parts of Britain-,
but is alfo cultivated in fields for the feed, of which
I ra v’^ 16 made- Th’S Hfes w,‘th 3
are £eg ih]kyfour Z five feet hi£h 5 the lower leaves
lar e, rough, and very like thofe of turnip ; the
aS r^ir6 fma?er and lef* ia^ed* The flowers
are imaH, yellow, and grow m fpiked clufters at the end
of the branches; they have four petals placed in form
poiCr° 5 and ^ fuGCeedGd b7 fmooth four-cornered
3. The arvenfis, grows naturally on arable land in
many parts of Britain. The feed of this is commonly
foxd under the Utk of Durham mujlard-feed. Of this
there are two varieties-, if not diftiifa fpeoies; the one
two foeUt KrJWlth entlVe kaves- The rife
aZed 5 lhe,Ieaves are rough5 ^ the one they are
info? ll!i? tu™1P-leaves 5 ^ the other they are long and
entire. I he flowers arc yellow ; the pods are- tumid
angular, and have long, beaks. ^ *
theZrZ !,,y itS acr'mony and pungency, ftimulates
defeZdl attenU?ef v;fdd juices; and hence Hands
dfoeftfon7 reC°mmendGd f“' .editing appetite, affifting
digeftion, promoting the fluid fecretions,- and for the
imnarrtPU>P°fen 0t tbe acnd Pbmts called antifcorbutic. It
mparts its tafte and fmell in perfoAfon to aqueous li-
S;°of “d ^ dl,ftiUati0n ™l‘ “at" -1 effe™w
oil Of great acrimony. J o reftified fpirit its fi f th
gtve out very little either of their fmell of tafte S ub!
jefted to the prefs, they yield a confiderable quantity of
imld mfipzd oil, which is as free from acrimony asThat
of
SIN [51
ffm of almonds. They are applied aa an external (llmulant to
I r benumbed or paralytic limbs; to parts affedled with fixed
^ ‘ ^ rheumatic pains ; and to the foies of the feet, in the
low ftage of acute difeafes, for raifing the pulfe ; in -this
intention, a mixture of equal parts of the powdered
feeds and crumb of bread, with the addition fometimes
*>f a little bruifed garlic, are made into acataplafm with
a fufficient quantity of vinegar.
SINAPISM, in pharmacy, an external medicine, in
form of a cataplafm, compofed chiefly of muftard-feed
pulverized, and other ingredients mentioned in the pre-
1 ceding article.
SINCERITY, honefty of intention, freedom from
hypocrify. See Moral Philosophy, n° 1 ^7.
SINCIPUT, in anatomy, the forepart of the head,
reaching from the forehead to the coronal future.
SINDY, a province of Plindoitan Proper, bounded
on the weft by Makran, a province oi Perfia ; on the
north by the territories of the king ©f Candahar ; on
the north-eaft by thofe of the Seiks ; on the eaft by A
fandy defert; and on the fouth-eaft by Cuteh. It ex¬
tends along the conrfe of the river Sinde or Indus from
its mouth to Behker or Bhakor, on the frontiers of
Moultan. Reckoned that way, it is 300 miles long ;
and its breadth, in its wideft part, is about 160. In
many particulars of foil and climate, and in the general
appearance of the furface, Sindy refembles Egypt; the
lower part of it being compofed of rich vegetable mould,
and extended into a wide dell; while the upper part of
it is a narrow flip of country, confined on one fide by a
ridge of mountains, and on the other by a fandy defert,
the river Indus, equal at leaft to the Nile, winding
through the midft of this level valley, and annually
overflowing it. During great part of the fouth-weft
monfoon, or at leaft in the months of July, Auguft,
and part of September, winch is the rainy feafon in molt
other yarns of India, the atmofphere is here generally
clouded ; but no rain falls except very near the fea. In¬
deed, very few fhowers fall during the whole year ;
owing to which, and the neighbourhood of the fandy
deferts, which bound it on the eaft and on the north-
weft, the heats are fo violent, and the winds from thofe
quarters fo pernicious, that the houfes are contrived fo
as to be occafionally ventilated by means of apertures
on the tops of them, refembling the funnels of fmall
chimneys. When the hot winds prevail, the windows
are clofely (hut ; and the loweft part of the current
of air, which is always the botteft, being thus exclu¬
ded, a cooler, becaufe more elevated, part defeends into
the houfe through the funnels. By this contrivance
alfo vaft clouds of duft are excluded ; the entrance of
which would alone be fufScient to render the houfes un¬
inhabitable. The roofs are compofed of thick layers
of earth inftead of terraces. Few countries are more
unwholefome to European conftitutions, particularly
the lower part of the Delta. The prince of this pro¬
vince is a Mahometan, tributary to the king of Can¬
dahar. He refides at Hydrabad, although Tatta is the
capital. The Hindoos, who were the original inhabi*
tantsof Sindy, are by their M^rometan governors treat¬
ed with great rigour, and denied the public exercife of
their religion ; and this feverity drives vaft numbers of
them into other countries. The inland parts of Sindy
produce faltpetre, fal-ammoniac, borax, bezoar, lapis la-
0 ] .SIN
zuli, and raw filk. They have alfo manufa&ories of
cotton and filk of various kind’s; and they make fine
cabinets, inlaid with ivory, and finely lackered. They
alio export great quantities of butter, clarified and
wrapt up in duppas, made of the hides of cattle. The
ladies wear hoops of ivory on both their arms and legs,
which when they die are burnt with them. They have
large black cattle, excellent mutton, and fmall hardy
horles. Their wild game arc deer, hares, antelopes,
and foxes, which they hunt with dogs, leopards, and a
fmall fierce creature called a fhiahgufh.
SINE, or Right Sine of an Arch, in trigonometry,
is a right line drawn from one end of that arch, perpen¬
dicular to the radius drawn to the other end of the
arch ; being always equal to half the cord of twice the
arch. See Trigonometry and G-eometry.
SINECURE, a nominal office, which has a revenue
without any employment.
SINEW, a tendon, that which unites the mufcles to
the hones.
SINGING, the aftion of making divers infledlions
of the voice, agreeable to the ear, and correfpondent
to the notes of a long or piece of melody. See Me¬
lody.
The firft thing to be done in learning to nng, is to
raife a fcale of notes by tones and femitones to an oc¬
tave, and defeend by the fame notes; and then to rife
and fall by greater intervals, as a third, fourth, fifth,
&c. and to do all this by notes of different pitch. Then
thefe notes are reprefented by lines and fpaces, to which
the fyllables /b, Jo!, la, mi, are applied, and the pupil
taught to name each line and fpace thereby ; whence
this praSHce is czlAedi fol-faing, the nature, reafon, effects,
&c. whereof, fee under the article Solfaing.
Singing of Birds. It is worthy of obfervation, that
the female of no fpecies of birds ever fings : with birds
it is the reverfe of what occurs in human kind. Among
the feathered tribe, all the cares of life fall to the lot of
the tender fex; theirs is the fatigue of incubation ; and
the principal fhare in nurfing the helplels brool: to al¬
leviate thefe fatigues, and to fupport her under them,
nature hath given to the male the fong, with all the
little blandifhments and foothing arts; theie he fondly
exerts (even after courtfhip) on lome fpray contiguous
to the neft, during the time his mate is performing her
parental duties. But that fhe fhould be filent is alfo
another wife provifxon of nature, for her fong would
difeover her neft; as would a gaudinefs of plumage,
which, for the fame reafon, feems to have been denied
her.
On the fong of birds feveral curious experiments and
obfervations have been made by the Hon. Daines Bar¬
rington. See Phil. Pranf. vol. Ixiii.
SINGULAR number, in grammar, that number of
nouns and verbs which {lands oppofed to plural. See
Grammar, n* 14.
SINISTER, fomething on ®r towards the left hand.
Hence fome derive the word fimjler, a finendo ; becaufe
the gods, by fuch auguries, permit us to proceed in our
deligns.
Sinister, is ordinarily ufed among us for unlucky;
though, in the facred rites of divination, the Romans
ufed it in an oppofite fenfe. Thus avis finijlra, or a bird
8ir.ifler
I!
fjipontuni
' SIP [ 5I
m law of the 12 tables) j4ve Jtnyiv<3 popul'i Tnagtjler
— Sinister, m heraldry. The finlfter fide of an ef.
cutcheon is the left-hand fide ; the fiififter chief, the left
angle of the chief; the finifter bafe, the left-hand part
<?f the bafe.
Sinister Afpstt, among aftrologers, is an appearance
of two planets happening according to the fucceffion of
the figns ; as Saturn in Aries, and Mars in the fame de¬
gree of gemini.
SINISrilI, a feft of ancient heretics, thus called
becaufe they held the left hand in abhorrence, and made
it a point of religion not to receive any thing there¬
with.
SINKING fund, a provifion made by parliament,
confuting of the furplufage of other funds, intended to
be appropriated to the payment of the national debt ;
on the credit of which very large fums have been bor¬
rowed for public ufes. See National Debt and Re,
VENUE.
SINOPICA TERRA, in natural hiftory, the name of
a red earth of the ochre kind, called alio rubrica fino-
pica, and by fome authors/wo/w. It is a very dole, com¬
pact, and weighty earth, of a fine glowing purple co¬
lour. It is of a pure texture, but not very hard, and
of an even but dufiy furface. • It adheres firmly to the
tongue, is perfe&ly fine and fmooth to the touch, does
not crumble eafily between the fingers, and ftains the
hands. It melts very fiowly in the mouth, is perfeftly
pure and fine, of an auflere aflringent tafte, and fer¬
ments violently with aquafortis. It was dug in Cappa¬
docia, and carried for fale to a city in the neighbour¬
hood called Sinope, whence it had its name. It is now
found in plenty in the New Jerfeys in America, and is
called by the people there bloodjione. Its fine texture
and body, with its high florid colour, muft make it very
valuable to painters ; and from its aftringency it will
probably be a powerful medicine.
SINOPLE, in heraldry, denotes vert, or green co-
lour in armories—Sinople is ufed to fignify love, youth,
beauty, rejoicing, and liberty ; whence it is that letters
of grace, ambition, legitimation, &c. are always feaied
with green wax.
SINUOSITY, a feries ofbends and turns in arches
or other irregular figures, fomctimes jutting out and
fometimes falling in.
SINUS, in anatomy, denotes a cavity in certain bones
and other parts, the entrance whereof is very narrow,
and the bottom wider and more fpacious.
Sinus, in furgery, a little cavity or facculus, fre¬
quently formed by a wound or ulcer, wherein pus is col-
le&ed.
SIPHON. See Hydrostatics, n°2C.
SIPHONAN THUS, in botany ; a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of tetrandia and order of mono-
gyma. The corolla is monopetalous, funnel-fhaped ;
the tube is very narrow, and much longer than the ca-
fy*’ There are four berries, each containing one feed,
i here is only one fpecies, the indie a.
SIPONTUM, Sepuntum, or Sipvs (anc. geog.),
a town of Apulia, fo denominated (according to Stra¬
bo) from the great quantity of fepi# or cuttiefifh that
are thrown upon the coaft. Diemed is fuppofed by
die fame author to have been the founder of this place;
1 .1 S 1 R
which appears from J.ivy to have become a colony ofslpuncnluj
Roman citizens. In the early ages of Chriftian hierar- II
ciiy, a biihop was fixed in this church ; but, under the sirenc‘
Lombards, his fee was united to that of Beneventum.
Being again feparated, Sipontum became an archiepif.
copal diocefe in 1094, about which time it was fo ill
treated by the Barbarians, that it never recovered its
fplendour, but funk into fuch mifery, that in 1260 it
was a mere defert, from the want of inhabitants, the
decay of commerce, and the infalubrity of the air. Man-
bed having taken thefe circumflances into confideration
began m 1261 to build a new city on the fea-fhore, to
which he removed the few remaining Sipontines. (See
Ve ar.U(f e Manfredonia). Sipontum was fituated at
the diftance ot a mile from the fhore. Excepti
pait o. its Gothic cathedral, fcarce one flone of the an¬
cient city now remains upon another.
■ ^IPUN^-:U^US, in na1;llral hiftory, a genus of the
inte/bma clafs of worms in the Linnaean 'fyftem. Its
charafters are thefe : the body is ,ound and elongated :
the mouth attenuated and cylindrical; and the lateral
aperture of the body rugged. There are two fpecles ;
one found under Hones in the European, and the othef
in the Indian ocean.
, tKVtle of.a .kni’s5lt or baronet, which, for
1 in ion s ake, as it is now given indiferiminately to
all men,, is always prefixed to the knight’s Chnitian
name, either in fpeaking or writing to them.
SIRCAR, any office under the^government in Hin*
doftan. It is fometimes ufed for the ftate of govern¬
ment itfelf. Likewife a province, or any number of
Pergunnahs placed under one head in the government
books, for convemency in keeping accounts. In com¬
mon ufage in Bengal, the under banyans of European
gentleman are called firccrs. ^
SIRE, a title of honour formerly given to the kino-
ot I ranee as a mark of fovereignty.
Sire, was likewife anciently ufed in the fame fenfe
w Jieur andye/gv/rcr, and applied to barons, gentlemen,
and citizens. 0 *
r fc5nRPNo’ ,in fabuIous hiftory, certain celebrated
longftrefles who were ranked among the demigods of
antiquity. Hyginus places their'birth among the con-
fequences of the rape of Proferpine. Others make
them daughters of the river Acheloiis and one of the
mu.es . i he number of the Sirens was three: and#o 'jaa
inat T68 r/? Partheno^ LySea, and Leuco/ra. SomeJb t *
ake them half, women and half fift ; others, half w0.
Hthemft'll f Krv Th"re are anti<5ue raprefentations
• th a11 bibfntino under both thefe forms. Paufa-
mas tells us, that the Sirens, by the perfuafion of Juno,
challenged the Mufes to a trial of flcill in finging ; and
thefe having vanqmfhed them, plucked the golden fea¬
thers from the wings of the Sirens, and formed them
into crowns, with which they adorned their own heads.
he Argonauts are laid to have been diverted from the
enchantment of them fongs by the fuperior ftrains of
Orpheus.: Ulyffes, however, had great difficulty in fe.
curing himfelf from feduAion. See Odyf lib. xii.
i ope, in his notes to the twelfth book of the Odvf-
obferves, the critics have greatly laboured to explain
what was the foundation of this fiAion of the Sirens
We are told by fome, that the Sirens were queens of
certain, imall Hands named Sirmu/e, that lie near Ca-
prasa-
SIR [5
‘oirans, prasa in Italy, ami chiefly inhabited the promontory of
, Siren' , Minerva, upon the top of which that goddefs had a
temple, as feme affirm, built by Ulyffes. Here there
was a renowned academy, in the reign of the Sirens,
famous for eloquence and the liberal fciences, which
gave occafion to the invention of this fable of the fweet-
nefs of the voice and attrafting fongs ot the Sirens.
But why then are they fabled to be deftroyers, and
painted in fuch dreadful colours ? We are told, that at
Jail the ftudents abufed their knowledge, to the colour¬
ing of wrong, the corruption of manners, and the lub-
verfion of government : that is, in the language of poe¬
try, they were feigned to be transformed into moniters,
and with their mulic to have enticed paflengers to their
ruin, who there confumed their patrimonies, and poi-
foned their virtues with riot and effeminacy. The place
is now called Majfa. Some wi iters tell us of a certain
bay, contraifed within winding ffraits and broken
cliffs, which, by the finging of the winds and beating
of the waters, returns a delightful harmony, that allures
the paffenger to approach, who is immediately thrown
againlt the rocks, and fwallowed up by the violent
eddies. Thus Horace, moralifing, calls idlenefs a Si¬
ren.
Vitanda eft improla Siren
Dejidia. 
But the fable may be applied to all pleafures in ge¬
neral, which, if too eagerly purfued, betray the incau¬
tious into ruin ; while wife men, like Ulyffes, making
txfe of their reafon, ftop their ears againft their inlinua-
tions.
The learned Mr Bryant fays, that the Sirens were
Cuthite and Canaanitilh prieffs, who had founded tem¬
ples in Sicily, which were rendered infamous on account
of the women whp officiated. They were much ad¬
dicted to cruel rites, fo that the fhores upon which they
rehded are deferibed as covered with the bones of men
deftroyed by their artifice. Virgil. JEne'ui. lib. v.
v. 864.
All ancient authors agree in telling us, that Sirens in¬
habited the coalt of Sicily. The name, according to
Bochart, who derives it from the Phoenician language,
implies a fongflrefs. Hence it is probable, fays Dr Bur¬
ney, that in ancient times there may have been excellent
lingers, but of cprrupt morals, on the coaft of Sicily,
who, by feduciog voyagers, gave rife to this fable.
And if this conjefture be well founded, he obferves,
the Mufes are not the only pagan divinities who pre-
ferved their influence over mankind in modern times ;
for every age has its Sirens, and every Siren her vota¬
ries ; when beauty and talents, both powerful in them-
felves, are united, they become Hill more attractive.
Siren, in zoology, a genus of animals belonging to
the clafs of amphibia and the order of meantes. It is
a biped, naked, and furniffied with a tail; the feet are
brachiated with claws. This animal was difeovered by
Dr Garden in Carolina ; it is found in fwampy and
pfal. Tra^/;muddy places, by the lides of pools, under the trunks
vol. ivi. of old trees that hang over the water. The natives
p. 189. cap Py tiie name 0f mud-inguana. Linnaeus firft ap¬
prehended, that it was the larva of a kind of lizard ;
but as its fingers are furnifhed with claws, and it makes
a croaking noife, he concluded from thefe properties, as
:2 ] SIS
well as from the fitnatinn of the anus, that it could not Sire*
be the larva of the lizard, and therefore formed of it a II
new genus under the name offiren. He was alfo obli- sifon
ged to eftablifh for this uncommon animal a-new order ' ■ "11
called meantes or gliders : the animals of which are am¬
phibious, breathing by means of gills and lungs, and
furnifhed with arms and claws.
BIREX, in zoology, a genus of animals belonging
to the clafs of infers, and to the order of hymenopterx.
The mouth has two ftrong jaws ; there are two
truncated palpi or feelers, filiform antennse, an exferted,
fluff, ferrated fling, a feffile, mucronated abdomen, and
lanceolated wjngs. There are feven fpecies.
SIRIUM, in botany; a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of tetrandria and order of monogynia. The
calyx is quadrifid ; there is no corolla ; the ne&arium
is quadriphyllous and crowning the throat of the calyx ;
the germen is below the corolla; the ftigma is trifid,
and the berry trilocular. There is only one fpecies,
the myrtifolium.
SIRIUS', in aftronomy, a bright ftar in the conftel-
lation Canis. See Astronomy, n° 403, &c.
SIRLET (Flavius), an eminent Roman engraver on
precious ftones: his Lacoon, and reprefeatations in mi.
mature of antique ftatues at Rome, are very valuable
and fcarce. He died in 1737.
SIROCCO, a periodical wind which generally blows
in Italy and Dalmatia every year about Eafter. It
blows from th* fouth-eaft by fouth : it is attended with
heat, but not rain; its ordinary period is twenty Forth's
days, and it ufually ceafes at funfet. When the fcirocco Travels
does not blow in this manner, the fummer is almoft {rceindl} Dal"ia‘‘
from weflerly winds, whirlwinds, and florms. This***'
wind is prejudicial to plants, drying and burning up
the buds; though it hurts not men any otherwife
than by caufing an extraordinary weaknefs andlaffitude;
inconveniences that are fully compenfated by a plentiful
fifhing, and a good crop of corn on the mountains. In
the fummer time, when the wefterly wind ceafes for a
day, it is a fign that the lirocco will blow the day fol¬
lowing, which ufually begins with a fort of whirl¬
wind. ,
SISKIN. See Fringilla.
SISON, bastard-stonb parsley, in botany : A
genus of plants belonging to the clfifs of pentandriat
and to the order of digynia ; and in the natural fyftem
arranged under the 45th order, uml.ellata. The fruit
is egg-fhaped and ftreaked ; the involucra are fubtetra-
phyllous. There are feven fpecies; the amomum, inun¬
datum, fegetum, verticillatum, falfum, canadenfe, and
ammi. The four firlt are natives of Great Britain.
1. The amomum, common barftard parfley, or field Hone-
wort, is a biennial plant about three feet high, growing-
wnld in many places of Britain. Its feeds are fmall,
ftriated, of an oval figure and brown colour. Their
tafte is warm and aromatic. Their whole flavour is ex-
tra&ed by fpirit of wine, which elevates very little of it
in dillillation ; and hence the fpirituous extratl has the
flavour in great perfe&ion, while the watery extradl has
very little. A tinfture drawn with pure fpirit is of a
green colour. The feeds have been eileemed aperient,
diuretic, and carminative ; but are little regarded in the
prefent pra&ice. 2. The inundaturn, leaft water-parfnep.
The Hem is about eight or ten inches high, branched,
2 and
Siftrum,
Sifym-
brium.
Lttth's
Meter ia
Mtdha.
Wwlviltc'i
Medical
Hoianyt
SIS [
and creeping : the leaves, below the water, are ca¬
pillary ; above it are pinnated: the umbels are bifid.
 ^ grows in ditches and ponds. 3. Segelum, corn par¬
ley, or honey wort. The Items are numerous, {lender,
ftriated, branched, and leaning; the leaves are pinna¬
ted ; the pinnae are oval, pointed, and ferrated, fix or
eight pair, and one at the end; the umbels fmall and
drooping ; the flowers minute and white. It grows in
corn-fields and hedges. 4. Mirtici/Iatum, verticillate fi-
fon, has (mall leaves in whirls, and capillary; the item
is two feet, with few leaves; the common umbel is com-
pofed of 8 or 10 rays, the partial of 18 or 20; both in¬
volucre are compofed of five or fix oval acute foliola; the
flowers are all hermaphrodite, and the petals white.
SISTRUM, or Cistrum, a kind of ancient mufi-
cal. inftrument ufed by the priefts of Ifis and Oiiris.
It is deferibed by Spon as of an oval form, in manner
of a racket, with three flicks traverfing it breadthwife ;
which playing freely by the agitation of the whole in¬
ftrument, yielded a kind of found which to them feem-
ed melodious. Mr Malcolm takes the fiftrum to be no
better than a kind of rattle. Oifelius obferves, that the
fiftrum is found reprefented on feveral medals, and on
talifmans.
SISYMBRIUM, water-cresses, in botany : A
genus of plants belonging to the clafs of tetradynamia^
• and to the order offtliquofa ; and in the natural* fyftem
ranged under the 39th order, Siliquofa. The filiqua,
or pod, opens with valves fomewhat ftraight. The ca¬
lyx and corolla are expanded. There are 29 fpecies, of
which eight are natives of Britain ; the nafturtium, or
common water-crefs ; fylveftre, water-rocket; amphi-
bium, water-radifh ; terreftre, annual water-radifli ;
monenfe ; fophia, flixweed; irio, broad-leaved hedtre-
muftard. 6
1 .The nafturtium grows on the brinks of rivulets and
water ditches. The leaves have from 6 to 8 pair of
fmooth fucculent and feflile pinnae; the flowers are
fmall and white, and grow in fliort fpikes or tufts. The
leaves of water-crefles have a moderately pungent tafte,
emit a quick penetrating fmell, like that of muftard feed,’
but much weaker. Their pungent matter is taken up
both by watery and fpirituous menftrua, and accompa¬
nies the aqueous juice, which iffues copioufly upon ex-
prefiion. It is very volatile, fo as to arife in great part
in diftillation with re&ified fpirit, as well as with water,
and almoft totally to exhale in drying the leaves, or in-
fpiflating by the gentleft heat to'the confiftence of an
ext raft, either the exprefled juice, or the watery or
fpirituous tinftures. Both the infpiflfated juice, and the
watery extraft, difeover to the tafte a faline impregna¬
tion, and in keeping throw up cryftalline efflorefcences
to the furface. On diftilling confiderable quantities of
the herb with water, a fmall proportion of a fubtile vo¬
latile very pungent oil is obtained.
Water-creffes obtain a place in the Materia Medica
for their antifcorbutic qualities, which have been long
very generally acknowledged by phyficians. They are
alfo fuppofed to purify the blood and humours, and to
open vifceral obftruftions. They are nearly allied to
feurvy-grafs, but are more mild and pleafant, and for this
reafon are frequently eaten as falad. In the pharma¬
copoeias the juice of this plant is direfted with that of
fcurvy-grafs and Seville oranges : and Dr Cullen has re¬
marked, that the addition of acids renders the juices of
Vol. XVII. Part II.
Sifyrn-
briuiu
Si'.ta,
513 J SIT
the phntas fdiquofa; more certainly effeftual, by deter¬
mining them more powerfully to an acefcent fermenta¬
tion.
2. Sdveftre, or water-rocket. The ftem is weak, * -
branched, and above a foot high. The leaves are pinnated; Berienhout't
the pinnae lance-fhaped, and ferrated ; the flowers fmall, syn°P./is '/
and yellow ; and grow frequently in {hallow water.
3. Amphibium, or water-radifli. The ftem is firm, ^
ereft, and two or three feet high ; the leaves are pin-
natihd, and ferreted ; the flowers are yellow, and iu
{pikes ; the pods are fbmewhat oval, and fhort. It
grows in water.
. +• Terreftre, or land-rocket. The leaves'are pinna*
tihd ? the pods are filled with feed ; the root is annual,
and white ; the ftem is angular, red-green, and fmooth.
5. M urale, or wall-rocktc. The ftems are rough, and
about eight inches high ; the leaves grow on foot-ftalks,
Jance-fiiaped, fmooth, finuated, and ferrated; the flowers
are yellow; the pods a little comprefled, and flirrhtly
carmated. It grows on fandy ground in the North,
Anglefea, See.
6. Monenfe, or yellow rocket. The ftem is fmooth,
and about 6 or 8 inches high ; the leaves are pinnacifid;
the pinna* remote, generally 7 pair; the flower is yel¬
low ; the petals entire j the calyx is clofed. It grows
in the Me of Man. 6
q. Irio, broad leaved rocket, or hedge muftard ; the
item is .mooth, and about two feet high ; the leaves are
broad, naked, pinnated, and halberd Ihaped at the end •
the flowers are yellow, and the pods creft. It grows’
on wafte ground. °
8. Sophia, flixweed. The ftem is firm, branched, and
two or three feet high ; the leaves are multifid ; the fer¬
ments are narrow ; the flowers are yellow ;, the petals
much lefs than the calyx; the pods are long, ftiff, curved,
without ftyle, and ereft; the feeds are minute, and yei-
low. It grows tin walls, wafte ground, &c.
SISYPHUS, in fabulous hiftory, one of the de-
feendents of Eolus, married Merope, one of the
Pleiades, who bore him Glaucus. He refided at E-
pyra in Peloponnefus, and was a very crafty man.
Others fay, that he was a Trojan fecretary, who was
pumihed for difeovering fecrets of ftate ; and others
again, that he was a notorious robber, killed by The-
fe,U-' H°wever> a11 the poets agree that he was punifh-
ed in iartarus for his crimes, by rolling a great itone
to the top of a hill, which conftantly recoiled, and,
rolling down inceffantly, renewed his labour.
SISYRINCHIUM, in botany; A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of gynandria, and order oftrian-
dna; and in the natural fyftem ranged under the 6th or¬
der, EnfaU. The fpatha is diphyllous ; there are 6
plane petals. The capfule is trilocular and inferior 
liii re 3re tWO ^eaes’ t^ie bermudiana and palmifo-
SITE, denotes the fituation of an houfe, See.
and fometimes the ground-plot or fpot of earth it
{lands on.
SITTA Nuthatch, in ornithology : A genus be-
longing to the clafs of aves, and order of piece. It is
thus charafterized by Dr Latham. The bill is for the / ,, ,
moft part ftraight ; on the lower mandible there is a olnnZL
fmall angle; noftnls fmall, covered with briftles rcfleft-,?.v, vol. if.
cd over them; tongue (hort, horny at the end,
jagged j toes placed three forward and one backward •
3T the
S I V [514] S I u
Sitea the middle toe. joined clofely at the bafe to both
.it the outmoll; back toe as large as the middle one.--
Jg1 Ya~ , There are 11 fpecies : the europsea, canadenfis, caroli-
nenfis, jainaicenfis, pufilla, major, naevia, furinamenhs,
cafra, longiroftra, and chloris. The europaea, or nut¬
hatch, is in length near five inches three-quarters,
in breadth nine inches; the bill is ftrong and ftraight,
about three-quarters of an inch long ; the upper man¬
dible black, the lower white : the irides are hazel ; the
crown of the head, back, and coverts of the wings, of a
fine bluifh grey ; a black ftroke paffes over the eye from
the mouth : the cheeks and chin are white ; the breaft
and belly of a dull orange-colour; the qu:ll--featbers
dulky ; the wings underneath are marked with two
fpots, one white at the root of the exterior quills, the
other black at the joint of the baftard-wing ; the tail
con fills of twelve feathers ; the two middle are grey,
the two exterior feathers tipt with grey ; then fucceeds
a tranfverfe white fpot ; beneath that the reft is black :
the legs are of a pale yellow ; the back toe very ftrong,
and the claws large. The fe - ’ ■ :s like the male, but
kfs in fize, and weighs commonly 5 or at molt 6 drams.
The e.jos are fix or feven in number, of a dirty white,
dotted with rufous; thefe are depofited in fome hole of
a tree, frequently one which has been deferted by a
woodpecker, on the rotten wood mixed with a little
mofs, &c. If the entrance be too large, the bird nice¬
ly flops up part of it with clay, leaving only a fmall
hole for itfelf to pafs in and out by. While the hen is
fitting, if any one puts a bit of Hick into the hole, (he
hilfes like a lhake, and is fo attached to her eggs, that
fhe will fooner fuffer any one to pluck off her feathers
than fly away. During the time of incubation, the
male fupplies her with fuftenance, with all the tendernefs
of an affeftionate mate.
The bird runs up and down the bodies of trees, like
the woodpecker tribe ; and feeds not only on infcdls,
but nuts, of which it lays up a confiderable provifion in
the hollows of trees. “ It is a pretty fight, fays Mr
Willoughby, to fee her fetch a nut out of her hoard,
place it tall in a chink, and then, Handing above it with
its head downwards, linking it with all its force, break
the {hell, and catch up the kernel. It is fuppofed not
to fleep perched on a twig like other birds ; for when
confined in a cage, it prefers ffeeping in a hole or cor¬
ner. When at reft it keeps the head down. In autumn
it begins to make a chattering noife, being filent for the
greateft part of the year.’> Dr Plott tells us, that this
bird, by putting its bill into a crack in the bough of a
tree, can make fuch a violent found as if it was rending
afimder, fo that the noife may be heard at leaft twelve
fcore yards.
SITOPHYLAX,S'T(>?>vx«S;}formedfrom “corn,”
and pvxaf, “ keeper,” in antiquity, an Athenian magi'
ftrate, who had the fuperintendence of the corn, and
was to take care that nobody bought more than was ne-
ceffary for the provifion of his family. By the Attic
laws, particular perfons were prohibited from buying
more than fifty meafures of wheat a man; and that fuch
perfons might not purchafe more, the fitophylax was
appointed to fee the laws properly executed. It was a
capital crime to prevaricate in it. There were 15 of
thefe Jitophylaces, ten for the city, and live for the Pi-
leseus.
SIVA, a name given by the Hindoos to the Supreme
Being, v;hen confidered as the avenger or deftroyer. Sir S va,
William Jones has fhown that in feveral refpefts the cha- , Slum-
rafter of Jupiter and Siva are the fame. As Jupiter Aftuth
overthrew the Titans and giants, fo did Siva overthrowy^,,*/^.
the Daityas, or children of Diti, who frequently rebel¬
led again!! Heaven ; and as during the conteft the god
of Olympus was furnilhed with lightning and thunder¬
bolts by an eagle, fo Brahma, who is fometimes repre-
fented riding on the Garuda, or eagle, prefented the
god of deftruftion with fiery fhafts. Siva alio corre-
fponds ’with the Stygian Jove, or Pinto ; for, if we can
rely on a Perfian tranflation of the BlvSgavat, the fove-
reign of Patala, or the infernal regions, is the king of
ferpents, named Sefhanaga, who is exhibited in painting
and fculpture, with a diadem and feeptre, in the lame
manner as Pluto. There is yet another attribute of
Siva, or Mahadeva, by which he is viftbly diftinguiihed
in the drawings and temples of Bengal. 'To deftroy, ac¬
cording to the Vedantis of India, the Sufis of Pcrfia,
and many philofophers of our European fchools, is only
to generate and reproduce in another form. Plence the
god of deftruftion is holden in this country to prefide
over generation, as a fymbol of which he rides on a white
bull. Can we doubt that the loves and feats of Jupiter
Genitor (not forgetting the white bull of Europa), and
his extraordinary title of J^apis, for which no fatisfac-
tory reafon is commonly given, have a connection with
the Indian philofophy and mythology ?
SIUM, Water Parsnep, in botany: A genus of
plants belonging to the clals of pentandria, and order of
digynia, and in the natural fyllem ranging under the
45th order, Umbe/Iala. The fruit is a little ovated, and
llreaked. The involucrum is polyphyllous, and the pe¬
tals are heart-lhaped. There are 12 Ipecies ; the lati-
foltum, anguftifolium, nodiflorum, fifarum, ninfi, rtgi-
dius, japonicum, falearica, graecum, fi&iilum, repens,
and decumbens. The three firft are natives of Britain.
1. The latifolium, or great water-parinep, which grows
fpontaneoufly in many places both of England and Scot¬
land on the fidcs of lakes, ponds, and rivulets. The
llalk is ereft and furrowed, a yard high or more. The
leaves are pinnated with three or four pair of large el¬
liptic pinnae, with an odd one at the end, all ferrated
on the edges. The ftalk and branches are terminated,
with ereft umbels, which is the chief charafteriftic of
the fpecies Cattle are laid to have run mad by leed-
ing upon this plant. 2. The angu/l'tfolium, or narrdw-
leaved water-parlnep, has pinnated leaves ; the axillary
umbels are pedunculated, and the general involucrum is
pinnatifid. It grows in ditches and rivulets, but is not
common. 3. The nodifiorum, reclining water-parinep,
has pinnated leaves, but the axillary umbels are leffile.
It grows on the lides of rivulets.
The/hm\fifarum, or fkirret, is a native of China, but has
been for a long time cultivated in Europe, and particu¬
larly in Germany. The root is a bunch of flelhy fibres,,
each of which is about as thick as a finger, but very un¬
even, covered with a w’hitxfh rough bark, and has a hard
core or pith running thro’ the centre. From the crown
of this bunch comefeveral winged leaves, conliftingof two
or three pair of oblong dentated lobes each, and termina¬
ted by an odd one. The ftalk rifes to about two feet, is
fet with leaves at the joints, and breaks into branches
towards the top, each terminating with an umbel of
fmall white flowers, which are fucceeded by ftriatesl
2 feedi.
Sixtuv
S I
Sa cVrks feeds like thofe of parfley.
parfneps of any of the eicnlent roots, both for flavour
, and nutritive qualities. They are rather fweeter than
the parfnep, and therefore to fome few palates are not
altogether fo agreeable.
Mr Margraaf extradfed from l lb. of flcirret root tr¬
ounces of pure fugar.
SIX-Clerks, officers in chancery of great account,
next in degree below the twelve maflers, whofe bulinefs
is to inrol commiffions, pardons, patents, warrants, &c.
which pafs the great feal, and to tranfadl and file all
proceedings by bill, anfwer, &c. They were anciently
c/er'tct, and forfeited their places, if they married ; but
when the conflitution of the court began to alter, a law
was made to permit them to marry. Stat. 14. and 15.
Hen. VIII. cap. 8. They are alfo folicitors for parties
in luits depending in the court of chancery. Under
them are 6 deputies and 60 clerks, who, with the under
clerks, do the bufinefs of the office.
SIX Nations. See Niagara.
SIXTH, in mufic, one of the fimple original con¬
cords, or harmonical intervals. See Interval.
SIXTUS V. (Pope), was born the 13th December
1521, in La Marca, a village in the feigniory of Mont-
«dto. His father, Francis Peretti, was a gardener, and
his mother a fervant maid. H.e was their elddt child,
and was called Felix. At the age of nine he was
hired out to an inhabitant of the village t« keep
ffieep ; but difobliging his matter, he wasjlfoon after
-degraded to be keeper of the hogs. He was en¬
gaged in this employment when Father Michael An¬
gelo Selleri, a Fnmcifcan friar, allied the road to Af-
celi, where he was going to preach. Young Felix
conducted him thither, and ftruck the father fo much
with his converfation and eagernefs for knowledge, that
he recommended him to the fraternity to which he had
come. Accordingly he was received among them, in-
vefied with the habit of a lay brother, and placed un¬
der the facrifian, to affift in fvveeping the church, lighting
the candles, and other offices of that nature ; for which
he was to be taught the refponfes, and the rudiments
of grammar. His progrefs in learning was fo furprifing,
that at the age of 14 he Was thought qualified to be¬
gin his noviciate, and was admitted the year following
to make his profeffion.
He purfued his ftudies with fuch unwearied affiduity,
that he was foon reckoned equal to the bell difputants.
He was ordained prieft in 1545, when he affirmed the
name of Father Montalto ; foon after he took his doc¬
tor’s degree, and was appointed profefibr of theology
at Sienna. It was then that he fo effedtually recom¬
mended himfelf to Cardinal di Carpi, and his fecretary
Boffins, that they ever remained his ficady friends.
Meanwhile the feverity and obftinacy of his temper
inceflantly engaged him in difputes with his monar-
t?c brethren. His reputation for eloquence, which
was now fpread over Italy, about this time gain¬
ed him fome new friends. Among thefe were the
Colonna family, and Father Ghililieri, by whofe recom¬
mendation he was appointed inquiiitor-general at Ve¬
nice ; but he exercifed that office with fo much feveri-
ty, that he was obliged to flee precipitately from that
city. Upon this he went to Rome, where he was made
procurator-general of his order, and foon after accom¬
panied Cardinal Euon Compagnon into Spain, as a
x - [ 515 J SIX'
Skirrets come nearetl to chaplain and confultor to the inquifitiort. There he
was treated with great refpetl, and liberal offers were '
made him to induce him to continue in Spain, which,
however, he could not be prevailed bn to accept.
In the mean time, news were brought to Madrid that
Pius IV. was dead, and that Father Ghifilieri, who
had been made Cardinal Alexandrine by Paul IV. had
fucceeded him under the name of Pius V. Thefe
tidings filled Montalto with joy, and not without rea-
fon, for he was immediately invefted by the pontiff with
new dignities. He was made general of his order, bi-
fliop of St Agatha, was foon after railed to the digni¬
ty of cardinal, and received a penfion. About this
time he was employed by the Pope to draw up the bill
of excommunication againfl Queen Elizabeth.
He began now to call his eyes upon the papacy;
and, in order to obtain it, formed and executed a plan
of hypocrify with unparalleled conflancy and fuccefs.
He became humble, patient, and affable. He changed
his drefs, his air, his words, and his afkions, fo com¬
pletely, that his mod intimate friends declared him a
new man. Never was there fuch an abfolute vic¬
tory gained over the paffions ; never was a fi&itious
character fo long maintained, nor the foibles of human
nature fo artfully concealed. He courted the ambaffa-
dors of every foreign power, but attached himfelf to
the interefts of none} nor did he accept a fingle favour
that would have laid him under any peculiar obligation.
He had formerly treated his relations with the greateft
tendernefs, but he now changed his behaviour altoge¬
ther. When his brother Anthony came to vifit him,
he lodged him in an inn, and fent him home next day,
charging him to inform his family that he was now dead
to his relations and the world.
When Pius V. died in 1572, he entered the conclave
with the other cardinals, but feemed altogether indiffe¬
rent about the elebtion, and never left his apartment ex¬
cept to his devotion. When folicited to join any party,
he declined it, declaring that he was of no confequence,
and that he would leave the choice of a Pope entirely
to perfons of greater knowledge and experience. When
Cardinal Boon Compagnon, who affumed the name of
Gregory XIII. was elebted, Montalto affured him that
he never wilhed for any thing fo much in his life, and
that he would always remember his goodnefs, and the
favours he had conferred on him in Spain. But the
new Pope treated him with the greateft: contempt, and
deprived him of his penfion. The cardinals alfo, de¬
ceived^ by his artifices, paid him no greater refpebt,
and ufed to call him, by way of ridicule, the Roman
beaft ; the afs of La Marca.
He now aflumed all the infirmities of old age ; his
head hung down upon his fhoulders} he tottered as he
walked, and fupported himfelf on a llaff. Plis voice
became feeble, and was often interrupted by a cough lo
exceedingly fevere, that it feemed every moment to
threaten his diflolution. He interfered in no public
tranfablions, but fpent his whole time in abts of devo¬
tion and benevolence. Mean time he conftantly em¬
ployed the able ft fpies, who brought him intelligence
of every particular.
When Gregory XIII. died in 1585, he entered the
conclave with the greateft relublance, and immediately
fluit himfelf up in his chamber, and was no more
thought of than if he had not exiited. When he went
3 2 to
SixtUfC
SIX [51
Sixuip. to mafs, for which purpofe alone he left his apartment,
he aopeared perfeftly indifferent about the event of the
eletfion. He joined no party, yet flattered all.
He knew early that there would be great divifions
in the conclave, and he was aware that when the leaders
of the different parties were difappointed in their own
views, they all frequently agreed in the eledtion of fomc
old and infirm cardinal, the length of whofe life would
merely enable them to prepare themfelves fufficiently
for the next vacancy. Thefe views directed his conduct,
nor was he miftaken in his hopes of fuccefs.
Three cardinals, the leaders of oppolite factions, be¬
ing unable to procure the election which each of them
wifhed, unanimoufly agreed to make choice of Mont-
alto. When they came to acquaint him with their in¬
tention, he fell into fuch a violent fit of coughing that
every perfon thought he would expire on the fpot. He
told them that his reign wrould lafl but a few days ;
that, beiides a continual difficulty of breathing, he
wanted (Irength to fupport fuch a weight, and that his
fmall experience rendered him very unfit for fo impor¬
tant a charge. He conjured them all three not to
abandon him, but to take the whole weight of affairs
upon their own fhouldcrs ; and declared that he would
never accept the mitre upon any other terms : “ If you
are refolved,” added he, “ to make me Pope,, it will
only be placing yourfelves on the throne. For my part,
I fhall be fatisfied with the bare title. Let the world
call me Pope, and I make you heartily welcome to the
power and authority. The cardinals fvvallowed the bait,
and exerted themfelves fo effectually that Montalto was
eledted. He now pulled off the mafic which he had
worn for 14 years. No fooner was his election fecured,
than he flarted from his feat, flung down his ftaff in the
middle of the hall, and appeared almoft a foot taller
than he had done for feveral years.
When he was afked, according tacuflom, if he would
accept of the Papacy, he replied, “ It is trifling to afk
whether I will accept what I have already accepted.—
However, to fatisfy any fcruple that may arife, I tell
you that I accept it with great pleafure, and would ac¬
cept another if I could get it; for I find myfelf able,
by the Divine affiftance, to manage two papacies.” His
former complaifance and humility difappeared, together
with his infirmities, and he now treated all around him
with referve and haughtinefs. The firft care of Six¬
tus V. the name which Montalto aflumed, was to cor-
rett the abufes, and put a flop to the enormities, which
were daily committed in every part of the ecclefiaftical
Hate. The lenity of Gregory’s government had intro¬
duced a general licentioufnefs of manners, which burfl
forth with great violence, after that Pontiff’s death.
It had been ufual with former Popes to releafe delin¬
quents on the day of their coronation, who were there¬
fore accuflomed to furrender themfelves voluntary pri-
foners immediately after the election of the Pape. At
prefent, however, they were fatally difappointed.—
When the governor of Rome and the keeper of St
Angelo waited on hi^ Holinefs, to know his intention
in this particular, he replied,. “ What have you to do
with pardons, and releafing of prifoners ?. Is it not fuf-
ficient that our predeceffor has fuffered the judges to
remain unemployed thefe 13 years? Shall we alfo ftain
our pontificate with the fame negleft of juflice ? We
have too.kmg feers, with inexpreliible concern, the prodh
6 ] six
gious degree of wickednefs that reigns in the ftate to Sixtu*.
think of granting pardons. Let the prifoners be brought
to a fpeedy trial, and punifhed as they deferve, to fhow
the world that Divine Providence has called us to the
chair of St Peter, to reward the good, and chaftife the
wicked; that we bear not the fword in vain, but are the
minifters of God, and a revenger to execute wrath on
them that do evil.”
He appointed commifiioners to infpett the condmfl
of the judges, difplaced thofe who were inclined to le-
nicy, and put others of fevere difpolitions in their room.
He offered rewards to any perfon who could convict
them of corruption or partiality. He ordered the fyn-
dics of all the towns and figniories to make out a com¬
plete lift of the diforderly perfons within their diftrids,
and threatened the flrapado for the fmallefl omiffion. In
confequence of this edid, the fyndic of Albino was
fcourged in the market-place, becaufe he had left his
nephew, an incorrigible libertine, out ot his lift.
He made very fevere laws againft robbers and affaf-
fins. Adulterers, when difeovered, fuffered death; and
they .who willingly fubmitted to the proftitution of their
wives, a cuftom then common in Rome, received the
fame punifhment. He was particularly careful of the
purity of the female fex, and never forgave thofe who
attempted to debauch them.
His execution of juftice was as prompt as his edids
were rigorous... A Swifs happening to give a Spaiufh
gentleman a blow with his halberd, was ftruck by him fo
rudely with a pilgrim’s ftaff that he expired on the fpot.
Sixtus informed the governor of Rome that he was to
dine early, and that juftice mull be executed on the cri¬
minal before he fat down to table.. The Spanifh am-
bafl'ador and four cardinals intreated him not to dif-
grace the gentleman by fuffering him to die on a gib¬
bet, but to order him to be beheaded. “ He firail be
hanged (replied Sixtus), but I will alleviate his difgrace
by doing him the honour to afliit perfonally at his
death.” He ordered a gibbet to be ereded before his
own windows, where he continued fitting during the
whole execution. He then called to his fervants to
bring in dinner, declaring that the ad of juftice which
he had juft feen had increafed his appetite. When hs
rofe from table, he exclaimed, “ God be praifed for the
good appetite with which I have dined!”
When Sixtus afeended the throne, the whole ecclefi-
aftical ftate was infefted with bands of robbers, who,
from their numbers and outrages, were exceedingly for¬
midable ; by his prudent and vigorous condudt, how¬
ever, lie in a fhort time extirpated the whole of thefe
banditti.
Nor was the vigour of his condud lefs confpicuous,
in his tranfadions with foreign nations. Before he had
been pope two months he quarrelled with Philip II. of
Spain, Henry ILL of France, and Henry king of Na¬
varre. His intrigues indeed in fome meafure influenced
all the councils of Europe.
After his acceffion to the pontificate he fent for his
family to Rome, with exprefa orders that they fhould
appear in a decent and modeft manner. Accordingly,
his filler Camilla came thither, accompanied by her
daughter and two grandchildren. Some cardinals, in.
order to pay court to the pope, went out to meet her,
and introduced her in a very magnificent drefs. Six¬
tus pretended not to know her, and afked two or three
times
s 1 x r 5*7 ] S I Z
Upon this one ®f the cardinals faid, favour which had been conferred on him before His ex-
altation.
Sixtus, times who fhe was .
—V—' “ It is your filler, holy father.” “ I have but one li¬
fter (replied Sixtus with a frown), and (he is a poor
woman at Le Grotte ; if you have introduced her in
this difguife, I declare I do not know her; yet I think
I would know her again, if I faw her in the clothes Ihe
ttfed to wear.”
Her condu&ors at laft found it neceflary to carry
her to an inn, and ftrip her of her finery. When Ca¬
milla was introduced a fecond time, Sixtus embraced
her tenderly, and laid, “ Now we know indeed that it
is our filler: nobody lhall make a princefs of you but
ourfelves.” He ilipulated with his filler, that Ihe
Ihould neither afk any favour in matters of government,
nor intercede for criminals, nor interfere in the admini-
ftration of jullice ; declaring that every requell of that
kind would meet with a certain refufal. Thefe terms
being agreed to, and pun&ually obferved, he made
the molt ample provifion not only for Camilla but for
his whole relations.
This great man was alfo an encourager oflearning.
He earned an Italian tranflation of the Bible to be pub¬
lished, which raifed a good deal of difeontent among
the Catholics. When fome cardinals reproached him
for his condudt in this refpeCl, he replied, “ It was
publifhed for the benefit of you cardinals who cannot
read Latin.”
Sixtus died in 1590, after having reigned little more
than five years. His death was aferibed to poifon, faid
to have been adminillered by the Spaniards; but the
ftory feems rather improbable.
It was to the indulgence of a difpofition naturally
formed for feverity, that all the defeds of this wonder¬
ful man are to be aferibed. Clemency was a llranger
to his bofom ; his punilhments wer* often too cruel, and
feemed fometimes to border on revenge. Pafquin was
drefied one morning in a very nafiy Ihirt, and being
allied by Martorio why he wore fuch dirty linen ? replied,
that he could get no other, for the pope had made his
walherwoman a princefs, alluding to Camilla, who had
formerly been a laundrefs. The pope ordered ftrid
fearch to be made for the author of this lampoon, and
offered him his life and a thoufand piltoles if he would
difeover himfelf. The author was fimple enough to
make his appearance and claim the reward. “ It is
true (faid the pope) we made fuch a promife, and we
lhall keep it; your life lhall be fpared, and you lhall re¬
ceive the money prefently : but we have referved to.
ourfelves the power of cutting off your hands and bo¬
ring your tongue through, to prevent your being fo
witty for the future.” It is needlefs to add, that the
fentence was immediately executed. This, however, is
the only inftanee of his refenting the many fevere fa-
tires that were publifiied againft him.
But though the condudt of Sixtus feldom excites
love, it generally commands our efteem, and fometimes
our admiration.. He ftrenuoully defended the caufe of
the .poor, the widow, and the orphan he never refufed.
audience to the injured, however wretched or forlorn
their appearance was. He never forgave thofe magi-
ftiates who were capable of partiality or corruption
nor fuffered crimes to pafs unpunilhed, whether commit¬
ted by the rich or the poor. He was frugal, tempe¬
rate, fober, and never negleded to reward the fmalleft;
When he mounted the throne, the treafury was
not only exhaufted, but in debt: at his death it con-
tamed hve millions of gold.
Rome was indebted to him for feveral of her great-
eft embelhfhments, particularly the Vatican library • it
was by urn, too that trade was firft introduced into-
the Lcclefiaftical State.
SIYA;Ghush, the caracal of Buffon, an. animal of
the cat kind. See Felis, n' xviii.
u or.^,ZER> ,n Latin Sizator, an appellation
by which the loweft order of ftudents in the univerfi-
ties of Cambridge and Dublin are diftinguifhed, is de-
rived from the word Jzt, which in Cambridge, and
probably in Dublin likewife, has a peculiar meaning.
lojize, in the language of the univerfity, is to get
any fort of vnftuals rrom the kitchens, which the ftu-
dents may want, in their own rooms, or in addition to
their commons in the hall, and for which they pay the
cooks or butchers at the end of each quarter. A iize
of any thing is the fmallefl quantity of that thing which
can be thus bought: two fizes, or a part of beef, beW
nearJy equal to what a young perfou will eat of that
; u \°c and a flze of aIe or beer being equal
to half an Enghfii pint. ° ^
The fizars are divided into two daffes, viz. fubfiza-
tores or fizars, and fizatores or proper fizars. The
former of thefe are fupplied with commons from the
table of the fellows and follow-commoners ; and in for¬
mer times, when thefe were more fcanty than they are
now, they were obliged to fupply the deficiency by ft.
znig, as is fometimes the cafe itill. The proper fizars
had formerly no commons at all, and were therefore
obliged to fize the whole. In St John’s- college they
have now fome commons allowed them for dinner,
from a benefadion, but they are flill obliged to iize
‘heir fuppers : in the other colleges they are allowed a
part oi the fellow-commons, but mult fize the reft •
and from being thus obliged to fize the whole or part'
of their victuals, the whole order derived the name of
jizars.
In Oxford, the order fimilar to that of fizar is deno-
minated Jervitor, a name evidently derived from the me¬
nial duties which they perform. In both univeriities thefe
orders were formerly dillinguifhed by round caps and.
gowns of different materials from thofe of the penfioners
or commoners, the order immediately above them. But
about 30 years ago the round cap was entirely abolilhed
in both feminanes. There is Hill, however, in Oxford,
we beheve, a ^Hindion in the gowns, and there is
alfo a trifling difference in. fome of the fmall colleges in.
Cambridge ; but m the large colleges the drefs of the
penfioners. and lizars is entirely the lame
In Oxford, the fervitors are Hill obliged to wait at
table on the follows and gendesnen-commoners : but
much to the credit of the univerfity of Cambridge, this,
molt degrading and disgraceful cuitom was entirely
abohlhed about . 10 or 12 years ago, and of courfe the
lizars ol Cambridge are now on a much more relpeft-
able footing than the lervitors of Oxford, ^
1 he fizars are not upon the foundation, and there-
fore while they continue hears are not capable of be.
mg defted fellows, but they may at an, time, it tney
4 chooli
Siya ghufli •
Sizar.
S I z
C 5‘B ]
SKA
choofcj become peniioners : and they generally fit for
fcholarfhips immediately before they take their tirft de¬
gree. If fuccefsful, they are then on the founda¬
tion, and are entitled to become candidates for fellow-
fhips when they have got that degree. In the mean
time, while they continue fizars, befides free commons
they enjoy many benefactions, which have been made
at different times, under the name offvzar’s prxtor, ex¬
hibitions, &c. and the rate of tuition, the rent of rooms,
and other things of that fort within their refpedtive col¬
leges, is lefs than to the other orders. But tho’ their edu¬
cation is thus obtained at a lefs expence, they are not now
confidered as a menial order; for lizars, penfioner-fcho-
lars, and even fometimes fellow-commoners, mix toge¬
ther with the utmoft cordiality. It is worthy of re¬
mark, that at every period this order has fupplied the
univerfity with its moft diftiaguiihed officers ; and that
many of the moft illuftrious members of the church,
many of the moft diftinguifhed men in the other libe¬
ral profeffions, have, when under-graduates, been fi¬
zars, when that order was on a lefs refpedtable footing
than it is now.
SIZE, the name of an inftrument ufed for finding
the bignefs of fine round pearls. It confifts of thin
pieces or leaves, about two inches long, and half an
inch broad, faftened together at one end by a rivet. In
each of thefe are round holes drilled of different dia¬
meters. Thofe in the firft leaf ferve for meafuring
pearls from half a grain to fevdn grains ; thofe of the
fecond, for pearls from eight grains or two carats to
five carats, &c.; and thofe of the third, for pearls from
fix carats and a half to eight carats and a half.
Size, is alfo a fort of paint, varnifh, or glue, ufed
by painters, &c
The (hreds and parings ef leather, parchment, or
vellum, being boiled in water and drained, make fize.
This fubftance is much ufed in many trades.—The
manner of ufing fize is to melt fome of it over a gentle
fire ; and feraping as much whiting into it as will juft
colour it, let them be well incorporated together ; af¬
ter which you may whiten frames, &c. with it. After
it dries, melt the flze again, and put more whiting,
and whiten the frames, &c. (even or eight times, let¬
ting it dry between each timfe : but-^before it is quite
dry, between each wafhing with fize, you muft fmoothe
and wet it over with a clean brufh-pencil in fait water.
To make gold-tize. Take gum-animi and afphal-
tum, of each one ounce ; minium, litharge of gold,
and amber, of each half an ounce i- reduce all into a
very fine powder, and add to them four ounces of lin-
leed-oil, and eight ounces of drying oil: digeft them
over a gentle lire that does not flame, fo that the
mixture may only fimmer, but not boil; left it
fhould run over and fet the houfe on fire, ftir it con-
ftantly with a flick till all the ingredients are dif-
folved and incorporated, and do not leave off ftirring
till it becomes thick and ropy ; after being Efficiently
boiled, let it ftand till it is almoft cold, and then
ftrain it through a coarfe linen cloth, and keep it for
life.—To prepare it for working, put what quantity
you pleafe in a horfe-msfcle fhell, adding as much oil
of turpentine as will diffolve it; and making it as thin
as the bottom of your feed-lac varnifh, hold it over
a candle, and then ftrain it through a linen-rag into ano¬
ther fhell j add to thefe as much vermilion as will make
it of a darkifh red : if it is too thick for drawing, you
may thin it with fome oil of turpentine. The chief ufe
of this fize is for laying on metals.
The heft gold-fize for burnifhing is made as follows:
Take fine bole, what quantity yrou pleafe ; grind it
finely on a piece of marble, then ferape into it a little
beefluet; grind all well together ; after which mix in
a fmall proportion of parchment-fize with a double pro¬
portion of water, and it is done.
To make filver-fize. Take tobacco-pipe clay in fine
powder, into which ferape fome black-lead and a little
Genoa foap, and grind them all together with parch¬
ment fize as already direfted.
SKATING, an exercife on ice, both graceful and
healthy. Although the ancients were remarkable for
their dexterity in moft of the athletic fports, yet flea-
ting feems to have been unknown to them. It may
therefore be confidered as a modern invention; and pro¬
bably it derived its origin in Holland, where it was
praftifed, not only as a graceful and elegant amufement,
but as an expeditious mode of travelling when the lakes
and canals were frozen up during winter. In Holland
long journeys are made upon fkates with eafe and expe¬
dition ; but in general lefs Attention is there paid to
graceful and elegant movements, than to the expedition
and celerity of what is czWtd journey Jkating. It is on¬
ly in thofe countries wherfe it is confidered as an amufe¬
ment, that its graceful attitudes and movements can be
ftudied ; and there is no exercife whatever better calcu¬
lated to fet off the human figure to advantage. The
acquirement of moft exercifes may be attained at an ad¬
vanced period of life ; but to become an expert fkater,
it is neceffary to begin the practice of the art at a very
early age. It is difficult to reduce the art of flea-
ting to a fyftem. It is principally by the imitation of
a good Heater that a young praftitioner can form his
own practice. The Englifh, though often remarkable
for feats of agility upon fkates, are very deficient in
gracefulnefs; which is partly owing to the conftruc-
tion of the fkates. They are too much curved in
the furface which embraces the ice, confequently they
involuntarily bring the uiers of them round on the out-
fide upon a quick and fmall circle ; whereas the fkater,
by ufing fkates of a different conftruftion, lefs curved,
has the command of his ftroke, and can enlarge or di-
minifh the circle according to his own wifli and defire.
The metropolis of Scotland has produced more inftances
of elegant Heaters than perhaps any other country
whatever; and the inftitution of a Skating Club about
40 years ago, has contributed not a little to the im¬
provement of this elegant amufement. We are indebt¬
ed for this article to a gentleman of that Club, who
has made the practice and improvement of fixating his
particular ftudy ; and as the nature of our work -will
not permit the infertion of a full treatife on Heating,
we lhall prefent our readers with a few inftrudtions.
Thofe who wifh to be proficients fhould begin at an
early period of life ; and fhould fitft endeavour to throw
off the fear which always attends the commencement of
an apparently hazardous amufement. They will foon ac¬
quire a facility of moving on the infide ; when they have
done this, they muft endeavour to acquire the movement
on the outfde of the fkates; which is nothing more than
throwing themfelves upon the outer edgeof the fleate, and
making the balance of their body tend towards that
Sksting.
S K E [ 5'
STtafin?. fide, which will necefTarily enable them to form a fe-
Skel^w;>, micurcle. In this, much affiftance may be derived from
placing a bag of lead-fhot in the pocket next to the
foot employed in making the outfide ftroke, which will
produce an artificial poife of the body, which after¬
wards will become natural by practice. At the com¬
mencement of the outfide ftroke, the knee of the em¬
ployed limb ftiould be a little bended, and gradually
brought to a rectilineal petition when the ftroke is com¬
pleted. When the practitioner becomes expert in form¬
ing the femicircle with both feet, he is then to join
them together, and proceed progreffively and alternate¬
ly with both feet, which will cany him forward with
a graceful tnovement. Care fhould be taken to ufe
very little mufcular exertion, for the impelling mo¬
tion^ fhould proceed from the mechanical impulfe of
the body thrown into fuch a oofition as to regulate the
ftroke. At taking the outfide ftrokc, the body ought
to be thrown forward eaiily, the unemployed limb kept
in a dh eft line with the body, and the face and eyes
direClly looking forward : the unemployed foot ought
to be fb etched towards the ice, with the toes in a di-
red line with the leg. In the time of making the curve,
the body mutt be gradually, and almoft imperceptibly,
railed, and the unemployed limb brought in the fame
mannei forward ; fo that, at finishing the curve, the bo¬
dy will bend a (mail degree backward, and the unem¬
ployed foot will be about two inches before the other,
ready to embrace the ice and form a correfpondent
curve. The mufcular movement of the whole body
muft covrefpond with the movement of the fkate, and
fhould be regulated fo as to be almoft imperceptible to
the fpedators. Particular, attention fhould be paid in
carrying round the head and eyes with a regular and
imperceptible motion ; for nothing fo much diminifhes
the grace and elegance of Heating as fudden jerks and
exertions, which are too frequently ufed by the ge¬
nerality of Heaters. . I he management of the arms like-
wne deferves attention. There is no mode of difpofinw
o: them more gracefully in Heating outfide, than folding
the hands into each other, or ufmg a muff.
There are various feats of adivity and manoeuvres
uted upon fleates ; but they are fo various that we can-
-»ot pietend to detail them. Moving on the outfide is
the primary objeft for a Heater to attain ; and when he
becomes an adept in that, he will ealily acquire a fa-
eihty in executing other branches of the art. There
are few excrcifes but will afford him hints of elegant
and graceful attitudes. For example, nothing can be
more beautiful than the attitude of drawing the bow
and arrow whilft the fkater is making a large circle on
the outfide : the manual exercife and military falutes
have like wife a pretty effedl when ufed by an expert
&ater. r
SKELETON, in anatomy, the dried bones of any
animal joined together by wires, or by the natural liga¬
ment dried, in fuch a manner as to fhow their pofition
when the creature was alive.
. We have> the Philofophical Tranfaftions, an ac-
,mint of a human Hceleton, all the bones of winch were
io united, as to make but one articulation from the
back to the os facrum, and downwards a little way.
On iawing iome of them, where they were unnaturally
joined, they were found not to cohere throughout their
whole fubftance, but only about a fixth of an inch deep
9 1 SKY
all round. The figure of the trunk was crooked, the Skids
fpinje making the convex, and the infide of the verte- II
bne the concave part of the fegment. The whole had , Sky‘
been found in a chargel-houfe, and was of the fize of a
full grown perfon.
SKIDS, or SKtEns, in fea-language, are long com-
paffing pieces of timber, notched below fo as to fit
clofely upon the wales, extending from the main-wale
to the top Oi the fide, and retained in this pofition by
bolts or fpike-nails. J hey are intended for preferving
the planks of the fide, wdien any heavy body is hoifted
or lowered. •
SKIE (Ifie of). , See Sky.
SKIbF, a finall boat refembliiig a yawl, ufually erm*
ployed for paffing rivers.
SKIMMER, black. See Shearbill.
SKIMMIA, in botany: A genus of the tnonogynid
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 40th order,
Perfonat*. The calyx is quadripartite ; the corolla
con lifts of four concave petals j and the berry contains
four feeds. There is only one fpecies, viz. the Jaba-
nica. r
SKIN, in anatomy, the genera! covering of the body
of any animal. See Anatomy, n° 74.
Skin, in commerce, is particularly ufed for the mem¬
brane fti ipped off the animal to be prepared by the tan¬
ner, fidnner, parchment-maker, &c. and converted into
leather, See. See Tanning.
. SKINNER (Stephen), an Englift antiquarian, bom
in 1622. He travelled, and Itudied in feveral foreign
univerfities during the civil wars; and in 16^4, return¬
ed and fettled at Lincoln, where he pra&ifed phyfic
with fuccefs until the year 1667, when he died of a
malignant fever. His works were collected in folio in
1671, by Mr Henfhaw, under the title oi Etymologic on
lAngu/t Anglicana, See.
SKIPPER, or Saury, a fpecies of E sox, which fee.
SKIRMISH, in war, a flight engagement between
fmall parties, without any regular order ; and is there¬
fore eafily diftinguifhed from a battle, which is a general
engagement between two armies continued for iome
time.
SK.iJLL, in anatomy, the bony cafe in which the
brain is inclofed. See Anatomy, n° ii. Sec.
SKur.r.-Cap. See Scutellaria.
SK\, the blue expanfe of air or atmofphere. For
the reafon of its blue colour and concave figure fee
Optics. 0 ’
Sky, one of the greateft of the Weftern Iflands of
ocotland, fo called from Skianach^ which in the Erfe
dialect fignifies winged, becaufe the two promontories of
Vakrnefs and Troternifh, by which it is bounded on
the north-well and north-eaft, are fuppofed to refemble
wings. The Hand lies between the fhire of Rofs and
the weftern part of Lewis. According to the computa¬
tion of Mr Pennant, Dr Johnfon, and Dr Campbell, it is
60 miles in length, and nearly the fame in width where
broadeft ; according to others it 1V50 miles in length,
and m fome places 30 broad. The ifiand of Sky is di¬
vided between two proprietors; the fouthern part be¬
longs to the laird of Macleod, faid to be lineally de-
feended from Leod fon to the black prince of Man °
the northern diltrid, or barony of Troternifh is the
property of Lord Macdonald,, whofe anceftor was Do¬
nald.v
SKY C 520 1 SKY
^7. nald, king or lord of the Ifles, and chief of the nume-
rous clan of Macdonalds, who are counted the moft
warlike of all the Higlilanders. Sky is part of the
(hire of Invernefs, and formerly belonged to the diocefe
of the Ifles: on the fouth it is parted from the
main land by a channel three leagues in breadth ; tho’,
at the ferry of Glenelly, it is fo narrow that a man may
be heard calling for the boat from one fide to the other.
Sky is well provided with a variety of excellent bays
and harbours.
1 he face of the country is roughened with moun¬
tains, lome of which are fo high as to be covered with
fnow on the top at midfummcr^ in general, their fides
are clothed v/ith heath and grafs, which afford good
pafturage for flieep and black cattle. Between the
mountains there are fome fertile valleys, and the greater
part of the land towards the fea-coaft is plain and
arable. The ifland is well watered with a great num¬
ber of rivers, above 30 of which afford falmon ; and
fome of them produce black mufcles in which pearls
are bred, particularly the rivers Kilmartin and Ord:
Martin was affured by the proprietor of the former,
that a pearl hath been found in it valued at 20 1. Ster¬
ling. Here is alfo a confiderable number of frefh-
water lakes well ftored with trout and eels. The largeft
of thefe lakes takes its denomination from St Colum-
ba, to whom is dedicated a chapel that (lands upon a
fmall ifle in the middle of the lake. Sky likewife af¬
fords feveral cataradts, that roar down the rocks with
great impetuofity. That the ifland has been formerly
covered with woods, appears from the large trunks of
fir and other trees daily dug out of the bogs and peat-
marfhes in every part of this country.
From the height of the hills, and proximity of the
.Account of fea, the air feldom continues long of the fame tempera-
ScotlanJ, ture . fometimes it is dry, oftener moifl, and in the lat-
f I4®VI *er en^ w’nter aHd beginning of fpring cold and pier¬
cing ; at an average, three days in twelve throughout
the year fcarcely free from rain, far lefs from clouds.
Th'efe, attra&ed by the hills, fometimes break in ufeful
and refrefhtng fhowers; at other times fuddenly burft-
ing, pour down their contents with tremendous noife,
in impetuous torrents that deluge the plains below, and
render the fmalleft rivulet impaflable ; which, together
with the ftormy winds fo common in this country in
the months of Auguft and September, frequently blall
the hopes, and difappoint the expe&ations, of the hu-
fbandman. Snow has been often known to lie on the
ground from three to feven weeks ; and on the higheft
bills, even in the middle of June, fome fpots of it are
to be feen. To this various temperature of the air,
and uncertainty of weather, the fevers and agues, head-
achs, rheumatifms, colds, and dyfenteries, which are the
prevailing diftempers, may be aferibed. That k is far,
however, from being unwholefome, is fufficiently evin¬
ced by experience ; for the inhabitants are, in gene¬
ral, as ftrong and healthy, and arrive at as advanced an
age, as thofe who live in milder climates, and under a
ferener iky. The gout is fcarcely known in this ifland.
The foil is generally black, though it likewife affords
clay of different colours; fuch as white, red, and blue,
and in fome places fuller’s earth. It is, however, much
lefs adapted for agriculture than for paflure, and fel-
dom, .unkfs in very good years, fupplies itfelf with a fuf-
ficiency of provifiona. Yet, though the foil is not ve*
ry fertile or rich, it might with proper management be
made to produce more plentiful crops. But the gene¬
rality of the f armers are fo prejudiced in favour of old
cuftoms, and indeed fo little inclined to induftry, that
they will not eafily be prevailed on to change them
for better ; efpecially if the alteration or amendment
propofed be attended with expence. Therefore, with
refpedl to improvements in agriculture, they are Hill
much in the fame Hate as they were 20 or 30 years
ago. Ploughs, on a new and improved model, that in
comparifon to the advantages derived from them might
be had at a moderate expence, have lately been intro¬
duced into feveral diflri&s around, where their good ef-
fe&s are manifeft, in improving the crops and diminifh-
ing the labour of man and bead ; but the laird of Raa-
fay and one other gentleman are the only perfons in
Portree that have ufed them. The cafcroim, a crooked
kind of fpade, is almoft the only inftrument for labouring
the ground ufed among the ordinary clafs of tenants.
The average crops of corn are 800c bolls.
When Mr Knox viflted this ifland in i'786, the
number of inhabitants amounted to 15,000 : but fome
gentlemen who refided there affirmed there were 16,000.
It is divided into eight parifhes, in each of which there
is a fchool, befides three charity-fchools in different
places.
The minerals found here are lead and iron ore,
which, however, have never been wrought to any ad¬
vantage. Near the village of Sartle, the natives find
black and white marcafites, and variegated pebbles.
The Applefglen, in the neighbourhood of Loch fallart,
produces beautiful agates of different fizes and colours:
ftones of a purple hue are, after great rains, found in the
rivulets: cryftal, of different colours and forms, abounds
in feveral parts of the ifland, as well as black and white
marble, free-ftone, lime-ftone, and talc: fmall red and
white coral is found on the fouthern and weftern coafts
in great abundance. The fuel confifls chiefly of peat
and turf, which are impregnated with iron ore and
faltpetre; and coal has been difeovered in feveral di«
ftrifts.
The wuld birds of all forts moft common in the coun¬
try are, lolan geefe, gulls, cormorants, cranes, wild
gtefe, and wdld ducks ; eagles, crows, ravens, rooks, cuc¬
koos, rails, woodcocks, moor-fowl, partridges, plover,
wild pigeons, and blackbirds, owls, hawks, fnipes, and
a variety of fmall birds. In mild feafons, the cuckoo
and rail appear in the latter end of April ; the former
difappears always before the end of June; the latter
fometimes not till September. The woodcock comes
in Odlober, and frequently remains till March. The
tame forts of fowl are geefe, ducks, turkeys, cocks, pul¬
lets, and tame pigeons.
The black cattle are here expofed to all the rigours
of the fevere winter, without any other provender than
the tops of the heath and the alga marina ; fo that they
appear like mere fkeletons in the fpring ; though, as
the grafs grows up, they foon become plump and juicy,
the beef being fweet, tender, and finely interlarded.—
The amphibious animals are feals and otters. Among
the reptiles they reckon vipers, afps, weafels, frogs, toads,
and three different kinds of ferpents ; the firft fpotted
black and white, and very poifonous; the fecond yel-
SKY [ 1
**'1**. brown fpots j and the third of a brown co- towers, beacons,
IoUr, the imalleft and leaft poifonous.
Whales and cairbans, or 1'un-fifh, come in fometimes
to the founds after their prey, but are rarely purfued
with any fuccefs. The fifties commonly caught on the
coaft are herrings, ling, cod, fcate, haddock, mackerel,
lythe, fye, and dog-fifti. The average price of ling at
home is L. 13, 13 s. per ton ; when fold, one by one, if
frefti, the price is from 3 d. to 5 d. ; if cured, from 5 d.
to yd. _ The barrel of herrings feldom fells under 19 s.
which is owing to the great difficulty of procuring fait,
even fometimes at any price ; and the fame caufe pre¬
vents many from taking more than are fufficient for
their own ufe.
Phe kyle of Scalpe teems with oyfters, in fuch a man¬
ner, that after fome fpring-tides, 20 horfe-loads of
them are left upon the fands. Near the village of Bern-
ftill, the beach yields mufcles fufficiem. to maintain 60
perfons per day ; this providential fupply helps to fup-
port many poor families in times of fcarcity.
The people are ftrong, robuft, healthy, and prolific.
They generally profefs the Proteftant religion ; are ho-
nelt, brave, innocent, and hofpitable. They fpeak the
language, v/ear the habit, and obfexve the cuftoms that
are common to all ^he Hebrides. The meconium in
new-born infants is purged away with frefti butter : the
children are bathed every morning and evening in wa¬
ter, and grow up fo ftrong, that a child of 10 months
is able to walk alone : they never wear fiioes or ftock-
ings before the age of eight or ten, ami night-caps are
hardly known ; they keep their feet always wet; they
he on beds of ftraw or heath, which laft is an excellent
reftorative : they are quick of apprehenfion, ingenious,
and very much addi&ed to mufic and poetry/ They
eat heartily of. fifh ; hut feldom regale themfelves with
fieih-meat: their.ordinary food con lifts of butter, cheefe,
milk, potatoes, celewort, brochan, and a difh called
oon, which indeed is no other than the froth of boiled
milk or whey raifed with a flick like that ufed in ma¬
king chocolate.
A fort of coarfe woollen cloth called cloa, or cad.
does, the manufafttire of their wives, made into fhort
jackets and troufers, is the common drefs of the men.
The plulibeg is rarely worn, except in fummer and on
Sundays; on which days, and fome other occafions, thofe
in better circumftances appear in tartans, a bonnet, and
•fhort hofe, and fome in a hat, fhort coat, waiftcoat,
and breeches, of Scotch or Englifh manufa&ure. The
women are in general very cfeanly, and fo exceffively
fond of drefs, that many maid-fervants are often known
to lay out their whole wages that way.
There are two fairs held annually at Portree, to
which almoft every part of Sky fends cattle. The firft
i_s held m the end of May, and the fecond in the end of
The fair commanly continues from Wednefday
^ r 1 j ?atur<Jay following. The commodities which
are fold in theie are horfes, cows, fheep, goats, hides,
butter, cheefe, fifh, and wool. The cattle fold in thefe
fairs fwim over to the main land through a rpile or half
-a im e of fea. Phoufands of thefe are yearly exported,
r?m * ^ to L. 3 each. Many of them are driven to
England, where they are fatted for the market, and
counted delicious eating.
In Sky appear many ruins of Danifh forts, watch-
Vol. XVII. Part U.
SLA
- temples, and fepulchral monuments.
All the forts are known oy the term Dun y fuch as
Hun-Skudborg, Dun-Derig, Dun-Skerinefs, Dun-Da-
vid, &c.
Sky-Colour. To give this colour to glafs, fet in the
furnace a pot of pure metal offritt from rochetta or ba-
nlla, but the rochetta fritt does heft; as foon as the
metal is well purified, take for a pot of twenty pounds
of metal fix ounces of brafs calcined by itfelf; put it by
degrees at two or three times into the metal, ftirring
and mixing it well every time, and diligently fkimming
the metal with a ladle : at the end of two hours the
whole will be well mixed, and a proof may be taken ;
if the colour be found right, let the whole Hand 24
hours longer in the furnace, and it will then he fit to
work, and will prove of a moft beautiful fley colour.
SLAB, an outfide fappy plank or board fawed off
from the fides of a timber-tree. The word is alfo ufed
for a flat piece of marble.
Slab-Line, in fea-language, a fmall cord palfing up
behind a fhip’s main-fail or fore-fail, and being reeved
through a block attached to the lower part of the yard,
is thence tranfmitted in two branches to the foot of the
fail, to which it is faftened. It is ufed to trufs up the
fad as occafion requires, and more particularly for the
convenience of the pilot or fteerfman, that they mar
look forward beneath it as the fhip advances.
SLACK-water, in fea-language, denotes the inter¬
val between the flux and reflux of the tide, or between
the laft of the ebb and the firft of the' flood, during
which the current is interrupted, and the water apocE
rently remains in a flare of *-ft.
SLACKEN, in metallurgy, a term ufed by the mi¬
ners to exprefs a fpongy and femivitrified fubftance,
which they ufed to mix with the ores of metals,
to prevent their fufion. It is the fcoria or feum
feparated from the furface of the former fufions of me¬
tals. To this they frequently add limeftone, and fome¬
times a kind of coarfe iron-ore, in the running of the
poorer gold ores. d
^TA 1 E (Stegania), a Hone of a compact texture
and laminated ftruaure, fplitting into fine plates.
Dr Hill diftinguifhes four fpecies of ftegania. 1. The
whitifli fteganium, being a foft, friable, flaty ftone, of a
tolerably fine and clofe.texture, confiderably heavy, per-
feaiy dull and deftitute of brightnefs, variegated with
a pale brown or brownifh yellow. This fpecies is com¬
mon in many counties of England, lying near the fur-
face of the ground. It is generally very full of perpen¬
dicular as well as horizontal cavities, many of which are
filled up with a fpar a little purer and more crvftalline
1 e an(^ comm<^*ly ufed for covering houfes.
2. The red fteganium is a very fine and elegant ftate, of
a imooth furface, firm and compaft texture, confider¬
ably heavy, and of a very beautiful pale purple, glitter¬
ing all over with fmall glofly fpangles : it is compofed
ot a multitude of very thin plates or flakes, laid clofely
and evenly over one another, and cohering pretty firm¬
ly : this is very common in the northern parts of Eng¬
land, and is much valued as a ftrong and beautiful co¬
vering for houfes. 3. The common blue fteganium is
very well known as an ufeful and valuable ftone, of a
fine fmooth texture and'gloffy furface, moderately hea-
vy; and of a pale greyifh blue ; compofed of a multi-
3 tude
SLA [ 522 1 SLA
Slate tilde cf evert plates, laid clofe upon one another, and
<;j„i!crv eatily fplitting at the commiffures of them : this is alfo
> i very common in the north parts of Kngland, and is uted
in mofl places for the covering of houfes. T here are
other (pecies of this Hate, viz. the brownifh blue friable
fteganium, ufually called coal-Jlate; the greyifh black
friable fteganium, commonly called Jhiver; and the
greyifh blue fparkling fteganium. 4. The friable, alu¬
minous, black fteganium, being the Irifh flate of the
flfcps : this is compofed of a multitude of thin flakes,
laid very evenly and regularly over one another, and
fplits very regularly at the commiftures of them. It is
common in many parts of Ireland, and is found in fome
places in England always lying near the furface in very
thick ft rata. In medicine it is ufed in hemorrhagies of
all kinds with fuccefs, and is taken often as a good me¬
dicine in fevers.
The ifland of Eufdale, one of the Hebrides on the
weft ccaft of Scotland, is entirely compofed of flate.
The ftratum is 36 feet thick. About two millions and
a half, at the rate of twenty (hillings per thoufand, are
fold annually to England, Canada, the Weft Indies,
and Norway.
SLAVE. See Slavery.
1 SLAVERY is a word, of which though generally
fioed^ e"underftood, it is not eafy to give a proper definition.
An excellent moral writer has defined it to be “ an ob¬
ligation to labour for the benefit of the mailer, without
the contraft or confent of the fervant.” But may not he
be properly called a flave who has given up his freedom to
difeharge a debt which he could not otherwife pay, or
who has thrown it away at a game of hazard ? In ma¬
ny nations, debts have been legally difeharged in this
manner'; and in fome lavage tribes, fuch is the univerfal
ardour for gaming, that it is no uncommon thing for a
man, after having loft at play all his other property, to
flake, on a fingle throw of dice, himfelf, his wife, and
his children (A ). That perfons who have thus loft their
liberty are flaves, will hardly be denied; and furely
the infatuated gamefter is a (lave by his own contraft.
The debtor, too, if he was aware of the law, and con-
tradted debts larger than he could reafonably expeft to
be able to pay, may juftly be confidered as having come
under an obligation to labour for the benefit of a mailer.
with his own confent; for every man is anfwerable for all
the known confequences of his voluntary a&ions.
This definition of flavery feems to be defeftive as well
as inaccurate. A man may be under an obligation to
labour through life for the benefit of a mafter, and yet
that mafter have no right to difpofe of him by fale, or Stave’T
in any other way to make him the property of a third ■"•v*"'*
perfon ; but the word Jlave, as ufed among us, always
denotes a perfon who may be bought and fold like a
bead in the market (b). In its original ienfe, indeed,
it was of the fame import with noble, illujlnous ; but
vaft numbers of the people among whom it had that
fignification being, in the decline of the Roman empire,
fold by their countrymen to the Venetians, and by them
difperfed over all Europe, the word Jlave came to de¬
note a perfon in the lowed (late of lervitude, who was
confidered as the ablblute property of his mafter. See
Philology, n° 220. 4
As nothing can be more evident than that all men Inequalities
have, by the law of nature, an equal right to life, liber-ofra^iri-
ty, and the produce of their own labour (fee Right,1'v‘u c“
n0 5.), it is not eafy to conceive what can have firft
led one part of them to imagine that they had a right
to enflave another. Inequalities of rank are indeed in¬
evitable in civil fociety ; and from them refults that fer-
vitude which is founded in contrafl, and is of tempo¬
rary duration. (See Moral Philosophy, n°i4i.) He
who has much property has many things to attend to,
and mud be difpofed to hire perfons to aflift and ferve
him ; while thole who have little or no property rauft
be equally willing to be hired for that purpofe. And
if the mafter be kind, and the fervant faithful, they will
both be happier in this connedlion than they could have
been out of it. But from a date of fervitude, where the
flave is at the abfolute difpofal of his mafter in all things,
and may be transferred without his own confent from
one proprietor to another, like an ox or an afs, happi-
nefs mud be for ever baniftied. How then came a traf¬
fic fo unnatural and unjuft as that of flaves to be origi¬
nally introduced into the world ?
The common anfwer to this queftion is, that it took
its rife among favages, who, in their frequent wars with
each other, either maffacred their captives in cold blood,
or condemned them to perpetual flavery. In fupport of
this opinion we have heard it obferved, that the Latin
word fervus, which fignifies not a hired fervant, but a .
Jlave, \s derived from fervare," to preferve;” and that fuch
men were called fervi, becaufe they were captives, whofe
lives were preferved on the condition of their becoming
the property of the vi&or.
That flavery had its origin from vyar, we think ex-0rjgfn o{
tremely probable (c), nor are we inclined to controvertflavery.
this etymology of the word fervus ; but the traffic in
men prevailed almoft univerfally long before the Latin *
lan-
(a) Aleam (quod mirere) fobrii inter feria exercent, tanta lucrandi perdendive temeritatc, ut cum omnia de-
fecerunt, estremo ac noviffimo ja&u de libertate et corpore contendant. Vnftus voluntanam iervitutem adit;
quamvis junior, quamvis robuftior, alligari fe ac venire patitur.—Tacitus de Mor. Germ.
The favages of North America are equally addidted to gaming with the ancient Germans, and the negroes
on the Slave Coaft of Guinea perhaps ftill more. .. c
(b) The Roman orator’s definition of flavery. Farad. V. is as accurate as any that we have feen. Serv.tus
eft obedientia fradli animi et abjeai et arbitrio carentis fuo ;” whether the unhapppy perfon fell into that (late
with or without his own contraft or confent.
(c) In the article Society, the reader will find another account of.the origin of flavery, which we think like-
wife probable, though we have not transferred it to this place ; as it would, in our opinion, be wrong to g^e
to one writer what we know to belong to another. It may be proper, however, to obferve here, that between
the two articles there is no contradiction, as barbarous wars were certainly one fource 01 ilavery.
SLA
Slavery, language or Roman name was heard of; and there is
■"‘■'v ' no good evidence that it began among favages. The
word *Gy, ir the Old Teltament, which in our verlion
is rendered fervant, fignifies literally a JIave, either bora
in the family or bought with money, in contradiftinc-
[ 523 1
S I, A
» Gem
4-
captives.
Trior to the tion to TDtt', which denotes a hired fervant: and as Noah
deluge. makes ufe of the word in the curfe which he de¬
nounces upon Ham and Canaan immediately after the
deluge, it would appear that flavery had its origin be¬
fore that event. If fo, there can be little doubt but
that it began among thofe violent perfons whom our
tranflators have called giants *, though the original
word erte) literally fignifies ajfauIters of others. Thofe
wretches feem firft to have feized upon women, whom
they forcibly compelled to minifter to their pleafures ;
and from this kind of violence the progrefs was natural
to that by which they enflaved their weaker brethren
among the men, obliging them to labour for their bene-
S ht, without allowing them fee or reward.
Wmreden- After the deluge the firft dealer in Haves feems
fiaved his to have been Nimrod. “ He began,” we are told,
“ to be a mighty one in the earth, and was a mighty
hunter before the Lord.” He could not, however, be
the firft hunter of wild beafts ; for that fpecies of hunt¬
ing muft have been pratfiied from the beginning ; nor
is it probable that his dexterity in the chafe, which
was then the univerfal employment, could have been fo
far luperior to that of all his contemporaries, as to en¬
title him to the appellation of the “ the mighty hunter
before the Lord.” Hence moft commentators have
concluded, that he was a hunter of men ; an opinion
which they think receives fome countenance from the
import of his name, the word Nimrod fignifying a re¬
bel. Whatever be in this, there can be little doubt but
that he became a mighty one by violence; for being
the fixth fon of his father, and apparently much young¬
er than the other five, it is not likely that his inheri¬
tance exceeded theirs either in extent or in population.
He enlarged it, however, by conqueft ; for it appears
from Scripture, that he invaded the territories of A ilmr
the fon of Shem, who had fettled in Shinar; and obli¬
ging him to remove into Aflyria, he feized upon Ba¬
bylon, and made it the capital of the firft kingdom in
the world. As he had great projedts in view, it feems
to be in a high degree probable that he made bond-
fervants of the captives whom he took in his wars, and
employed them in building or repairing the metropolis
of his kingdom ; and hence we think is to be dated the
origin of poftdeluvian flavery.
. • That it began thus early'can hardly be queftioned ;
Abraham!* f°r Wt? knOW that k Prevailed univerfally in the age of
Abraham, who was born within feventy years after the
death of Nimrod. That patriarch had three hundred
and eighteen fer-vants or Haves, born in his own houfe,
and trained to arms, with whom he purfued and con-
t Gen x' <iucie^ i°ur kings wh° had taken captive his bro-
)V" ther’s fon-j-. And it appears from the converfation
6
Slavery in
which took place between him and the king of Sodom Slavery-
after the battle, that both believed ,the conqueror had '
a right to confider his prifoners as part of his fpoil.
“ Give me (fays the king) the perfons, and take the
goods to thyfelf.” It is indeed evident from number-
lets paffages of feripture, that the domeftics whom Qur
tranflators call fervants were in thofe days univerfally
confidered as the moft valuable part of their mafter’s
property, and clafied with his flocks and herds. Thus
when the facred hiftorian deferibes the wealth of A bra¬
ham, he fays, that “ he had fheep and oxen, and he-afies,
and men-fervants, and maid-fervants, and the-affes, and
camels.” And when Abimelech wiftied to make fome
reparation to the patriarch for the unintended injury
that he had done him, “ he took fheep and oxen, and
men-fervants, and women-fervants, and gave them unto
Abraham, and reftored to him Sarah his wife.” The
riches and power of Ifaac and Jacob are eftimated in
the very fame manner. Of the former it is faid, that
the man waxed great, and went forward and grew,
until he became very great: for he had pofieffion of
flocks, and pofieflion of herds, and great ftore of fer-
yants, rnam 0f Haves ; and the Philiftines envied him.”
d he latter, we are told, “ increafed exceedingly, and
had much cattle, and maid-fervants, and men-fervants,
and camels, and afles J.” f Gen. xtU
That the praaice of buying and felling fervants thus l6‘ xx> 14*
early begun among the patriarchs defeended to their if r4
poftenty, is known to every attentive reader of thexxx.43.’ 4‘
Bibky It was exprefsly authorifed by the Jewifh law, 7
in which are many direaions how fuch fervants were to ^athorifed
be treated. They were to be bought only of the hea- ^ic lawl0*
then ; for if an ifraelite grew poor and fold himfelf ei¬
ther to difeharge a debt, or to procure the means of
fubfiftence, he was to be treated not as a flave “Ciq but
as a hired fervant Tau-, and r.eftored to freedom at the
year of Jubilee. “ Both thy bond men and thy bond¬
maids (fays Mofes) flrall be of the heathen that are
round about you : of them fhall ye buy bond-men and
bond-maids. And ye fhall take them as an inheritance
for your children after you, to inherit them for a pof-
fellion ; they fuall be your bond-men for ever |j.” Un- II Lev-
hmited as the power thus given to the Hebrew's over 39, 4°» 44»
their bond-fervants of heathen extradion appears to45’
have been, they were llriAly prohibited from acquiring
fuch property by any other means than fair purchafe?
“ he that Jiealeth a man and felleth him,” faid their
great lawgiver, “ fhall furely be put to death $.” * § Lev. xxL
Whilft flavery, in a mild form, w'as permitted among l6'
the people of God, a much worfe kind of it prevailed SDrea8dover
among the heathen nations of antiquity. With other Se whole
abominable cuftoms, the traffic in men quickly fpread world,
from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia, and over all the
eaft, and by degrees found its way into every known
region under heaven(d).
r Of tfrfs hateful commerce w'e fhall not attempt to trace
’-.the progiefs thro’ every age and country, but fhali con-
3 ^ 2 tent
vi>) If credit be due to a late account of China, the people of that vaft empire have never made merchandife
of men 01 women i he exception, however, is fo Angular, that we flrould be glad to fee it better authenticated *
fen il is apparent from works of the moft undoubted credit, that over all the other eaftern countries with which
we are acquainted flavery has prevailed from time immemorial, and that forae of the Indian nations nutp 1
journeys into Africa for the foie purpofe of buying Haves. °nS make Ion-
Slavery.
9
Slavery 3-
tnong the
Greeks and
* JuJHn.
Jib. lii.
cap. 4.
t et
Arrian.
Beattie's
.Moral
Science,
vol, ii.
SLA
tent ourfelves with taking a tranfient view of it among
the Greeks and Romans, and a fewother nations, in wh ji'e
cuftdms and manners our readersTnuft be intereited.
One can hardly read a book of the Iliad or Odyffey,
without perceiving that, in the age of Homer, all prifoners
of war were liable to be treated as Haves, and compelled,
without regard to their rank, fex, or years, to labour
for their mailers in offices of the vileft drudgery. So
univerfally was this cruel treatment of captives admitted
to be the right of the vidtor, that the ooet introduces
Hedtor, in the very adt of taking a tender and perhaps
laft farewell of his wife, when it was furely his bufinels
to afford her every confolation in bis power, telling her,
as a thing of courfe which could not be concealed, that,
on the conqueft of Troy, fhe would be compelled
To bear the vidtor’s hard commands, or bring
The weight of water from Hyperia’s fpring (e).
Pope.
At that early period, the Phoenicians, and probably the
Greeks themlelves, had fuch an eftabliihed commerce in
jflaves, that, not fatisfied with reducing to bondage their
prifoners of war, they fcrupled not to kidnap in cold
blood perfons who had never kindled their refentraent,
in order to fupply their foreign markets. In the 14th
book of the Odyffey, Ulyffes reprefents himfelf as ha¬
ving narrowly efcaped a fnare of this kind laid for him
by a falfe Phoenician, who had doomed the hero to Li¬
byan flavery : and as the whole narrative, in which this
circumftance is told, is an artful fidlion, intended to
have the appearance of truth to an Ithacan peafant, the
pradtice of kidnapping Haves could not then have ap¬
peared incredible to any inhabitant of that iHand.
Such were the manners of the Greeks in the heroic
age; nor were they much improved in this refpedl at
periods of greater refinement. Philip of Macedon ha¬
ving conquered the Thebans, not only fold his captives,
but even took money for permitting the dead to be bu¬
ried *; and Alexander, who had more generoiity than
Philip, afterwards razed the city of Thebes, and fold
the inhabitants, men, women, and children, for Havesf.
This cruel treatment of a brave people may indeed be
fuppofed to have proceeded, in the firft inftance, from
the avarice of the conqueror; and in the fecond, from the
momentary refentment of a man who was favage and gene¬
rous by turns, and who had no command of his paffions.
We fhall not pofitively affign it to other caufes; but
from the manner in which the Spartans behaved to their
Haves, there is little reafon to imagine that had they re¬
ceived from the Thebans the fame provocation with A-
lexander, they would have treated their captives with
greater lenity., “ At Sparta (fays a humane and ele¬
gant writer) Haves were treated with a degree of ri¬
gour that is hardly conceivable; although to them, as
their hufbandmen and artificers, their proud and idle
mailers were indebted for all the neceffaries of life. The
Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of de¬
ceiving and butchering thole poor men, were from time
SLA
them, in order to fhow their pro- Slavery,
and maffacre. And once, without
and merely tor their own amufement,
we are told that they murdered three thoufand in one
night, not only with the connivance of law, but by its a-
vowed permiffion. Such, in promoting the happinefs
of one part of fociety and the virtue of another, are the
effefts of flavery.”
It has been laid, that in Athens and Rome Haves
were better treated than in Sparta : but in the former
city their treatment cannot have been good, nor their
lives comfortable, where the Athenians reliffied that
tragedy of Euripides in which Hecuba, the wife of
Priam, is introduced as lamenting that fhe was chained
like a dog at Agamemnon’s gate ! Of the eflimation R^ans,
in which Haves were held in Rome, we may form a to¬
lerable notion from the well known fadl, that one of
thole unhappy beings was often chained at the gate of
a great man’s houie, to give admittance to the guefts
invited to a feaft*. In the early periods of the common- * Kama's
wealth it was cuftomary, in certain facred fhews exhi- ^kcU^e,‘
bited on folemn occalions, to drag through the circus
a Have, who had been fcourged to death holding in his
hand a fork in the form of a gibbet-j-. But we need f Cicero d*
not multiply proofs of the cruelty of the Romans to
their Haves. If the inhuman combats of the gladiators caP*
(fee Gladiators) admit of any apology on account
of the martial fpirit with which they were thought to
infpire the fpeftators, the condpdl of Vedius Pollio
muft have proceeded from the m@il wanton and brutal’
cruelty. This man, who flourilhed not in the earlieft.
periods of the republic, when the Romans were little
better than a favage banditti, but in the polifhed age
of Auguftus, frequently threw fuch Haves as gave him
the flightefl offence into his fiffi-ponds to fatten his lam¬
preys ; and yet he was fuffered to die in peace ! The
emperor, indeed, upon coming to the knowledge of his
cruelty, ordered his lampreys to be deftroyed, and his
ponds to be filled up ; but we do not recolleA that any
other punifhment was inflicted on the favage mailer.
Till the reign of the fame emperor the depofitions of
Haves were never admitted in the courts of judicature ;
and then they were received only when perlons were ac-
cufedof treafonable. praftices. ir
The origin of flavery in Rome was the fame as iti-Origin of
every other country. Prifoners ot war were of courfe Roman
reduced to that Hate, as if they had been criminals. The^avetJl‘*
di&ator Camillus, one of the moil aceomplilhed gene¬
rals of the republic, fold his Hetrurian captives to pay
the Roman ladies for the jewels which they had pre-
fented to Apollo. Fabius, whofe cautious condudl fa-
ved his country when Hannibal was victorious in Italy,
having fubdued Tarentum, reduced 30,000 of the citi¬
zens to flavery, and fold them to the highell bidder. Co-
riolanus, when driven from Rome, and fighting for the
Volfci, fcrupled not to make Haves of his own country¬
men ; and Julius Caefar, among whofe faults wanton
cruelty
I 1
to time let loofe upon
ficiency in ftratagem
any provocation,
(e) In thofe early times drawing water was the office of the meanell Haves. This appears from Jolhua’s curfe
upon the Gibeonites who had deceived him.—“ Now therefore ye are curfed, and there ffiall none of you be freed
from being bond-men, and hewers of wood, and drawers of water, for the houfe of my God.” To this Hate of
bondage Homer makes HeClor fay, that Andromache would necejfari/y be brought upon the dellruClion of Troy ;
rpahpti T lib* vi.
Slavery-
S L A [52^] SLA
i4ps:~i= sssiasas
dlfcharged the fum they owed : and in Ae beginning the empire itfelf had fallen to pieces S
It has already been obferved, that among the ancient Slavery a*
Oermans it was not uncommon for an ardent gamefter mon& ^
to lofe his perfonal liberty by a throw of the dice. Thisancknt
was indeed a ftrong proof of lavage manners ; but the GenuaC:}>
general condition of Haves among thofe favages feems to
have been much better than among the polifhed Greeks
ditor (g). The confequence was, that the number of attached"t^the fod^anTonTyEmployed ^aulhTc^
Haves belonging to the rich Patricians was almolt incre- tie, and carrying on the bulmefs of arr • 1 g r4'
d,ble. Cams Csecilms I.idorus, who died about feveu the’ menial oL! oT^j
formed by his wife and children. Such Haves were fel-
dom beaten, or chained, or imprifoned. Sometimes in¬
deed they were killed by their mafters in a fit of Hid¬
den pafiion ; but none were confidered as materials of
commerce, except thofe who had originally been free¬
men, and loft their freedom byplay. Thefe, indeed,
the iuccefsful gamefter was very ready to fell, both bc-
caufe he felt them an ufelefs burden, and becaufe their
preknee continually put him in mind of that ftate to-
which a throw of the dice might one day reduce him-
’      7 *.*■>***. i v. 1 -
difeharged the fum they owed .     
of the commonwealth they were authorifed to fell fuch
debtors, and even to put them to death (f). The chil¬
dren of Haves were the property not of the common¬
wealth, or of their own parents, but of their mafters ;
and thus was flavery perpetuated in the families
of fuch unhappy men as fell into that ftate, whether
through the chance of war or the cruelty of a fordid ere-
x»
Its dura¬
tion.
dible.
years before the Chriftian era, left to his heirs 4116
Haves ; and if any one of thole wretched creatures made
an unluccefsful attempt to regain his liberty, or was
even fufpedted of fuch a defign, he was marked on the
forehead with a red hot iron (h). In Sicily, during
the moll flourilhing periods of the commonwealth, it
feems to have been cuftomary for mafters to mark their
Haves in this manner; at leaft we know that fuch was
the pra&ice of Damophilus, who, not fatisfied with this
fecurity, {hut up his Haves every night in clofe prifons,
and ltd them out like beads in the morning to their
daily labour in the field. Hence arofe the feivile war
in Sicily.
Though many laws were enaded by Auguftus and
other patriotic emperors to diminilh the power of cre¬
ditors over their infolvent debtors ; though the influence
of the mild Ipirit of Chriftianity tended much to meli¬
orate the condition of Haves, even under Pagan matters
and though the emperor Adrian made it capital to kill
Such is the account which Tacitus gives t of flavery t P* MZr,
among the ancient Germans. The Anglo-Saxons, how- G:;rm' a*'
ever, after they were fettled in this ifland Teem not to*5"
hf^5r!ed. °" that traffic ^ honourably. Bya ttatute
of Alfred the Great f, the purchafe of a man, a horfe, f- mikhs'*
oranoiv, without a voucher to warrant the fale, was ColUahn of
itnctly forbidden. That law was, doubtlefs, enacted
to prevent theJlmling of men and cattle; but it {hows H^ryllT
us
forllkh .0 the fum
jufti {unto. Pott dein manum endojacito—Vincito ant nervo a re^ufcluc Jure jiidicatis, triginti dies
and the trial pafled, let there be thirty days of forbearance • afte11 “ |Yhen the dcbt is confefTed,
a cord or fetters.” After the thirty days^eL expfre;^ hands on him ; bind him either with
to the pnetor, who delivered him over to the mercy of’his credito^ tW T d^chla.rged the dtbt’ he was kd
for the {pace of fixty days. Afterwards for three marketV V f ^ him and ^ ^ chains
bunal of the praetor ; then a public crier proclaimed in the f )S ^ the debtor was brought to the tri-
It often happed, tha' rich perfons redded the prifoL by p^ytl It debt, but 7'
half of the debtor after the third market-dav the creditor l • \ b 1 f nobody appeared in be-
kw. « TeWis nundinis capite pmnas datY ant trans ? be ti * punifliments appointed by the
third market-day be puuifhed „i?h ^ 4 ^
they were allowed, in confequence of this fevere kv/ r,, h a u V , thtre were feveral creditors,
Ihare it among them in proportion to the Him which’they demanded^' 7 °r ^ Prif°ner Int° feveral Part£> and
( g) 1 his is evident from the ftory of Appius and Virginia. See Romp n° t t ,
m^rpSKa^dut^^^ TH,
tr rfz s rir
feme time with what he earned by his daily labour. At length fcompIVof’foid2"'1 ^ f"1’?“rt,:d h!m for
approaching the cave, the faithful Have, alarmed « the dMW 1*3^ if fitF TT* “f- “<*
rng upon a poor peafant, killed him in their prefence and cut off h,IT J • ’ fo!,ow^ thcm dofc, and fall,
my mafter for the marks with which he has branded me ” The fr !H’ CaC f C1.^in'\0ut’ “ X am now revenged on
**>had ^swd ^ ‘o ^ f ^
sind
f Karnes's
Sietcbes,
liook i.
ikctch 5.
rS
; Scotland.
S L A r 5
Slavery. U9 that To late as the ninth or tenth century a man,
 v " when fairly purchafed, was, in England, as much the
In England ProPerty l^e buyer as the horfe on which he rode,
or the ox wdiich dragged his plough. In the fame
country, now fo nobly tenacious of freedom and the
rights of man, a fpecies of llavery limilar to that which
prevailed among the ancient Germans fubfifted even to
the end of the fixteenth-century. This appears from a
commiflion iffued by Queen Elizabeth in 1574, for in¬
quiring into the lands and goods of all her bond-mtn and
bond-women in the counties of Cornwall, Devon, Somer-
fet,and Gloucefter, in order to compound with them for
their manumiiTion, that they might enjoy their lands
and goods as freemen ||. In Scotland there certainly
exifted an order of flavec or bond-men, who tilled the
ground, were attached to the foil, and with it were
transferable from one proprietor to another, at a period
fo late as the thirteenth century; but when or how
thofe villains, as they were called, obtained their free¬
dom, feems to be unknown to every lawyer and antiqua-
ry of the prefent day. Coalliers and falters were,on the
fame country, Haves till little more than 20 years ago, that
they were manumitted by an aft of the Britidi legifla-
ture, and reftored to the rights of freemen and citizens.
Before that period the fons of coalliers could follow no
bufinefs but that of their fathers; nor were they at li¬
berty to feek employment in any other mines than thofe
to which they were attached by birth, without the co»n-
fent of the lord ©f the manor, who, if he had no ufe
for their fervices himfelf, transferred them by a written
deed to feme neighbouring proprietor.
That the favage nations of Africa were at any period
of hiibory exempted from this opprobrium of our nature
which fpread over ail the reft of the world, the enligh¬
tened reader wall not fuppofe. It is indeed in that vaft
country that flavery has in every age appeared in its ug-
lieft form. We have already obferved, that'about the era
of the Trojan war, a commerce in Haves w^as carried on
between Phoenicia and Lybia : and the Carthaginians,
who were a colony of Phoenicians, and revered the cuf-
toms, manners, and religion of their parent ftate, un¬
doubtedly continued the Tyrian traffic in human flefh
with the interior tribes of Africa. Of this we might
reft affured, .although we had no other evidence of the
faft than what refults from the praftice of human fa-
crifices fo prevalent in the republic of Carthage. The
genuine inftinfts of nature are often fubdued by dire
fuperftition, but they cannot be wholly eradicated*; and
the rich Carthaginian, when a human viftim was
demanded from him to the gods, would be ready
to fupply the place of his own child by the fon of
a poor ftranger, perfidiouHy pufehafed at whatever
price. That this was, indeed, a very common praftice
among them, we learn from the teftimony of various
hiftorians *, who affure us, that when Agathocles the
tyrant of Syracufe had overthrown their generals Hanno
and Bomilcar, and threatened Carthage itfdf with a
Hege, the peeple attributed their misfortunes to the juft
anger of Saturn for having been worfhipped, for fome
years, by the facrifices of children meanly born and fe-
cretly bought, inftead of thofe of noble extraftion. Thefe
fubftitutions of one offering for another were conHder-
ed as a profane deviation from the religion of their fore¬
fathers ; and therefore to expiate the guilt of fo horrid
?,n impiety, afacrifice of two hundred children of the
16
Slavery a-
mong the
Carthagi-
JUM1S,
■ Pclyl,
Curt.
jDioJ. Sit:.
See alfo
/Indent
Univerfal
, Miftory,
voh.xv.
:6 ] SLA
firft rank was on that occafion made to the bloody Slavery,
god. As the Carthaginians were a commercial people, '^"***vr~*J
we cannot fuppofe that they purchafed Haves only for
facrifices. 'I hey undoubtedly condemned many of their
prifoners of war to the ftate of fervitude, and either
fold them to foreigners, or diftributed them among
their fenators and the leaders of their armies. Hanno,
who endeavoured to ufurp the fupreme power in Car¬
thage whilft that republic was engaged in war with
Timoleon in Sicily J, armed twenty thoufand of his I
Haves in order to carry his nefarious purpofe into exe-
cution ; and Elannibal, after his decifive viftory at Can-^j^j.^
nse, fold to the Greeks many of his prifoners whom the Hifiory.
Roman fenate refufed to redeem That illuftrious T ^lt- AV.
commander was indeed more humane, as well as more dfpian and
politic, than the generality of his countrymen. Before ^ona
his days it was cuftomary with the Carthaginians either
to maftacre their captives in cold blood, that they might
never again bear arms againft them, or to offer them in
facrifice as a grateful acknowledgment to the gods by
whofe affiftance they believed that they were vanquifhed;
but this was not always done even by their moll fuper-
ftitious or moft unprincipled leaders. Among other rich
fpoils which Agathocles, after his viftory already men¬
tioned, found in the camp of Hanno and Bomilcar,
wereftwenty thoufand pair of fetters and manacles, which
thofe generals had provided for fuch of the Sicilian pri¬
foners as they intended to preferve alive and reduce to
a ftate of fiavery.
With the ancient ftate of the other African nations
we are but very little acquainted. The Numidians, 17
Mauritanians, Getulians, and Garamantes, are indeed And Nu»
mentioned by the Roman hiftorians, who give us ample m^ins’
details of the battles which they fought in attempting
to preferve their national independence ; but we have
no particular account of their dift'erent manners and
cuftoms in that age when Rome was difputing with
Carthage the fovereignty of the world. All the Afri¬
can ftates of which we know any thing, were in alliance
with one or other of thofe rival republics ; and as the
people of thofe ftates appear to have been lefs enlighten¬
ed than either the Romans or the Carthaginians, we
cannot fuppofe that they had purer morals, or a greater
regard for the facred rights of man, than the powerful
nations by whom they were either protefted or oppref-
fed. They would, indeed, infenfibly adopt their cuf¬
toms ; and the ready market which Marius found for
the priloners taken in the town Capfa, although Salluft
acknowledges + that the fale was contrary to the laws t A//. Jug*
of war, ftiows that llavery was then no ftrange thing to caP’ 91‘
the Numidians. It feems indeed to have prevailed
through all Africa from the very firft peopling of that
unexplored country; and we doubt if in any age of the
world the unhappy negro was abfolutely fecure of his
perfonal freedom, or even of not being fold to a foreign
trader. rg
It is the common opinion that the praftice of ma-Slave-trade
king Haves of the negroes is of a very modern date ; that
ic owes its origin to the incurfions of the Portuguefe on o^nea be-
the wefterncoaft of Africa ; and that but for the cun-gun not by
ning or cruelty of Europeans, it would not now exift,t,ie Portu-
and would never have exifted. But all this is a compli- Suefe> _
cation of miftakes. A learned writer has lately proved, *Wh'tahrt
with a force of evidence which admits of no reply *,
that from the Coall of Guinea a great trade in Haves
was H’Jiory-
S L A
Slavery, was carried on by the Arabs feme hundreds of years
1 ■ * ? before the Portuguefe embarked in that traffic, or
E'it by the even ^ecn a woolly-headed negro. Even the
Arabs at an wandering Arabs of the defert, who never had a-
earlype- ny friendly correfpondence with the Chriilians of
rio.i. Europe, have from time immemorial been ferved by ne-
Saugnier’s^ gro (laves. “ The Arab muft be poor indeed (fays M.
tud Rrijfon s Saugnier) not to have at leafl one negro Have. His
ffyyaga. ^-oje OCCUpatjon js tjie care 0f They are
never employed in war, but they have it in their
powrer to many. Their wives, who are captive ne-
grefles, do all the domeftic work, and are roughly
treated by the Arabian women, and by the Arabsthem-
felves. Their children are flaves like them, and put to
all kinds of drudsrery.” Surely no man wdiofe judge¬
ment is not completely warped by prejudice, will pre¬
tend that thofe roving tribes offavages,<b remarkablefor
their independent fpirit and attachment to ancient cuf-
tdms, learned to enflave the negroes from the Europe¬
ans. In all probability they have, without interruption,
continued the practice of flavery from the days of their
great anceftor Ilhmael; and it feems evident, that none
of the European nations had ever feen a ’woolly-headed ne¬
gro till the year 11 oo, when the crufaders fell in with
a fmall party of them near the town of Hebron in Ju¬
dea, and were fo ftruck w’ith the novelty of their ap¬
pearance, that the army burfl into a general fit of
laughter ||. Long before the crufades, however, we
know' wuth certainty that the natives of Guinea had been
expofed to fale in foreign countries. In 651 the Ma¬
hometan Arabs of Egypt fo haraffed the king of Nu¬
bia or Ethiopia, who was a Chriftian, that he agreed to
fend them annually, by way of tribute, a vaf number of
Nubian or Ethiopian flaves into Egypt. Such a tribute
as this at that time, we are told, was more agreeable to
the khalif than any other, as the Arabs then made no
fmall account of thofe flaves J.
. very propofal of fuch a tribute, and the eftima-
tion in which black flaves w'ere held in Egypt, fhows
that a commerce in bond-fervants could not then be a
new branch of trade either to the Arabs or the Ethio¬
pians ; but the vaft number which the Ethiopian mo¬
narchy was now compelled to furnifh eve-y year, indu¬
ced him to feed this great drain upon his fubjedfs from
the natives of the neighbouring countries. “ He ran¬
ged accordingly into all that vaft blank of geography up¬
on the map of the w'orld, the fpreading bofom of the
African continent ; and even pufhed through it to its
fartheft extremities in the weft. He thus brought the
blacks of Guinea, for the firft time, into the fervice and
families of the eaft ; and the flaves which he paid in
tribute to the Arabs, whether derived from the nearer
neighbourhood of Ethiopia, fetched from the mediter¬
ranean regions of A.frica, or brought from the diftant
ftiores of the Atlantic, were all denominated Ethiopians,
from the country by which they were conveyed into
t Whittier's Egypt J. “ At this time, therefore, according to Mr
[ 527 ]
SLA
| 'Malmf-
bury, fol.
p.83.
| 'Modern
Univerfal
Hijlory^
VoJ. j.
5*5-
W hitaker, began that kind of traffic in human flefli
“ Which fpoils unhappy Guinea of its fons.”
I here are not many authors from whom, in queftions
of antiquity, w'e differ with greater hefitation ; Kut, as
we meet with a female Ethiopian flave in the Eunuch of
i erence, we cannot help fufpe&ing that Guinea was oc-
cahonally “ fpoiled of its fons” at a much earlier period.
At any rate, from the obfervations made by the European
travellers who firft penetrated into that continent, it appears Slavery,
undeniable that flavery muft have prevailed from time im- v“ 1
memorial among Inch of the tribes as had never carriedyhe"r0e_
on any commerce with foreign nations. When Battel firft gross have
vihted the Giagas*, thofe people had never before feencr,flave<i
a white man ; yet they welcomed him and the Englifh,oae ano*
with'whom he had come, to their country, invited them j™™
to bring their goods on fhore, and without hefltation memorial,
loaded the ilnp with flaves. The Giagas were indeed * Modern
waging war with the kingdom of Benguela; and being Uni™r/‘E
cannibals, who prefer human flefh to all others, the
flaves whom they had fold to the Englilh were pro-chap*47*
bably prifoners whom they would have killed and eaten fed. a./ -
if they had not found an opportunity of otherwife dif-
pofmg of them to greater advantage. But as they had
not been incited by the Europeans to eat their prifoners,
there can be no reafon to fuppofe that by the Europeans
they had been firft induced to fell them: for we have feen
that this kind of commerce prevailed in Africa amoncr
people much more pollftted than the Giagas fo early as
in the reign of Jugurtha.
That it was not introduced among the negroes either
by the Arabs or by the Portuguefe, appears ftill more
evident from the behaviour of the Dahomans at the con-
queft of Whidah, and from the manner in which the
people of Angola at the earlieft ftage of their foreign
trade procured a fupply of flaves for the Portuguefe
market. The greater part of the flaves whom the1An¬
golans exported from St Paulo de Loanda were brought
from interior countries, fome hundreds of leagues^di-
ftant, where they could not have been regularly purcha-
fed had that commerce been till then unknown in thofe
countries, ft he Hahomans, in the beginning of the
year 1727, had never feen a white man: and when their
victorious prince and his army, in their rout through
Whidah, firft met with fome Europeans in the town^f
Sabi, they were fo fhocked at their complexion and
their drefs, that they were afraid to approach them,
and could not be perfuaded that they were men till J
they heard them fpeak, and were aflured by the
Whidanefe that thefe were the merchants who purcha-
fed all the flayes that were fold in Guineaf. Slavery. t Mo,e^,
therefore, if it prevailed among the Hahomans before 'unh-etjal
that period, could not have been introduced among
them by European or Arabian intrigues: but we arevoJ-xul"‘
affured by Snelgrave, who was then in the army, thatP''346’
thofe people treated their captives with fuch'horrid
cruelty as was fhocking to the natives of the fea-coaft,
and leaves no room for doubt but that flavery had been
pra&ifed among them from the earlieft ages.' A great:
part of their prifoners were facrificed to their gods or
eaten by the loldiers; and when our author exorefled
to a colonel of the guard fome furprife that a prince fo
enlightened as the fovereign of Dahomy ftiould facri-
fice fo many men whom he might have fold to great
advantage, he was gravely told, that it had been the
cuftom of their nation, from time immemorial, to offer,
after victory, a certain number of prifoners to the gods;
and that they feleCted the old men for victims, becaufe
they were of lefs value at market, and more dangerous
fron their experience and cunning, than the young
men. To thofe perfons who fancy that the wars be¬
tween the African princes ate carried on for the foie
purpofe of fupplying the European ftiips with flaves, it
may be proper to remark, that one of the kings of Da-
homy flaughtered at once not only all the captives ta«
5 kea
'Slavery.
| Talz el's
Jlijlory of
the King¬
dom of Da-
botfty.
21
The route
by which
the Arabs
carried on
the Have-
trade,
Whitaker's
Kevie-w,
P 185.
SLA
ken in war, but aifo 127 prifonm of different kinds,
that he might have a fufficiency of flaills to adorn the
walls of his palace ; though at the very time of that
maffacre he knew that there were fix flave-ftiips in the
road of Whidah from which he could have got for eve¬
ry prime have a price little fhort of thirty pounds Ster¬
ling^.
Thefe facts, and numberlefs others which the reader
will find detailed in the 13 th volume of the Modern
Univerfal Hiftory, by writers who were at the greateft
pains to piocuie authentic information ; who were nei¬
ther biaffed by interefl nor blinded by enthufiafm ; and
who appear to have held the infamous traffic in utter
abhorrence—prove beyond the poffibility of doubt, that
flavery of the word kind muft have prevailed among all
the negro nations before they were vilited either by the
Portuguefe or by the Arabs (1). Thefe two nations
may indeed have been the firft who dragged the unhap¬
py negro from his native continent, and made his flavery
doubly fevere, by compelling him to labour, without
his own confent, for mailers whom he hardly confidered
as human beings.
On the beginning of this commerce, or the dreadful
cruelty with which it has been carried on to the prefent
day, it is impoffible to reflea without horror : but there
is fome confolation, however fmall, in knowing that its
original authors were not Europeans. The purchafe of
Guinea blacks for flaves by foreign nations commenced
ages before the Portuguefe had laid that country open
to the intercourfe of Europe. Even after they had made
many incurfions into it, the inhabitants were as regularly
purchafed for flaves by fome of the adjoining Hates as
they are now by the maritime Europeans.
“ The Arabs of Egypt having reduced all the north
of Africa, and carrying with them their love of black
fervants, would be lure to open a ready communication
for themfelves to their country. They certainly had
one fo early as 1512, and before the Europeans had
any for that purpofe (k). They went from Barbary
by a route that was fo much praftifed, as to be denomi¬
nated exprefsly ‘ the way of the camels.’ Meeting to-
gether at the town of Cape Cantin, that of Valadie
near it, the commercial caravan traverfed the vail deferts.
r 52* 1
SLA
thofe of Sarra, which run like the tropic of Cancer over Slavery,
them in a long line acrols the country ; to a place of —v""—^
great population called Hoden, the IVaden or Hoden of
our maps, and a little to the fouth-wellof Cape Blanco.
From Hoden they turned to the left, and pufhed di-
redtly into the interior of the continent, to reach Te-
gazza, the I agaxel or Tagaza of our maps, and lying
nearly call of Hoden. Here affuredly they did, as the
caravan does certainly at this day; and added to the
other wares upon their camels a quantity of fait from
thole mines ot rock-!alt, W'hich are extraordinary enough
to be noticed as rocks in our maps. This they carried, as
they Hill carry it, toTanbut, the Tombut of the maps, and
a town in the heart of the African continent. And from
this town they turned on the right for the fea-coaft
again, and reached it in the great kingdom of Mele,
the Melli of our maps, to the fouth of the Gambia, and
juft at the fpringing as it were of that grand arck
of fea which curves fo deeply into the body of the
land, and conftitutes the extenfive gulph of Guinea.
At Melli and at Tombut they received a meafure of
gold for a meafure of fait. The caravan colkas gold
at Tombut to the prefent time ; but at Melli they
purchafed gold, and alfo filver, in pieces as large as peb¬
bles. And at Hoden they had a great mart for Jlaves ;
the blacks being brought thither from the countries ad¬
joining, and bartered away to the traders. Such was
the Slave Coaft and the Gold Coaft of former days.
The ftaple commodity of Hoden is only transferred now
to Whidah ; and diverted from the Arabs of Barbary 32
to the Chriftians of Europe,” by whom the negroes are Which is
carried to the continent of America or to the Sugarnow tranf’
Wands in the Weft Indies. In thefe countries they th^Eu*0
are all fold like beafts in a market; but they experience j eans^0'
very different degrees of fervitude from the different
mailers who hold them as property. Such of them as
are reconciled to the appearance of white men, or have
been born in the European colonies, feel themfelves
as happy under a humane mafter as they could be in
their native continent (l) ; and we believe that few of
them in ftich circumftances have expreffed a defire to
return.”
In the French Weft India Hands, before the late re¬
volution
(1) The fame thing appears from the voyages of M. Saugnier, who had an opportunity of converfing with
many tribes of negroes, and who always fpeaks of flavery as an eftabliftied praAice among them ; adding that
fuch as are fold for crimes are put to death by their own countrymen if they fly from their mafter. .It appears
likewife in a ftil more ftnking light from Dalzel’s Hiftory of Dahomy, where we are told that all the Daho-
mans, from the lowed to the higheft, acknowledge the right of tfie fovereign to ftifpofe of their perfons and pro-
tit-u-j3 iat P ealllr^t anc* ^ere we ^earnJ that the fovereign himfelf affured Mr Abfon the Englilh governor at
mdah, that all his anceftors had from time immemorial put to death every prifoner of war whom they could
not fell as a Have. 1 *
_ t.^.e year I442. Anthony Gonfalez, a Portuguefe adventurer, reftored to their native country fome
Moonffi pmoners whom he had two years before forcibly carried off from the coaft of Africa. He landed them
at Rio del-0ro, and received from the Moors in exchange ten blacks and a quantity of gold dull. This tranfac-
tmn proves, that a commerce in black fervants was then regularly carried on by the Moors and not by the Portu-
guefe. So early as the year 1502, the Spaniards began to employ a few negroes in the mines of Hifpaniola *
but in the year following, Ovando, the governor of that Hand, forbade the further importation of them, alle<ring
t at they taught the Indians all manner of wickedneis, and rendered them lefs tradlable than formerly : and it
v as not till the year 1517 that the fupply of negroes to the Spanifli American plantations became an eltabliflied
and regular branch of commerce. Edward’s Hi/lory of the Wejl Indies, Book IV. Chap. ii.
iw 1 liave observed many of my ftaves go on board the veffel with joy, on my affurance that they would be
W 6 anC, aPf7 on Potation where I was going to fend them. WEen the Banbarans find that they
aie tru ec by the whites, they never think of making their efcape, choyfing to be the Haves of Europeans rather
6 than
SLA
, S L A [ 529 1 » ^
^L,a™ STDenfa^ T^i '“• f °duCfd. “ come to !l!s ^"owMge. The jullices and wfcy of each SWr.
ofthen2™n ?y n™ fe’'cefnd't'°" Par:<il are !odeed ooilftitutedJ a council ofproleHion, for’   
Condition e negro-flaves was better than that of the bond- the exprefs purpofe of making full enquiry into the bar-
f ilaveh in men among the ancient Germans. « Thofe of them barities exercifed on Haves, and brining [he authors to
%lTh " d0cn , d f K 7 ntatffnS were f?Ched t0 ^ foi1’ punifliment at the public expence ; and^y a new fl vet
Ses under and '01Llldf n0t ^ dra5n off to payjlebts, or be fold fe- aft of Grenada, th[ jullices are required aLally to no-
the old go- Parately from the eftate on which they lived. This minate m-ee freeholders to be ^7
vernment. gave them a lafting property m their huts and little who are to take an oath to fee the law duly executed t t EM >,
fpots °lgrdund, which they might fafely cultivate with. Thefe are benevolent regulations; but we doubt if pro- ^'v °f
out dread of being turned out of polfefiion, or transfer- te&ion can be fo promptly afforded by a council of euar-the ^
red con rary to their mtereft and feelings from one pro- dians as by an individua/attorney who has no othefml^K
Kw 77 an0tt\er' T 7 Weri' Undr the Proteaion of payment. In fome of the other Britilh iflands, we have chat 7*
law as foon as they arrived in the colony. Proper mif- been confidently told that the unfortunate fons of Afri- P’ S’
f onanes were appointed for the purpofe of training them ca have no proteaion whatever againft the tyranny of a
1 p to a certain degree of religious knowledge,' and am- fordid owner, or the caprice of a boyilh ovJrfeer I'm ) *
pie funds were allotted for the maintenance of thofe ec- though it is added, that the humanity of many mailers
clefiaftics. On ill treatment received from his mailer,
or on being deprived of his allowance of food and rai¬
ment, the Have was dire&ed to apply to the king’s at¬
torney, who was obliged to profecute the mailer forth-
■with.' That officer was alfo bound to profecute, if by
f Ttamfay'
more than fupplies the want of laws in every refpe£t
but that of improvement, and that the attachment of
others has in them a like effe^. In fome cafes good
fenfe, a regard for their reputation, and a well-informed
any other means he heard of the abufe ^theTaw^ddkg ^TdiffiS/on ""and hmZ^ The^flaves^of
’> S ’ ^ ^ ^ r"7 a Planter7°.ffe.fs advVt^eS bef°nd the la-
U . n he. maMX- bourer even of Britain enjoysfyet thefe advantagesf Ramf*y'*
all denenrl nnnn u: a. i ^ E/Tav*
In the Bri- f a?d reljg10»s improvement. 1 his, however, we are, fituation much lefs eligible than was that of the French
tilh iflands. alraid> cannot be faid with truth. In the ifland of Ja- Haves under the old aovernment 7^ 77 7 7 •
l'K S
JiOt many ) ears ago, a white man, whether proprietor quoted well obferves thnt « 4 ^
■ aip^TtHs ssi^s^g
of paffion or cruelty, occafioned the bo2" °f ,reed°m am0ng thc,r nei«h-
groes in the death of any negro, it Hiall be capital for the JirJl of-
and as a check on thofe who^a^hlve^he^imiffimeS gre^JuLiw^” 1 detaiIr°f the rife and Pr°-The J7-
dies^ and is interred by the owner or overfeer, without of man and the immutable laws of virtue. ^ ^
That
the dodlor’s having feen or been fent for to Inch negro,
in this, cafe, the owner or overfeer cauiing the negro to
be fo interred is liable to a profecution for fuch con-
tludl.”
This law muft doublefs be produftive of good effedls;
but being a colonial a&, it cannot have the vigour of
the Code Noir; nor do we know of any attorney in*the
ifland who is obliged to defend the rights of the negroes,
or profecute the mailer whofe cruelty has by any means
Vol. XVII. Part II.
f . 111 a of nature one man has a right to
leize upon.another, and to compel him by force^to la¬
bour for his lubliHence, is a pofition which we believe
has never been feriouily maintained. But independent
communities ftand to each other in the very fame rela-
tion that individuals do in a Hate of nature ; and there-
tore if in fuch a Hate the man of greater bodily itrength
or mental fagacity would have no right to convert his
weaker neighbour into perfonal property, neither can
3 X
Foyages to the Coajl of Africa by Mejjrs
than of a black man who would treat them with the greateft cruelty.
Saugnter and Griffon, p. 332. 335. Englifh Tranflation. * - ~ -
- iM) Ini rrbad°eS there is faid to be a law for the proteftion of Haves, which is the moll infoW vu
jufticc and humanity that the writer of this article has e»er feen. It is euafted, foZth “« T1 t ? "g
p1; ° or only of b/mdy-mimUJnef,, or crml intention, wilfully kUU neyro or other L,e if 1,7
he lhall Pay mto the public treafury^a poU Sterling I Sec DkVLu LtUtrt Z Sla^v i
s L A [.53
Shvary. the more powerful and enlightened nation have a right
'~J to carry off by force, or entice by fraud, the fubjedls of
a weaker and more barbarous community for the pur-
pofe of reducing them to a ftate of fervitude. This is
a truth fo obvious as to admit neither of proof nor of
denial.
In thus ftating the cafe between two independent na¬
tions, we have in our eye that traffic in flaves which is
carried on between the civilized Europeans and the bar¬
barous Africans: and the utmoft length which we think
an apologill for that trade can go is to contend, that
we may lawfully purchafe Haves in thofe countries where
,^5 from time immemorial they have been a common branch
The com- of commerce. But the European right to purchafe
men apolo- cannot be better than the African right to fell 5 and
f f ffr' t WC ^ave never yet been informed what gives one Afri-
j.uu j m. can ^ right to fell another. Such a right cannot be na¬
tural, for the reafon which we have elfewhere affigned
(fee Right) : neither can it be adventitious ; for ad¬
ventitious rights are immediately derived from the mu¬
nicipal la v/r which is the public will of the ftate. But
the ftate has no authority to deprive an innocent man
of his perfonal freedom, or of the produce of his own
labour ; for it is only to fecure thefe, by protecting the
weak from the violence of the ftrong, that ftates are
formed, and individuals united under civil govern¬
ment.
It may perhaps be faid, that by patiently fubmitting
to governments which authorife the traffic in human
ftefh, men virtually give up their perfonal liberty, and
veil their governors with a right to fell them as flaves :
but no man can veil another with a right which he
poffeffes not himfelf; and we fhall not hefitate to af¬
firm, that in a ftate of nature, where all have equal
rights, no individual can fubmit himfelf to the abfolute
difpofal of another without being guilty of the greateft
Nomanhs*crime' The reafon is obvious. From the relation in
& right to which men ftand to one another as fellow-creatures, and
give him- t0 God as their common Creator, there are duties in-
rheabfoiutecurnbent uPon each Pecuhar to himfelf; in the perform-
difpofai of ance which he can be guided only by his own rea-
smother. fon, which was given him for that very purpofe. But
he who renounces his perfonal freedom, and fubmits un¬
conditionally to the caprice of a mafter, impioufly at¬
tempts to fet himfelf free from the obligation of that law
which is interwoven with his very being, and chobfes a
diredfor of his conduCl different from that which God
has affigned him. A man therefore cannot put him¬
felf in a ftate of unconditional fervitude ; and wdiat he
cannot do for himfelf, he furely cannot authorize others
to do for him either by a tacit or by an open confent.
Thefe confiderations have often made us regret that
writers, for whofe talents and integrity we have the
higheft refpeft, fhould, without accurately defining what
they mean by flavery, have peremptorily affirmed, that,
conliftently with the law of nature men may be redu-
5g ced to that ftate as a punifhment for crimes, or to dif-
What kind charge debts which they cannot otherwife pay. That
of flavery a criminal, who has forfeited his life to the laws of his
maybe em-COHntryj may jiave pmflfhment commuted for hard
pumfh-11* a labour, till death in the courfe of nature fhall put a pe¬
riod to his terreftrial exiftence, is a truth which we ap¬
prehend cannot be controverted; but to make fuch a
commutation of punifhments confiftent with the laws of
nature and of nature’s God, it appears to us that the
Bient.
® ] SLA
kind and degree of labour mull be precifely afeertained, Slavery,
and the conduct of the criminal not left to the capricious
direftion of any individual.
Punifhments can be juftly inflidled only for one or
other of two ends, or for both. They may be calcula¬
ted either to reform the criminal or to be a warning to
the innocent ; and thofe which moft effe&ually anfwer
both thefe purpefes are furely to be preferred to fuch
as anfwer but one of them. For this reafon we confi-
der hard labour as a much fitter punifhment for mofl
crimes than death : but to intitle it to preference, the
kind and degree of the labour muft be afeertained by the
law ; for if thefe circumftances be omitted, and the of¬
fender delivered over as a Have to the abfolute difpofal
and caprice of a private mafter, the labour to which he
is condemned, inftead of operating to his reformation,
may be converted into the means of tempting him to
the commiffion of new crimes. A young woman, in the
ftate of fervitude, would hardly be able to maintain her
virtue againft the folicitations of a mafter who ftiould
promife her liberty or a remiffion of toil upon her yield¬
ing to his defires ; and the felon, who had long been
accuftomed to a life of vagrancy and idlenefs, would
not ftrenuoufly objedl to the perpetration of any w^ck-
ednefs to obtain his freedom, or even a diminution of his
daily talk. Indeed fuch temptations might be thrown in
his way, as human nature could not relift but by means
of much better principles than felons can be fuppofed
to poffefs. He might be fcourged into compliance ; or
his labour might be fo increafed as to make him for a
little refpite eagerly embrace the moft nefarious propo-
fal which his mafter could make : for being abfolute
property, there is no earthly tribunal to which he could
appeal for juftice ; and felons do not commonly fupport
themfelves under trials by pious meditation on a future
ftate.
By reafoning in this way, we are far from meaning to
infinuate that fiave-holders in general torture their Haves
into the commifiion of crimes God forbid ! Many of
them we know to be religious, humane, and benevolent:
but they are not infallible; and fome of them may be
inftigated, fome of them undoubtedly have been infti-
gated, by avarice and other worfe principles, to compel
creatures, who are fo abfolutely their dependents, to ex¬
ecute deeds of davknefs too hazardous lor themfelves.
But the morality or immorality of any adlion, and the
moral fitnefs of any ftate, are to be judged of by their
natural tendency, if the one were univerfally praftifed
and the other univerfally prevalent (fee Moral Philo¬
sophy, n° 156.) : and as the natural tendency of abfo¬
lute domeftic flavery among fuch creatures as men is to.
throw the moft powerful temptations to vice in the
way both of mafter and of Have, it muft be in every in-
ftance, even when employed as a punilhment, inconlift-
ent with the fundamental principles of moral virtue. jp
Some writers indeed have maintained, and the civil Children
law feems to fuppofe, that children are the property ofn"' ^
their parents, and may by them be fold as flaves in cafes ^
of urgent neceffity : but if we duly confider how pro-r£Uts.
perty is acquired (fee Property), and attend to the
natural confequences of flavery, we lhall foon be con¬
vinced that this, opinion is very ill founded. The rights
of parents refult from their duties; and it is certainly
the duty of that man who has been the inftrument of
bringing into the world an intelleflual and moral being,
to
g(&VWf,
SLA
Co do every thing in his power to render the exigence
of that being happy both in the piefent life and in that
which is to come. If this duty be confeientioufly dif-
charged, the parent has a manifelt right to the grati¬
tude, love, and reafonable obedience, "of his child ; but
he cannot, in confequence of any duty performed, claim
a right to transfer that child as property to the uncon¬
trolled difpofal of any private mailer; for this plain
realon, that the man who is confidered as the private
property of another, cannot reafonably be fuppofed to
enjoy happinefs in this world, and is under many temp¬
tations to do what muft neceffarily render him miferable
in the next. See Moral Philosophy, n° 138.
If criminals cannot be lawfully reduced to a Rate of
abfolute private flavcry, much lefs furely can it be lawful
to reduce infolvent debtors and prifoners of war to that
Rate. Many a virtuous man, who has contra&ed debts
with the fairelt profpea of paying them, has been fud-
denly rendered infolvent by fire, by fhipwreck, or by
the bankruptcy of others with whom he was neceffarily
in the courfe of his trade. Such a man can be
conhdered in no refpett as criminal. Pie has been in¬
deed unfortunate ; but it would be groisly unjuft, as
well as fliockingly cruel, to add to his misfortune by re¬
ducing him to a ftate to which we have juft feen that
30 tJie V1hft felon cannot be reduced without a violation of
Fraudulent the laws of morality. Fraudulent bankrupts indeed, of
bankrujits whom we daily fee many, might with great propriety
y and the ftridleft juftice be compelled to extenuate their
debts by labouring for the benefit of thofe whom they
have injured ; and criminals of other deferiptions might
be made to work for the benefit of the public: but in
both cafes the talk to he performed fhould be alcertain-
ed by the law, and the perfons of the labourers be pro-
te&ed by the ftate. If fuch can be called flaves, their
flavery is undoubtedly confident with every principle of
virtue and religion ; for they fuffer nothing but the due
reward of their deeds. Prifoners of war, however, can
upon no honeft principle be reduced even to this ftate of
mitigated bondage ; for they are fo far from incurring
guilt by lighting for their country, that even to their
enemies their courage and conduft in fuch a cauft nvift
appear worthy of reward. A victorious general has
certainly a right to prevent the priloners taken in battle
from again drawing their fwords againft him during the
continuance of the war ; but there are many ways by
which this may be done effectually without chaining
the unfortunate captives to the oar, or felling them like
cattle to private purchafers, by whom they may be treat¬
ed with capricious cruelty, and driven to the perpetra¬
tion of the greateft crimes.
bjec- To thele concluftons, and the reafoning on which
coTciuLTthey are bu,lt’ we art' aw:ire Jt may be objected, that if
"private flavery were in every inftance unlawful and in-
conhilent with the fundamental principles of morality,
it would not have prevailed among the ancient patri¬
archs, and far lefs have been authorifed by the Jewifh
law.
, rePty to tbls objection, it may be obferved, that
r^. Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob, though excellent men, were
not characters abfolutely perfeCt; that as their praCtice
does not authorife polygamy or inceft among us, it will
not authorife the reducing of our fellow-creatures to a
ftate of hopelefs fervitude ; and that from the circum-
itances of the age in which they lived, many things
C ]
SLA
compelled
to labi ur
for the be¬
nefit of
their cre¬
ditors.
31
Two 1
3 a
The former
were permitted to them, and wrere indeed harmlefs, Slavery,
wnich are forbidden to us, and would now be perni-1 ' v-—
cious. T he character of Abraham appears to have been
much more perfeCt than that of his fon or grandfon;
and was cerfainly equal, if not fuperior, to that of any
other mere man of whom we read either in profane or
even in facred hiftory. We are to remember, however,
that he was born amidft idolaters, and was probably an
idolater himfelf till enlightened by the infpiration of Je¬
hovah, and called from his kindred and from his fa-
ther’s houfe. Before his converfion, he muft have had
much cattle and many flaves, which conftituted the
riches of that early period ; and his cafe would indeed
have been peculiarly hard, had he been commanded to
divtft Inmfelf of his fervants, and to depart into a ftrangc
country very thinly inhabited, without people to pro-
teCl his flocks and herds from hearts of prey. Nor
would his lofs have contributed in any degree to the
benefit of his flaves, who, as the ranks of men were then
adjlifted, could not long have preferved their liberty.
Had they not been forcibly reduced to their former
ftate .by their idolatrous countrymen, which in all pro¬
bability they would have been, they muft have loon fub-
mitted to it, or perifhed by hunger. Let it be remem¬
bered, too, that the bond-fervants of Abraham, though
conftituting the moft valuable part of his property, were
not confidered as a fpecies of inferior beings, but were
treated rather as childeren than as flaves. This is evi¬
dent from his Ipeaking of the fleward of his houfe as his
heir, when complaining to God of the .want of feed.
Indeed the manner in which this circumftance is men¬
tioned, fiiows that it was then the general praCtice to
confider domeftic flaves as members of the family ; for
the patriarch does noc fay, “ I vvill leave my fubltance
to this Eliezer ofDamafcusj” but his words are, “ Be¬
hold to me thou haft given no feed; and, lo! one born in
my houfe is my heir%.» From this mode of expreffion f Gen xv
we are ttrongly inclined to think that captives taken 3. • *
in war were in that age of finaplicity incorporated into
the family or tribe of the conqueror, as they are faid to
be at prefent among the North American Indians, to
fupply the place of thofe who had fallen in battle. If
fo, flavery was then a very mild thing, unattended with
the evils which are now in its train, and muft often have
been highly beneficial to the captive.
The other part of the objection appears at firft fight Anfwer to
moie foinudable: but perhaps a little attention to the the otheri
defign of the Mofaic economy may enable us to rdmove
it even more completely than this. We need not in¬
form our theological readers, that one great purpofe
for which the pofterity of Abraham were feoarated
from the heathen nations around them, was to preferve
the knowledge of the true God in a world run head¬
long into idolatry. As idolatry appears to have had
lomething. in its forms of worfhip extremely captivating
to rude minds, and as the minds of the ifraelites at the
era of their departure from Egypt were exceedinriy
rude, every method was taken to keep their feparation
from their idolatrous neighbours as complete as pof-
nble. With this view they were commanded to facri-
fjee the animals which their Egyptian mafters had wor-
ftupped as gods, and were taught to confider boos and
Inch other creatures as the heathen offered in facrifice
when celebrating their myftical and magic rites, as too
unclean to be eaten or even to be touched. Of this di-
3^2 itinCtion
SLA r 532 ] SLA
Slavery, ftin&ton between clean and unclean beafts, God him-
^ felf ^ffigns' the reafon : “ I am the Lord your God
(fays he)u who have feparated you from other people j
ye fhall therefore put difference between clean and un-
| Lev. xx. dean beafts, and between unclean fowls and clean
a4> %(l- p0r the fame reafon they were prohibited from inter¬
marrying with the heathen, or having any tranfaftion
whatever with them as neighbours ; and the feven ido¬
latrous nations of Canaan they were ftriftly command¬
ed to exterminate. “ When the Lord thy God (fays
Moffs) fhall deliver them before thee, thou {halt fmite
them, and utterly deltroy them : thou {halt make no
covenant with them, nor {how mercy unto them : nei¬
ther {halt thou make marriages with them: thy daugh¬
ter thou {halt not give unto his fon, nor his daughter
(halt thou take to thy fon ; for they will turn away thy
t Deut.vil. fon frorn following me, that they may ferve other godsf.”
3>3.}4* Under thefe laws, it is plain that no intercourfe what¬
ever could have place between an Ifraelite and a man
of any other nation, unlefs the latter was reduced to
. fuch a ftate as that he could neither tempt the former
nor praftife himfelf the rites of his idolatrous worftiip.
But the Ifraelites w^ere not feparated from the reft of
the world for their own fakes only: They were intend¬
ed to be the repofitorxes of the lively oracles of God,
and gradually to fpread the light of divine truth thro’
other nations, till the fulnefs of time ftiould come, when
in Chrift all things were to be gathered together in one.
To anfwer this end, it was neceftary that there Ihould
be fome intercourfe between them and their Gentile
neighbours; but we have feen that fueh an intercourfe
could only be that which fublifts between mailers and
their flaves.
Should this apology for the flavery which was au-
thorifed by the Jewilh law be deemed fanciful, we beg
leave to fubmit to the confideration of our readers
the following account of that matter, to which the
fame objeftion will hardly be made. It was morally
impoflible that between nations differing fo widely in
religion, cuftoms, and manners, as the Jews and Gen¬
tiles, peace {hould for ever reign without interruption ;
but when wars broke out, battles would be fought,
and prifoners would be taken. How were thefe priioners
to be difpofed of? Cartels for exchange were not then
known : it was the duty of the Ifraelites to prevent
their captives from taking up arms afecond timeagainft
them ; they could not eftablifh them among themfelves
cither as artificers or as hufhandmen ; for their law en¬
joined them to have no communication with the hea¬
then. There was therefore no other alternative but ei¬
ther to maffacre them in cold blood, or to reduce them
to the condition of flaves. It would appear, however,
that thofe flaves were raifed to the rank of citizens, or
at leaftthat their burdens were much lightened, as foon
as they were convinced of the truth of the Mofaic re'
•velation, and received into covenant with God by the
rite of circumcifion. They were then admitted to
the celebration of the paffover ; concerning which one
law was ciecreed to the ftraoger, and to him that was
home-born. Indeed, when we confider who was the
legiflator of the Jews ; when we refleft upon the num¬
ber of laws enabled to mitigate flavery among them,
and call to mind the means by which the due execution
©f all their laws was enforced, (fee Theology), we
cannot help being of opinion that the heathen, who was S’ave»
reduced to flavery in Judea, might be happier, if he , tra^e-
pleafed, than when living as a freeman in his own "Tr-,~v""
country. But whether this be fo or not, is a matter
with which we have no concern. On account of the
hardneis of their hearts, and the peculiarity of their
c.rcumftances, many things, of which flavery may have
been one, were permitted to the Jews, which, if pra&i-
fed by Chriftians, would render them highly guilty.
After treating thus largely of llavery in general, wc
need not occupy much of the reader’s time with the
. 34
SLAVE-traoe carried on at prefent by the mer-Slave-trade,
chants of Europe with the natives of A frica. It is well
known that the Portuguefe were the firft Europeans who
embarked in this trade, and that their example was foon
followed by the Dutch and the Englifh. Of the rife and
progrefs of the Englifh commerce in flaves, the reader
will find a fufficient account in other articles of this
work$. That commerce, though long cherifhed by§SeeCw.
the government as a fource of national and colonial/’'™)'* vol-v»
wealth, was from its commencement confidered by the ani*
thinking part of the nation as a traffic inconfiftent with ^
the rights of man, and fufpe&ed to be carried on by
afts of violence. Thefe fufpicions have been gradually
fpread through the people at large, and confirmed, in
many inftances, by evidence incontrovertible. Laws
have in confequence been enadled to make the negroes
more comfortable on what is called the middle paffage,
and to proteft them againft the wanton cruelty of their
mailers in the Weft Indies : but the humanity of the
nation was rouled ; and not many years ago a number
of gentlemen, of the moft refpecftable chara&ers, find¬
ing that no adequate proteblion can be afforded to per-
fons in a {late of hopelefs fervitude, formed themfelves
into a fociety at London, for the pnrpofe of procuring
a total abolitio'n of the flave-trade. That the motives
which influence the leading men of this fociety are of
the pureft kind, cannot, we think, be queftioned; for
their objett is to deliver thofe who had none te help
them, and from whom they can expeft no other reward
for their labours of love than the bleffings of them who
are ready to perifh. To a caufe fo truly Chriftian, who
would not pray for fuccefs ? or who but muft feel the
moft pungent regret, if that fuccefs has been rendered
doubtful, or even been delayed, by the imprudence of
fome of the agents employed by the fociety ? This we
apprehend to have been really the cafe. Language cal¬
culated only to exafperate the planters cannot ferve the
negroes ; and the legiflature of Great Britain will never
fuffer itfelf to be forced into any meafure by the me¬
naces of individuals. 35
In the year 1795, petitions were prefented to parlia- Petitions
ment for the abolition of this inhuman traffic, which
gave a pleafing picture of the philanthropy of the na-it_
tion ; but, unfortunately for the caufe of freedom, it
was difeovered that many of the names fubjoined to thofe
petitions had been collefted by means not the moft ho¬
nourable. This difeovery, perhaps, would never have
been made, had not the infulting epithets indiferimi-
nately heaped upon the ffave-holders provoked thofe
men to watch with circumfpe&ion over the conducft of
their opponents. The confequence was, that fufpicions-
of unfair dealing on the part of the petitioners were ex¬
cited
Slave.
traie.
.36.
Objection
to the abo
lition
J AJiat'rc
Kefearches,
vol. ii.
S Kpy on
Coloniza -
im.
. . , SLA [533
cited in the breafts of many who, though they ardent-
, ty wifhed well to the caufe, chofe not to add their
names to thofe of fchool-boys under age, and of pea-
fants who knew not what they were fubfcribino-. Let
the rights of the .Africans be maintained with ardour
and firmnefs; but never let their advocates fuppofe that
the caufe of humanity requires the fupport of* artifice.
Abfolute flavery, in which the a&ions of one man are
regulated by the caprice of another, is a ftate demon-
ftrably inconliftent with the obvious plan of the moral
government of the world. It degrades the mental fa¬
culties of the Have, and throws, both in his way and
in his mallei s, temptations to vice almoft infurmount-
able. Let thefe truths be let in a proper light by
thofe who have doubtlefs feen them exemplified ; and
they will furely have their full effedl on the minds of a
generous, and, we trull, not yet an impious people (n).
The trade will be gradually'abolilhed ; pains will be ta-
ken to cultivate the minds of the Well Indian negroes;
and the era may be at no great dillance when flavery
flrall ceafe through all the Britilh dominions.
But what benefit, it will be alked, would the ne¬
groes of Africa reap from an abolition of the Have
trade ? Should any thing fo wildly incredible happen,
as that all the nations of Chrillendom, in one common
paroxyfm of philanthropy, Ihould abandon this com¬
merce in fervants, which has been profecuted in all
ages, and under all religions ; they would only abandon
it to thofe who were originally pofleffed of it, who Hill
penetrate into the country, and who even puflr up to
Gago at the very head of the Have coaft; and leave the
wool-headed natives of it to Mahometan mailers, in
pteference to Chrillian. Under luch mailers they were
in Judea at the time of the crufades. Under fueh,
as we learn from Meffrs Saugnier, Briflbn, and others,
they Hill are in the deferts of Africa, as well as in the
iflands of Johanna J and Madagafcar: and it is univerfal-
ly known that they enflave one another as a punilhment
for the moll whimfical crimes. Among them, indeed,
flavery feems to be reduced to a fyllem, and to delcend,
as it lias done in more polilhed nations, from father to
fon ; for both Saugnier and Wadltrom § fpeak of parti¬
cular families of negroes who are exempted from that
degrading Hate by the laws of the country.
All this we admit to be true. Moll certainly the
negroes would not be exempted from the miferies of
fervitude, though Europe and the W^ell Indies were
] SLA
fwallowed up In the ocean. The cuflonu of the coun. Slave*-
try, as the king of Dahomy aflured Mr Abfon $, will trade,
be made as long as black men flrall continue to poflefs
their own territories, in their prefent Hate of depravity Hi/lory.
and ignorance; and thefe cuHonrs appear to involve
flavery of the cruelleH kind. But if flavery be in itfelf
unlawful, is it a fufficient excufe for our continuing the
traffic that it is carried on by the rude negroes and the 37
favage Arabs? Are people, whom we fometimes affedt Of no
to conflder as an inferior order of beings, to furnifh ex-krength,
amples of condudl to tbofe who boafl of their advance¬
ments in fcience, in literature, and in refinement ? Or
will the benevolent Lord of all things pardon us for
oppreffing our helplefs brethren, merely becauie they
are cruelly oppreffed by others ? It is indeed true that
the natives of Guinea cannot be made really free but
by introducing- among them the bleffings of religion and
the arts of civil life ; but furely they would have fewer
temptations than at prefent to kidnap one another, or
to commence unprovoked wars for the purpofe of making
captives, were the nations of Europe to abandon the
commerce in flaves(o). That commerce, we grant,
would be continued by the Arabs, and perhaps by
others of the eaflern nations ; but the fame number of
people could not be carried off by them alone that is
now carried off both by them and by the Europeans.
Were it indeed poffible to put the flave-trade under
proper regulations, lo as to prevent all kidnapping and
unjuff wars among the Africans, to fupply the markets;
and v/ere it likewife to enfure to the negroes in the Welt
Indies mild treatment and religious inffruftion; we are
fai Irom being fure that while the natives of Guinea con¬
tinue fo rude, and their neighbours the Arabs fo felfilhly
favage, it would be proper to abandon at once to hordes of
barbarians the whole of this commerce in bond lervants.
i he trade, which in its prefent form is a reproach to
Britain, might be made to take a new ffiape, and be¬
come ultimately a bleffing to thoufands of wretches
who, left in their native country, would have dragged
out a life of miferable ignorance, unknowing the hand
that framed them, unconlcious of the reafon of which
they were made capable, and heedlefs of the happi-
nefs laid up for them in It ore §. * - Fam/' ^
Slavery is, indeed, in every form an evil; but it feems
to be one of thofe many evils which, having long pre-P-&c*
vailed m the world, can be advantageoufly removed on-
ly by degrees, and as the moral cultivation of the flaves
may
commodities of Europe ; but the bare affirmati f ?! ^ ’T "" iav^/ieU^er ^aT10nS n0r aPPetites> but for the
thoufands at the cujcm, will „ot conv;nce tI,ofc who^a!” .1“ Ihe^WadfcomT Effif Co? ^
the evidence refpeclino- the flave-trade ^ k c .e tj “lcr AT lom 8 •Llla> 011 Colonization, or
embarked in war merely to protute flaves to barter for European°conunoditie&!’t “ ““ ”0 •Daho“ra
S'w,
ti a !e
Sleep-
walker.
Tiie aboli-
tinn fhould
be gradual.
39
Danger of
a fudden
manunnf-
lion of
flaves.
S L E [53
may enable them to fupport the rank and dlfcharge the
duties of free men. 'i his is doubtlefs the reafon why
it was not exprefsly prohibited by the divine Author ot
our religion, but fuffered to vaniih gradually before the
mild influence of his Heavenly dodhrines. It has va-
nifhed before thefe dodtrines in mod countries of Eu¬
rope ; and we truft that the time is at hand when our
traffic in human flefh with the inhabitants of Africa
fhall ceafe ; and that the period is not very diftant when
the (laves in the Weft Indies fhall be fo much improved
in moral and religious knowledge, as that they may be
fafely trufted with their own freedom. To fet them
free in their preiefit ftate of ignorance and depravity, is
one of the wildefl propofals that the ardour of innova¬
tion has ever made. Such freedom would be equally
ruinous to themfelves and to their mafters ; and we may
lay of it what Cicero faid of fome unfeafonable indul¬
gences propofed to be granted to the (laves in Sicily ;
±hi£ cum accidunt, nemo e/l, quin intelligat mere illam
rempublicam ; hate ubi veniunt, nemo ejl, qui ullam J'pem
Jaluiis reliquam ejfe arbitretur.
'SLAUGHTER. See Man-slaughter, Homi¬
cide, Murder, &c.
SLEDGE, a kind of carriage, without wheels, for
the conveyance of very weighty things, as huge {tones,
bells, &c. The fledge for carrying criminals, condemn¬
ed for high treafon, to execution, is called hurdle.
The Dutch have a kind of fledge on which they can
carry a veflel of any burden by land. It conlifts of a
plank of the length of the keel of a moderate (hip,
railed a little behind, and hollow in the middle; fo that
the fides go a little aflope, and are furnilhed with holes
to receive pins, &c. The reft is quite even.
Sledge is a large fmith’s hammer, to be ufed with
both hands : of this there are two forts, the up-hand
fledge, which is ufed by under workmen, when the
work is not of the largeft fort; it is ufed with both the
hands before, and they feldom raile it higher than their
head. But the other, which is called the about-fledge,
and which is ufed for battering or drawing out the
largeft work, is held by the handle with both hands,
and fwung round over their heads, at their ami’s end,
to ftrike as hard a blow as they can.
SLEEP, that ftate of the body in which, though
the vital fundtions continue, the ienfes are not aftedted
by the ordinary iraprefiions ol external objedts. See
Dreams ; and Physiology, n° 287.
Slbep-Walker, one who walks in his deep. Many in-
llances might be related of perfons who were addidted
to this pradtice ; but it will be fufficient to feledt one
remarkable xnftance from a report made to the Phyfical
Society of Lauianne, by a committee of gentlemen ap¬
pointed to examine a young man who was accuftomed
to walk in his fleep.
“ The difpoiition to fleep-walking feems, in the opi¬
nion of this committee, to depend on a particular aftec-
tion of the nerves, which both feizes and quits the pa¬
tient during fleep. Under the influence ot this affec¬
tion, the imagination reprefents to him the objedts that
(truck him while awake, with as much force as if they
really affedted his fenfes ; hut does not make him per¬
ceive any ©f thole that are adtually prefented to his
itnles, except in fo far as they are connedted with the
dreams which engrofs him at the time. If, during this
itate, the imagination has no determined purpole, he
receives the impreffion of objedts as if he were awake ;
4 ] S L E
only, however, when the imagination is exerted to bend Sleep*
its attention towards them. The perceptions obtained , wa‘^er-
in this ftate are very accurate, and, when once received, ""r’-"
the imagination renews them occalionally with as much
force as if they were again acquired by means of the
fenfes. Laftly, thefe academicians fuppofe, that the
impreffions received during this date of the fenfes dil-
appear entirely when the perfon awakes, and d© not re¬
turn till the return of the fame difpofition in the ner¬
vous fyftem.
“ T heir remarks were made on the Sieur Devaud, a
lad thirteen years and a half old, who lives in the town
of Vevey, and who is fuhjedt to that lingular affection
or difeaie called Somnambuhjm or fleep-walking. This
lad poflefies a ftrong and robuft con fti tut ion, but his
nervous fyftem appears to be organifed with peculiar
delicacy, and to difeover marks of the greateft fenlibi-
lity and irritability. His fenfes of fmell, tafte, and
touch, are exquilite ; he is fubjedl to fits of immoderate
and involuntary laughter, and he fometirnes hkewife
weeps without any apparent cauie.
“ This young man does not walk in his fleep every
night; feveral weeks fometimes pafs without any ap¬
pearance of a fit. He is fubjeCt to the dtfeafe generally
two nights lucceflively, ene fit lafting for feveral hours.
T he longeft are from three to four hours, and they
commonly begin about three or four o’clock in the
morning.
“ The fit may be prolonged, by gently paffing the
finger or a feather over his upper lip, and this flight
irritation likewife accelerates it. Having once fallen
afleep upon a ftaircaie, his upper lip was thus irritated
with a feather, when he immediately ran down the fteps
with great precipitation, and relumed all his accuftomed
activity. This experiment was repeated feveral times.
“ The young Devaud thinks he has oblerved, that,
on the evenings previous to a fit, he is fenhble of a cer¬
tain heavinels in his head, but eipecially of a great
weight in his eyelids.
“ His fleep is at all times unquiet, but particularly
when the fits are about to feize him. During his
fleep, motions are obfervable in every part of his body,
with flatting and palpitations; he utters broken words,
lometimes fits up in his bed, and afterwards lies down
again. He then' begins to pronounce words more di-
ftindtly, he rifes abruptly, and afts as he is inlligated by
the dream that then poflefles him. He is fometimes in
fleep fubjttl to continued and involuntary motions.
“ The departure of the fit is always preceded by two
or three minutes of calm fleep, during which he Inores.
He then awakes rubbing his eyes like a perlon who has
flept quietly.
“ It is dangerous to-awaken him during the fit, efpe-
cially ii it is cone iuddenly ; for then he iometimes falls
into convullions. Having rifen one night with the in¬
tention ot going to eat grapes, he left the houfe, palled
through the town, and went to a vineyard where he
expedted good cheer. He was followed by feveral per¬
fons, w ho kept at fome diitance from him, one of whom
fired a piftoi, the node of which inllantly awakened
him, and he fell down without lenfe. He was carried
home aud brought to himielf, when he recolltdled very
well the having been awakened in the vineyard ; but
nothing more, except the flight at being found there
alone, which had made him Iwoon.
“ After the fits he generally leels a degree of laffi-
tucie ;
S L E [
tudes iometimes, though rarely, of indlfpofition. At
the end of one of thofe fits, of which the gentlemen of
the committee were witnefies, he was a fleeted with vo¬
mitings ; hut he is always foon reftored.
“ When he is awaked, he never for the mofl part
recolletls any of the aftions he has been doinw durincr
the fit. ° 0
“ 1 he fubject of his dreams is circumfcribed in a
fmall circle of objeds, that relate to the few ideas with
which at his age his mind is furnifhed ; fuch as his lef-
fons, the church, the bells, and efpecially tales of ghofls.
It is fufilcient to ftrike his imagination the evening be¬
fore a fit with fome tale, to direct his fomnambulifm
towards the objedl of it. There was read to him while
in this fituation the flory of a robber ; he imagined the
very next moment that he faw robbers in the room.
However, as he is much difpofed to dream that he is
furrounded with them, it cannot be affirmed that this
was an effedl of the reading. It is obferved, that when
his fupper has been more plentiful than ufual, his dreams
are more difmal.
“ In their report, the gentlemen of the committee
dwell much on the ftate of this young man’s fenfes, on
the impreffion made upon them by ilrange objeds, and
on the ufe they are of to him.
“ A bit of ftrong fmelling wood produced in him a
degree of reftleffiiefs; the fingers had the fame effea,
whether from their fmell or their tranfpiration. He
knew wine in which there was wormwood by the fmell,
and faid that it was not wine for his table. Metals
make no impreffion on him.
“ Having been prefented with a little common wine
while he was in a ftate of apathy, and all his motions
were performed with languor, he drank of it willingly ;
but the irritation which it occafioned produced a deal
of vivacity in all his words, motions, and aftions, and
caufed him to make involuntary grimaces.
“ Once he was obferved dreffing himfelf in perfea
darknefs. His clothes were on a large table, mixed
with thofe of fome other perfons ; he immediately per¬
ceived this, and complained of it much ; at latt a fmall
light was brought, and then he drefled himfelf with
fufficient precilion. If he is teafed or gently pinched,
he is always fenfible of it, except he is at the time
ftrongly engrafted with fome other thing, and wifhes to
ftrike the offender ; however, he never attacks the per-
fon who has done the ill, but an ideal being whom his
imagination prefents to him, and whom he purfues thro’
the chamber without running againft the furniture, nor
can the perfons whom he meets in his way divert him
from his purfuit:
“ While his imagination was employed on various
fubje&s, he heard a clock ftrike, which repeated at eve¬
ry ftroke the. note of the cuckoo. There are cuckoos
here, faid he ; and, upon being defired, he imitated the
fong of that bird immediately.
“ When he wifhes to fee an obje<ft, he makes an ef¬
fort to lift his eyelids; but they are fo little under his
command, that he can hardly raife them a line or two,
while he draws up his eyebrows ; the iris at that time
appears fixed, and his eye dim. When any thing is
prefented to him, and he is told of it, he always half
opens lus eyes with a degree of difficulty, and then
&uts them after he has taken what was offered to him.
The report infers from thele fatts, and from many
*' J s L E
others relative to the different fenfes, that their fiimftions
are not fufpended as to what the fieep-walker wifhes to
fee, that is, as to all thofe perceptions which accord
with the objefls aoout which his imagination is occu¬
pied ; that he may alfo be difpofed to receive thofe im-
pieffions, when his imagination has no other objeift at
the time ; that in order to fee, he is obliged to open
his eyes as much as he can, but when the impreffion is
once made, it remains ; that objefts may ftrike his
fight without ftriking his imagination, if it is not inte-
refted in them ; and that he is fometimes informed of
the prefence of objeifts without either feeing or touch¬
ing them.
“ Having engaged him to write a theme, fay the
committee, we faw him light a candle, take pen, ink,
and paper, from the drawer of his table, and begin to
wnte, while his mafter dnlftated. As he was writing,
we put a thick paper before his eyes, notwjthftanding-
which he continued to write and to form his letters ve¬
ry diftincfly ; fhowing figns, however, that fomething
was incommoding him, which apparently proceeded
from the obftru&ion which the paper, being held too
near his nofe, gave to his refpiration.
Upon another occafion, the young fomnambulift
arofe at five o’clock in the morning, and took the ne-
ceffary materials for writing, with his copy-book. He
meant to have begun at the top of a page ; but finding
it already written on, he came to the blank part of the
leaf, and wrote fome time from the following words,
Fiunt ignari pigritia-ils deviennent ignorant par la parejje ;
and, what is remarkable, after feveral lines he perceived
he had forgot the s in the word ignorant, and had put
erroneoufly a double r in parejfe ; he then gave over
writing, to add the s he had forgot, and to erafe the Hr
peril uo us r.
, Another time he had made, of his own accord, a
piece of writing, in order, as he faid, to pleafe his maf¬
ter. It confifted of three kinds of writing, text, half
text, and fmall writ ; each of them performed with the
proper pen. He drew, in the corner of the fame pa¬
per, the figure of a hat; he then afked for a penknife
to ta&e out a blot ot ink which lie had made betweea
two letters, and he erafed it without injuring them.
Laftly, he made fome arithmetical calculations with
great accuracy.
“ In order to explain fome of the fa&s obferved by
the academicians which we have here mentioned, they
eftabhfii two general obfervation*, which refult from
what they have faid with refpea to the fenfes and the
dreams of this ileep-walker.
“ i. That he is obliged to open his eyes, in order to
rccogmfe objefts which he wiihes to fee; but the im¬
preffion once made, although rapidly, is vivid enough
to fupetfede the neceffity of his opening them again, to
view the fame objeds anew; that is, the fame objeds
are a.terwards prefented to his imagination with as
much force and precifion as if he adually faw them.
2. That his imagination, thus warmed, reprefent*
to him objeds, and fuch as he figures to himfelf, with
as much vivacity as if he ready faw them; and, laftly,
that all his fenfes, being fubordinate to his imagination
feem concentrated in the objed with which it is occu-
jued, and have at that time no perception of any thintr
but what relates to that objed. s
“ Thefe two caiffes united feem to them fufficient;
fait
Sleep¬
walker.
S L E [ 536 ] S L E
Sleep- for explaining one of the mod fingular fa&s that occur-
wallfCr; , red to their obfervation, to wit, how the young Devaud
v~" can write, although he has his eyes Ihut, and an ob-
ftacle before them. His paper is imprinted on his ima¬
gination, and‘every letter which he means to write is
alfo painted there, at the place in which it ought to
Hand on the paper, and without being confounded with
the other letters ; now it is clear that his hand, which
is obedient to the will of his imagination, will trace
them on the real paper, in the fame order in which they
are reprefented on that which is pictured in his head.
It is thus that he is able to write feveral letters, feveral
fentences, and entire pieces of writing ; and what feems
to confirm the idea, that the young Devaud writes ac¬
cording to 'the paper painted on his imagination is,
that a certain fleep walker, who is deicribed in the
French Encyclopedic (article Somnambulifm), having writ¬
ten fomething on a paper, another piece of paper of the
fame fize was fubftituted in its Head, which he took for
his own, and made upon this blank paper the correftions
he meant to have made on the other which had been
taken away, precifely in the places where they would
have been.
“ It appears from the recital of another fact, that
Devaud, intending to write at the top of the firlt leaf
of a white paper book, Vevey, le— Hopped a moment
as if to recalled! the day of the month, left a blank
{pace, and then proceeded to Decembre 1787; after
which he afked for an almanac : a little book, fuch as
is given to children for a new year's gift, was offered to
him; he took it, opened it, brought it near his eyes,
then threw it down on the table. An almanac which
he knew was then prefented to him ; this was in Ger¬
man, and of a form fimilar to the almanac of Vevey : he
took it, and then faid, ‘ What is this they have given
me ; here, there is your German almanac.’ At lafl
they gave him the almanac of Berne; he took this like-
wife, and went to examine it at the bottom of an alcove
that was perfectly dark. Fie was heard turning over
the leaves, and faying 24, then a moment afterwards
44. Returning to his place, with the almanac open at
the month of December, he laid it on the table and
wvrote in the fpace which he had left blank the 24th.
This feene happened on the 23d ; but as he imagined
it to be the 24th, he did not miltake. The following
is the explication given of this fa£t by the authors of
the report.
“ The dates 23d, 24th, and 25th, of the month of
December, had long occupied the mind of the young
Devaud. The 23d and 25th were holidays, which he
expefted with the impatience natural to perfons of his
age, for the arrival of thofe moments when their little
daily labours are to be fulpended. The 25th efpecially
was the objeft of his hopes ; there was to be an illumi¬
nation in the church, which had been deferibed to him
in a manner that quite tranfported him. The 24th
was a day of labour, which came very difagreeably be¬
tween the two hapny days. It may eafily be con¬
ceived, how an imagination fo irritable as that of the
young Devaud would be (truck with thofe pleafing
epochs. Accordingly, from the beginning of the month
he had been perpetually turning over the almanac of
Vevey. He calculated the days and the hours that
were to elapfe before the arrival of his withed-for ho
lidays ; he fhowed to his friends and acquaintance the Sleep,
dates of thofe days which he expedted with fo much ,%valker-
impatience ; every time he took up the almanac, it was "T 'r~
only to" confult the month of December. We now fee
why that date prefented itfelf to his mind. He was
performing a tafk, becaufe he imagined the day to be •
the Monday which had fo long engroffed him. It is
not furprifing, that it fhould have occurred to his ima¬
gination, and that on opening the almanac in the dark
he might have fought he faw this date which he was
feeking, and that his imagination might have reprefent¬
ed it to him in as lively a manner as if he had actually
feen it. Neither is it furprifing that he fhould have
opened the almanac at the month of December ; the
cuftom of perufing. this month muft have made him
find it in the dark by a mere mechanical operation.
Man never feems to be a machine fo much as in the
Hate of fomnambulifm ; it is then that habit comes to
fupply thofe of the fenfes that cannot be ferviceable,
and that it makes theperfon a£t with as-much precifion
as if all his fenfes were in the utmoft adtivity. Thefe
circumftances deftroy the idea of there being any thing
miraculous in the behaviour of young Devaud with re-
fpedt to the date and the month that he was in queft of;
and the reader, who has entered into our explanations,
will not be furprifed at his knowing the German alma¬
nac ; the touch alone was fufficient to point it out to
him ; and the proof of this is the fhortnefs of the time
that it remained in his hands.
“ An experiment was made by changing the place
of the ink-ftandifii during the time that Devaud was
writing. He had a light befide him, and had certified
himfelf of the place where his ink-holder was Handing
by means of fight. From that time he continued to
take ink with precifion, without being obliged to open
his eyes again : but the ink-Handifh being removed, he
returned as ui'ual to the place where he thought it was:
It mult be obferved, that the motion of his hand was
rapid till it reached the height of the Handifh, and then
he moved it flswly, till the pen gently touched the
table as he was feeking for the ink: he then perceived
that a trick had been pht on him, and complained of
it; he went in fearch of his ink-Handifh and put it in
its place. This experiment was feveral times repeated,
and always attended with the fame circumHances. Does
not what we have Hre Hated prove, that the ftandifh,
the paper, the table, &c. are painted on his imagination
in as lively a manner as if he really faw them, as he
fought the real Handifh in the place where his imagina¬
tion told him it ought to have been ? Does it not prove
that the fame lively imagination is the caufc of the
moH fingular adtions of this fleep-walker ? And lafily,
does it not prove, that a mere glance of his eye is fuffi¬
cient to make his impreffions as lively as durable ?
“ The committee, upon the whole, recommend to
fuch as wifh to repeat the fame experiments, 1. To
make their obfervations on different fleep walkers. 2.
To examine often whether they can read books that are
unknown to them in perfedt darknefs. 3. To obferve
whether they can tell the hours on a watch in the dark.
4. To remove when they write the ink-ffandifh from its
place, to fee whether they will return to the fame place
in order to take ink. 5. And, laftly, to take notice
whether they walk with the fame confidence in a dark
8 and
Blefwick,
S L E [ 537 1
SI«epe« snd unknown place, as in one with which they are ae- the ocean
II quamted,
j *l They likewife recommend to fuch as would con¬
firm or invalidate the above obfervations, ta>make all
their experiments in the dark ; becaufe it has been hi¬
therto fuppofed that the eyes of fleep-walkers are of no
life to them.”
SLEEPERS, in natural hiftory, a name given to
thofe animals which fieep all winter ; fuch as bears,
marmots, dormice, _ bats, hedgehogs, fwallows, &c.
ihele do not feed in winter, liave no fenfible evacua¬
tions, breathe little or none at all, and moft of the
viicera ceafe from their fundlions. Some of thefe crea¬
tures feem to be dead, and others return to a ftate like
that of the foetus before birth : in this ftate they con-
tinue, till by new heat the fluids are attenuated, the
amma1 is reftored to life, and the funefions begin where
they deft off. °
Sleepers, in a fln'p, timbers lying before and aft in
the bottom of the ftiip, as the rungheads do : the lower-
moit of them is bolted to the rungheads, and the up-
permoft to the futtocks and rungs.
SLEIDAN (John), an excellent German hiftorian,
bom ot obfeure parents, in 1506, at Sleidan, a fmall
tovvn on the confines of the duchy of juliers. After
Ludymg fome time in his own country, together with
h.s townfman the learned John Sturmius, he went to
France, and in 15^, ,
cardinal and archbifhop John du Bellay. He retired
to htrafburg in 1542, where he acquired the efteem
and fnendfh.p of the moft confiderable perfons, parti¬
cularly o. James Sturmius; by whofe advice and affift-
ance he was enabled to write the hiftory of his own
5ir”e' , e ^as employed in fome public negociations :
but the death of his wife, in lyyy, plunged him into fo
deep a melancholy, that he loft his memory entirely, and
IT f°nowin|- In x555 came out, in folio,
ne //atu Rdigwrm et Republic* Jub Carolo 9uinto, &c.
m 25 books; from the year 1517, when Luther began
to preach, to the year of its publication; which hiftory
was prefently tranflated into moft of the languages of
Europe. Belides this great work, he wrote, De qua-
tuor fumms Imperils, libri tres ; with fome other hiilo-
ncal and political pieces-
HAND= '^ee Legerdemain,
w ju jT,?DE* the anc‘ent Scots name of the
blood-hound. The word is from the Saxon flot, “ the
ampreffion that a deer leaves of its foot in the mire,”
and bound2 a dog” • f0 they derive their name from
folWmg the track. See the article Bioon-Hound.
cu^WlLK, an ancient and confiderable town of
Denmark, and capital of a duchy of the fame name in
the province of Gottorp, with a bifhop’s fee, fecularized
in i S86. Clofe to it is the old palace of Gottorp, for-
the^ftadA refldence’ but at Pre^nt inhabited by
the ftadtholder or governor. This town was once much
more confideraHe than it is at prefent, having fuffered
Tdnl/ofSI W?,rS Gerfnany* L ^ feated on the
gulph of Sley, where there is a good harbour, 60 miles
north-weft of Lubeck and 125 fouth-weft ofCopenhagen.
A. Bong. 10. o. N. Lat. 54. 40.
Sleswick, the duchy of, or Soutl Jutland, is about
T ^ 'i ungth and 60 breadth It is bounded
«n the north by North Jutland, on the eaft by the Bal.
VoTXVII.6 Part llj Holllein» and on the wcft by
S L 1
It contains 14 cities, 17 towns, 13 caftles,
278 parffhes, 1480 villages, 162 farms, 116 water-mills,
and io5 gentlemens feats. It is a pleafant, fertile, po¬
pulous country, and a fovereign duchy. Formerly the
king of Denmark had half of it, and the other belong¬
ed to the home of Holftein-Gottorp; but the former
having conquered this duchy, had the pofTeflion of it
confirmed to him by the treaty of the north in 1720.
In 1731, a prince of Bareith-Culmbach was made go-
vernor of this duchy, who refides at Gottorp.
SUCH, in metallurgy, the ore of any metal, parti¬
cularly of gold, when it has been pounded, and prepa¬
red for farther working.
The manner of preparing the fiich at Chremnitz in
Hungary is this ; they lay a foundation of wood three
yards deep, upon this they place the ore, and over this
there are 24 beams, armed at their bottoms with iron ;
thefe, by a continual motion, beat and grind the ore,
tdl it is reduced to powder; during this operation,
the ore is covered with water. There a-e four wheels
ufed to move thefe beams, each wheel moving fix ; and
the water, as it runs off, carrying fome of the metalline
particles with it, is received into feveral bafons, one
placed behind another ; and finally, after having paffed
through them all, and depofited fome fediment in each,
it is let off into a very large pit, almoft half an acre i*
extent ; in which it is fuffered to Hand fo long, as to
r T • . .V . wtTc 10 extent 5 in which it is iuffered to ftand fo long-, as to
"op John dliBelkv^H6 TT aI1 ita fediment, of whatever kind, and after this
10P JTm T B<%* He retired it is let out. This work is carried on day and night,
and the ore taken away and replaced by more as often'
as occafion requires. That ore which lies next the
beams, by which it was pounded, is always the cleanell
or ncheft.
When the flich is wafhed as much as they can, a
hundred weight of it ufually contains about an ounce,
or perhaps but half an ounce of metal, which is not all
gold ; for there is al ways a mixture of gold and filver,
but the gold is in the largeft quantity, and ufually is
two-thirds of the mixture: they then put the flich in¬
to a furnace with fome limeftonc, and flacken, or the
fcona of former meltings, and run them together. The
firft melting produces a fubftance called led ; this lech
they burn with charcoal, to make it lighter, to open its
body, and render it porous, after which it is called roll;
to this roll they add fand in fuch quantity as they find
neceflary, and then melt it pver again.
. ^ Chremnitz they have many other ways of redu¬
cing gold out of its ore, but particularly one, in which
they employ no lead during the whole operation ;
whereas, in general, lead is always neceffary, after the
before mentioned proceffcs. See Gold.
. SLIDING rule, a mathematical inftrument, fer-
vmg to work queftions in gauging, meafuring, &c. with¬
out the ufe of compaffes ; merely by the Aiding of the
parts of the inftrument one by another, the lines and
divifions whereof give the aafwer by Upeftion.
I his inilrument is varioufly contrived, and applied
by various authors, particularly Everard, CoggefhJl,
Gunter, Hunt, and Partridge; but the moft common
ana ufeful are thofe of Everard and Coggefhall.
SLIGO, a county, in the province of Connaught,
Ireland, 25 miles in length, and as much in breadth ;
bounded on the eaft by that of Leitrim, on the weft
by the county of Mayo, on the north and north weft
by the weftern ocean, and on the feuth and fouth-weft
3 Y bv
/
Sling
Sloane.
S L
by Rofcommon and Mayo.
41 parifhes, 6 baronies, r borough, and fends 4 mem¬
bers to parliament, two for the county, and two for the
borough of tire fame name, which is the only market-
town in the county, and is feated on a bay of the, fame
name, 30 miles well of Killalla, and r 10 north-eaft of
Dublin. W. Long. 8. 26. N. Lat. 54. 13.
SLING, an inftrument ferving for calling Hones
with great violence. The inhabitants of the Balearic
iflands were famous in antiquity for the dexterous ma¬
nagement of the fling : it is faid they ufed three kinds
of flings, fome longer, others fhorter, which they ufed
according as their enemies were either nearer or more,
remote, ft it added, that the firlt ferved them for a
head-band, the fecond for a girdle, and that the third
they conllantly carried in their hand.
SLINGING is uftd varioufly at fea ; but chiefly
for hoifting up calks or other heavy things with
flings, i.e. contrivances of ropes fpliced into themfelves
at either end, with one eye big enough to receive the
calk or whatever is to be flung. There are other flings,
which are made longer, and with a fmall eye at each
end ; one of which is, put over the breech of a piece of
ordnance, and the other eye comes over the end of an
iron- crow, which is put into the mouth of the piece,
to weigh and hoife the gun as they pleafe. There are
alfo flings by which the yards are bound faft to. the
crofs-tree aloft, and to the head of the ’•nail, with a
flrong rope or chain, that if the tie fliould happen to
break, or to be fhot to pieces in fight, the yard, never-
t helefs, may not fall upon the hatches.
Swinging a Man overboard, in order to flop a leak in
a (hip, is done thus : the man is trufled up about the
middle in a piece of canvas, and a rope to keep him
from finking, with his arms at liberty, a mallet in one
hand, and a plug, wrapped in oakum and well tarred in
a tarpawling clout, in the other, which he is to beat
with all difpatch into the hole or leak.
SLOANE (Sir Hans), baronet, eminently diftin-
guifhed as a phylician and.a natuialift, was of Scotch ex-
tradlion, his father Alexander Sloane being at the head
of that colony of Scots which King James I. fettled in
the north of Ireland, where our author was born, at
Killieagh, on the 16th of April 1660. At a very early
period, he difplayed a flrong inclination for natural hi-
ilory ; and this propenfity being encouraged by a fuit-
able education, he employed thofe hours which young
people generally lofe by purfuing low and trifling amufe-
ments, in the iludy of nature, and contemplating her
works. When about iixteen, he was attacked by a
fpitting of blood, which threatened to be attended- with
confiderable danger, and which interrupted the regular
courfe of his application for three years ; he had, how¬
ever, already learned enough of phyfic to know that a
malady of this kind was not to be removed fuddenly,
and he prudently abflained from wine and other liquors
that were likely to increafe it.
By ftridlly obferving this fevere regimen, which in
fome meafure he continued ever after, he was enabled
to prolong his life beyond the ordinary bounds ; being
an example ot the truth of his own favourite maxim,
that lobriety, temperance, and moderation, are the befl
and moft powerful prefervatives that nature has granted
to mankind.
As foon as he recovered from this infirmity, he re-
O [ J3* 1 ; s L o
It contains 5970 houfes, folved to perfe& himfelf in the different branches of
phyfic, which was the profefiion he had made choice
Sfoane.
of; and with this view he repaired to London, where he
hoped to receive that affiflance which he could not find
in his own country.
On his arrival in the metropolis, he entered himfelf
as a pupil to the great Stafforth, an excellent chemifl,
bred under the illuftrious Stahl; and by his inftnidtions
he gained a perfedl knowledge of the compoiition and
preparation of the different kinds of medicines then in
ufe. At the fame time, he fludied botany at the cele¬
brated garden at Chelfea, afliduoufly attended the pub¬
lic ledlures of anatomy and phyfic, and in fhort negledl-
ed nothing that he thought likely to prove ferviceable
to him iu his future pradtice. His principal merit,
however, was his knowledge of natural hiftory ; and it
was this part of his character which introduced him-
early to the acquaintance of Mr Boyde and Mr Ray,
two of the moft eminent naturalifts of that age. His
intimacy with thefe diflinguifhed charadlers continued
as long as they lived ; and as he was careful to com¬
municate to them every ohjedt of curiofity that at¬
tracted his attention, the obfervations which he occa-
flonally made often excited their admiration and obtain¬
ed their applaufe.
After ftudying four yrears at London with unremit¬
ting feverity, Mr Sloane determined to vifit foreign
countries for farther improvement. In this view he
fet out for France in the company of two other flu-
dents, and having crofled to Dieppe, proceeded to Pa¬
ris. In the way thither they weie elegantly entertain¬
ed by the famous M. Lemery the elder ; and in return
Mr Sloane prefcnted that eminent chemift with a fpeci-
men of four different kinds of phofphorus, of which,
upon the credit of other wiiters, M. Lemery had treat¬
ed in his book of chemiftry, though he had never feen
any of them.
At Paris Mr Sloane lived as he had done in Lon¬
don. He attended the hofpitals, heard the le&ures of
Tournefort, De Verney, and other eminent matters ;
vifited all the literati, who received him with particular
marks of efteera, and employed himfelf wholly iu
Iludy.
From Paris Mr Sloane went to Montpelier ; and, be¬
ing furniflied with letters of recommendation from M.
Tournefort ta M. Chirac, then chancellor of that uni-
verfity, he found eafy accefs, through his means, to all
the learned men of the province, particularly to M.
Magnol, who in he always accompanied in his botanical
excurfions in the environs of that city, where he beheld
with pleafure and admiration the fpontaneous produc¬
tions of nature, and learned under his inftruCtions to-
clafs them in a proper manner.
Having here found an ample field for contemplation,
which was entirely fuited to his tafte, he took leave 06
his two companions, whom a curiofity of a different
kind led into Italy.
After fpending a whole year in colle&ing plants, he-
travelled through Languedoc with the fame defign ;
and paffing through Thouloufe and Bourdeaux, return¬
ed to Paris, where he made a fhort flay. About the
end of the year 1684 he fet out for England, with an
intention of fettling there as a phyfician. On his ar¬
rival in London, he made it his firfl bulinefs to yifit his
two illuftrious friends Mr Ray and Mr Boyle, in order
to
S L O [ 539 1 S L G
fcloane. to communicate to them the difcoveries he had made
“‘“v ' in his travels. ’Ihe latter he found at home, but
the former had retired to Eflex ; to which place Mr
Sloane tranfmitted a great variety of plants and feeds,
which Mr Ray has deferibed in his Hiftory of Plants,
and for which he makes a proper acknowledgment.
About the year 1706 our author became acquainted
with the celebrated Sydenham ; who foon contracted fo
'warm an affedfion for him that he took him into his
houfe, and recommended him in the ftrongeft manner to
his patients. He had not been long in London before
he was propofed by Dr Martin Lifter as a candidate to
be admitted a member of the Royal Society, on the
26th ol November 1684 ; and being approved, he was
•elefted on the 21ft of January following.
In 1685 he communicated fome curiolities to the So¬
ciety ; and in July the fame year he was a candidate for
the office of their affiftant fecretary, but without fuc-
cefs, as he was obliged to give way to the fuperior in-
tefeft of his competitor Dr Halley. On the 1 2th of
April 1687, he was chofen a fellow of the college of
phyficians in London ; and the fame year his friend and
fellow traveller Dr Tancred Robinfon, having mention¬
ed to the Society the plant called the Jlar of the earth,
as a remedy newly difeovered for the bite of a mad dog,
Dr Sloane acquainted them that this virtue of the plant
was to be found in a book called De Grey’s Farriery ;
and that he knew a man who had cured with it twenty
couple of dogs. This obfervation he made on the 13th
-of July, and on the 12th of September following he
embarked at Portfmouth for Jamaica with the duke of
Albemarle, who had been appointed governor of that
Jfland. The doclor attended his grace in quality of
phyfician, and arrived at Jamaica on the 19th of De¬
cember following.
Here a new field was opened for frefh difcoveries in
natural productions ; but the world would have been
deprived of the fruits of them, had not our author, by
incredible application, converted, as we may fay, his
minutes into hours. The duke of Albemarle died foon
aiter he landed, and the duchefs determined to return
to England whenever an anfwer fhould be received to
the letter fhe had fent to court on that melancholy oc-
cafion. As Dr Sloane could not think of leaving her
grace in her diftrefs, whilft the reft of her retinue were
preparing for their departure he improved it in making
colledions of natural cmiofities ; fo that though his
whole ftay at Jamaica was not above fifteen months, he
brought together fuch a prodigious number of plants,
that on his return to England Mr Ray was aftonifhed
that one man could procure in one ifland, and in fo
fhdrt a fpace, fo vaft a variety.
On his arrival in London he applied himfelf to the
praftice of his profefiion ; and foon became fo eminent,
that he was chofen phyfician to Chrift’s Hofpital on
the 17th of October J 694 : and this office he held till
the year 1730, when, on account of his great age and
infirmities, he found it neceffary to refign. It is fome-
what lingular, and redounds much to the DoCtor’s ho¬
nour, that though he received the emoluments of his
office punctually, becaufe he would not lay do a pre¬
cedent which might hurt his fucceffors, yet he conftant-
Jy applied the money to the -relief of thofe who were
the greateft objects of compafiion in the hofpital, that
at might never be laid he enriched himfelf by giving
health to the poor. He had been elected fecretary to
the Royal Society on the 30th of November 1693 ;
and upon this eccafion be revived the publication of
the Philofophical TranfaCtions, which had been omit¬
ted for fome time. He continued to be the editor of
this work till the year 1712; and the volumes which
appeared during that period are monuments of his in-
duftry and ingenuity, many of the pieces contained in
them being written by himfelf.
In the mean time he publifhed Catalogus Plantarum
qua in Infula Jamaica fponte proveniunt, &c. Seu Pro-
clromi Hijlor 'ue Nuturalis pars prima, which he dedica-
cated to the Royal Society and College of Phyficians.
About the fame time he formed the plan of a difpen-
fary, where the poor might be furnifhed at prime coft
with fuch medicines as their feveral maladies might re¬
quire ; which he afterwards carried into execution, with
the affiftance of the prefident and other members of the
college of phyficians.
Our author’s thirft for natural knowledge feems to
have been born with him, fo that his cabinet of cutio-
fities may be faid to have commenced with his being.
He was continually enriching and enlarging it ; and
the fame which, in the courfe of a few years, it had ac¬
quired, brought every thing that was curious in art or
nature to be firft offered to him for purchafe. Thefe
acquifitions, however, increafed it but very flowly in
comparifon of the augmentation it received in 17CJ
by the death of William Courten, Efq; a' gentleman
who had employed all his time, and the greater part of
his fortune, in colleding rarities, and who bequeathed
the whole to Dr Sloane, on condition of his paying cer¬
tain debts and legacies with which he had charged ig.
Thefe terms our author accepted, and he executed the
will of the donor with the moft fcrupulous exa&nefs j
on which account fome people have faid, that he pur-
chafed Mr Courten’s curiofitres at a dear rate.
In 1707 the firft volume ofDrSloane’s Natural Hif¬
tory of Jamaica appeared in folio, though the publica¬
tion of the fecond was delayed till 1725. By this very
ufeful as well as magnificent work the materia medica
was enriched with a great number of excellent drugs
not before known. In 1708 the Doctor was ele&ed a
foreign member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, in the room of Mr Tfchirnaus ; an honour ft,
much the greater, as we were then at war with France,
and the queen’s exprefs confent was neceffary before he
could accept it. In proportion as his credit rofe among
the learned, his pra&ice increafed among the people of
rank : Queen Anne herfelf frequently confalted him,
and in her laft illnefs was blooded by him.
On the advancement of George I to the throne,
that prince, on the 3d of April 1716, created the Doc¬
tor a Baronet, an hereditary title of honour to which
no Engliih phyfician had before attained; and at the
fame time made him phyfician general to the army, in
which ftation he continued till 1727, when he was ap¬
pointed phyfician in ordinary to George LI. He at¬
tended the royal family till his death ; and was parti¬
cularly favoured by Queen Caroline, who placed fhe
greateft-confidence in his preferiptions. In the mean
tune he had been unanimoufly chofen one of the eledts
of the college of phyficians June 1. 1716, -and he was
tlcdfed prefident of the fame body on September 30.
1719, an office which he held for fixteen years. Du-
3 ^ 2 ring
Sloane.
S L O [ 54c ] S L O
Sloane. finer that period be not only gave the higheft proofs of
his zeal and afiiduity In the difeharge of his duty, but
in 1721 made a prefent to that fociety of L. ico ; and
fo far remitted a very confiderable debt, which the cor¬
poration owed him, as to accept it In fuch fmall fums as
were lead inconvenient to the flate of their affairs. Sir
Hans was no lefs liberal to other learned bodies. He
had no fooner purchafed the manor of Chelfea, than he
gave the company of apothecaries the entire freehold of
their botanical garden there, upon condition only that
they fhould prefent yearly to the Royal Society fifty
new plants, till the number fhould amount to zooo(a).
He gave beficles feveral other confiderable donations for
the improvement of this garden ; the iituation of which,
on the banks of the Thames, and in the neighbourhood
of the capital, was fuch as to render it ufeful in two
refpedts: Firft, by producing the mofl rare medicinal
plants ; and, fecondly, by ferving as an excellent fchool
for young botanifts ; an advantage v;hich he himfelf
had derived from it in the early part of bis life.
The death of Sir Ifaac Newton, which happened in
1727, made way for the advancement of Sir Hans to
the prefidency of the Royal Society. He had been
vice-prefident, and frequently fat in the chair for that
great man ; and by his long connexion with this learn¬
ed body he had contrafted lo ftrong an affection for it,
that he made them a prefent of an hundred guineas,
eaufed a curious buff of King Charles II. its founder, to
be eretled in the great hall where it met, and, as is
faid, was very inftrumental in procuring Sir Godfrey
Copley’s benefaftion of a medal of the value of five
uineas, to be annually given as an honorary mark of
iftinftion to the perfon who communicates th^ bell ex¬
periments to the Society.
On his being raifed to the chair, Sir Hans laid afide
all thoughts of further promotion, and applied hrmfelf
wholly to the faithful difeharge of the dirties of the of¬
fices which he enjoyed. In this laudable occupation he
employed his time from 1727 to 1740, when, at the
age of fourfeore, he formed a refolution of quitting the
fervice of the public, and of living for himfelf. With
this view he refigned the prefidency of the Royal So¬
ciety much againi! the inclination of that refpe&able
body, who chofe Martin Folkes, Efq; to fucceed him,
and in a public affembly thanked him for the great and
eminent fervices he had rendered them. In the month
of January 1741, he began to remove his library, and
his cabinet of rarities, from his houfe in Bloomfbury to
that at Chelfea ; and on the 12th of March following,
having fettled all his affairs, he retired thither himfelf, to
enjoy in peaceful tranquillity the remains of a well-fpent
life. He did not, however, bury himfelf In that foil. S!oan«,
tude which excludes men from fociety. He received Sloanea,
at Chelfea, as he had done in London, the vifits of
people of diftin&ion, of all learned foreigners, and of
the royal family, who fometimes did him the honour to
w^it on him; but, what was Hill more to his praife, ho
never refufed admittance or advice to rich or poor who
came to confult him concerning their health. Not con¬
tented with this contradled method of doing good, he
now, during his retreat, prelented to the public fuch
ufeful remedies as fuccefs had warranted, during the
courfe of a l@ng continued praftice. Among thefe is
the efficacious receipt for dillempers in the eyes, and
his remedy for the bite of a mad dog.
During the whole courfe of his life. Sir Hans had
lived with fo much temperance, as had preferred him
from feeling the infirmities of old age ; but in his 90th
year he began to complain of pains, and to be fenfible
of an univerfal decay. He was often heard to fay, that
the approach of death brought no terrors along with
it ; that he had long expefted the ftroke ; and that he
was prepared to receive it whenever the great Author
of his being ffiould think fit. After a ffiort illnefs of
three days, he died on the nth of January 1752, and
was interred on the 18th at Chelfea, in the fame vault
with his lady, the folemnity being attended with the
greateft concourfe of people, of all ranks and conditions;,
that had ever been feen beiore on the like occafioji.
Sir Hans being extremely felicitous left his cabinet
of curioirties, which he had taken fo much pains to col-
left, ftrould be again diffipated at his death, and being
at the fame time unwilling that fo large a portion of
his fortune ffiould be loft to his children, he bequeathed
it to the public, on condition that L. 30,000 ffiould be
made good by parliament to his family. This fum,
though large in appearance, was fcarcely more than the
intrinfic value of the gold and filver medals, the ores
and precious ftones that were found in it ; for in his
laft will he declares, that the firft coft of the whole
amounted at leaft to L. 50,000. Befides his library,
confifting of more than 50,000 volumes, 347 of which
were illuftrated with cuts finely engraven and coloured
from nature, there were 35^0 manufcripts, and an infi¬
nite number of rare and curious works of every kind,
Tire parliament accepted the legacy, and fulfilled the
conditions.
SLOANEA, in botany; A genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of polyandria, and order of mono-
gynia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
50th order, Amentacea. The corolla is pentapetalous f
the calyx pentaphyilous and deciduous; the fttgma ie
perforated 5
(a) This garden was firft eftabliffied by the company in 1675 5 an^ having after that period been flocked by
them with a great variety of plants, for the improvement of botany, Sir Hans, in order to encourage fo fervice-
able an undertaking, granted to the company the inheritance of it, being part of his eftate and manor of Chelfea,
on condition that it ffiould be for ever preferred as a phyfic garden. As a proof of its being fo maintained, he
obliged the company, in confideration of the (aid grant, to prefent yearly to the Royal Society, in one of their
weekly meetings, fifty fpecimens of plants that had grown in the garden the preceding year, and which were all
to be fpecifically diftinft from each other, until the number of two thouland ffiould be completed. This num¬
ber was completed in the year 1 761. In 1733 the company erefted a marble ftatue of Sir Hans, executed
by Ryfbrac, which is placed upon a pedeftal in the centre of the garden, with a Latin infeription, expreffing lust
(donation, and the defign and advantages of it.
S L U
8!ee
II
Sluice.
perforated ; the berry is corticofe, echinated, polyfper-
mous, and gaping. There are two fpecies, the dentata
I and emarginata.
SLOE. See Prunus.
SLOOP, a fmall vdiel fU'rniihed with one mail, the
mainfail of which is attached to a gaff above, or to the
mail on its foremoft edge, and to a long boom below,
by which it is occaiionally Ihifted to either quarter. See
Ship.
Slqop of War, a name given to the fmalleft veffels of
war 'except,cutters. ri hey are either rigged as ffiips or
fnows.
SLOT, in the fportfman’s language, a term ufed to
txpiefs the mark ol the foot of a flag or other animal
proper for the chace in the clay or earth, by which
they are able to guefs when the animal palled, and
which way he went. The flot, or treading of the
C 54> 1
S M A
>Lg» is very nicely ftudied on this occafion ; if the
tiot be large, deep printed in the ground, and with
an open cleft, and, added to thefe marks, there is
a large fpace between mark and mark, it is certain that
the flag is an old one. If there be obferved the dots
or treadings of two, the one long and the other round,
and both of one fize, the long ffot is always that of the
larger animal, d here is alfo another way of knowing
the old ones from the young ones by the treading;
which is, that the hinder feet of the old ones never
reach to their fore feet, whereas thofe of the youn<>-
ones do. °
SLOTH, in zoology. See Bradypus.
SLOUGH, a deep muddy place. The caff fkin of
a fnake, the damp of a coal pit, and the fear of a wound,
are alfo called by the fame appellation. The Hough of
a wild boar is the bed, foil, or mire, wherein he wallows,
or in which he lies in the day-time.
SLUCZK, a large and populous town in Poland, in
Lithuania, anu capital of a duchy of the fame name ;
famous for three battles gained here by Conftantine
duke of Oftrog over the Tartars, in the reign of Sigif-
xijund I. It is feated on the river Sluczk, 72 miles
fouth-eaft of IVIiniki, and 7,0 fouth of Novogrodeck.
E. Long. 27. 44. N= Lat. 53. 2.
SLUG, in zoology. See Limax.
SLUICE, a frame of timber, ffone, or other matter,
ferving to retain and raife the water of a river, &c. and
cn occalion to let it pals.
Such is the fluice of a mill, which ftope and colle&s
the water of a rivulet, &c. to let it fall at length in the
greater plenty upon the mill-wheel: fuch alfo are thofe
ufed as vents or drains to difeharge water off land.
And fuch are the fluices of Flanders, &c. which ferve
to prevent the waters of the fea from overflowino1 the
lower lands. 0
Sometimes there is a kind of canal inclofed betv/een
two gates or Unices, in artificial navigations, to fave the
water, and render the paflage of boats equally eafy and
fafe, upwards and downwards ; as in the ffuices of Bri-
are in France, which are a kind of maffive walls built
parallel to each other, at the diftance of 20 or 24 feet,
elofed with ftrong gates at each end, between which is
a kind of canal or chamber, conliderably longer than
broad ; wherein a veflel being inclofed, the water is let
out at the fu ff gate, by whtch the veflel is raifed 15 or
10 feet, and paffed out of this canal into another much
ing ier. By fuch means a boat is conveyed out of the
Loire into the Seine, though the ground between them Sin Icq
rife above 150 feet higher than either of thofe rivers^;. II
Sluices are made different ways, according to the ufe , Smalty
for which they are intended : when they ferve for navi- f See
gation, they are fhut witn two gates, prefenting an/w/.
angle towards the ftream ; when they are made near the
fea, two pair of gates are made, the one to keep the
water out and the other in, as oecanon requires ; in thin
cafe, the gates towards the fea prefent an angle that
way, and the others the contrary way ; and the fpace
inclofed by thole gates is called the chamber. When
duices are made in the ditches of a fortrefs, to keep up
the water ift fomc parts, inftead of gates, {butters are
made fo as to Hide up and down in grooves ; and when
they are made to raife an inundation, they are then {hut
by means of fquare timbers let down in culliies, fo as to
lie clofe and firm,
The wordy/a/rt- is formed ©f the French efchfe, which
Menage derives from the Latin exclufa, found in the
Salic law in the fame fenfe. But this is to be reftrained
to the duices of mills, &c. for as to thofe ferving to raife
veflels, they were wholly unknown to the ancients.
SLUR, in mulic, a mark like the arch of a circle,
drawn from one note to another, comprehending two
or more notes in the fame or different degrees. If the
notes are in different degrees, it dgnifies that they are
all to be fung to one fyllable ; for wind inftrunients, that
they are to be made in one continued breath ; and for
ftringed inffruments that are {truck with a bow, as a
violin, &c. that they are made with one ftroke. If the
notes are in the fame degree, it fignifks that it is all
one note, to be made as long as the whole notes fo con¬
nected ; and this happens molt frequently betwixt the
laft note of one line and the firft of the next ; which is
particularly called fyncopaticn.
SLUYS, a town of Dutch Flanders, oppofite the
idand of Cadfand, with a good harbour, 1 o miles north
of Bruges. E. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat. 51. 19.
SMriCK, a fmall veffel, commonly rigged asadoop
or hoy, ufed in the coafting or fifhing "trade, or as a
tender in the king’s fervice,
SMALAND, or East Gothland, a province of
Sweden, which makes part ol Gothland and is bound¬
ed on the north by Ollrogothia or Fall Gothland, on
the eaff by the Baltic Sea, on the fouth by Schonen
and Bleckingia, and on the weft by Weftrogothia or
Weft Gothland. It is about 11 2 miles in length, and
62 fn breadth. Calmar is the capital town.
SMALKALD, a town of Germany, in Franconia,
and in the county of Henneberg : famous for the con¬
federacy entered into by the German Proteftants againft
the emperor, commonly called the league of Smalka/d.
The defign of it was to defend |heir religion and liber¬
ties. It is feated on the river Werra, 2 3 miles fouth-
weft of Friord, and 50 north-weft of Bamberg. E.
Long, jo. 53. N. Lat. 50.49. It is fubjeCt to the
prince of Heffe-Caffel. J
SMALLAGE, in botany. See Apium.
SMALT, a kind of glafs of a dark blue colour,
which when levigated appears of a moft beautiful co¬
lour; and if it could be made fufficiently fine, would be
an excellent fuccedaneum for ultramarine, as not only
refilling all kinds of weather, but even the moft violent
fires. It is prepared by melting one part of calcined*
cobalt with two of flint powder, and one of pot-afh
1 a£
S M E r 542 1 S M E
€r»arasr’us At tlie bottoms of the crucibles in which the fmalt is-
Smeaton. manufa£tured we generally find a regulus of a whitifh
^"v_ colour inclining to red, and extremely brittle. This is
melted afreih, and when cold feparates into two parts ;
that at the bottom is the cobalt'C regulus, which is em¬
ployed to make more of the fmalt; the other is bif-
muth.
SiVfARAGDUS, in natural hiftory. See Eme¬
rald.'
SMEATON (John), an eminent civil engineer, was
born the 28th of May 1724, O. S. at Aufthorpe, near
Leeds, in a houfe built by his grandfather, and where
his family have refided ever fince.
The ftrength of his underftanding and the originality
of his genius appeared at an early age ; his playthings
were not the playthings of children, but the tools which
men employ; and he appeared to have greater entertain¬
ment in feeing the men in the neighbourhood work,
-and afking them queftions, than in any thing elfe. One
day he was feen (to the diftrefs of his family) on the
top of his father’s barn, fixing up fomething like a
windmill ; another time, he attended fome men fixing
a pump at a neighbouring village, and obferving them
cut off a piece of bored pipe, he was fo lucky as to pro¬
cure it, and he actually made with it a w-orking pump
that raifed water. Thefe anecdotes refer to circum-
ftances that happened while he was in petticoats,( and
moil likely before he attained his fixth year.
About his 14th and 15th year, he had made for
himfelf an engine for turnings and made feveral pre-
fents to his friends of boxes in ivory or wood very
neatly turned. He forged his iron and fteel, and
melted his metal; he had tools of every fort for
working in wood, ivory, and metals. He had made a
lathe, by which he had cut a perpetual ferew in brals,
a thing little known at that day, which was the inveiri
tion of Mr Henry Hindley of York ; with whom Mr
Smeaton foon became acquainted, and they fpent many
a night at Mr Hindley’s houfe till day-light, converfing
on thofe fubje&s.
Thus had Mr Smeaton, by the flrength of his ge¬
nius and indefatigable induftry, acquired, at the age of
18, au extenfive fet of tools, and the art of working in
moft of the mechanical trades, without the affiftance of
any mailer. A part of every day was generally oc¬
cupied in forming fome ingenious piece of mecha-
nifm.
Mr Smeaton’s father was an attorney, and defirous
hf bringing him up to the fame profeffion, Mr Smea-
ton therefore came up to London in 1742, and attend¬
ed the courts in Weftminfter hall; but finding (as his
common expreffion was) that the law did not fuit the
bent of his genius, he wrote a ftrong memorial to his
father on that fubjett; whefe good fenfe from that mo¬
ment left Mr Smeaton to purfue the bent of his genius
in his own way.
In 1751 he began a courfe of experiments to try a
machine of his invention to meafure a fhip s way at lea,
and alfo made two voyages in company with Dr Knight
te try it, and a compats of his own invention and ma¬
king, which was made magnetical by Dr Knight’s arti¬
ficial magnets : the fecund voyage was made in the For¬
tune floop of war, commanded at that time by Captain
Alexander Campbell.
f Q *753 was ele&ed member of the Royal So¬
ciety ; the number of papers publifhed in their Tranf- Smeafba.
actions will fliow the univerfality of his genius and L——v—-*
knowledge- In 1759 he was honoured by an unani¬
mous vote with their gold medal for his paper intitled
“ An Experimental Inquiry concerning the Natural
•Powers of Water and Wind to turn Mills, and other
Machines depending on a Circular Motion.”
This paper, he fays, was the refult of experiments
made on working models in the years 1752 and 1753*
“but not communicated to the Society till 1759; before
which time he had an opportunity of putting the effedt
of thefe experiments into real praftice, in a variety of
cafes, and for various purpofes, fo as to affure the So¬
ciety he had found them to anfwer.
In December 1755, the Eddyftone lighthoufe was
burnt down : Mr Wefton, the chief proprietor, and the
others, being defirous of rebuilding it in the moll fub-
flantial manner, inquired of the earl of Macclesfield
(then prefident of the Royal Society) whom he thought
the moll proper to rebuild it; his Lordfhip recommend¬
ed Mr Smeaton.
Mr Smeaton undertook the work, and completed it
in the fummer of 1759-. Of this Mr Smeaton gives an
ample defeription in the velume he publifhed in 1791 :
that edition has been fold fome time ago, and a fecond is
now in the prefs, under the revifal of his much efleemed
friend Mr Aubert, F. R. S. and governor of the Lon¬
don aflurance corporation.
Though Mr Smeaton completed the building of the
Eddyflone lighthoufe in 1759 (a work that does him lo
much credit), yet it appears he did not foon get into
full bulinefs as a civil engineer ; for in 1764, while in
Yorkfhire, he offered himfelf a candidate for one of
the receivers of the Derwentwater eflate ; and on the
31ft of December in that year, he was appointed at a
full board of Greenwich hofpital, in a manner highly
flattering to himfelf ; when two other perfons flrongly
recommended and power fully fupported were candidates
for the employment. In this appointment he was very
happy, by the afiillance and abilities of his partner Mr
Walton one of the receivers, who taking upon himfelf the '
management and accounts, left Mr Smeaton leifure and
opportunity to exert his abilities on public works, as welt
as to make many improvements in the mills and in the
eilates of Greenwich hofpital. By the year 1'75 he
had fo much bufinefs as a civil engineer, that he wifhed
to reflgn this appointment; and would have done it
then, had not his friends the late Mr Stuart the hofpi¬
tal furveyor, and Mr Ibbetfon their fecretary, prevailed
upon him to continue in the office about two years
longer.
Mr Smeaton having now got into full buiinefs as a
civil engineer, performed many works of general utili¬
ty. He made the river Calder navigable; a work that
required great fkill and judgment, owing to the very
impetuous floods in that river: He planned and at¬
tended the execution of the great canal in Scotland for
conveying the trade of the country either to the Atlan¬
tic or German ocean ; andjiaving brought it to the
place originally intended, he declined a handforne year¬
ly falary, in order that he might attend to the multi¬
plicity of his other bufinefs.
On the opening of the great arch at London bridge,
the excavation around and under the flerlings was fo
conliderabie, that the bridge was thought to be in
great
$ M E [ 543 ] S M E
Smeaten. great danger of falling. He was then in Yorkfhire,
and was fent for by cxprefs, and arrived with the ut-
moft difpatch : “ I think (fays Mr Holmes, the au¬
thor of his life) it was on a Saturday morning, when
the apprehenfion of the bridge was fo general that few
would pafs over or under it. He applied himfelf im¬
mediately to examine it, and to found about the fterlings
as minutely as he could ; and the committee being call¬
ed together, adopted his advice, which was to repur-
chafe the hones that had been taken from the middle
pier, then lying in Moorfields, and to throw them into
the river to guard the fterb'ngs,” Nothing fhows the
apprehenfions concerning the falling of the bridge more
than the alacrity with which this advice was purfued ;
the Hones were repurchafed that day, horfes, carts, and
barges, were got ready, and they began the work on
Sunday morning. Thus Mr Smeaton, in all human
probability, faved Tondon-biidge from falling, and fe*
cured it till more effectual methods could be taken.
The vaft variety of mills which Mr Smeaton con-
ftrudted, fo greatly to the fatisfaftion and advantage of
the owners, will fhow the great ufe which he made of
his experiments in 17.52 and 1753; for he never traded
to theory in any cafe where he could have an oppor¬
tunity to inveftigate it by experiment. He built a
fteam engine at Aufthorpe, and made experiments
thereon, purpofely to afcertain the power of Newco¬
men’s fteam engine, which he improved and brought to
a far greater degree of perfection, both in its conftruc-
tion and powers, than it was before.
Mr Smeaton during many years of his life was a
frequent attendant on parliament, his opinion being con¬
tinually called for ; and here his ftrength of judgment
and perfpicuity of expreftion had its full diiplay : it
was his conftant cuftom, when applied to, to plan or
fupport any meafure, to make himfelf fully acquainted
with it, to fee its merits before he would engage in it :■
by this caution, added to the clearnefs of his deferip-
tion and the integrity of his heart, he feldom failed to
obtain for the bill which he fupported an aft of parlia¬
ment. No one was heard with more attention, nor had
any one ever more confidence placed in his teftimony.
In the courts of law he had feveral compliments paid'
him from the bench by Lord Mansfield and others, for
the new light which he threw on difficult fubjefts.
About the year 1785 Mr Smeaton’s health began to
decline ; and he then took the refolution to endeavour
to avoid all the bufinefs he could, fo that he might
have leilure to publifh an account of his inventions and
works, which was certainly the firft wifti of his heart ;
for he has often been heard to fay, that “ he thought
he could not render fo much fervice to his country as
by doing that.” He got only his account of the Ed-
dyftone lighthoufe completed, and- fome preparations to
his intended Treatife on Mills ; for he could not refiftr
the felicitations of his friends in various works : and
Mr Aubert, whom he greatly loved and refpefted, be-
ing chofen chairman of Rarnfgate harbour, prevailed
upon him to accept the place of engineer to that har¬
bour; and to their joint efforts the public is chiefly in¬
debted for the improvements that have been made
there within thefe few years, which fully appears in a-
report that Mr Smeaton gave in to the board of truftees
in 1791, which they immediately publiflied.
Mr omeaton being at Aufthorpe, walking in his
garden on the 16th of September 1792, wasftruck with Smeaton
the palfy, and died the 28th of Oftober. “ In his ill- c II. 1
nefs (fays Mr Holmes) I had feveral letters from him, Trruj-1,|ery
figned with his name, but written and figned by ano¬
ther’s pen ; the diftion of them {bowed the ftrength of
his mind had not left him. In one written the 26th
of September, after minutely deferibing his health and
feelings, he fays, ‘ in confequence of the foregoing, I
conclude myfelf nine-tenths dead ; and the greateft fa¬
vour the Almighty can do me (as I think), will be to
complete the other part; but as it is likely to be a ling¬
ering illnefs, it is only in His power to fay when that is
likely to happen.”
Mr Smeaton had a warmth of expreffion that might
appear to thofe who did not know him well to border
on harftinefs ; but thofe more intimately acquainted
with him, knew it arofe from the intenfe application of
his mind, which was always in the purfuit of truth, or
engaged in inveftigating difficult fubjefts. He would-
lometimes break out haftiry, when any thing was laid
that did not tally with his ideas ; and he would not
gjve up any thing he argued for1, till his mind was con¬
vinced by found reafoning.
In all the focia-1 duties of life he was exemplary ; he
was a moft affeftionate hufhand, a good father, a warm,
zealous, and fincere friend, always ready to affift thofe
he refpefted, and often before it was pointed out to
him in what way lie could ferve them. He was a lover
and encourager of merit wherever he found it ; and
many men are in a great meaiure indebted to his af-
fiftance and advice for their prefent fituation. Asa
companion, he was always entertaining and inftruftive ;
and none could fpend any time in his company without*
improvement.
SMELL, odouh., with regard to the organ, is an
impreffion made on the nofe by little particles conti¬
nually exhaling from odorous bodies : With regard to
the oh}eft, it is the figure and difpofition of odorous ef¬
fluvia, which, flicking on the organ, excite the fenfe of
fmeljing: And wilft regard to the foul, it is the per¬
ception of the impreffion of the objeft on the organ, or
the affeftion in the foul refulting therefrom." See
Anatomy, n° 140 ; and Metaphysics.
SMELLING, the aft whereby we perceive fmells,
or whereby we become fenfible of odorous bodies, by
means of certain effluvia thereof; which, ftriking on
the olfaftory organ, briflriy enough to have then im-
pulfe propagated to the brain, excite a fenfation in the
foul. The principal organs of fmelling are the* noftrils
and the olfaftory nerves ; the minute ramifications of
winch latter are diftributed throughout the whole con¬
cave of the former. For their deferiptions, fee Anato¬
my.
Smelling is performed by drawing into the noftrik
the odorous effluvia floating in the air in infpirationy
which ftrike with fuch force againft the fibrilise of
the olfaftory nerves, which the figure of the nofe, and
the fituation of the little bones, render oppofite thereto,
as to fhake* them, and give them a vibratory motion ;
which aftion, beino communicated hence to the com*
mon fonfory, oecafions an idea of a fweet, or fetid, or
four, or an aromatic, or a putrefied objeft, &c. The
matter m animals, vegetables, foffils; &c. which chiefly
affefts the fenfe of fmelling, Boerhaave obferves, h#
that fubtile fubftar.ee, inherent in their oily parts,
^ called
S M E [ 544 1 SMI
Smelling cajle(j falrUs t becaufe, when this is taken away from
ri li . ^ the moft fragrant bodies, what remains has fcarce any
omeumg. ^ ajj . t^;3> pOUreci on the mott inodorous
bodies, gives them a fragrancy.
Willis obferves, that brutes have generally the fenfe
of fmelling in much greater perfection than man : by
this alone they diftinguilh the qualities of bodies, which
could not otherwife be known; hunt out their food at a
great diitance, as hounds and birds of prey ; or hid
among other fubltances, as ducks, See. Man, having
other means of judging of his food, &c. did not need
fo much fagacity in his nofe ; yet have we inftances of
a great deal even in man. In the Hijioire des Antilles,
we are affured there are negroes who, by the fmell
alone, can diftinguifh between the footfteps of a French¬
man and a negro. It is found, that the laminje, where¬
with the upper part of the noltrils is fenced, and which
ferve to receive the divarications of the olfaftory nerves,
are always longer, and folded up together in greater
numbers, as the animal has this fenfe more acute : the
various windings and turnings of thefe laminse detain¬
ing the odoriferous particles.
The fenfe of fmelling may be diminifhed or deftroy-
ed by difeafes ; as by the moilture, drynefs, inflammation,
or fuppuration of the olfaftory membrane, the compref-
fion of the nerves which fupply it, or fome fault in the
brain itfelf at their origin. A defect, or too great a
degree of folidity of the fmall fp»ngy bones of the up¬
per jaw, the caverns of the forehead, &c. may likewife
impair this fenfe ; and it may be alfo injured by a col¬
lection of fetid matter in thefe caverns, which is conti¬
nually exhaling from them, and alfo by immoderate ufe
of fnuff. When the nofe abounds with moifture, after
gentle evacuations, fuch things as tend to take off irri¬
tation and coagulate the thin fliarp ferum may be ap¬
plied ; as the oil of anife mixed with fine flour, cam¬
phor diflblved in oil of almonds, &c. the vapours of am¬
ber, frankincenfe, gum-maflic, and benjamin, may like¬
wife be received into the nofe and mouth. For moift-
cning the mucus when it is too dry, fome recommend
fnuff made of the leaves of marjoram, mixed with oil of
amber, marjoram, and anileed; or a ffernutatory of cal¬
cined white vitriol, twelve grains of which may be mix¬
ed with two ounces of marjoram water and filtrated.
The fteam of vinegar upon hot iron, and received up
the noftrils, is alfo" of ufe for foftening the mucus, re¬
moving ob'IruClions, &c. If there be an ulcer in the
nofe, it ought to be dreffed with fome emollient oint¬
ment, to which, if the pain be very great, a little lau¬
danum may be added. If it be a venereal ulcer, 12
grains of corrofive fublimate may be diffolved in a pint
and a half of brandy, a table fpoonful of which may be
taken twice a day. The ulcer ought likewife to be
waflied with it, and the fumes of cianabar may be re¬
ceived up the noftrils.
If there be reafon to fufpeCl that the nerves which
fupply the organs of fmelling are inert, or want ftimu-
lating, volatile falls, or ftrong fnuffs, and other things
which occafion freezing, may be applied to the nofe ;
the forehead may likewife be anointed with balfam of
Peru, to which may be added a little oil of amber.
SMELT, in ichthyology. See Sal mo.
SMELTING, in metallurgy, the fufion or melting
of the ores of metals, in order to feparate the metalline
part from the earthy, ftony, and other parts. See Ms* Smsw*
TALLURGY, Part III. Sn-lijax,
SMEW, in ornithology. See Mergus. ,
SMI LAX, rough bindweed, in botany : A ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the clals of dicecia and order
ot hexandria ; and in the natural fyllem ranging under
the i i th order, Sarmentacea. The male calyx is hexa-
phyllous, and there is no corolla ; the female calyx is al¬
fo hexaphylious, without any corolla ; there are three
ftyles, a trilocular berry', and two feeds. There are 18
fpecies; the afpera, excelfa, z&ilanlca, farfaparilla, china,
rotunditolia, laurifolia, tamnoides, caduca, bona nox,
herbacea, tetragona, lanceolata, and pfeudo-china. Of
thefe, the fmilax farfaparilla, wlpch affords the farfapa¬
rilla root, is the moft valuable. This is well deferibed
in the London Medical Journal hy Dr Wright, who,
during a long refidence in Jamaica, made botany his
peculiar ftudy.
“ This fpecies (fays he) has ftems of the thicknefs of
a man’s finger : they are jointed, triangular, and befet
with crooked fpines. The leaves are alternate, fmooth
and fhining on the upper fide ; on the other fide are
three nerves or coftee, with fundry fm?.ll crooked fpines.
The flower is yellow, mixed wnth red. The fruit is a
black berry, containing feveral brown feeds.
“ Sarfaparilla delights in low moift grounds and near
the banks of rivers. The roots run frperiicially under
the furface of the ground. The gatherers have only to
loofen the foil a little, and to draw out the long fibres
with a wooden hook. In this manner they proceed
till the whole root is got out. It is then cleared of the
mud, dried, and made into bundles.
“ The fenfible qualities of farfaparilla are mucilagi¬
nous and farinaceous, with a flight degree of acrimony.
The latter, however, is fo flight as not to be perceived
by many; and I am apt to believe that its medicinal
pov/ers may fairly be aferibed to its demulcent and fa¬
rinaceous qualities.
“ Since the publication of Sir William Fordyce’s pa¬
per on Sarfaparilla in the Medical Obfervations and In¬
quiries, Vol. I. farfaparilla has been in more general ufe
than formerly. The planters in Jamaica fupply their
eftates with great quantities of it; and its exhibition
has been attended with very happy confequences in the
yawsand in venereal affedtions; as nodes, tophi, and exof-
tolis; pains of the bones, and carious or cancerous ulcers.
“ Sir William Fordyce feems to think farfaparilla a
fpecific in all ftages of lues ; but from an attentive and
careful obfervation of its effects in fome thoufands of
cafes, I muft declare I could place no dependence on
farfaparilla alone. But if mercury had formerly been
tried, or was ufed along with farfaparilla, a cure
was foon effefted. Where the patients had been redu¬
ced by pain, diforder, ?nd mercury, I preferibed a de~
coition of farfaparilla, and a table-fpoonful of the pow¬
der of the fame, twice a day, with the greateft fuccefs,
in the moft deplorable cafes of lues, ill-cured yaws, and
carious or ill-difpofed fores or cancers.”
The china, or oriental fpecies of china root, has
roundifh prickly ftalks and red berries, and is a native
of China and Japan. The pfeudo-china, or occidental
fpecies, has rounder fmooth ftalks and black berries,
grows wild in Jamaica and Virginia, and bears the colds
of our own climate.
Thefe
SMI
Smi'ax,
Smith.
J.e-wi.i ’s
Mate rid
Mtdtei.
Thefe roots have fearce any fmell or particular taile:
when frefh, they are faid to be fomewhat acrid, hut a#
brought to us they difcover, even when long chewed,
no other than a flight unftuofity in the mouth. Boiled
in water, they impart a reddiih colour, and a kind of vapid
foftnels: the decoftion when infpiflated yields an unc¬
tuous, farinaceous, ahnoft infipid mafs, amounting to up¬
wards of half the weight of the root. They give a gold
yellow tinaure to re&iiied fpirit, but make no fenlible
alteration in its tarte : on drawing off the fpirit from
the filtered liquor, there remains an orange-coloured ex-
trafl:, nearly as infipid as that obtained by water, but
fcarcely in half its quantity.
China root is generally fuppofed to promote perfpi-
ration and urine, and by its loft un&uous quality to
blunt acrimonious humours. It was firft introduced
into Europe about the year r with the chara&er
of a fpecific again ft venereal diforders: the patient was
kept warm, a weak deco&ion of china root was ufed for
common drink, and a ftronger decoftion taken twice a
day in bed to promote a fweat. Such a regimen is
doubtlefs a good auxiliary to mercurial alteratives: but
whatever may be its effedfs in the warmer climates, it
is found in this to be of itfelf greatly infufficient. At
prefent the china root is very rarely made ufe of, having
tor feme time given place to farfaparilla, which is fup-
poled to be more effectual. Profper Alpinus informs
us, that this root is in great efteem among the Egyp¬
tian women for procuring fatnefs and plumpncfs.
SMITH (Sir Thomas), was born at Walden in Ef-
lex in 15x2. At 14 he was fent to Queen’s college
Cambridge, where he diftinguiflxed himfelf fo much,
that he was made Henry VIII.’s fcholar together with
John Cheke. He was chofen a fellow of his col¬
lege in 153 r, and appointed two years after to read
the piiblic Greek ledfure. The common mode of reading
Greek at that time was very faulty ; the fame found
being given to the letters and diphthongs <>u, n, 01, vi.
Mr Smith and Mr Cheke had been for fome time fenfible
that this pronunciation was wrong : and after a good
deal of confultation and relearch, they agreed to intro¬
duce that mode of reading which prevails at prefent.
Mr Smith was lediurhag 011 Ariftoile de Republica in
Greek. At firft he dropped a word or two at intervals
in the new pronunciation, and fometimes he would
Hop as if he had committed a miftake and correct hi*m«
felf. No notice was taken of this for two or three
days ; but as he x-epeated more frequently, his audience
began to wonder at the unufual founds, and at laft fome
oi his friends mentioned to him what they had remark-
cth He owned that fomething was in agitation, but
that it was not yet fufficiently digefted to be made pub¬
lic. Ehey entreated him earneftly to difcover his pro-
jeft . he did lo ; and in a fhort time great numbers re-
iorteci to him for information. The new pronunciation
was adopted with enthufiafm, and foon became univer-
fal at Cambridge. It was afterwards oppofed by bi-
rtiop Gardiner the chancellor; but its iuperiority to
the old mode was fo vifible, that in a few years it fpread
over all England.
^n l539 he travelled into foreign countries, and ftu-
died for iome time in the univerfities of France and Ita¬
ly. On his return he was made regius profeffor of ci-
vil law at Cambridge. About this time he publifhed a
Vol. XVII. Part II.
[ 545 1
s m r
treatife on the modebf pronouncing Englifli, He was Smith.
ufeful I ike wife in promoting the reformation. Having v —
gone into the family of the duke of Somerfet, the pro-
tettor during the minority of Edward VI. he was em¬
ployed by' that nobleman in public affairs ; and in 154$
was made fecretary of ftate, and received the honour of
knighthood. While that nobleman continued in office,
lie was fent ambaffador, firft to Bruffels and afterwards
to trance.
Upon Mary's acceffion he loft all his places, but was
fortunate enough to preferve the friendffiip of Gardiner
and Bonner. He was exempted from perfection, and
was allowed, probably by their influence, a penfion of
Li. i00.. During Elizabeth’s reign he was employed
in public affairs, and was fent three times by that
princefs as her ambaffador to France. He died in 1577.
His abilities were excellent, and his attainments un¬
commonly great: He was a philofopher, a phyfician, a
chemilt, mathematician, linguift, hiftorian, and archite6t»
He wrote, 1 A treatife called the Eng/i/b Common,
wealth. 2. A letter De Reda et Emendata Lingu* Gr*e*
Pronunciatione. 3. De Moribus Turcarum. 4. De DruU
dum Moribus.
Smith (Edmund), a diftinguiffied Englifh poet, the
only fon of Mr Neale an eminent merchant, by a daugh-
ter of baron Lechmere, was born in 1668. By his fa¬
ther’s death he was left young to the care of Mr Smith
who had married his father’s filter, and who treated
him with fo much tendernefs, that at the death of his
generous guardian he affumed his name. His writings
are not many, and thofe are fcattered about in mifcella-
mes and colkaions : his celebrated tragedy of Phadra
and Hippolitus was a&ed in 1707 ; and being introdu¬
ced at a time when the Italian opera fo much engroffed
the polite world, gave Mr Addifon, who wrote the
prologue, an opportunity to rally the vitiated tafte of
the public. However, notwithflanding the efteem it
has always been held in, k is perhaps rather to be con-
fidered as a fine poem than as a good play. This tra¬
gedy, with a Poem to the memory of Mr John Philips
three or four Odes, with a Latin oration fpoken at Ox!
ford in laudem Thomx Bodleii, were publifhed as his
works by his friend Mr Oldifworth. Mr Smith died
111 1710, funk into indolence and intemperance by po¬
verty and difappointments; the hard fate of many a
man of genius. '
Smith (JohnV an excellent mezzotinter, flouriflied
about 1700; but neither the time of his birth nor
death are accurately known. He united foftnefs with
itrength, and fimfhed with freedom. He ferved his
time with one Tillet a painter iu Moorfields ; and as
loon as he became his own mafter, learned from Bccket
the fecret of mezzotinto, and being farther inftru&ed
by Van der Vaart, was taken to work in Sir Godfrey
Kneller’s houfe ; and as he was to be the publiiher of
that mailer’s works, doubtlefs received conliderable hints
from him, which he amply repaid. “ To pofterity per-
uaps his punts (fays Mr Walpole) will carry an idea of ^ n ,,
fomething burlefque ; perukes of an enormous length Sf*
flowing over fiats of armour, compofe wonderful habits."/ E'g™-
is equally ftrange that fafhion could introduce the vcrs*
one, and eftabhfh the pra&ice of reprefenting the other
when it was out of fafhion. Smith excelled in exhibi!
ting both, as he found them in the portraits of Knel-
3 Z ler.
S M I
Snvt’i. ler, wVo was Icfs happy in what he fubflitutcd to ar-
^ moUr. In the Kit-cat club he has poured full bottoms
chiefly over night-gowns. If thofe dreams of hair were
incommode in a battle, I know nothing (he adds) they
were adapted to that can be done in a night-gown.
Smith compofed two large volumes, with proofs of his
own plates, for which he allied L. 50. His fineft works
are duke Schomberg on horfeback ; that duke’s fon
and fucceflor Maynhard ; the earls of Pembroke, Dor¬
set, and Albemarle ; three plates with two figures in
each, of young perfons or children, in which he fhone;
William Cowper; Gibbons and his wife; Queen Anne;
the duke of Gloucefter, a whole length, with a flower¬
pot ; a very curious one oi Queen Mary, in a high head,
fan, and gloves ; the earl of Godolphin ; the duchefs of
Ormond, a whole length, with a black ; .Sir George
Rooke, &c There is a print by him of James II.
with an anchor, but no infcription ; which not being
finished when the king went away, is fo fcarce that it
is fometimes fold for above a guinea. Smith alfo per¬
formed many hiftoric pieces ; as the loves of the gods,
from Titian, at Blenheim, in ten plates; Venus Hand¬
ing in a ihell, from a pidture by Correggio, and many
more, of which perhaps the moll delicate is the holy
family with angels, after Carlo Maratti.”
JPhilofobnhal Smith (Dr Adam), the celebrated author of the
‘TranfiSiions Inquiry into the Nature and Caufes of the Wealth of
of the Royal Nations, was the only fon of Adam Smith comptroller
Soiuiy of 0p cuftoms at Kirkaldy, and of Margaret Douglas
daughter of Mr Douglas of Strathenry. He was born
at Kirkaldy on the 5th June 1723, a few months after
the death of his father. His conllitution during his
infancy was infirm and fickly, and required all the care
of his furviving parent. When only three years old he
was carried by his mother to Strathenry on a vifit to
his uncle Mr Douglas; and happening one day to be
amufing himfelf alone at the door of the houfe, he was
ftolen by a party of thofe vagrants who in Scotland are
called tinkers. Luckily he was mifled immediately, and
the vagrants purfued and overtaken in Leflie wood ;
and thus Dr Smith was preferved to extend the bounds
of fcience, and reform the commercial policy of Eu¬
rope. - ... 1
Pie received the rudiments of his education in the
fchool of Kirkaldy under David Miller, a teacher of
eonfiderable eminence, and whofe name deferves to be
recorded on account of the great number of eminent
men which that feminary produced while under his di-
reftion. Dr Smith, even while at fchool, attracted no¬
tice by his pafilonate attachment to books, and by the
extraordinary powers of his memory ; while his friend¬
ly and generous difpofition gained and fecured the af-
fedtion of his fchoolfellows. Even then he was remark¬
able for thofe habits which remained with him through
life, of fpeaking to himfelf when alone and of abfence
in company. He was fent in 1 737 to the univerfity of
Glafgow, where he remained till 1740, when he went
to Baliol college Oxford, as an exhibitioner on Snell’s
foundation. His favourite purfuits while at the uni-
verfity were mathematics and natural philofophy. Af¬
ter his removal to England he frequently employed him-
fclf in tranflating, particularly from the French, with a
view to the improvement of his own ftyle: a practice
which he often lecommended to all who wilhed to cul-
S M I
tivate the art of compofition. It wa* probably then’s!. Smith. -
fo that he applied himfelf v/ith the greateil care to the V'"*^
ftudy of languages, of which, both ancient and modern,
his knowledge was uncommonly extenfive and accu¬
rate.
After feven years refidence at Oxford he returned to
Kirkaldy, and lived two years with his mother without
any fixed plan for his future life. Pie had been defign-
ed for the church of England ; but difliking the eccle-
fiallical profeflion, he refolved to abandon it altogether,
and to limit his ambition to the profpeft of obtaining
fome of thofe preferments to which literary attainments
lead in Scotland. In 1748 he fixed his reiidence in E-
dinburgh, and for three years read a courfe of leftures
on rhetoric and belles lettres under the patronage of
Lord Karnes. In 1751 he was eledled profeffor of lo¬
gic in the univerfity of Glafgow, and the year follow-
ing was removed to the profefforlhip of moral phi¬
lofophy, vacant by the death of Mr Thomas Craigie
the immediate fucceffor of Dr Plutchefon. In this fi-
tuation he remained t 3 years, a period he ufed frequent¬
ly to look back to as the mod ufeful part of his life.
His ledlures on moral philofophy were divided into four
parts : The fird contained natural theology; in which
he confidered the proofs of the being and attributes of
God, and thofe truths on which religion is founded :
the fecond comprehended ethics, dridlly fo called, and
confided chiefly of thofe dodtrines which he afterwards
publiihed in his theory of moral fentiments: in the
third part he treated more at length of that part of mo¬
rality called jujlice ; and which, being fulceptible of
precife and accurate rules, is for that reafon capable of
a full and accurate explanation : in the lad part of his
ledlui is he examined thofe political regulations which
are founded, not upon the principle of juftice, but of
expediency ; and which are calculated to increale the
riches, the power, and the prolperity of a date. Un¬
der this view he confidered the political inditutions re¬
lating to commerce, to finances, to eccleliadical and
military governments : this contained the fubdance of
his Wealth of Nations. In delivering his ledtures he
truded almod entirely to extemporary elocution : his
manner was plain and unaffedled, and he never failed to
intered his hearers. His reputation foon rofe very high,
and many dudents reforted to the univerfity merely up¬
on his account.
When his acquaintance with Mr Hume fird com¬
menced is uncertain, but it had ripened into friendlhip
before the year 1752.
In 1759 he publidied his Theory of Moral Senti¬
ments ; a work which defervedly extended his reputa¬
tion : for, though feveral of its conclufions be ill-
founded, it mud be allowed by all to be a Angular ef¬
fort of invention, ingenuity, and fubdlty. Befides, it
contains a great mixture of important truth ; and, tho’
the author has fometimes been mifled, he has had the
merit of diredling the attention of philofophers to a
view of human nature, which had formerly in a great
meafure efcaped their notice. It abounds everywhere
with the pared and mod elevated maxims concerning
the praftical condind of life ; and when the fubjeft oF
his work leads him to addrefs the imagination and the
heart, the variety and felicity of his illudrations, the
richnefs and fluency of his eloquence, and thefldll with/
A which.-
[ 546 1
S M I
Smith,
which he wins the attention and commands the paffions
ot his readers, leave him among our Britifh moralills
without a rival.
Towards the end of 1763 Dr Smith received an in-
vitation from Mr Charles Townfend to accompany the
Duke of Buccleugh on his travels; and the liberal
terms in which this propofal was made induced him to
refign his office at Glafgow. He joined the Duke of
Buccleugh at London early in the year 1764, and fet
out with him for the continent in the month of March
following. After a ftay of about ten days at Paris,
they proceeded to 1 houloufe, where they fixed their
reiidence for about 18 months; thence they went
by a pretty exteniive route through the fouth of France
to Geneva, where they paffed two months. About
Chrhtmas *7^5 they returned to Paris, and remained
there till Oftober following. The iociety in which
Di Smith paired thefe ten months may be conceived in
confequence of the recommendation of Mr Hume. Tur¬
got, Queinai, Necker, D’Alembert, Helvetius, Mar-
niontel, Madame Riccoboni, were among the number
of his acquaintances; and fome of them he continued
over after to reckon among the number of his friends.
In Odlober 1766 the duke of Buccleugh returned to
England.
. Dr Smith fpent the next ten years of his life with
his mother at Kirkaldy, occupied habitually in intenfe
ftudy, but unbending his mind at times in the compa¬
ny of fome of his old fchoolfellows, who ilill continued
to reiide near the place of their birth. In 1776 he
publifhed his Inquiry into the Nature ami Caufes of the
Wealth of Nations; a book fo univerfally known, that
any panegyric on it would be ufelefs. The variety, im¬
portance, and (may we not add) novelty, of the iidor'-
nration which it contains ; the fkill and comprehenfive-
nels of mind difplayed in the arrangement; the admi-
raole illuftrations with which it abounds ; together with
a plamnefs and perfpicuity which makes it intelligible
to all—render it unqueitionably the molt perfedl work
which has yet appeared on the general principles of any
branch of legiflation.
He fpent the next two years of his life in London,
where he enjoyed the fociety of fome of the moft emi¬
nent men of the age : but he removed to Edinburgh in
377S) in coniequence of having been appointed, at the
requefl of the duke of Buccleugh, one of the commif-
fioners of the cultoms in Scotland. Plere he fpent the
laft twelve years of his life in an affluence which was
more than equal to all his wants. But his ftudies feem-
ed entirely fufpended till the infirmities of old age re-
iminded him, when it was too late, of what he yet owed
.to the public and to his own fame The principal mate¬
rials of the works which he had announced had long
ago been collefted, and little probably was wanting but
a^few years of health and retirement to complete them,
I he death of his mother, who had accompanied him to
Edinburgh in 1784, together with that of his coufin
Mrfs Douglas in 1788, contributed to fruftrate thefe '
projedts. 1. hey had been tbe objedts of his affedtion
for more than 60 years, and in their Society he had en¬
joyed from his infancy all that he ever knew of the en-
deaiments of a family. He was now alone and help-
lefs ; and though he bore his lofs with equanimity, and
regained apparently his former cheerfulnefs, yet his
Eealth and itrength gradually declined till the period of
C 547 1
S M O
his death, which happened in July 1790. Some days
before his death he ordered all his papers to be burnt
except a few effays, which have fince been publiffied.
Of the originality and comprehenlivenels of his views ;
the extent, the vaiiety, and the corredfnefs of his infor¬
mation ; the inexhauftible fertility of his invention—-he
has icft behind him lafling monuments. To his private
worth, the molt certain of all teftimonies may be found
in that confidence, refpedl, and attachment, which fol¬
lowed him through all the various relations of life. He
was habitually abfent in converfation, and was apt
when he fpoke to deliver his ideas in the form of a lec¬
ture. He was rarely known to ftart a new topic him-
felf, or to appear unprepared upon thofe topics that were
introduced by others. In his external form and appear¬
ance there was nothing uncommon. When perfectly at
eafe, and when warmed with converfation, his geftures
were animated and not ungraceful; and in the' fociety
of thole he loved, his features were often brightened by
a Imile of inexpreffible benignity. In the company of
ftrangers, his tendency to abfeuce, and perhaps itill more
his confeioulnefs of that tendency, rendered his manners
fomewhat embarrafled ; an effedt which was probably
not a little heightened by thofe fpeculative ideas of pro¬
priety which his reclufe habits tended at once to per¬
fect in his conception, and to diminifh his power of re¬
alizing.
SMITHIA, in botany : A genus of the decandria
order, Delonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 3 2d order,
Papilionacea. The calyx is monophyllous and belabia!
ted ; the. corolla winged; the legumen inclofed in the
calyx, with three or four joints, and contain as many
feeds, which are fmooth, comprefl'ed, and kidney-fhaped.
There is only one fpecies, viz. the thonina.
bMi I Z (Gafpar), who, from painting a great num¬
ber of Magdalena, was called Magdalen Smith, was a
Dutch painter, who came to England foon after the
Melioration. For thefe portraits fat a woman that he
kept, and called his wife. A lady, whom he had taught
to draw, took him with her to Ireland, where he paint¬
ed, fmall portraits in oil, had great bufmefs, and high
pi ices. His flowers and fruit were fo much admired,
that one bunch of grapes fold there for L. 40. In his
Magdalens he generally introduced a thiftle on the fore
ground. He had ieveral fcholars, particularly Maubert,
and one Gawdy of Exeter. Yet, notwithttanding his
iuccefs, he died poor in Ireland in 1707.
SMI 111LKY, a fmith’s fliop; alfo the art of a fmith,
by which iron is wrought into any fhape by means of
fire, hammering, filing, See.
SMITING-line, in a fflip, is a fmall rope faftened
to the mizen-yard-arm, below at the deck, and is always
furled up with the mizen-fail, even to the upper end
of the yard, and thence it comes down to the poop.
Its ufe is to loofe the mizen-fail without ftriking down
the yard, which is eafily done, becaufe the mizen-fail is
furled up only with rope-yarns ; and therefore when
this rope is pulled hard, it breaks all the rope-yarns,
and fo the fail falls down of itfelf. The faiior’s phrafe is
fmitethe mlzen (whence this rope takes its name), that is’
hale^by this rope that the fail may fall down. ’
. SMOKE, a denfe elaftic vapour, arifing from burn¬
ing bodies. As this vapour is extremely difagreeable
to the fenfes, and oiten prejudicial to the health, man-
3 Z * kind
Smith
1!
Smoke.
S M O
r 548 ]
S M O
cittj.
Smoke, kind have fallen upon feveral contrivances to enjoy the
benefit of fire, without being annoyed by fmoke. The
niofl univerfal of thefe contrivances is a tube leading
from the chamber in which the fire is kindled to the
top of the building, through which the fmoke afcends,
and is difperfed into the atmofphere. Thefe tubes are
called chimneys; which, when conftrufted in a proper
manner, carry off the fmoke entirely ; but, when im¬
properly conftrudted, they carry off the fmoke imper-
ieftly, to the_ great annoyance of the inhabitants. As
our mafons at prefent leem to have a very imnerfect
knowledge of the manner in which chimneys ought to
be built, we can hardly perform a more acceptable fer-
vice to the public than to point out the manner in
which they ought to be conftrufted, fo as to carry off
the fmoke entirely ; as well as to explain the caufes
from which the defetffs fo often complained of generally
proceed, and the method of removing them.
'Tranfafliens Thofe w ho would be acquainted with this fubjeft,
t>f the Ame- ffould begin by coniidering on what principle fmoke
ruan afcentts {n any chimney. At firlt many are apt to think
0 {"moke js ;n |ts nature, and of itfelf, fpecifically
lighter than air, and rifes in it for the fame reafon that
cork rifes in water. Thefe fee no oaufe why fmoke
fhould not rife in the chimney though the room be ever
fo clofe. Others think there is a power in chimneys to
draw up the fmoke, and that there are different forms
of chimneys w'hich afford more or lefs of this power.
Thefe amufe themfelves with fearching for the bell form.
The equal dimenfions of a funnel in its whole length is
not thought artificial enough, and it is made, for fancied
reafons, fometimes tapering and narrowing from below
upwards, and fometimes the contrary, &c. &c. A
fimple experiment or two may ferve to give more cor-
re£t ideas. Having lighted a pipe of tobacco, plunge the
Item to the bottom of a decanter half filled with cold
water; then putting a rag over the bowl, blow through
it, and make the fmoke defeend in the Item of the pipe,
from the end of which it will rife in bubbles through
the water ; and being thus cooled, will not afterwards
rife to go out through the neck of the decanter, but re¬
main fpreading itfelf and refting on the furface of the
water. This fhows that fmoke is really heavier than
air, and that it is carried upwards only when attached
to or adled upon by air that is heated, and thereby' ra¬
refied and rendered fpecifically lighter than the air in
its neighbourhood.
Smoke being rarely feen but in company with heat¬
ed air, and its upward motion being vifible, though that
of the rarefied air that drives it is not fo, has naturally
given rife to the error. It is now well known that air
is a fluid which has weight as well as others, though
about 800 times lighter than water ; that heat makes
the particles of air recede from each other, and take up
more fpace, fo that the fame weight of air heated will
have more bulk than equal weights of cold air which
may furround it, and in that cafe muff rife, being forced
upwards by fuch colder and heavier air, which preffes
to get under it and take its place. That air is fo ra¬
refied or expanded by heat, may be proved to their com-
prehenfion by a lank blown bladder, which laid before
a fire, will foon fwell, grow tight, and burft.
Another experiment may be to take a glafs tube
ccccxxxi a^out an inc^ diameter, and T2 inches long, open at
tg. 1. ends, and fixed upright on legs fo that it need not
be handled, for the hands might warm it. At the end Srr.ale,
of a quill faften five or fix inches of the fineft light fila-v—*
ment of filk, fo that it may be held either above the
upper end of the tube or under the lower end, your
warm hand being at a diftance by the length of the
quill. If there were any motion of air through the
tube, it would manifeit itfelf by its effeft on the iiik;
but if the tube and the air in it are of the fame tempe¬
rature with the furrounding air, there will be no fuch
motion, whatever may be the form of the tube, whether
crooked or itraight, narrow below and widening up¬
wards, or the contrary, the air in it will be quiefeent.
Warm the tube, and you will find as long as it continues
warm, a conftant current of air entering below and paf-
fing up through it till difeharged at the top ; becaufe
the warmth of the tube being communicated to the air
it contains, rarefies that air, and makes it lighter than
the air without; which therefore preffes in below, forces
it upwards, follows and takes its place, and is rarefied
in its turn. And, without warming the tube, if you
hold under it a knob of hot iron, the air thereby heat¬
ed will rife and fill the tube, going out at its top ; and
this motion in the tube will continue as long as the
knob remains hot, becaufe the air entering the tube be¬
low, is heated and rarefied by palling near and over that
knob.
That this motion is produced merely by the difference
of fpecific gravity between the fluid within and that
without the tube, and not by any fancied form of the
tube itfelf, may appear by plunging it into water con¬
tained in a glafs jar a foot deep, through which fuch
motion might be feen, The water within and without
the tube being of the fame fpecific gravity, balance
each other, and both remain at reft. But take out the
tube, ftop its bottom with a finger, and fill it with olive
oil, which is lighter than water; then Hopping the
top, place it as before, its lower end under water, its
top a very little above. As long as you keep the bot¬
tom Hopped the fluids remain at reft ; but the moment
it is unftopt, the heavier enters below, forces up the
lighter, and takes its place: and the motion then
ceafes, merely becaufe the new fluid cannot be fuccef-
fively made lighter, as air may be by a warm tube.
In faft, no form of the funnel of a chimney has any
fhare in its operation or effeft refpedting fmoke except
its height. The longer the funnel, if ereft, the greater
its force when filled with heated and rarefied air to
draw in below and drive up the fmoke, if one may, in
compliance with cuftom, ufe the expreflion draw, when
in fadt it is the fuperior weight of the funounding at¬
mofphere that preffes to enter the funnel below, and 16
drives up before it the fmoke and warm air it meets
with in its paffage.
What is it then which makes a fmoky chimney, that
is, a chimney which, inftead of conveying up all the
fmoke, diicharges a part of it into tire room, offending
the eyes and damaging the furniture ?
The caufes of this effedf may be reduced to nine, dif¬
fering from each other, and therefore requiring different
remedies-
I. Smoky chimneys in a new houfe are fuch frequently
from mere want of air. The workmanfhip of the room*
being all good, and juft out of the workman’s hands, the
joints of the boards of the flooring, and of the pannels
of wainfeotting, are all true and tight j the more fo as
the
S M O
T 549 J
S M O
Smoke the walls, perhaps Hot yet thoroughly <lry, preferve a
—v  dampnefs in the air of the room which keeps the wood¬
work fwelled and clofe. The dooi^ and the fafhes too,
being worked with truth, Ihut with exaftnefs, fo that
the room is as tight as a fnuff-box, no paiTage being
left open for air to enter except the key-hole, and even
that is fometimes covered by a little dropping fhutter.
Now if fmoke cannot rife but as connefted with rare¬
fied air, and a column of fuch air, fuppofe it filling the
funnel, cannot rife unlefa other air be admitted to fup-
ply its place ; and if therefore no current of air enter
the opening of the chimney—there is nothing to prevent
the fmoke from coming out into the room. If the motion
upwards of the air in a chimney that is freely fupplied
be obferved by the tiling of the fmoke or a feather in
it, and it beitonfidered that in the time fuch feather
takes in rifing Irom the fire to the top of the chimney,
a column of air equal to the content of the funnel mull
be difcbarged, and an equal quantity fupplied from the
room below, it will appear abfolutely impofiible that
this operation fhould go on if the tight room is kept
fhut ; for were there any force capable of drawing con-
ftantly fo much air ©ut of it, it mull foon be exhaufted
like the receiver of an air-pump, and no animal could
live in it. Thofe therefore who Hop every crevice in a
room to prevent the admiffion of frefli air, and yet would
have their chimney carry up the fmoke, require incon-
fiftencies, and expe6l impoflibilitiesy Yet under this li-
tuation it is not uncommon to fee the owner of a new
houfe in defpair, and ready to fell it for much lefs than
it coft ; conceiving it uninhabitable becaufe not a chim-
fiey in any one of its rooms will carry off the fmoke
unlefs a door or window be left open. Much ex¬
pence has alfo been made to alter and amend new chim¬
neys which had really no fault : in one houfe particu¬
larly which Dr Franklin knew that belonged to a no¬
bleman in Weftminfter, that expence amounted to no
lefs than L. 300, after his houfe had been, as he thought,
finifhed and all charges paid. And after all, feveral of
the alterations were ineffe&ual, for want of underftand-
ing the true principles.
Remedies. When you find on trial that opening the
door or a window enables the chimney to carry up all
the fmoke, you may be fure that want of air from with¬
out was the caufe of its fmoking. “ I fay from with¬
out (adds Dr Franklin), to guard you againft a com¬
mon millake of thofe who may tell you the room is
large, contains abundance ©f air fufficient to fupply any
chimney, and therefore it cannot be that the chimney
wants air. Thefe reafoners are ignorant that the large-
nefs of a room, if tight, is in this cafe of fmall import¬
ance, fince it cannot part with a chimney full of its air
without occafioning fo much vacuum; which it requires
a great force to efTeft, and could not be borne if ef-
fedUd.”
It appearing plainly then, that fome of the outward
air muft be admitted, the queftion will be, how much is
ablolutely necefiary ? for you would avoid admitting
more, as being contrary to one of your intentions in
having a fire, viz. that of warming your room. To
difcover this quantity, ihut the door gradually while a
middling fire is burning, till you find that before it is
quite fhut the fmoke begins to come out into the room j
then open it a little till you perceive the fmoke comes
out no longer. There hold the door, and obferve the utility j
width of the open crevice between the edge of the door Smoke,
and the rabbet it fhould fhut into. Suppofe the di- »
fiance to be half an inch, and the door eight feet high;
you find thence that your room requires an entrance
for air equal in area to 96 half inches, or 48 fquare
inches, or a pafTage of 6 inches by 8. This, however,
is a large fuppofition ; there being few chimneys that,
having a moderate opening and a tolerable height of
funnel, will not be fatisfied with fuch a crevice of a
quarter of an inch : Dr Franklin found a fquare of G
by 6, or 36 fquare inches, to be a pretty good medium
that will ferve for moft chimneys. High funnels with,
fmall and low openings may indeed be fupplied through
a lefs fpace; becaufe, for realons that will appear here¬
after, the force of levity, if one may fo fpeak, being
greater in fuch funnels, the cool air enters the room
with greater Velocity, and confequently more enters in
the fame time. This, however, has its limits ; for ex¬
perience Ihows, that no increafed velocity fo occafioned
has made the admifiion of air through the key-hole
equal in quantity to that through an open door, though
through the door the current moves llowly, and through
the key-hole with great rapidity.
It remains then to be conlidered, how and where
this neeeffary quantity of air from without is to be ad¬
mitted fo as to be leaft inconvenient: for if at the door,
left fo much open, the air thence proceeds direftly to
the chimney, and in its way comes cold to your back
and heels as you fit before your fire. If you keep the
door fhut, and raife a little the fafh of your window,
you feel the fame inconvenience. Various have been
the contrivances to avoid this ; fuch as bringing in frefh
air through pipes in the jams of the chimney, which
pointing upwards fhould blow the fmoke up the funnel;
opening pafiages into the funnel above, to let in air for
the fame purpofe. But thefe produce an effeft con¬
trary to that intended : for as it is the conflant current
of air palling from the room through the openino of
the chimney into the funnel which prevents the fmoke
from coming out into the room, if you fupply the funnel
by other means or in other ways with the air which it
wants, and efpecially if that air be cold, you diminifh the
force of that current, and the fmoke in its efforts to en¬
ter the room finds lefs refiltance.
'I he wanted air mufl then indifpenfably be admitted
into the room, to fupply what goes off through the
opening of the chimney. M. Gauger, a very ingenious-
and intelligent French writer on the fubjeft, propofes
with judgment to admit it above the opening of the
chimney ; and to prevent inconvenience from its cold-
nefs, he direfts that it may be fo made, that it fhall
pafs in its entrance through winding cavities made be¬
hind the iron back and fides of the fire-place, and un¬
der the iron hearth-plate ; in which cavities it will be
warmed, and even heated, fo as to contribute much, in-
ftead of cooling, to the warming of the room. This
invention is excellent in itfelf, and may be ufed with,
advantage in building new houfes ; becaufe the chim¬
neys may then be fo difpofed as to admit convenientlyr
the cold air to enter inch pafl'ages : but in houfes built
without fuch views, the chimneys are often fo iituated;
as not to afford that convenience without great and ex-
penfive alterations. Eafy and cheap methods, though
not quite fo perfeft in themfelves, are of more general
and fuch ate the following.
la
S M O [ 55,
Smok<*. In a]l rooms where there is a fire, the body of fur
warmed and rarefied before the chimney is continually
changing place, and making room tor other air that is
to be warrned in its turn. Part of it enters and goes
up the chimney, and the reft rifes and takes place near
the ceiling. If the room be lofty, that warm air re¬
mains above our heads as long as it continues warm,
and we are little benefited by it, becaufe it does not
defcend till it is cooler. Few can imagine the difference
of climate between the upper and lower parts of fuch a
room, who have not tried it by the thermometer, 01 by
going up a ladder till their heads are near the ceiling.
It is then among this warm air that the wanted quan¬
tity of outward air is beft admitted, with which being
mixed, its coldnefs is abated, and its inconvenience di-
minifhed fo as to become fcarce obfervable. This may
be eafily done by drawing down about an inch the upper
fafh of a window ; or, if not moveable, by cutting fuch
a crevice through its frame ; in both which cafes it will
be well to place a thin fhelf of the length to conceal
the opening, and Hoping upwards, to direft the entering
air horizontally along and under the ceiling. In fome
houfes the air may be admitted by fuch a crevice made
in the wainfcot, cornice, or plaftering, neai the ceiling
and over the opening of the chimney. This, if practi¬
cable, is to be chofen, becaufe the entering cold air
will there meet with the warmeft riling air from before
the fire, and be fooneft tempered by the mixture. The
Kg. a. fame kind of ftielf fhould alio be placed here. Another
way, and not a very difficult one, is to take out an up¬
per pane of glafs in one of your faffies, fet it in a tin
frame, giving it two fpringing angular fides, and then
replacing it, with hinges below on which it may be
turned to open more or lefs above. It will then have
the appearance of an internal fky-light. By drawing
this pane in, more or lefs, you may admit what air you
find neceffary. Its pofition will naturally throw that
air up and along the ceiling. This is what is called in
France a /Vas iji das ? As this is a German queftion,
the invention is probably of that nation, and takes its
name from the frequent alking of that queftien when it
firft appeared. In England fome have of late years
cut a round hole about five inches diameter in a pane
of the lafh and placed againft it a circular plate of tin
hung on an axis, and cut into vanes; which, being fepa-
rately bent a little obliquely, are afted upon by the en¬
tering air, fo as to force the plate continually round
like the vanes of a windmill. This admits the outwrard
air, and by the continual whirling of the vanes, does
/ in fome degree difperfe it. The noife only is a little
inconvenient.
2. A fecund caufe of the fmoking of chimneys is,
their openings in the room being too large; that is, too
wide, too high, or both. Architects in general have no
other ideas of proportion in the opening of a chimney
than what relate to fymmetry and beauty refpeCting
the dimenfions of the room ; while its true proportion
refpeCting its funClion and utility depends on quite
other principles ; and they might as properly propor¬
tion the ftep in a ftaircafe to the height of the ftory,
inftead ot the natural elevation of mens legs in mount¬
ing- The proportion then to be r egarded, is what re¬
lates to the height of the funnel. For as the funnels
in the different itories of a houfe are neceffarily of dif¬
ferent heights or lengths, that from the loweft floor be-
> ] S M o
ing the higheft or longed, and thole of the other floors Smoke,
fliorter and dorter, till we we come to thofe in the
garrets, which are of courfe t!i£ fhorteft ; and the force
of draft being, as already faxd, in proportion to the
height of funnel filled with rarefied air, and a current
of air from the room into the chimney, lufficient to fill
the opening, being neceffary to oppofe and prevent the
fmoke from coming out into the room; it follows, that the
openings of the longeft funnels may be larger, and that
thofe of tne fhorter funnels ffiould be fmaller. For if
there be a large opening to a chimney that does not
drawftrongly, thefunnel may happen to be furnifhedwith
the air which it demands by a partial current entering on
one fide of the opening, and leaving the other fide tree
of any oppofing current, may permit the fmcke to iffue
there into the room. Much too of the force of draft
in a funnel depends on the degree of rarefaftion in the
air it contains, and that depends on the nearnefs to the
fire of its paffage in entering the funnel. If it can
enter far from the fire on each fide, or far above the
fire, in a wude or high opening, it receives little heat in
palling by the fire, and the contents of the funnel are by
thole means lefs oifferent in levity from the furrounding
atmofphere, and its force in drawing confequently weak¬
er. Hence it too large an opening be given to. chim¬
neys in upper rooms, thofe rooms will be fmoky : On
the other hand, if too fmall openings be given fo chim¬
neys in the lower rooms, the entering air operating too
direCtly and violently on the fire, and afterwards ftrength-
ening the draft as it afeends tire funnel, will confume
the fuel too rapidly.
Remedy. As different circumftances frequently mix
themfelves in thefe matters, it is difficult to give preafe
difnenfions for the openings of all chimneys. Our fa¬
thers made them generally much too large: we have
lefiened them ; but they are often ftrll of greater dimen¬
fions than they Ihould be, the human eye not being ea-
fily reconciled to fudden and great changes. . If you
ItifpeA that your chimney fmokes from the too great
dimenlion of its opening, contraft it by placing move-
able boards io as to lower and narrow it gradually
till you find the fmoke no longer iffues into the room.
The proportion fo found will be that which is proper
for that chimney, and you may employ the bricklayer
or mafon to reduce it accordingly. However, as in
building new houfes fomething muft be fometimes ha¬
zarded, Hr Franklin propofes to make the openings in
the lower rooms about 30 inches fquare anti ib deep,
and thofe in the upper only 18 inches fquare and not
quite fo deep ; the intermediate ones dimimflring in pro¬
portion as the height of the funnel is diminifhed. In the
larger openings, billets of two feet long, or half the com¬
mon length of cordwood, may be burnt conveniently ;
and for the fmaller, fuch wood may be fawed into
thirds. Where coals are the fuel, the grates will be
proportioned to the openings. The fame depth is
nearly neceflary to all, the funiif'ls being all made of a
fize proper to admit a chimney-fweeper. If in large
and elegant rooms cuftom or fancy ffiould require the
appearance of a larger chimney, it may be formed of
expenfive marginal decorations, in marble, &c. But in
time perhaps, that which is fitteft in the nature of things
may come to be thought handfomeft.
3. Another caufe of fmoky chimneys is too Jhort a
funnel This happens neceffarily in fome cafes, as where
S M O
8mnk«-
a chimney i* required in a low building; for; il the
^ funnel be raifed high above the roof, in order to ftrength*
en its draft, it is then in danger of being blown down,
and crufhing the roof in its fall.
, Rsrneriiet. Contrail the opening of the chimney, fo
as to oblige all the entering air to pafs through or very
near the fire ; whereby it will be more heated and rare¬
fied, the funnel itfelf be more warmed, and its contents
have more of what may be called the force of levity, fo
as to rife flrongly and maintain a good draft at the
opening.
Or you may in fome cafes, to advantage, build addi¬
tional ftories over the low building, which will fupport
a high funnel.
If the low building be ufed as a kitchen, and a con-
trailion of the opening therefore inconvenient, a large
one being neceffary, at lead when there are great din¬
ners, for the free management of fo many cooking uten-
fils ; in fuch cafe the befl expedient perhaps would be
to build two more funnels joining to the firft, and ha¬
ving three moderate openings, one to each funnel, in-
flead of one large one. W' lien there is occafion to ufe
but one, the other two may be kept fhut by Aiding
plates, hereafter to be deferibed ; and two or all of
them may be ufed together when wanted. This will
Int.eed be an ex pence, but not an ufelefs one, fince your
cooks will work with more comfort, fee better than in
a frnoky kitchen what they are about, your vidluals
will be cleaner drefled and not tafle of fmoke, as is of¬
ten the cafe ; and to render the effedl more certain, a
flack of three funnels may be fafely built higher above
the roof than a Angle funnel.
The cafe of too fiiort a funnel is more general than
C 1
S M O
into its toom as often as the door communicating with
the ftai cafe was opened.
Rave y. I ake care that every room have the means
of fupplying itfelf from without with the a r which its
chimm y may require, fo that no one of them may be
obliged to borrow from another, nor under the neceffity
of lending, A variety of thefe means have been already
deferibed.
5. Another caufeof fmoking is, when the tops of chim¬
neys are commanded by higher buddings, or by a hill, fo
that the wind blowing over fuch eminences falls like
water over a dam, fometimes almofl perpendicularly on
the tops of the chimneys that He in its way, and beats
down the fmoke contained in them.
To illuftrate this, let A (fig. 3.) reprefent a fmall
building at the fide of a great rock B, and the wind
coming in the dire&ion Cl) ; when the current of air
comes to the point D, being hurried forward with great
velocity, it gees a little forward, but loon defeends
downward, and gradudly is reflecled more and more in¬
ward, as.reprelented by the dotted lines EEr &c. fo
that, defeending downwards upon the top of the chim-
ney A, the fmoke is beat back again into the apart¬
ments. " r
It is evident that houfes fituated near high hills or
thick woods will be .in fome meafure expofed to the
fame inconvenience ; but it is likewife plain, that if a
houfe be fituated upon the dope of a hill (as at F,
%• 3-% ^ will not be in any danger of fmoke when
the wind blows towards that fide of the hill upon which
it is fituated ; for the current of air coming over the
houfe-top in the direftion GH, is immediately changed
Smoke,
would he imagined, and often fo.mdwhe^'o^^ii “E
not expea it. For it is not uncommon, in ilheontri- fhe chimrfe, R„ i, “Tl T fr?m th,e loP
01 A"'lng “ f“.nnel for.each room A'V fituation will be liabft'to'fmoke whe^thrlvind
' © — — ^ ^ 1 wwm
or fire-place, to bend and turn the funnel of an upper
r oom fo as to make it enter the fide of another funnel
that comes fiom below. By thefe means the upper room
funnel is rr^ade fhort of courfe, fince its length can only
be reckoned from the place where it enters the lower-
room funnel ; and that funnel is alfo fhortened by all
the diftance between the entrance of the fecond funnel
and the top of the flack : for all that part being readi¬
ly fupplied with air through the fecond funnel, adds no
ftrength to the draft, efpecially as that air is cold when
there is no fire in the fecond chimney. The only eafy
remedy here is, to keep the opening of that funnel fhut
in which there is no fire,
blows from the hill ; for the current of air coming
downward in the diredion CH, will beat downward
on the chimney F, and prevent the fmoke from aleend-.
mg with freedom. The effed will be much height¬
ened if the doors and windows are chiefly in the lower-
mofl fide of the houfe.
Remedy. That commonly applied to this cafe is a
tumcap made of tin or plate iron, covering the chimney
above and on three fides, open on one fide, turning on
a iprndle ; and which being guided or governed by a
vane always prefents its back to the current. This-
may be generally effectual,, though not certain, as there
4. Another very common caufe of the fmoking of your funnelsV^radlicab/e fo as A^ ^UCCeed‘ R^.fing
chimneys is, their overpowering one another. For in- Jr or at lead ennA wfit i/ aS their be high-
fiance, if there be two rhin^-ffn ‘ \ C1 ’ or dt,Ieaiy with the commanding eminence. A
fiance, if there be two chimneys in one large room, and
you make fires in both of them, the doors and windows
clofe fhut, you will find that the greater and ftronger fire
Ihall overpower the weaker, from the funnel of which it
will draw air down to fupply its own demand; which air
defeending in the weaker funnel, will drive down its
fmoke, and force it into the room. If, inftead of being
in one room, the two chimneys are in two different rooms,
communicating by a door, the cafe is the fame when¬
ever tiiat door is open. In a very tight houfe, a
kitchen chimney on the loweft floor, when it had a
great fire in it, has been known to overpower any
vther chimney in the houfe, and draw air and fmoke
. , - , -   -nanding eminence, is,
more to be depended on.. But the turning cap, being
eafieradd cheaper, fhould firft be tried. “ If obli-ed to
build m fuch a iituation, I would choofe (fays Dr
rransom) to place my doors on the fide next the hill
and the backs of my chimneys on the fartheft fide • for
then the column of air falling over the eminence, and of
courfe preffing on that below, and forcing it to enter
the doors or was-i/Masts on that fide, would tend to.
balance the prefiure down the chimneys, and leave
the tunnels more free in the exercife of their func-
6. There is another cafe which is the reverfe of that:
laft mentioned. It is where the commanding eminence
fss
fjg. 4.
S M O [ SJ
5m«kp. is farther from the wind than the chimney commanded.
' To explain this a figure may be neceflary. Suppofe
then a building whole fide AB happens to be expofed
to the wind, and forms a kind of dam againtl its pro-
grefs. Suppofe the wind blowing in the dire&ion FE.
The air obltrudted by this dam or building AB will
like water prefs and fearch for pafiages through it; but
finding none, it is beat back with violence, and fpreads
itfelf on every fide, as is reprefented by the curved
lines e, e, e, e, e, e. It will therefore force itfelf down
the fmall chimney C, in order to get through by fome
door or window open on the other fide of the building.
And if there be a fire in fuch chimney, its fmoke is of
courfe beat down, and fills the room.
Remedy. There is but one remedy, which is to raife
fuch a funnel higher than the roof, fupporting it if ne-
celfary by iron bars. For a turncap in th:s cafe has no
efFedl, the dammed up air prefiing down through it in
whatever pofition the wind may have placed its open-
ing.
"Dr Franklin mentions a city in which many houfes
are rendered ftnoky by this operation. For their kitch¬
ens being built behind, and conne&ed by a paffage with
the houfes, and the tops of the kitchen-chimneys lower
than the tops of the houfes, the whole fide of a Itreec
when the wind blows againft its back forms fuch a dam
as above defcribed; and the wind fo obftruftcd forces
down thofe kitchen-chimneys (efpecially when they
have but weak fires in them) to pafs through the paf¬
fage and houfe into the llreet. Kitchen chimneys fo
formed and fituated have another inconvenience. In
fummer, if you open your upper room windows for
air, a light breeze blowing over your kitchen chimney
towards the houfe, though not ftrong enough to force
down its fmoke as aforefaid, is fufficient to waft it into
your windows, and fill the rooms with it ; which, be-
iides the difagreeablenefs, damages your furniture.
7. Chimneys, otherwife drawing well, are fometimes
made to fmoke by the improper and inconvenient Jituation
of a door. When the door and chimney are on the
fame fide of the room, if the door being in the corner
is made to open againft the wall, which is commem, as
. being there, when open, more out of the way, it follows,
that when the door is only opened in part, a current of
air rulhing in pafles along the wall into and acrofs the
opening of the chimney, and flirts fome of the fmoke
out into the room. This happens more certainly when
the door is Ihutting, for then the force of the current is
augmented, and becomes very inconvenient to thofe
who, warming themfelves by the fire, happen to fit in
its way.
The remedies are obvious and eafy. Either put an
intervening fereen from the wall round great part of
the fireplace ; or, which is perhaps preferable, Ihift the
hinges of your door, fo as it may open the other way,
and when open throw the air along the other wall.
8. A room that has no fire in its chimney is fome¬
times filled with fmoke which is received at the top of its
funnel, and defends into the room. Funnels without fires
have an effect according to their degree of coldnefs or
warmth on the air that happens to be contained in them.
The furrounding atmofpheie is frequently changing its
temperature ; but flacks of funnels covered from winds
and lun by the houfe that contains them, retain a more
equal temperature. If, after a warm feafon, the out-
2 ] S M O
ward air fuddenly grows cold, the empty warm funnels
begin to draw ftrongly upward; that is, they rarefy
the air contained in them, which of courfe riles, cooler
air enters below to fupply its place, is rarefied in its
turn, and rifes; and this operation continues till the
funnel grows cooler, or the outward air warmer, or
both, when the motion ceafesv On the other hand, if
after a cold feafon the outward air fuddenly grows warm
and of courfe lighter, the air contained in the cool fun¬
nels being heavier defeends into the room ; and the
warmer air which enters their tops being cooled in its
turn, artd made heavier, continues to defeend ; and this
operation goes on till the funnels are warmed by the
palling of warm air thro’ them, or the air itfelf grows
cooler. When the temperature of the air and of the
funnels is nearly equal, the difference of warmth in the
air between day and night is fufficient to produce thefe
currents : the air will begin to afeend the funnels as the
cool of the evening comes on, and this current will con¬
tinue till perhaps nine or ten o’clock the next morning,
when it begins to hefitate ; and as the heat of the day
approaches, it fets downwards, and continues fo till to¬
wards evening, when it again hefitates for fome time,
and then goes upwards conftantly during the night, as
before-mentioned. Now when fmoke iffuing from the
tops of neighbouring funnels paffes over the tops of fun¬
nels which are at the time drawing downwards, as they
often are in the middle part of the day, fuch fmoke is
of neceffity drawn into thefe funnels, and defeends with
the air into the chamber.
The remedy is to have a Hiding plate that will fhut
perfectly the offending funnel. Dr Franklin has thus
deferibed it: “ The opening of the chimney is con¬
tracted by brick-work faced with marble fiabs to about
two feet between the jams, and the‘breait brought down
to within about three feet of the hearth. An iron
frame is placed juft under the breaft, and extending
quite to the back of the chimney, fo that a plate of the
fame metal may Hide horizontally backwards and for¬
wards in the grooves on each fide of the frame. This
plate is juft fo large as to fill the whole fpace, and Hint
the chimney entirely when thruft quite in, which is con¬
venient when there is no fire. Draw it out, fo as to
leave between its further edge and the back a fpace of
about two inches ; this fpace is fufficient for the fmoke
to pafs; and fo large a part of the funnel being ftopt
by the reft of the plate, the paffage of warm air out of
the room, up the chimney, is obftrufted and retardetl ;
and by thofe means much cold air is prevented from co¬
ming in through crevices, to fupply its place. This ef¬
fect is made manifeft three ways. 1. When the fire
burns briikly in cold weather, the howling or whiftiing
noife made by the wind, as it enters the room through
the crevices, when the chimney is open as ufual, cealea
as foon as the plate is Hid in to its proper diftance.
2. Opening the door of the room about half an inch,
and holding your hand againft the opening, near the
top of the door, you feel the cold air coming in againft
your hand, but weakly, if the plate be in. Let another
perfon fuddenly draw it out, fo as to let the air of the
room go up the chimney, with its ufual freedom where
chimneys are open, and you immediately feel the cold
air rufliing in ftrongly. 3. If fomething be let againlt
the door, juft lufficient, when the plate is in, to keep
the door nearly Hurt, by refilling the preffure ol the
Smoke.
5 M O [ 553 1 S M O
f'/n-ok?. sir that would force it open : then, when the plate is
'V"—*"' drawn out, the door will be forced open by the in¬
creased prefiure of the outward cold air endeavouring
to get in to fupply the place of the warm air that now
palfes out of the room to go up the chimney. In our
common open chimneys, half the fuel is wafted, and its
effeft loft ; the air it has warmed being immediately
drawn off.”
g. Chimneys which generally draw well, do neverthe-
Jefs fometimes give fmoke into the rooms, it being driven
down by ftrong winds pajpng over the tops of their funnels>
though not defeending from any commanding eminence.
This cafe is moft frequent where the funnel is ftiort and
the opening turned from the wind, it is the more
grievous, when it happens to be a cold wind that pro¬
duces the effeft, becaufe when you moft want your fire
you are fometimes obliged to extinguifh it. To un-
derftand this, it may be confidered that the rifing light
air, to obtain a free iffue from the funnel, muft pufh out
of its way or oblige the air that is over it to rife. In
a time of calm or of little wind this is done vifibly ;
for we fee the fmoke that is brought up by that air
rife in a column above the chimney; but when a vio¬
lent current of air, that is, a ftrong wind, paffes over
the top of a chimney, its particles have received fo much
force, which keeps them in a horizontal direftion and
follow each other fo rapidly, that the rifing light air
has not ftrength fufficient to oblige them to quit that
direftion and move upwards to permit its iffue.
Remedies. In Venice, the cuftom is to open or widen
the top of the flue rounding it in the true form of a fun¬
nel. In other places the contrary is pra&ifed ; the
tops of the flues being narrowed inwards, fo as to form
a flit for the iffue of the fmoke, long as the breadth of
the funnel, and only four inches wide. This feems to
have been contrived on a fuppofition that the entry of
the wind would thereby be obftrufted. and perhaps it
might have been imagined, that the whole force of the
fifing warm air being condenfed, as it were, in the nar¬
row opening, would thereby be ftrengthened, fo as to
overcome the refiftance of the wind. This, however,
did not always fucceed ; for when the wind was at
north-eaft and blew frefh, the fmoke was forced down
by fits into the room where Dr Franklin commonly fat,
fo as to oblige him to fhift the fire into another. The
pofition of the flit of this funnel was indeed north-eaft
and fouth-weft. Perhaps if it had lain acrefs the wind,
the effedft might have been different. But on this'we
can give no certainty. It feems a matter proper to be
referred to experiment. Poffibly a turncap might have
been ferviceable, but it was not tried.
With all the fcience, however, that a man fhall fup-
pofe himfelf poffeffed of in this article, he may fometimes
meet with cafes that fhall puzzle him. “ I once lodged
(fays Dr Franklin) in a houfe at London, which in a
little room had a Angle chimney and funnel. The open¬
ing was very fmall, yet it did not keep in the fmoke,
and all attempts to have a fire in this room were fruit-
lefs.. I could not imagine the reafon, till at length ob-
ierving that the chamber over it, which had no nreplace
in it, was always filled with fmoke when a fire was kin¬
dled belowr, and that the fmoke came through the cracks
and crevices of the wainfeot; I had the wainlcot taken
down, and difeovered that the funnel which went up
behind it had a crack many feet in length, and wide
Vql. XVII. Part II.
enough to admit my arm ; a breach very dangerous with Smnke-
regard to fire, and occafioned probably by an apparent | Lcb-
irregular fettling of one fide of the houfe. The air en- —
tering this breech freely, deftroyed the drawing force of
the funnel. The remedy would have been, filling up
the breach, or rather rebuilding the funnel: but the
landlord rather chofe to ftop up the chimney.
“ Another puzzling cafe I met wuth at a friend’s
country houfe near London. His beft room had a
chimney in wLich, he told me, he never could have a
fire, for all the fmoke came out into the room. I flat-
tered myfelf 1 could eafily find the caufe and preferibe
the cure. I had a fire made there, and found it as he
faid. I opened the door, and perceived it was not
want of air. I made a temporary contraction of the
opening of the chimney, and found that it was not its
being too large that caufed the fmoke to iffue. I went
out and looked up at the top of the chimney : Its fun¬
nel was joined in the fame ftack with others; fome of
them fhorter, that drew very well, and I faw nothing to
prevent its doing the fame, in fine, after every other
examination I could think of, I was obliged to own the
infufficiency of my Ikill. But my friend, jvho made no
pretenfion to fuch kind of knowledge, afterwards difeo¬
vered the caufe himfelf. He got to the top of the fun¬
nel by a ladder, and looking down found it filled with
twigs and ftraw cemented by earth and lined with fea¬
thers. It feems the houfe, after being built, had flood
empty fome years before he occupied it ; and he con¬
cluded that fome large birds had taken the advantage of
its retired fituation to make their neft there. The rub-
bifh, confiderable in quantity, being removed, and the
funnel cleared, the chimney drew well, and gave fatis-
fattion.”
Chimneys whofe funnels go up in the north wall of
a houfe, and are expofed to the north winds, are not fo
apt to draw well as thofe in a fouth wall; becaufe jwhen
rendered cold by thofe winds, they draw downwards.
Chimneys inclofed in the body of a houfe are better
than tkofe whofe funnels are expofed in cold walls.
Chimneys in flacks are apt to draw better than fepa-
rate funnels, becaufe the tunnels that have conftant fires
in them warm the others in fome degree that have
none.
SMOKF.-Jacki This ingenious machine is of German
extraction ; and Meflinger, in his CoHeSion of Mechani¬
cal Performances, fays it is very ancient, being repre-
fented in a painting at Nurenbergh, which is known to
be older than the year 1350.
Its conftru&ion is abundantly Ample. An upright
iron fpindle GA (fig. 5.), placed in the narrow part Hate
of the kitchen chimney, turns round on two pivots H CCCCLXXI*.
and I. _ 7 he upper one H paffes through an iron bar,
which is built in acrofs the chimney ; and the lower pi¬
vot I is of tempered fteel, and is conical or pointed,
refting in a conical bell-metal focket fixed on another
crofs bar. On the upper end of the fpindle is a circu¬
lar fly G, confiding of 4, 6, 8, or more thin iron plates,
fet obliquely on the fpindle like the fails of a windmill,
as we fhall deferibe more particularly by and by. Near
the lower end of the fpincile is a pinion A, which works
in the teeth of acontrate or face wheel B, turning on a
horizontal axis BC. One pivot of this axis turns in a
cock fixed on the crofs bar, which fupports the lower
end of the upright fpindle HI, and the other pivot
4 & turns
SiimIic-
Jack.
S M O [ 554 ] S M O
turns in a cock fixed on the fide wall of the chimney;
fo that this axle is parallel to the front of the chimney.
On the remote end of this horizontal axle there is a
fmall pulley C, haviiiT a deep angular groove. Over
this pulley there paffes a chain CDE, in the lower bight
of which hangs the large pulley E of the fpit. This
end of the fpit turns loofely between the branches of the
fork of the rack or raxe F, but without refting on it.
This is on the top of a moveable Hand, which can be
ftiifted nearer to or farther from the fire. The other
end turns in one of the notches of another rack. The
number of teeth in the pinion A and wheel B, and the
diameters of the pulleys C and E, are fo proportioned
that the fly G makes from I 2 to 20 turns for one turn
of the fpit.
The manner of operation of this ufeful machine is
eafily underflood. The air which contributes to the
burning of the fuel, and-paffes through the midft of it,
is greatly heated, and expanding prodigioufly in bulk,
becomes lighter than the neighbouring air, and is there¬
fore pufhed by it up the chimney. In like manner, all
the air which comes near the fire is heated, expanded,
becomes lighter, and is driven up the chimney. This
is called the draught or fuElion, but would with greater
propriety be termed the drift of the chimney. As the
chimney gradually contrafts in its dimenfions, and as
the fame quantity oc heated air pafles through every
fedlion of it, it is plain that the rapidity of its afcent
muft be greateft in the naVroweft place. There the fly
G fhould be placed, becaufe it will there be expofed to
the ftrongeft ctirrent. . This air, ftriking the fly vanes
obliquely, pufhestliem afide, and thus turns them round
with a confiderable force. If the joint of meat is ex-
afitly balanced on the fpit, it is plain that the only re-
fiftance to the motion of the fly is what arifes from the
fii&ion of the pivots of the upright fpindle, the fri&ion
of the pinion and wheel, the friftion of the pivots of
the horizontal axis, the fri&ion of the fmall end of the
fpit, and the friftion of the chain in the two pulleys.
The whole of this is but a mere trifle. But there is fre¬
quently a confiderable inequality in the weight of the
meat on different fides of the fpit: there muff there¬
fore be a fufficient overplus of force in the impulfe of
the afcending air on the vanes of the fly, to over¬
come this want of equilibrium occailoned by the unfkil-
fulnefs or negligence of the cook. There is, how¬
ever, commonly enough of power when the machine is
properly conftrufted. The utility of this machine will,
we hope, procure us the indulgence of fome of our
readers, while we point out the circumftances on which
its performance depends, and the maxims which fiiould
be followed in its conffruftion.
The upward current of air is the moving power, and
fhould be increafed as much as pofftble, and applied in
the jmoff advantageous manner. Every thing will in-
creafe the current which improves the draught of the
chimney, and fecures it from fmoking. A fmoky chim¬
ney muff always have a weak current. For this parti¬
cular, therefore, we refer to vvhat has been delivered in
the article Pneumatics, ^359; and in the article
Smoke.
With refpedt to the manner of applying this force, it
is evident that the beff conftruftion of a windmill fails
will be nearly the beff conftrudtion for the fly. Ac¬
cording to the ufual theory of the impulfe of fluids,
the greateft effe&tve impulfe (that is, in the dire&ion of
the fly's motion) will be produced if the plane of the
vane be inclined to the axis in an angle of 54 degrees
46 minutes. But, fince we have pronounced this the¬
ory to be fo very defedtivo, we had better take a deter¬
mination founded on the experiments on the impulfe of
fluids made by the academy of Paris. Thefe authorife
us to fay, that 49^- or 5c degrees will be the beff angle
to give the vane but this muft be underftood only of
that part of it which is clofe adjoining to the axis. The
vane itfelf muft be twifted, or 'weathered as the mill¬
wrights term it, and muft be much more oblique at
its outer extremity. The exacft pofition cannot be
determined with any preciiion ; becaufe this depends on
the proportion of the velocity of the vane to that of the
current of heated air. This is fubjedl to no rule, being
changed according to the load on the jack. We ima¬
gine that an obliquity of 61; degrees for the outer ends
of the vanes will be a good polition for the generality
of cafes. Meffinger defcribes an ingenious contrivance
lor changing this angle at pleafure, in order to vary the
velocty of the motion. Each vane is made to turn
round a midrib, which Hands out like a radius from the
fpindle, and the vane is moved by a ftiff wire attached to
one of the corners adjoining to the axle. Thefe wires
are attached to a ring which Hides on the fpindlc like
the fpreader of an umbrella ; and it is flopped on any
part of the fpindle by a pin thruft through a hole in
the fpindle and ring. We mention this briefly, it be¬
ing eafily underftood by any mechanic, and but of little
confequence, becaufe the machine is not fufceptible of
much precifion.
It is eafy to fee that an increafe of the furface of the
vanes will increafe the power: therefore they Ihould oc¬
cupy the whole fpace of the circle, and not confift of
four narrow arms like the fails of a windmill. It is bet¬
ter to make many narrow vanes than a few broad ones;
as will appear plain to one well acquainted with the
mode of impulfe of fluids ariting obliquely. We recom¬
mend 8 or 12 at leaft ; and each vane fliould be fo
broad, that when the whole is held perpendicular be¬
tween the eye and the light, no light lhall come through
the fly, the vanes overlapping each other a very [mail
matter. We alfo recommend the making them of ftiff
plate. Their weight contributes to the fteady motion,
and enables the fly, which has acquired a confiderable
velocity during a favourable pofition of things, to retain
a momentum fufficient to pull round the fpit while the
heavy fide of the meat is rifing from its loweft pofition*
In fuch a fituation a light fly foon lofes its momentum,
and the jack daggers under its load.
It is plain, from what has been faid, that the fly
fhould occupy the whole of that feftion of the vent
where it is placed. The vent muft therefore be brought
to a round form in that place, that none of the current
may pafs ufelefsly by it.
It is an important queftion where the fly fliould be
placed. If in a wide part of the vent, it will have a
great furface, and aft by a long lever ; but the current
in that place is flow, and its impulfe weak. This is a fit
fubjeft of calculation. Suppofe that we have it in our
choice to place it either as it is drawn in the figure, or far¬
ther up at g, where its diameter muft be one half of what
it is at G. Since the fame quantity of heated air paffes
through both feftions, and the feftion g has only one-
fourth
S M O f 555 ] S M O
ftittoks' area of the fe&k>o C, j‘ b pts'n that the
j'aeii, ajj muflt be moving four times falter, and that its immilfe
is 16 times greater- But the furfaee on vvhieh it is* str¬
ing is the fourth part of that of the hy G ; the actual
jmpulfe therefore is only four times greater, fuppoling
both flies to be moving with the lame relative velo¬
city in refpe£l of the current ; that is, the rim of
each moving with the fame portion of the* velocity of
the current. This will be the cafe when the fmall
fly turns eight times as often in a minute as the large
fly: for the air is moving four times as quick, at
g, and the diameter of g is one-half of that of G.
Therefore, when the fmall fly is turning eight times as
quick as the great' one, there is a quadruple impulfe
afting at half the diitance from the axis. The momen¬
tum or energy therefore of the current is double. There¬
fore, fuppoling the pinion, wheel, and pulleys of both
jacks to be the fame, the jack with the fmall fly, placed
in the narrow part oi the vent, will be 16 times more
powerful.
By this example, more eafily underllood than a ge¬
neral procefs, it appears that it is of particular impor¬
tance to place the fly in an elevated part of the vent,
where the area may be much contra&ed. In order ftill
farther to increafe the power of the machine, it would
be very proper to lengthen the fpindle ftill more, and
to put another fly on it at a coniiderable diftance above
the firft, and a third above this, &c.
As the velocity of the current changes by every
change of the fire, the motion of this jack mull be very
unfteady. To render it as adjuftable as may be to the
■particular purpofe of the cook, the pulley E has feverai
grooves of different diameters, and the fpit turns more
or lefs llovvly, by the fame motion of the fly, according
as it hangs in the chain by a larger or fmaller pulley or
groove.
Such is the conftru&ion of the fmoke-jack in its moil
Ample form. Some are more artih».al and complicated,
having, in place ot the pulleys and connedting chain, a
fpindle coming down from the horizontal axis BC. On
the upper end of this fpindle is a horizontal 'contrate
wheel, driven by a pinion in place of the pulley C. On
the lower end is a pinion, driving a contrate wheel in
place of the pulley E. This conftru&ion is reprefent-
ed in fig. 6. Others are conftrudled more Amply, in
the manner reprefented in fig. 7. But our fir It c»n-
ftruftion has great advantage in point of fimplicity,
and allows a more ealy adjuilment of the fpit, which
tnay be brought nearer to the fire or removed farther
from it without any trouble ; whereas, in the others,
with a train of wheels and pinions, this cannot be done
without feverai changes of pins and ferews. The only
imperfection of the pulley is, that by long ufe the
grooves become flippery, and an ill balanced joint is apt
to hold back the fpit, while the chain Aides in the
grooves. This may be completely prevented by ma¬
king the grooves flat inftead of angular (which greatly
dimimlhts the fridlion), and furnifhing them with fnort
ftuds or pins which take into every third or fourth link
of the chain. If the chain be made of the fimplelt
form, with flat links, and each link be made of an exadl
length (making them all on a mould), the motion will
be as eafy as with any wheelwork, and without the
leaft chance of flipping.
It is always of importance to asmid this flipping of Smoke*
the chain by balancing the loaded fpit. For this pur-
pofe it will be extremely convenient to have what is
called a balance-Jhewer. Let a part of the ipit, imme*
diately adjoining to the pulley, be made round, and let
an arm be made to turn on it ftiffiy, fo that it may be
made fall in any polition by a ferew. Let a leaden ball
be made to Aide along this arm, with a ferew to fallen
it at any diftance from the fpit. When the meat is
fpitted, lay it on the racks, and the heavieft fide will
immediately place itfelf undermoft. Now turn round
the balance-lkewer, fo that it may point ftraight up¬
wards, and make it fall in that pofition by the ferew.
Put the leaden ball on it, and Aide it inwards or out¬
wards till it exadlly balances the heavy fide, which will
appear by the fpit’s remaining in any pofition in which
it is put.
The greateft difficulty is Upkeep the machine in re¬
pair. The moll confequential part of it, the firll mo¬
ver, the fly, and the pinion and wheel, by which its mo¬
tion is tranfmitted to the reft of the machine, are (itu-
ated in a place of difficult accefs, and where they are
expofed to violent heat and to the fmoke and foot. The
whole weight of the fly, refting on the lower pivot I,
mull exert a great preffure there, and occalion great
friclion, even when this pinion is reduced to the fmall-
eft fize that is compatible with the neceffary ftrength.
The pivot mull be of hardened Heel, tapered like an ob-
tufe cone, and mull turn in a conical focket, alfo of
hardened fteel or of bell-metal; and this feat of preffure
and fridion mull be continually fupplied with oil, which
it confumes very quickly. It is not fufficient that it
be from time to time fmeared with an oiled feather ;
there mull be an iron cup formed round the focket,
and kept filled with oil. It is furpriiing how quickly
it diiappears : it foon becomes clammy by evaporation,
and by the foot which gathers about it. I he continued
rubbing of the pivot and focket wears them both very
fall; and this is increafed by hard powders, fuch as
fandy dull, that are hurried up by the rapid current
every time that the cook Airs the fire. Thefe, getting
between the rubbing parts, caufe them to grind and
wear each other prodigioufly. It is a great improve¬
ment to invert thefe rubbing parts. Let the lower end
of the fpindle be of a confiderable thicknefs, and have a
conical hollow nicely drilled in its extremity. Let a
blunt pointed conical pin rife up in the middle of the
oil-cup, on which the conical hollow of the ipindle may
reft. Here will be the fame fteady fuppoit, and the
lame fiiciion as 111 the other way 1 but no grinding
dull can now lodge between the pivot and its fock¬
et : and if this upright pin be fere wed up through
the bottom 01 the cup, it may be fere wed farther up in
propoitkm as it wears; ana thus the upper pivot g
will never defert its hole, a thing which foon happens in
the common way. We can fay from experience,1 that a
jack conlli lifted in this way will not require the fifth
part of the repairs of one done in the other way.
It is of importance that the whole he fo put to^e-
thei as to be eafily taken down, in order to fweep the
vent, or to be repaired, See. For this purpofe, let the
crofs bar which carries the lower end of the uprinht
fpindle be placed a little on one fide of the perpendicu¬
lar line from the upper pivot hole. Let the cock which
4 -A- 2 carries
S M O
[ 556 ]
S M o
Smoke-
Jack
II
Smoilet.
carries the oil-cup and the pivot of the horizontal axis
BC be fcrewed to one lide of this cr' r bar, fo that the
centre of the cup may be exaftly under the upper pivot
j hole. By this conilrwdlion we have only to unfcrew
this cock,1 and then both axles come out of their places
at once, and may be replaced without any trouble. We
have Iketched in fig. 8. the manner in which this may
be done, where M reprefents a feftion of the lower
crofs bar. BCDE is the cock, fixed to the bar by the
pins which go through both, with finger nuts a and b
on the oppofite fide. F i is the hard fteel pin with the
conical top ?, on which the lower end I of the upright
fpindle AG refts, in the manner recommended as the
belt and the molt durable. The pivot of the horizon¬
tal axis turns in a hole at E the top of the cock-
After all, we muft acknowdedge that the fmoke jack
is inferior to the common jack that is moved by a
weight. It is more expenfive at firft, and requires
more frequent repairs ; its motion is not fo much un¬
der command ; it occafions foot to be thrown about
the fire,,to-the great annoyance of the cook ; and it is
a great encumbrance when we would clean the vent.
SMOKE-Farthings. The pentecoftals or cuftomary
oblations offered by the difperfed inhabitants within a
diocefe when they made their proceffion to the mother
or cathedral church, came by degrees into a {landing an¬
nual rent called fmoks-farthtngs.
SMOKE’Silver. Lands were holder, in feme places by
the payment of the fum of 6 d. yearly to the {heriff,
called jmckc-Jiher (Par. 4. Edw. VI.) Smoke-filver
and fmoke-penny are to be paid to the minifters of di¬
vers parilhes as a modus in lieu of tithe-wood : and in
fome manors formerly belonging to religious houfes,
there is {till paid, as appendant to the faid manors, the
ancient Peter-pence, by the name offnioke-money (Twi/d.
Fiji. Vindicat. 77.)—The bifhop of London anno 1444
Blued out his co.mmiffion, Ad levandum le fmoke-far-
things, &c.
SMOLENSK©, a large and ftrong city of Ruffia,
and capital of a palatinate of the fame name, with a
caftie feated on a mountain, and a bilhop’s fee. It is
ftrong by its iituation, being in the middle of a wood,
and furrounded by almoft inaccelfible mountains. It has
been taken and retaken feveral times by the Poles and
Ruffians ; but thefe laft have had poffeffion of it ever
fince the year ]687. It is feated on the river Nieper,
near the frontiers of Lithuania, 188 miles fouth-weft of
Mofcow. E. Long. 31.22. N. Lat. 54. 30.
Smolensko, a duchy and palatinate of Ruffia, bound¬
ed on the north by Biela, on the eaft by the duchy of
Mofcow, on the fouth by that of Severia and the pala¬
tinate of Meiflaw, and on the weft by the fame palati-
»ate and by that of Witepfk. It is full of forefts and
mountains: and the capital is of the fame name.
SMOLLET (Dr Tobias), an author whofe writings
will tranfmit his name with honour to pofterity, was
born in the year 1720 at a fmall village within two
miles of Cameron, on the banks of the river Leven.
He appears to have received a claffical education, and
was bred to the pra&ice of phyfic and furgery; and in
the early part of his life ferved as a furgeon’s mate in the
navy.
The incidents that befel him during his continuance_
sn this capacity ferved as a foundation for Roderic Ran¬
dom,, one of the moft entertaining novels in the Engh'ffi SmoUet,
tongue. He was prefent at the fiege of Carthagena ;' 
and in the before-mentioned novel he has given a faith¬
ful, though not very pleafing, account of the manage-
meat of that ill-conduced expedition, which he cenfure*
in the warmeft terms, and from circumftances which
fell under his own particular obfervation.
His connection with the fea feems not to have been
of long continuance ; and it is probable that he wrote
feveral pieces before he became known to the public by
his capital productions. The firft piece we know of
with certainty is a Satire in two parts, printed firft in
the years 1746 and 1747, and reprinted in a Collection
of his Plays atd Poems in 1777. About this period, or
fome time before,- he wrote for Mr Rich an opera in-
titled Alcefte, which has never been performed nor
printed.
At. the age of 18 he wrote a tragedy intitled The
Regicide, founded on the ftory of the aflaffination of
James I. of Scotland. In the preface to this piece,
puhlilhed by fubfeription in the year 1749, he bit¬
terly exclaimed againft falfe patrons, and the dupli¬
city of theatrical managets. The warmth and impetu-
ofity of his temper hurried him, on this occafion, into
unjuft refleftions againft the late George Lord Lyttle-
ton and Mr Garrick ; the character of the former he
charaderifed in the novel of Peregrine Pickle, and he
added a burlefque of the Monody written by that no¬
bleman on the death of his lady. Againft Mr Garrick
he made illiberal ill-founded criticifms ; and in his novel
of Roderic Random gave a very unfair reprefentation
of his treatment of him refpeCting this tragedy. Of
this conduCf he afterwards repented, and acknowledged
his errors ; though in the fubfequent editions of the no¬
vel the paftages which were the hafty effufions of difap-
pointment are not omitted.
However, in giving a {ketch of the liberal arts in
his Hi ftory of England, he afterwards remarked, “ the
exhibitions of the itage were improved to the moft ex-
quifite entertainment by the talents and management of
Garrick, who greatly furpaffed all his predeceffors of
this and perhaps every other nation, in his genius for
aCting, in the fweetnefs and variety of his tones, the ir-
refiftible magic of his eye, the fire and vivacity of his
aCtion, J:he eloquence of attitude, and the whole pathos
of expreffion.
“ Candidates for literary fame appeared even in the-
higher fphere of life, embelliffied by the nervous fenfe
and extenfive erudition of a Corke; by the delicate tafte^
the polilhed mufe, and the tender feelings, of a Lyttle-
ton.”
Not fatisfied with this public declaration, he wrote
an apology to Mr Garrick in ftill ftronger terms. With
thefe ample conceffions, Mr Garrick was completely fa¬
tisfied ; fo that in 1737, when Dr Smollet’s comedy of
the Reprifals, an afterpiece of two ads, was performed
at Drury Lane theatre, the latter acknowledged himfelf
highly obliged for the friendly care of Mr Garrick ex¬
erted in preparing it for the ftage ; and ftill more for
his ading the part of Lufignan in Zara for his benefit,
on the fixth inftead of the ninth night, to which he was
only intitled by the cuftom of the theatre.
The Adventuresof Roderic Random,publiffiedin 1748,
2 vols izmo, a book which ftill continues to have a moft
extenfive
S M O r J57 J S M O
Srnollef,
estenfive fale, firft eftabli/hed the Deftor’s reputation.
All the firil volume and the beginning of the fecond ap¬
pears to conlift of real incident and chara&er, tho’ cer¬
tainly a gooddcal heightened and difguifed. The Judge his
grandfather, Crab and Potion the two apothecaries, and
’Squire Gawky, were chara&ers well known in that
part of the kingdom where the fcene was laid. Cap¬
tains Oakhum and Whiffle, Doftors Mackfflane and
Morgan, were alfo faid to be real perfonages ; but their
names we have either never learned or have now for-
gcttea. A bookbinder and barber long eagerly con¬
tended for being lhadowed under the najne of Strap.
The Do61 or fee ms to have enjoyed a peculiar felicity in
defcribing fea-chai afters, particularly the officers and
failors of the navy. His Trunnion, Hatchway, and
Pipes, are highly finifhed originals ; but what exceeds
them all, and perhaps equals any charafter that has yet
been painted by the happieft genius of ancient or mo¬
dern times, is his Lieutenant Bowling. This is indeed
nature itfelf ; original, unique, and Jui generis.
By the publication of this work the Doftor had ac¬
quired fo great a reputation, that henceforth a certain
degree of fuccefs was infured to every thing known or
fuipefted to proceed from his hand. In the courfe of
a few years, the Adventures of Peregrine Pickle ap¬
peared ; a work of great ingenuity and contrivance in
the compohtion, and in which an uncommon degree of
erudition is difplayed, particularly in the defeription of
the entertainment given by the Republican Doftor, af¬
ter the manner of the ancients. Under this perfonage
the late Dr Akenfide, author of The Pleafures of Ima¬
gination, is fuppofed to be typified ; and it would be
difficult to determine whether profound learning or ge¬
nuine humour predominate moil in this epifode. An¬
other epifode of The Adventures of a Lady of Quality,
likewife inferted in this work, contributed greatly fo its
fuccd's, and is ind*:d admirably executed; the materials,
it is faid, the lady herfelf (the celebrated lady Vane)
furniffled.
Thefe were not t^e only original compofitions of this
ftamp with which the Doftor has favoured the public.
Ferdinand Count Fathom, and Sir Launcelot Greaves,
are Hill in the lift of what may be called reading novels,
and have gone through feveral editions; but there is no
injuftice in placing them in a rank far below the former.
No doubt invention, charafter, compofition, and con¬
trivance, are to be found in both ; but then fituations
are deferibed which are hardly poffible, and charafters
are painted which, if not altogether unexampled, are at
leaft incompatible with modern manners; and which
ought not to be, as the feenes are laid in modern
times.
The lail work which we believe the Doftor publifhed
was of much the fame fpecies, but call into a different
form—The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker. It con-
fifts of a feries of letters, written by different perfons to
their refpeftive correfpondents. Pie has here carefully
avoided the faults which may be juftly charged to his two
former produftions. Here are no extravagant charac¬
ters nor unnatural fituations. On the contrary, an ad¬
mirable knowledge of life and manners is difplayed ;
and moft ufeful leffons are given applicable to interefl-
ing but to very common fituations.
W e know not whether the remark has been made,
but there is certainly a very obvious fimilitude between
the charafters of the three heroes of the Doftor’s chief
• produftions. Roderic Random, Peregrine Pickle, and
Matthew Bramble, are all brothers of the fame family,
1 he fame fatirical, cynical, difpofition, the fame gene-
rofity and benevolence, are the diltinguifhin'g and cha-
rafteriflical features of all three ; but they are far from
being fervile copies or imitations of each other. They
differ as much as the Ajax, Dionied, and Achilles of
Homer. 'Phis was undoubtedly a great effort of ge¬
nius ; and the Doftor feems to have deferibed his own
charafter at the different ftages and fituations of his
life.
Before he took a houfe at Chelfea, he attempted to
fettle as praftitioner of phyfic at Bath ; and with that
view wrote a treatife on the waters ; but was unfuccefs-
ful, chiefly becaule he could not render himfelf agree¬
able to the women, whole favour is certainly of great
confequence to all candidates for eminence, whether in
medicine or divinity. This, however, was a little ex¬
traordinary ; for thofe who remembered Dr Smollet at
that time, cannot but acknowledge that he was as grace¬
ful and handfome a man as any of the age he lived in ;
befides, there was a certain dignity in his air and man¬
ner which could not but infpire refpeft wherever he ap¬
peared. Perhaps he was too foon difeouraged ; in all
probability, had he perfevered, a man of his great learn¬
ing, profound fagacity, and intenfe application, befides
being endued with every other external as well as inter¬
nal accomplifhment, muff have at lall fucceeded, and,
had he attained to common old age, been at the head of
his profeffion.
Abandoning phyfic altogether as a profeffion, he fix¬
ed his refidence at Ghelfea, and turned his thoughts en¬
tirely to writing. Yet, as an author, he was not near
fo fuccefsful as his happy genius and acknowledged me¬
rit certainly deferved. He never acquired a patron
among the great, who by his favour or beneficence re¬
lieved him from the neceffity of writing for a fubfiftence.
'I he truth is, Dr Smollet poffeffed a loftinefs and eleva¬
tion of fentiment and charafter which appears to have
difqualified him for paying court, to thofe who were ca¬
pable of conferring favours. It would be wrong to call
this difpofition prrde or haughinefs ; for to his equals
and inferiors he was ever polite, friendly, and generous-
Bookfellers may therefore be faid to have been his on¬
ly patrons ; and from them he had conftant employ¬
ment in tranflating, compiling, and reviewing. He
tranflated Gil Bias and Don (jhiixote, both fo happily,,
that all the former tranflations of thefe excellent pro-
duftions of genius have been almoft iuperfeded by his*
His name likewife appears to a tranflation of Voltaire’s
Profe Works : but little of it was done by his own
hand ; he only revifed it, and added a few notes. He
was concerned in a great variety of compilations. His
Hiftory of England was the principal work of that
kind. It had a moft extenfive fale ; and the Doftor is
faid to have received L. 2000 for writing it and the
continuation.
In 1755 he fet on foot the Critical Review, and
continued the principal manager of it till he went abroad
for the firfl time in the year 1763. He was perhaps
too acrimonious fometimes in the conduft of that work;,
and at the fame time difplayed too much fenfibility
whea
ffmoITef.
t
S 'M O [ 5.58 ] S M U
v ;«*. v hpn a*v of the unfortunate authors attempted to re-
tfehate whofe works be had perhaps jurtly cenfured.
Among other controverliee in which hw engagements
■ in this publication involved him, the moll material in
its confequenees was that occefsoned by his remarks on
a pamphlet publilhed by Admiral Knowles. That gen¬
tleman, in defence of his conduct on the expedition to
Rochfort, publifhed a vindication of himfelf; which fal¬
ling under the Do&or’s examination, produced fome
very fevere ftridhires both on the performance and on
the chara&er of the writer. Tire admiral immediately-
commenced a profecutinn againft the printer; declaring
at the fame time that he defired only to be infonoed
who the writer was, that if he proved to be a gentle¬
man he might obtain the fatisfaClion of one from him.
In this affair the Doctor behaved both with prudence
and with fpirit. Defirous of compromiling the difpute
with the admiral in an amicable manner, he applied to
his friend Mr Wilkes to interpofe his good offices with
his opponent. The admiral, however, was inflexible ;
and juft as fentence was going to be pronounced againft
the printer, the Doctor came into court, avowed him¬
felf the author of the Striftures, and declared himfelf
ready to give Mr Knowles any fatisfadlion he chofe.
The admiral immediately commenced a frefh abtion
againft the Doctor, who was found guilty, fined L.ioo,
and condemned to three months imprifonment in
the King's Bench. It is there he is faid to have
written The Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves, in
which lie has deferibed fome remarkable characters, then
his fellow-prifonere.
When Lord Bute was called to the chief adminiftra-
tion of affairs, he was prevailed upon to write in defence
of that nobleman’s meafures ; which he did in a weekly
paper called the Briton. This gave rife to the famous
North Briton ; wherein, according to the opinion of
the public, he was rather baffled. The truth is, the
Dodtor did not feem to poflefs the talents neceffary for
political altercation. He wanted temper and coolnefs ;
and his friends accufed his patron of having denied him
the neceffary information, and even negledted the fulfil¬
ling of fome of his other engagements with him. Be
that as it will, the Doftor is faid not to have forgotten
him in his fubfeqnent performances.
Befides the Briton, Dr Smollet is fuppofed to have
written other pieces in fupport of the caufe he efpou-
fed. The Adventures of an Atom, in two volumes, are
known to be his production.
His conftitution being at laft greatly impaired by a
fedentary life and afliduous application to ftudy, he
went abroad for his health in June 1763, and continued
in France and Italy two years. He wrote an account
of his travels in a feries of letters to fome friends, which
were afterwards publifhed in two volumes oftavo, 1766,
During all that time he appears to have laboured under
a conftant fit of chagrin. A very flight pmifal of thele
letters will fufficiently evince that this obfervation is
founded in fad, and is indeed a melancholy inftance of
the influence of bodily diftemper over the belt difpofl-
tion.
His relation of Lis travels is actually cynical; for
which Sti rne, in his Sentimental Journey, has animad¬
verted on him under the character of Smelfungus. 1 he
DoCtor lived to return to his native country: but his
health continuing to decline, and meeting with frefh Srool!??,
mortifications and difappointment.s, he went back to
Italy, where he died in October 21, 1771. He was cm- ^
ployed, during the laft years, of his life, in abridging
the Modern Univerfal Hiitury, great part of which he
had originally written himfelf, particularly the hiftories
of France, Italy, and Germany,
He certainly met with many mortifications and dif*
appointments j which, in a letter to Mr Garrick, he
thus feelingly exprefies: “ I am old enough to have
feen and obferved, that we are all playthings of For¬
tune ; and that it depends upon fomething as infignifi-
cant and precarious as the toffing up of a halfpennv,
whether a man rifes to affluence and honours, or conti.
nues to his dying day ftruggling with the difficulties
and difgraces of life.”
It would be needlefs to expatiate on the character of
a man fo well known as Dr Smollet, who has, befides,
given fo many ftriftures of his own charaCIer and man¬
ner of living in his writings, particularly in Humphrey
Clinker ; where he appears under the appellation of
Mr Ser/e, and has an interview with Mr Bramble; and
his manner of living is delciibed in another letter, where
young Melford is fuppofed to dine with him at his houfe
in Chelfea. N° doubt he made money by his connec¬
tions with the bookfellers; and had he been a rigid,
economift, or endued with the gift of retention (an ex-
preffioa of his own), he might have lived and died very
independent. However, to do juftice to his memory,
his difficulties, whatever they were, proceeded not from
extravagance or want of economy. He was hofpitable,
but not oftentatioufly fo ; and his table was plentiful,
but not extravagant. No doubt he had his failings ;
but ftill it would be difficult to name a man who was
fo refpeCIable for the qualities of his head, or more ami.
able for the virtues of his heart.
Since his death a monument has-been ereCKd to hia
memory near Leghorn, on which is inferibed an epitaph
written in Latin by bis friend Dr Armfirong, author
of The Art of Preferving Health,, and many other ex¬
cellent pieces. An infeription written in Latin was
likewife iwferibed on a pillar eredled to his memory on
the banks of the Leven, by one of his relations.
To thefe memoirs we are extremely forrv to add,
that fo late as 1785 the widow of Dr .Smollet was re-
fiding in indigent circumftances at Leghorn. On this
account the tragedy of Venice Preferred was ailed for
her benefit at Edinburgh on the 5th of March, and an
excellent prologue fpoken on that occafion.
The pieces inferted in the pofthumous collection of
Dr Smoilet’s plays and poems are, The Regicide, a
tragedy: The Reprifal, a comedy; /Advice and Re¬
proof, two fat ires ; The Tears of Scotland; Vetfes on
a Young Lady; a Love Elegy, in imitation of Tibullus;
two Songs; a Burlefque Ode; Odes to Mirth, to
Sleep, to Leven Water, to Blue-ey’d Ann, and-to In¬
dependence.
SMUGGLERS, perfons who import or export -pro-
hibited goods without paying the duties appointed by
the law.
The duties of cuftoms, it is faid, were originally in-
ftituted, in order to enable the king to afford protec¬
tion to trade againft pirates : they have fince been con¬
tinued as a branch of the public revenue. As duties
rm-
Smoke
Plate CCCCLXXL
S M IT. [ 559 J S M Y
mportation of goods necefTarily ralTes pricty or utility of fuch laws, confider them as oppref- Smujiglsrs
five and tyrannical, and never hefitate to violate them II
—1— ^ . , . . - ~ - - Smyrna.
Smnggler. impofed, upon the ^   
their price above what they might otherwife have been
fold for, a temptation is prefenled to import the com¬
modity clandeftinely and to evade the duty. Many
perfons, prompted by the hopes of gain, and confider-
ing the violation of a pofitive law of this nature as in no
refpett criminal (an idea in which they have been en-
couraged by a great part of the community, who make
no fcruple to purchafe fmuggled goods), have engaged in
this illicit trade. ■ It was impoffible that government
could permit this practice, which is highly injurious to
the fair trader, as the fmuggler is enabled to underfell
him, while at the fame time he impairs the national re¬
venue, and thus wholly deftroys the end for which thefe
duties were appointed. Such penalties are therefore in-
, flicted as it was thought would prevent fmuggling.
Many laws have been made with this view. If any
vol. .sroods bc di pped or landed without warrant and pre¬
fence of an officer, the veffel ffiall be forfeited, and the
wharfinger ffiall forfeit L. xy, and the mafter or ma-
- riner of any ffiip inward bound ffiall forfeit the value of
the goods : and any carman, porter, or other affiftiag,
fhall be committed to g-aol, till he find furety of the
good behaviour, or until he ffiall be difeharged by the
court of exchequer (13 & 14 C. II. c 11.) If goods
be relanded after drawback, the vefifel and goods ffiall
be forfeited ; and every perfon concerned therein ffiall
forfeit double the value »f the drawback (8 An. c. 13.)
Goods taken in at fea fhall be forfeited, and alfo the
veil el into which they are taken ; and every perfon con¬
cerned therein ffiall forfeit treble value (9 G. II. c. 35.)
A veffiel hovering near the coaft fliall be forfeited, if
under 50 tons burden ; and the goods ffiall alfo be for¬
feited, or the value thereof (5 G. III. c. 43.) Perfons
receiving or buying run goods ffiall forfeit L. 20 (S G.
c. 18.) A concealer of run goods ffiall forfeit treble
value (8 G. c. 18.) Offering run goods to fale, the
fame (hall be forfeited, and the perfon to whom they
are offered may feize. them ; and the perfon offering
them to fale ffiall forfeit treble value (11 G. c. 30.) A
porter or other perfon carrying run goods ffiall forfeit
treble value (9 G. IL c. 35.) Perfons armed or dif-
guifed carrying run goods fiiall be guilty of felony,
and tranfported for feven year* (8 G. c. 18. 9 G. II.
c* 35 )
But the laft flatute, 19 G. II. c. 34’ i*or this pur-
pofe \nfiar omnium; tor it makes all forcible afts of
fmuggling, carried on in defiance of the laws, or even
in difguife to evade them, felony without benefit of cler¬
gy : enabling, that if three or more perfons fhall af-
femble, with fire-arms or other offenuve weapons, to af-
fift in the illegal exportation or importation of goods,
or in refeuing the fame after feizure*, or in reicuing of¬
fenders in cuftody for fuch offences ; or ffiall pafs with
fuch goods in difguife ; or ffiall wound, ffioot at, or af-
fault, any officers of the revenue when in the execution
of their duty; fuch perfons ffiall be felons, without the
benefit of clergy.
When we confider the nature, and ftill more the hl-
ftory, of mankind, we muft allow that the enacting of
fevere penal laws is not the way to prevent crimes. It
weie indeed much to be wiihed that there were no fuch
thing as a political crime ; for the generality of men,
but efpeciaUy the lower orders, not difeerning the pro-
when they can do it with impunity. Inftead therefore   
°f punishing fmugglers, it would be much better to re- Smitl/7
move the temptation. But the high duties which have Wealth of
been impofed upon the importation of many different Nati^s>
forts of foreign goods, in order to difeourage their con-™"111"
fumption in Great Britain, have in many cafes ferved
only to encourage fmuggling ; and in all cafes have re¬
duced the revenue of the cuftoms below what more mo¬
derate duties would have afforded. The faying of Dr
Swift, that in the arithmetic of the cuftoms two and
two, inftead of making- four, make fometimes only one,
holds perfectly true with regard to fuch heavy duties,
which never could have been impofed, had not the mer-
cantde fyftem taught us, in many cafes, to employ tax¬
ation as an inftrument, not of revenue, but of mono-
Po!/-
The bounties which are fometimes given upon the
exportation of home produce and manufactures, and the
drawbacks which are paid upon the re-exportation of
the greater part of foreign goods, have given occafion
to many frauds, and to a fpeeies of ftnuggling more de-
ftruftive of the public revenue than any other. In or¬
der to obtain the bounty or drawback, the goods, it is
well known, are fometimes (hipped and fent to fea, but
foon afterwards clandeftinely relanded in fome other part
of the country.
Heavy duties being impofed upon almoft all goods
imported, our merchant importers fmuggle as much,
and make entry of as little as they can. Our merchant-
exporters, on the contrary, make entry of more than
they export ; fometimes out of vanity, and to pais for
great dealers in goods which pay no duty ; and fome-
times to gain a bounty or a drawback. 'Our exports,
in confequence of thefe different frauds, appear upon
the cuftomhoufe books greatly to overbalance our im¬
ports ; to the unfpeakable comfort of thofe politicians
who meafure the national profperity by what they call
the balance of trade.
SMUl, in huffiandry, a difeafe in corn, when the
grains, inftead of being filled with flour, are full of a
(linking black powder. See Wheat.
SMYRNA, or Ismir, at prefent the largeft and
ncheft city of Afia Minor, is fituated in north 1 latitude
38 28 , and in E. Long. 270 27 from Greenwich, and
about 183 miles weft by fouth of Conftantinople. The
town extends along the ffiore about half a mile on a
gentle declivity. Thehoufes of the EngHfli, French,
and Dutch confuls are handfome ftru&ures; thefe, with
moil of thofe occupied by the Chriftian merchants, are
vv a died on one fide by the fea, forming a ilreet named
Frank-jlreet, from its being folely inhabited by European
Ghriftians. In the year 1763 whole of this quarter
was confumed by fire : the lofs fuftained by this cala-
mity in ra^rchandife was eftimated at a million and a
half of Turkiffi dollars, or near L. 200,000 Sterling.
I he port is one of the fined of the Levant, it being
able to contain the largeft fleet ; and indeed there are
feldom in it fewer than 10c (hips of different nations.-
A caftle lianas at its entrance, and commands all the z> »
(nipping which fail in or out. There is likewife an old cZlaplf.
ruinous caftle, near a mile in circumference, which (lands
in the upper part of the city, and, according \o tradi-
5 tion.
S M Y r 560 ] SNA
■Smyrna.
tion, was built by the emprefs Helena: and near it is
an ancient ftrufture, faid to be the remains of a palace
where the Greek council was held when Smyrna was
the metropolis of Aha Minor. They alfo {how the
ruins or an amphitheatre, where it is faid St Polycarp,
the irrll bifhop, fought with lions.
This city is about four miles in circumference, .and
nearly of a triangular form; but the fide next the
mountain is much longer than the other fides The
houles are low, and moftly built with clay-walls, on ac¬
count of the earthquakes to which the country is fub-
qeft ; but the caravanieras and fome other of the public
buildings have an air of magnificence. The ftreets are
wide, and almoft a continued bazar, in which a great
part of the merchandize of Europe and Alia is expofed
to fale, with plenty of provilions ; though thefe are not
fo cheap as in many other parts of Turkey, on account
of the populoufnefs of the place, and the great refort
of foreigners. It is faid to contain 15,000 Turks,
10,000 Greeks, 1800 Jews, 200 Armenians, and 200
Franks. The lurks have 19 mofques ; two churches
belong to the Greeks; one to the Armenians; and
the Jews have eight fynagogues. I he Romanifts have
three convents. There is alfo one of the fathers Della
Terra Santa. Here refides an archbifhop of the Greek
church ; a Latin bifhop who has a falary from Rome,
with the title of bifirop of Smyrna in partibus injldelium;
and the Englifh and Dutch fadories have each their
chaplain.
The walks about the town are extremely pleafant,
particularly on the welt fide of Frank ftreet, where
there are feveral little groves of orange and lemon trees,
which being always clothed with leaves, bloffoms, and
fruit, regale feveral of the fenfes at the lame time. The
vines which cover the little hills about Smyrna afford
both a delightful profped and plenty of grapes, of
which good w ine is made. 1 hefe hills are agreeably
interfperfed with fertile plains, little forefts of olives
and other fruit-trees, and many pleafure-houfes, to
which the Franks ufually retire during the fummer. In
the neighbourhood of Smyrna is great plenty of game
and wild-fowl, and particularly deer and wild-hogs.
The fea alfo abounds with a variety of good fifli. The
European Chriftians are here allowed all imaginable li¬
berties, and ufually clothe themfelves after the Euro¬
pean manner.
The chief commerce of this city confifts in raw filk,
filk-lluffs, grograms, and cotton yarn.
However, the unhealthfulnefs of the fituation, and
more efpecially the frequent earthquakes, from which,
it is faid, they are fcarcely ever free for two years to¬
gether, and which have been felt 40 days fucceffively,
are an abatement of the pleafure that might otherwise
be enjoyed here. A very dreadful one happened in
June 1688, which overthrew a great number of the
houfes ; and the rock opening where the cattle ftood,
fwallowed it up, and no lefs than 5000 perfons periflted
on this occafion.
In the year 1758, fo defolating a plague raged here,
that fcarcely a fufficient number of the inhabitants fur-
vived to gather in the fruits of the earth. In the year
1772, three-fourth parts of the city were confumed by
fire; and fix years after it was vifitedby the moft dread¬
ful earthquakes, which continued from the 2 jth of June
to the 5th of July ; by which fucceflive calamities the Smyrnlm*
city has been fo much reduced, that its former confe- II
quence is never likely to be reftored. ■ k n^ce' j,
The ladies here wear the oriental drefs, confifting of
large trawlers or breeches, which reach to the ancle ;
long wefts of rich filk or velvet, lined in winter with
coftly furs ; and round their waift an embroidered zone
with clafps of filver or gold. Their hair is plaited,
and defeends down the back often in great plofufion.
The girls have fometimes above twenty thick treftes,
befides two or three encircling the head as a coronet,
and fet off with flowers and plumes ot feathers, pearls,
or other jewels. They commonly ftain it of a chefnut
colour, which is the moft defired Their apparel and
carriage are alike antique. It is remarkable that the
trowfers are mentioned in a fragment of Sappho as
part of the female drefs.
SMYRNIUM, Alexanders : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and to the order of
digynia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
45th order. Umbellate. The fruit is oblong and ilria- "
ted ; the petals have a lharp point, and are keel-fhaped.
There are five fpecies: 1. Theperfoliatumy or perfoliate
alexanders, which is a native of Candia and Italy;
2. The JEgyptiacum ; 3. The aureum, or golden alexan¬
ders, which is a native of North America; 4. ’’I 'he in-
tegerrimim ; 5. The olufatrum, common alexanders, a
native of Britain ; the leaves of which are cauline, ter-
nate, petiolated, and ferrated. It grows on the iea-
coaft at Dunglas on the borders of Berwickftrire North
Britain. Since the introdu&ion of celery into the
garden, the alexanders is almoft forgotten. It was for¬
merly cultivated for falading, and the young {hoots or
ftalks blanched were eaten either raw or ftewed. The
leaves too were boiled in broths and foups. It is a
warm comfortable plant to a cold weak ftomach, and
was in much eftefcm among the monks, as may be in¬
ferred by its ftill being found in great plenty by old ab¬
bey walls.
SNAFFLE, in the manege, is a very {lender bit-
mouth without any branches, much ufed in England;
the true bridles being referved for war.
SNAIL, in zoology. See Helix and Limax.
SNAKE, in zoology. See Anguis and Serpens.
Method of Preferring Snakes. When the fnake is
killed, it muft firft be walked clean, and freed from all
filth and naftinefs; then it is to be put into a glals of a
proper fize, the tail firft, and afterwards the reft of the
body, winding it in fpiral afeending circles, and difpo-
fing the back, which is alway the moft beautiful, out¬
wardly. A thread, connefted with a fmall glafs bead, is,
by the help of a needle, to be paffed through the upper
jaw from within outwardly, and then through the cork
of the bottle, where it muft be faftenecl; by this means
the head will be drawn into a natural pofture, and the
mouth kept open by the bead, whereby the teeth, &c.
will be difeovered : the glafs is then to be filled with
rum, and the cork fealed down to prevent its exhala¬
tion. A label, containing the name and properties of
the fnake, is then to be affixed to the wax over the
cork ; and in this manner the fnake wall make a beau¬
tiful appearance, and may be prelerved a great number
of years ; nor will the fpirits impair or change the luttre
of its colours.
6 ^
Snakr-
SnaV*-
Srijiie?.
SNA T s6i
SvjKR'Stones, /fmnonita, in natural hiftory, the name
t of a large genus of foffil fhells, very few if any of which
are yet known in their recent ftate, or living either on
our own or any other fhores ; fo that it feems won¬
derful whence fo vaft a number and variety of them
fhould be brought into our fubtenanean regions. They
feem indeed difperfed in great plenty throughout the
world, but nowhere are found in greater numbers, beau¬
ty, and variety, than in our ifland.
Mr Harenberg found prodigious numbers of them on
the banks of a river in Germany. He traced this river
through its feveral windings for many miles, and among
1
N E
See PoLYGAr.A,
See Pouygonum,
See Antirrhi. 3nJz[l]^
a great variety of belemnitce, cornua ammonis, and coch-
litae, of various kinds ; he found alfo great quantities of
wood of recent petrifa&ion, which {fill preferved plain
marks of the axe by which it had been cut from the
trees then growing on the fhore. The water of this river
he found in dry feafons, when its natural fprings were
not diluted with rains, t@ be conliderably heavier than
common water; and many experiments fhowed him
that it contained ferruginous, as well as ftony particles,
in great quantity, whence the petrifaftions in it appear¬
ed the lefs wonderful, though many of them of recent
date.
Of the cornua ammonis, or ferpent ftones, he there
obferved more than 30 different fpecies. They lie im-
rnerfed in a bluifh foflil ftone, of a foft texture and fatty
appearance, in prodigious numbers, and of a great va¬
riety of fizes, from the larger known forts down to
fuch as could not be feen without very accurate infpec-
tion or the affiftance of a microfcope. Such as lie in
the foftefl of thefe ffones are foft like their matrix, and
eafily crumble to pieces ; others are harder. In a piece
of this ftone, of the bignefs of a finger, it is common to
find 30 or more of thefe foffils ; and often they are feen
only in form of white fpecks, fo minute that their fi¬
gure cannot be diflinguifhed till examined by the mi¬
crofcope.
They all confift of feveral volutae, which, are different
in number in the different fpecies, and their ftrias alfo
are extremely various ; fome very deep with very high
ridges between them, others very flight ; fome ftraight,
others crooked; others undulated, and fome termina¬
ting in dots, tubercles, or cavities, towards the back,
and others having tubercles in two or three places.
They are all compofed of a great number of chambers
or cells, in the manner of the nnuti/us Gracorum, each
having a communication with the others, by means of a
pipe or fiplmnculus. There is a fmall white fhell fiih
of Barbadoes, which feems truly a recent animal of
this genus ; and in the Eaft Indies there is another
alio, fmall and greyifh ; but the large and beautifully
marked ones are found only foffil.
They are compofed of various foffil bodies, often of
quarry fione, fometimes of the matter of the common
pyrites, and of a great variety of other fubftances ; and
though they appear ufually mere ftones, yet in fome the
pearly part of the original fhell is preferved in all its
beauty. Sometimes alfo, while the outer fubftance is
of the matter of the pyrites, or other coarfe, ftony, or
mineral matter, the inner cavity is filled with a pure
white Ipar of the common plated texture. This gives
a great beauty to the fpecimert. The cornua ammonis,
or fnake-ftones, are found in many parts of England,
•particularly in Yorkfhire, where they are very plentiful
in the alum rocks of feveral fizes.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
SNAKE-RoQt, in botany.
SivAKE-fVeeJ, in botany.
SNAPEDRxVGON, in botany.
N UM.
SNEEZING, a convullive motion of the mufcles of
the breaft, whereby the air is expelled from the nofe
with much vehemence and noile. It is caufed by the ir¬
ritation of the upper membrane of the nofe, occafioned
by acrid fubftances floating in the air, or by medicines
Called flernutatory.
This irritation is performed either externally, by
ftrong fmells, as marjoram, rofes, &c. or by duft float-
Rou-t
ing in the air, and taken in by infpiration ; or by fharp
pungent medicines, as creffes and other fternutatories,
which vellicate the membrane of the nofe ; or internally,
by the acrimony of the lympha or mucus, which natu¬
rally moiftens that membrane. The matters caft forth
in fneezing come primarily from the nofe and throat;
the pituitary membrane continually exuding a mucus
thither; and, fecondarily, from the breaft, the trachea,
and the bronchia of the lungs.
The praftice of fainting the perfon who fneezed ex-
ifted in Africa, among nations unknown to the Greeks
and Romans. The accounts we have of Monomotapa
inform us *, that when the prince fneezes, all his fub- * Strain,
jeds in the capital are advertifed of it, that they may Pr°l- AcaJ.
offer up prayers for his fafety. The author of the con-
queft of Peru aflures us, that the cacique of Guachoia
having fneezed in prefence of the Spaniards, the In¬
dians of his train fell proftrate before him, ftretehed
forth their hands, and difplayed to him the accuftomed
marks of refped, while they invoked the fun to en¬
lighten him, to defend him, and to be his conftant
guard.
Every body knows that the Romans fainted each
other on thefe ocafions : and Pliny relatesf, that Tibe-f^. Htf,
rius exa&ed thei'e figns of homage when drawn in his Nat‘
chariot. Superftition, whofe influence can debafe eve-caF' a*
ry thing, had degraded this cuftom for feveral ages, by
attaching favourable or unfavourable omens to ineezing
according to the hour of the day or night, according to
the figns of the zodiac, according as a work was more
or lefs advanced, or according as one had fneezed to the
right or ta the left J. If a nitn fneezed at rifing from t Spond,
table or from his bed, it was neceftary for him to fit or ^omeri
lie down again. You are ftruck with aftonifhment, laid CommenU
Timotheus to the Athenians, who wifhed to return in¬
to the harbour with their fleet$, becaufe he had fneezed; § Fronting
you are ftruck with aftonifhment, becaufe among 10,000lib- •
there is one man whofe brain is moift. caP- 1I*
Polydore Virgil pretends, that in the time of Gre¬
gory the Great, there reigned in Italy an epidemic dif-
temper, which carrried off by fneezing all thole who
were feized by it ; and that this pontiff ordered prayers
to be made againit it, accompanied by certain figns of
the crofs. But befides that, there are very few cafes
in which fneezing can be confidered as dangerous, and
that it is frequently a favourable fymptom j| : it is evi-1| HippocrcH^
dent, that we ought not to date from the lixth century Kalhri
the origin of a cuftom which lofes itfelf in the obfeurity
of antiquity. Avicenna and Cardan fay, it is a fort of
convulfion, which gives occailon to dread an epilepfy,
and that this difeafe is endeavoured to be warded off by
prayers. Clement of Alexandria confiders it as a mark
of intemperance and effeminacy, which ought to be
profcribed. And he inveighs bitterly againft thofe
4 ^ who
gnpezkij?,
* Plutarch
f]e. fca* ho‘
trat.
j- Ar'ijlenaet.
^ Homeri
Qdyjf . _
lib.xvii.
§ XenCipf}.
Anub.
U Acad, dec
Infer ip.
voJ. iv.
% Arijfct.
in. Prob.
S N E r .0
who endeavour to procure fheezlng by external aid,
Montaigne, on the contrary, explains this faft in a tone
rather cynical. It is Angular enough, that fo many ri¬
diculous, contradiftory, and fuperftitious opinions, have
not abolifhed thofe cuftomary civilities which are ftill
preferved equally among high and low ; and which on¬
ly the Anabaptifts and Quakers have reje&ed, becaufe
they have renounced falutations in every cafe.
Among the Greeks freezing was almoft always a good
omen. It excited marks of tendernefs, of refpeft, and
attachment. The genius of Socrates informed him by
fneezing, when it was neceffary to perform any action*.
The young Parthenis, hurried on by her paffion, refol-
ved to, write to Sarpedon an avowal ot her love f ; fire
freezes in the moft tender and impaffioned part of her
letter : This is fufficient for her ; tin’s incident fupplieis
the place of an anfvver, and perfuades her that Sarpedon
is her lover. Penelope, harafTed by the vexatious court-
fhip of her fuitors, begins to curfe them all, and to pour
forth vows for the return of Ulyfles X- Hcr fon rL'ele-
machus interrupts her by a loud freeze. She inftantly
exults wnth joy, and regards this fgn as an affirance of
the approaching return of her hufband. Xenophon was
haranguing his troops ; a foldier fneezed in the mo¬
ment when he was exhorting them to embrace a dange¬
rous but neceffary refolution. The whole army, moved
by this prefage, determine to purfue the projeft of their
general; and Xenophon orders facrifices to Jupiter the
preferver$.
This religious reverence for fneezing, fo ancient and
fo uiiiverfal even in the times of Homer, always excited
the curiofity of the Greek plrilofophers and of the rab¬
bins. Thefe laft have fpread a tradition, that, after the
creation of the world, God made a general law to this
purport, that every living man fhould fneeze but once
in his life, and that at the fame infant he fhould render-
up his foul into the hand of his Creator ||, without any
preceding xndifpofition. Jacob obtained an exemption
from the common law, and the favour of being informed
of his laft hour : He fneezed and did not die ; and this
fgn of death was changed into a frgn of life. Notice
of this was fent to all the princes of the earth; and they-
ordained, that in future breezing fhould be accompanied
with forms of bleffing, and vows for the perfons who
fneezed.
Ariftotle remounts likevvife to the fources of natural
religion. He obferves, that the brain is the origin of
the nerves, of our fentiments, ,our fenfations, the feat of
the foul, the image of the Divinity ; that upon all
thefe accounts, the fubftance of the brain has ever been
held in honour ; that the firft men fwore by their head;
that they durft not touch nor eat the brains of any ani¬
mal ; that it was even a facred word which they dared
not to pronounce. Filled with thefe ideas, it is not
wonderful that they extended their reverence even to
fneezing. Such is the opinion of the moft ancient and
fugacious philofophers of Greece.
According to mythology, the firfl fign of Life Pro¬
metheus’s artificial man gave was by flernutation. This
fnppofed creator is faid to have«.ftolen a portion of the
folar rays; and filling with them a phial, which he had
made on purpofe, fealed it up hermetically. He inftant¬
ly flies back to his favourite automaton, and opening
the phial holds it clofe to the ftatue; the rays ftill re¬
taining all their activity, infinuate themfelves. through
2 ] S N O
the pores, and fet the fictitious mart a fneezing. Pro.
metheus, tranfported with the fuccefs of his machine,
offers up a fervent prayer, with wifhes for the preferva
tion of fo Angular a being. His automaton obferved
him, remembering his ejaculations, was very careful, on
the like occafions, to offer thefe wifhes in behalf of his
defendants, who perpetuated it from father to Ion in
all their colonies.
SNIGGLING, a method of fifhing for eels, chiefly
ufed in the day-time, when they are found to hide
themfelves near wears, mills, or flood gates. It. is per¬
formed thus : Take a ftrong line and hook, baited with
a garden-worm, and obferving the holes where the eels
lie hid, thruft your bait into them by the help of a flick;
and if there be any, you fhall bq fure to have a bite ;
and may, if your tackling hold, get the iargeft eels.
SNIPE, in ornithology. See Scolopax and Shoot
ING.
SNORING, in medicine, othervvife called Jlertor> is
a found like that of theceichnon, but greater and mor©
manifeft.
Many confound thofe affeftions, and make them to
differ only in place and magnitude, calling by the name
of ftertor that found or nolle which is heard or fuppofed
to be made in the paffage between the palate and the
noftrils as in thofe who fleep ; that boiling or bubbling
noife, which in refpiration proceeds from the larynx, or
or head, or orifice of the afpera arteria, they call ce’chon;
but if the found comes from the afpera arteria itfelfi
they will have it called cerchnos, that is, as fome under-
ftand it, a rattling, or as others a ftridulous or whee¬
zing roughnefs of the afpera arteria. In dying perfonai
this affe&ion is called by the Greeks p^xx^’ rhenchost
which is a fnoring or rattling kind of noife, proceeding
as it were from a conflid between the breath and the
humours in the afpera arteria.
This and fuch like affetfions are owing to a weak-
nefs of nature, as when the lungs are full of pus or hu¬
mours : to which purpofe we read in the Prognoftics of
Hippocrates, “ it is a bad fign when there is no expec¬
toration, and no difeharge from the lungs, but a noife
as from an ebullition is heard in the afpera arteria from
a plenitude of humour.” Expe&oration is fuppreffed.
either by the vifeidity of the humour, which requires
to be difeharged, and which adhering to the afpera ar¬
teria, and being there agitated by the breath, excites*
that bubbling noife or ftertor ; or by an obftru&ion of
the bronchia ; or, laftly, by a compreflion of the afpera.
arteria and throat, whence the paffage is ftraitened^ in
< which the humours being agitated, excite fuch a kind
of noife as before defcribed. Hence Galen calls thofe
who arc ftrait-breafted Jlertorous. That author afiigns
but two caufes of this fymptom, which are either the.
ftraitnefs of the paffage of refpiration or redundance ol
humours, or both together ; but it is neceffary to add
a third, to wit, the weaknefe of the faculty, which is
the caufe of the rhenchos in dying perfons, where nature
is too weak to make difeharges.
From what has been faid we conclude,/ that this,
fymptom, or this fort of fervour or ebullition in the
throat, is not always mortal, but only when nature is.
oppreffed with the redundance of humour, in fuch a.
manner, that the lungs cannot difeharge themfelves by
fpitting ; or the paffage appointed for the breath (being,
the afpera arteria) is very much obftru&ed, upon whichi
account
Snigcling
II
Snoring,
S N O
Snow,
account many dying perfons labour under a flertor with
their mouths gaping.
SNOW, a well-known meteor, formed by the freez¬
ing of the vapours in the atmofphere. It differs from
hail and hoar-froft, in being as it were cryflallized,
which they are not. This appears on examining a
hake of fnow by a magnifying glafs; when the whole
of it will appear to be compofed of fine fhining fpicula
diverging like rays from a centre. As the flakes fall
down through the atmolphere, they are continually
jSined by more of thefe radiated fpicula, and thus in-
creafe in bulk like the drops of rain or hailllones. Dr
Grew, in a difcourfe of the nature of fnow, obferves,
that many parts thereof are of a regular figure, for the
mofl part ftars of fix points, and are as perfedl and
tranfparent ice as any we fee on a pond, &c. Upon
each of thefe points are other collateral points, fet at
the fame angles as the main points themfelves : among
which there are divers other irregular, which are chief¬
ly broken points, and fragments of the regular ones.
Others alio, Ijy various winds, feem to have been thaw¬
ed and frozen again into irregular clufters ; lb that it
feems as if the whole body of fnow were an infinite mafs
of icicles irregularly figured. That is, a cloud of va¬
pours being gathered into drops, the faid drops forth¬
with defcend; upon which defcent, meeting with a
free7.1 no air ac t-ViPxr -rvafc o
C 563 1
S N O
of the fnow, and the regularity of the flru&ure of its
parts (particularly fome figures of fnow or hail which '
fall about 'I urin, and which he calls rofette), fhow that-
cloUds of fnow are a died upon by fome uniform caufe
hke eledlricity ; and he endeavours to Ihow how ele£ri-
city is capable of forming thefe figures. He was con¬
firmed in his conjeaures by obferving, that his appara¬
tus for obferving the elearicity of the atmofphere never
failed to be ekarified by fnow as well as rain. Pro-
feflbr Winthrop fometimes found his apparatus ekari-
fied by fnow when driven about by the wind, though it
had not been affedted by it when the fnow itfelf was
falling. A more intenfe ekaricity, according to Bec-
caria, unites the particles of hail more clofely than the
more moderate ekaricity does thofe of fnow, in the
fame manner as we fee that the drops of rain which
fall from thunder-clouds are larger than thofe which fall
from others, though the former defcend through a lefs
fpace.
But we are not to confider fnow merely as a curious
and beautiful phenomenon. The Great’Difpenfer of
umverfal bounty has fo ordered it, that it is eminently
fubfervient, as well as all the works of creation, to his
benevolent defigns. Were we to judge from appear- |
ances only, we might imagine, that fo far from beiW ?
ufeful to the earth, the cold humidity of fnow would
a 7 O v v til til j LUC COICI
freezing air as they pafs through a colder region, each be detrimental to vegetation. But the experience of
*op ,s immediately frozen into an iciele, (hooting itfelf all ages aflerts the cent,ary. Snow, partieularly in thofe
forth into feveral points : but thefe Hill continuinp-their northern ren-mno «rV.^-0  _ , • , .
forth into feveral points ; but thefe ftill continuing their
■defeent, and meeting with fome intermitting gales of
warmer air, or in their continual waftage to and fro
touching upon each other, fome of them are a little
thawed, blunted, and again frozen into clufters, or in-
tangled fo as to fall down in what we ciiW. Jlales.
The lightnefs of fnow, although it is firm ice, is ow¬
ing to the excels of its furface, in comparifon to the
matter contained under it; as gold itfelf may be ex¬
tended in furface till it will ride upon the kaft breath
of air.
■ I'he whitenefs of fnow is owing to the fmall particles
into which it is elivided ; for ice, when pounded, will
become equally white. An artificial fnow has been
made by the following experiment A tall phial of can be fenfibly efficaciou, in promoting edge"" L Al.
aquafortis beinor placed bv the fire til it is warm Winn-  .m-
aquafortis being placed by the fire till it is warm, and
filings ©f pure filver, a few at a time, being put into it;
alter a brilk ebullition, the filver will diffolve flowly.
The phial being then placed in a cold window, as it
cools the filver particles will Ihoot into cryftals, feveral
©f which running together will form a flake of fnow,
which will defcend to the bottom of the phial. While
they are defeending, they reprefent perkdlly a fhower
■of filver fnow, and the flakes will lie upon one another
at the bottom like real fnow upon the ground.
According to Signior Beccaria, clouds of fnow differ
In nothing from clouds of rain, but in the circumftance
of cold that freezes them. Both the regular diffuhon
^ , J  "7 l   a j All on WAV..
northern regions where the ground is covered with it
for feveral months, fructifies the earth, by guarding the
corn or other vegetables from the intenfer cold of the
air, and efpecially from the cold piercing winds. It has
been a vulgar opinion, very generally received, that fnow
fertilizes the lands on which it falls more than rain, in
confequence of the nitrous halts which it is fuppoled to
acquire by freezing. But it appears from the experi-
merits ©fjMargraaf(A) in the year 175ij that the che¬
mical difference between rain and fnow-water is ex¬
ceedingly fmall ; that the latter is fomewhat kfs ni¬
trous, and contains a fomewhat lefs proportion of earth
than the former; but neither of them contain ei¬
ther earth or any kind of fait in any quantity which
lowing, therefore, that nitre is a fertilizer of lands, which
many are upon good grounds difpofed utterly to deny
yet fo very fmall is the quantity of it contained in fnow*
that it cannot be fuppofed to promote the vegetation
of plants upon which the fnow has fallen. The pecu¬
liar agency of fnow, as a fertilizer in preference to rain
may admit of a very rational explanation, without re¬
curring to nitrous falts fuppofed to be contained in it It
may fee rationally aferibed to its furnifhing a covering to
the roots of vegetables, by which they are guarded bom
the influence of the atmofpherical cold, and the internal
heat of the earth is prevented from eicapin^.
I he internal parts of the earth, by fome principle
4 2 which
(a) Margraaf collected of the pureft fnow he could find as much as when melted afforded icomeafures of
watei, each meafure containing 36 ounces. By diftilling this quantity he obtained 60 grains, not of nitre "but
« ca/careous tru th, with fome grains^of the acid of fea-falt, impregnated with a nitrous vapour. The fame quan!
. y o rain-water oolkaed in the winter months with equal attention, when diitilkd yielded loc grains ©1 cal
s feo8w“;r«r;tre Era,M ,>f ,he acid °f ,i:tre ^ ^ ^t
Snow.
S N O [ 564 ] S N O
Snow, which we no not underhand, is heated uniformly to the
* \ ' 48th degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. This degree
of heat is greater than that in which the watery juices
of vegetables freeze, and it is propagated from the in¬
ward parts of the earth to the furface, on which the ve¬
getables grow. The atmofphere being variably heated
by the adtion of the fun in different climates, and in the
fame climate at different feafons, communicates to the
furface of the earth and to fome diftance below it the
degree of heat or cold which prevails in itfelf. Diffe¬
rent vegetables are able to preferve life under different
degrees of cold, but all of them perifh when the cold
which reaches their roots is extreme. Providence has
therefore, in the coldeft climates, provided a covering
of fnow for the roots of vegetables, by which they are
protefted from the influence of the atmofpherical cold.
The fnow keeps in the internal heat of the earth, winch
' furrounds the roots of vegetables, and defends them from
the cold of the atmofphere.
Snow or ice water is always deprived of its fixed air,
which efcapes during the procefs of congelation. Ac¬
cordingly, as fome of the inhabitants of the Alps who
life it for their conftant drink have enormous wens up¬
on their throats, it has been aferibed to this circum-
llance. If this were the caule of thefe wens, it would
be ealy to remove it by expofing the fnow-water to the
air for fome time. But feveral eminent phyficians have
rejected the notion that fnow-water is the caufe of thefe
wens ; for in Greenland, where fnow-water is common¬
ly ufed, the inhabitants are not affefted with fuch fwel-
lings : on the other hand, they are common in Sumatra
where fnow is never feen.
Snow, in fea-aflairs, is generally the largeftof all two-
malled veflels employed by Europeans, and the moft
convenient for navigation.
The fails and rigging on the mainmaft and foremall
of a fnow are exactly fimilar to thofe on the fame malls
in a fliip ; only that there is a fmall mall behind the
mainmall of the former, which canies a fail nearly re-
fembling the mizen of a fliip. The foot of this mall is
fixed on a block of wood on the quarter-deck abaft the
mainmaft ; and the head of it is attached to the after¬
top of the maintop. The fail which is called the try-
foil is extended from its mail towards the flern of the
veflel.
When the floops of war are rigged as fnows, they
are furnilhed with a horfe, which anfwers the purpofe
of the tryfail-mali, the lore-part of the fail being at¬
tached by rings to the faid horfe, in different places of
its height.
SuGiv-Grotto, an excavation made by the waters on
the fide of Mount Etna, by making their way under
the layers of lava, and by carrying away the bed of
pozzolana below them. It occurred to the proprietor,
that this place was very fuitable for a magazine of
Inow : for in Sicily, at Naples, and particularly at Mal¬
ta, they are obliged for want of ice to make ufe of fnow
for cooling their wine, flieibet, and other liquors, and
for making fweetmeats.
This grotto was hired or bought by the knights of
Malta, who having neither ice nor fnow on the burning
rock which they inhabit, have hired feveral caverns on
Etna, into which people whom they employ collett and
preferve quantities of fnow to be lent to Malta when
needed. This grotto kas therefore been repaired with¬
in at the expenee of that order; flights of fteps are cut Snow,
into it, as well as two openings from above, by which Snowdon*
they throw in the fnow, and through which the grotto,
is enlightened. Above the grotto they have alfo le¬
velled a piece ot ground of confiderable extent: this
they have incloted with thick and lofty walls, fo that
when the winds, which at this elevation blow with great
violence, carry the fnow from the higher parts of the
mountain, and depofite it in this inclofure, it is retained
and amaffed by the walls. The people then remove it
into the grotto through the two openings ; and it is
there laid up, and preierved in fuch a mariner as to re¬
fill the force of the fummer heats ; as the layers of lava
with which the grotto is arched above prevent them
from making any impreflion.
When the feafon for exporting the fnow comes on, it
is put into large bags, into which it is prefi'ed as clofely
as pofiible ; it is then carried by men out of the grotto,
and laid upon mules, which convey it to the fhore,
where fmali veffels are waiting to carry it av/ay.
But before thofe lumps of fnow are put into bags,
they are wrapped in frelh leaves; fo that while they
are conveyed from the grotto to the Ihore, the leaves
may prevent the rays ot the fun from making any rm-
prelfion upon them.
The Sicilians carry on a confiderable trade in fnow,
which affords employment to fome thoufands of mules,
horfes, and men. They have magazines of it on the
fummits of their loftielt mountains, from which they
diftribute it through all their cities, towns, and houfes ;
for every perfon in the ifland makes ufe of fnow. They
confider the pra&ice of cooling their liquors as abfolute-
ly neceffary for the prefervation of health ; and in a cli¬
mate the heat of w hich is conftantly relaxing the fibres,
cooling liquors, by communicating a proper tone to the
fibres of the llomach, mull greatly itrengthen them for
the performance of their fundlions.
In this climate a fcarcity of fnow is no lefs dreaded
than a fcarcity of corn, wane, or oil. We are inform¬
ed by a gentleman who was at Syracufe in the year
>777, when there was a fcarcity ol fnow, the people of
the town learned that a fmall veffel loaded with that ar¬
ticle was palling the coaft : without a moment’s delibera¬
tion they ran in a body to the Ihore and demanded her
cargo ; which vdien the crew refufed to deliver up, the
Syracufans attacked and took, though with the lofs of
feveral men.
S^orr-Urop, in botany. See Chionanthus.
SNOWDON-hill, the name of a mountain in Caer-
narvonlhire in Wales, generally thought to be the high-
ell in Britain ; though fome have been of opinion that
its height is equalled, or even exceeded, by mountains
in the Highlands of Scotland. The mountain is fur-
rounded by many others, called in the Wellh language
Crib Coch, Crib y Dijlill, Liinxieddy yr Arran, &c.
According to Mr Pennant*, this mountainous tradl » jwrrtj
yields fcarcely any corn. Its produce is cattle and Iheep; to Snowdon
which, during fummer, keep very high in the moun¬
tains, followed by their owners with their families, who
refide during that feafon in havodtys, or “ fummer dairy-
houfes,” as the farmers in the Swifs Alps do in their
Jenna. Thefe houfes conlilt of a long low room, with
a hole at one end to let out the fmoke from the fire
which is made beneath. Their furniture is very limple;
Hones are fubllituted for itools, and their beds are of
S . N O [ 565 ] S N Y
fin«wcJon. hay, ranged along the fides. They manufa&ure their clouds by this lofty mountain, it becomes fuddenly and S-.u/T,
, ' , own clothes, and dye them with the lichm omphalotdes unexpedledly enveloped in mift, when the clouds have Snyd«’s*
v and lichen parutmui* modes collected from the rocks, juft before appeared very high and very remote. At'—
During fummer the men pais their time in tending their times he obferved them lower t® half their height ; and
herds or in making hay, &c. and the women in milk- notwithftanding they have been difperfed to the rMit
ing or in making butter and cheefe. For their own ufe and left, yet they have met from both fides, and united
they milk both ewes and goats, and make cheefe of to involve the fummit in one great obfcuritv.
-the milk. Their diet confifts of milk, cheefe, and but- The height of Snowdon was meafured, in 1682 by
ter: and their ordinary drink is whey ; though they Mr Cafwell, with inftruments made by Flamftead : ’ aj-
have, by way of referve, a few bottles of very ftrcng cording to his menfuration, the height is 3720 feet ;
beer, which they ufe as a cordial when fick. They are but more modern computations make it only 3c68*
people of good underftanding, wary, and circumfpett; reckoning from the quay at Caernarvon to the highefi.
tall, thin, and of ftrong conftitutions. In the winter- peak. The ftone that compofes this mountain is ex
time they defcend into the hen-drej\ or “ old dwelling,” ceffively hard. Large coarfe cryftals, and frequently
where they pafs their time in ina£tivity; _ cubic pyrites, are found in the hfTures. An immente
The view Lorn the higheft peak of Snowdon is very quantity of water rufhes down the lides of Snowdon and
extenhve. From it Mr Pennant faw the county of the neighbouring mountains, infomuch that Mr Pennant
Chefter, the high hills ot Yorkfhire, part of the north of fuppofes, if colkdfed into one ftream, they would ex-
Lngland, Scotland, and Ireland; a plain view of the ifle ceed the waters of the Thames.
of Man; and that of Anglefea appeared like a map ex- SNUFF, a powder chiefly made of tobacco, the ufe
tended under his feet, with every rivulet vifible. Our of which is too well known to need any description
author took much pains to have this view to advantage; here. ^
fat up at a farm on the weft till about 12, and walked Tobacco is ufually the bafis of fnuff; other matters
up the whole way. The night was remarkably fine being only added to give it a more agreeable feent, &c
and Harry ; towards morning the ftars faded away, lea- The kinds of fnuff, and their feveral names, are infinite^
ving an interval of darknefs, which, however, was foon and new ones are daily invented ; fo that it would be
difpolled by the dawn of day. The body of the fun ap- difficult, not to fay impoffible, to give a detail of them,
peared moft diftinft, with the roundnefs of the moon, We fliall only fay, that there are three principal forts •
before it appeared too brilliant to be looked at. The the firft granulated ; the fecond an impalpable powder •
lea, which bounded the weftern part of the profped, and the third the bran, or coarfe part remaining after
appeared gilt with the fun-beams, firft in flender ftreaks, fifting the fecond fort. 0
and at length glowed with rednefs. The profpeft was “ Every profefled, inveterate, and incurable fnuff.
difclofed like the gradual drawing up of a curtain in a taker (fays Lord Stanhope), at a moderate computa-
theatre; till at laft the heat became fufficiently ftrong tion, takes one pinch in ten minutes. Every pinch
to raife mifts from the various lakes, which in a flight with the agreeable ceremony of blowing and wiping the
degree obfeured the profped. The fhadow of the moun- nofe and other incidental circumftances, confumes a mi-
tain extended many miles, and fhowed its bicapitated nute and a half. One minute and a half out of every
form ; the Wyddfa making one head, and Crib y Diftill ten, allowing 16 hours to a fnuff-taking day, amounts -
the other. _ At this time he counted between 20 and to two hours and 24 minutes out of every natural day,
30 lakes either in Caernarvon or in Merionethfhire. In or one day out of every ten. One day out of every 10
making another vifit, the fky was obfeured very foon amounts to 36 days and a half in a year. Hence if we
after he got up. A vaft mift involved the whole cir- fuppofe the praaice to be perfifted in 40 years, two en-
emt of the mountain, and the profpeft down was hor- tire years of the fnuff-taker’s life will be dedicated to
lible. It gave an idea of numbers-of abyffes, concealed tickling his nofe, and two more to blowing it. The
by a thick fmoke furioufly circulating around them. Ve- expence of fnuff, fnuff-boxes, and handkerchiefs,' will be
ry often a guft of wind made an opening in the clouds, the fubjeft of a fecond effay ; in which it will’appear
which gave a fine and diftinft vifta of lake and valley, that this luxury encroaches as much on the income of
Sometimes they opened in one place, at others in many the fnuff-taker as it does on his time ; and that by a
at once; exhibiting a moft ftrange and perplexing fight proper application of the time and money thus loft to
of water, fields, rocks, and chaftm. They then elofed the public, a fund might be conftituted for the difeharge
again, and every thing was involved in darknefs; in a of the national debt.” See Ni eon ana. h
few miftutes they would feparate again, and repeat the SNYDERS (Francis), a Flemiffi painter, born at
above-mentioned Jcene with infinite variety. From this Antwerp in 1579, and bred under his countryman Hen-
profpeft our traveller defeended with great reluftance ; ry Van Baku. His genius firft difplayed itfelf in paint-
but before he had reached the place Avhere his horfee ing fruit : he afterwards attempted animals, huntinps,
were left, he was overtaken by a thunder ftorm. The &c. in which he exceeded all his predeceffors. He
rolling ot the thunder-claps, being reiterated by the alfo painted kitchens, &c. and gave dignity to fubie&s
mountains, was inexpreffibly awful ; and alter he had that feemed incapable of it. He was made painter to
mounted, he was in great danger of being fwept away Ferdinand and Ifabella, archduke and duchefs, and be-
by the torrents vvhich poured down in confequence of came attached to the houl'e of the cardinal ’infant of
a very heavy rain. Spain. The king of Spain and the ele&or Palatine
It is very rare (Mr Pennant obferves) that the tra- adorned their palaces with huntings bv this artift. Ru-
veller gets a proper day to afeend this hill : it indeed bens, Jordaens, and Snyders, ufed ’to co-operate in the
often appears clear; but by the evident attraction of the enriching of each other’s pi&ures according to their
feveral l
s o A 1 566 1 S O A
Soal-fifh, feveral talents ; and thus they became more valuable
, b 'aF- than if finilhed by either of them fingly. Snyders died
in 16^7.
SOAL-fish, in ichthyology. See Pleuronec-
tes.
SOAP, a compolition of cauftic, fixed alkaline fait,
and oil, fometimes hard and dry, lometimes foft and li¬
quid ; much ufed in wafhing, whitening linens, and by
dyers and fullers.—Soap may be made by feveral me¬
thods, which, however, all depend upon the fame prin¬
ciple. The foap which is ufed in medicine is made
without heat. See Chemistry, n° 1026.
In manufactures where large quantities of it are pre-
pared, foap is made with heat. A lixivium of quicklime
and foda is made, but is lefs concentrated than that
above referred to, and only fo much that it can fuftain
a frefh egg. A part of this lixivium is to be even di¬
luted and mixed with an equal weight of oil of olives.
The mixture is to be put on a gentle fire, and agita¬
ted, that the union may be accelerated. When the mix¬
ture begins to unite well, the reft of the lixivium is to be
added to it ; and the whole is to be digefted with a
very gentle heat, till the loap be completely made. A
trial is to be made of it, to examine whether the juft
proportion of oil and alkali has been obferved. Good
foap of this kind ought to be firm, and very white when
cold ; not fubjeCt to become moift by expofure to air,
and entirely mifcible with pure water, to which it com¬
municates a milky appearance, but without any drops
of oil floating on the furface. When the foap has not
thefe qualities, the combination has not been well made,
or the quantity of fait or of oil is too great, which faults
muft be corrected.
In foft or liquid foaps, green or black foaps, cheaper
oils are employed, as oil of nuts, of hemp, of filh, &c.
Thefe foaps, excepting in conliftertce, are not elfentially
■different from white foap.
Fixed alkalis are much difpofed to unite with oils
that are not volatile, both vegetable and animal, fince
this union can be made even without heat. The com¬
pound refulting from this union partakes at the fame
time of the properties of oil and of alkali; but thefe
properties are modified and tempered by each other,
according to the general rule of combinations. Alkali
formed into foap has not nearly the fame acrimony as
when it is pure ; it is even deprived of almoft all its
caufticity, and its other faline alkaline properties are
almoft entirely aboliflied. The fame oil contained in
■foap is lefs comhuftible than when pure, from its union
with the alkali, which is an uninflammable body. It
is mifcible, or even foluble, in water, to a certain de¬
gree, by means of the alkali. Soap is entirely foluble
in fpirit of wine ; and ftill better in aquavitas fharpened
by a little alkaline fait, according to an obfervation of
Mr Geoffroy.
The manufacture of foap in London firft began in
the year 1524 ; beiore which time this city was ferved
with white foap from foreign countries, and with grey
foap fpeckled with white from Briftol, which was fold
for a penny a pound; and alfo with black foap, which
fold for a halfpenny the pound.
The principal foaps of our own manufacture are the
foft, the hard, and the ball foap. The foft foap is ei¬
ther white or green. The procefs of making each of
thefe fhall now be defcribed.
Green foft foap. The chief ingredients ufed in ma- Soap,
king this are lees drawn from pot-afh and lime, boiled-v—
up with tallow and oil. Firft, the ley of a proper de¬
gree of ftrength (which muft be eftimated by the weight
of the liquor), and tallow, are put into the copper to¬
gether, and as foon as they boil up the oil is added ;
the fire is then damped or flopped up, while, the ingre¬
dients remain in the copper to unite ; when they are
united, the copper is again made to boil, being fed or
filled with lees as it boils, till there be a fufficient quan¬
tity put into it; then it is boiled off and put into calks.
When this foap is firft made it appears uniform ; but
in about a week’s time the tallow feparates from the
oil into thofe white grains which we lee in common
foap. Soap thus made would appear yellow, but by a
mixture of indigo added at the end of the boiling, it is
rendered green, that being the colour which refults
from the mixture of yellow and blue.
White foap. Of this one fort is made after the fame man¬
ner as green foft foap, oil alone excepted, which is not
ufed in white. The other fort of white foft foap is
made from the lees of allies of lime boiled up two diffe¬
rent times with tallow. Firft, a quantity of lees and
tallow are put into the copper together, and kept boil¬
ing, being fed with lees as they boil, until the whole is
boiled fufficiently ; then the lees are feparated or dif-
charged from the tallowilh part, which part is removed
into a tub, and the lees are thrown away ; this is called
the jirjl half-boil: then the copper is filled again with
freih tallow and lees, and the ftril half-boil is put out
of the tub into the copper a fecond time, where it is
kept boiling with frefli lees and tallow till the foap is
produced. ^ It is then put out of the copper into the
fame fort of calks as are ufed for green foft foap. The
common foft foap ufed about London, generally of a
greenifh hue, with fome white lumps, is prepared chief¬
ly with tallow : a blackilh fort, more common in fome
other places, is laid to be made with whale oil.
Hard foap is made with lees from alhes and tallow,
and is moft commonly boiled twice : the firft, called the
ba/f-boi/, hath the lame operation as the firft half-boil of
foft white foap. Then the copper is charged with freih
lees again, and the firft half boil put into it, where it
is kept boiling, and fed with lees as it boils, till it grains
or is boiled enough; then the ley is difeharged from it,
and the Ibap put into a frame to cool and harden. Com¬
mon lalt is made ufe or for the purpofe of graining the
foap ; for when the oil or tallow has been united with
the ley, after a little boiling, a quantity of fait is thrown
into the mafs, which diflblving readily in water, but
not in the oil or tallow, draws out the water in a eon-
fiderable degree, fo that the oil or tallow united with
the ialt of the ley fwims on the top. When the ley is
of a proper ftrength, lefs fait is neceffary to raife the
curd than whew it is too weak. It muft be obferved,
that there is no certain time for bringing off a boiling
of any of thefe forts of foap: it frequently takes up
part of two days.
Bal/foap, commonly ufed in the north, is made with
lees from athes and tallow. The lees are put into the
copper, and boiled till the watery part is quite gone,
and there remains nothing in the copper but a fort of
faline matter (the very ftrength or effence of the ley) ;
to this the tallow is put, and the copper is kept boil¬
ing and ftirring for above half an hour, in which time
, the
s O A [ 567 ] BOA
Soap, the foap is jrrade ; and then it re put out of the cop- mentioned by Pliny as made of fat and a flies, and as an
per into tubs or bafkets with fheets in them, and imme¬
diately (whilft loft) made into balls. It requires near
24 hours in this procefs to boil away the watery part
of the ley.
When oil unites with alkali in the formation of foap,
it is little altered in the connexion of its principles ;
for it may be feparated from the alkali by decompofing
foap with any acid, and may be obtained nearly’in its
original Hate.
Concerning the decompolition of foap by means of
acids, we mull obferve, fiiit, that all acids, even the
weaked vegetable acids, may occalion this decompoli¬
tion, becaufe every one of them has a greater affinity
than oil with fixed alkali. Secondly, thefe acids, even
when united with any bafis, excepting fixed alkali, are
capable of occafioning the fame decompofition ; whence
all ammoniacal falts, all falls with bafis’of earth, and all
thole with metallic bales, are capable of decompofing
foap, in the fame manner as difengaged acids are ; with
this difference, that the oil feparated from the fixed al¬
kali, by the acid of thefe falts, may unite more or lefs
intimately with the fubftance which was the bafis of the
neutral fait employed for the decompofition.
Soap may alfo be decompofed by diftillation, as Le-
mery has done. When firlt expoled to fire, it yields a
phlegm called by him a [pint; which neverthelefs is
neither acid nor alkaline, but fome water which enters
into the compofition of foap. It becomes more and
more coloured and empyreumatic as the fire is increa-
fed, which (hows that it contains the moll fubtle part
of the oil. It feems even to raife along with it, by
help of the oil and adlion of the fire, a fmall part of the
alkali of the foap : for, as the lame chemill obferves, it
occafions a precipitate in a folution of corrofive fubli-
mate. After this phlegm the oil riles altered, precife-
ly as if it had been diftilled from quicklime, that is,
empyreumatic, foluble in fpirit of wine, at firll fuffi-
ciently fubtle and afterwards thicker. An alkaline re-
fiduous coal remains in the retort, confilling chiefly of
the mineral alkali contained in the foap, and which may
be difengaged from the coal by calcination in an open
fire, and obtained in its pure Hate.
Alkaline foaps are very ufeful in many arts and trades,
and alio in chemiftry and medicine. Their principal uti¬
lity confills in a deterfme quality that they receive from
their alkali, which, although it is in fome meafure fatura-
ted with oil, is yet capable of adling upon oily matters,
and of rendering them faponaceous and milcible with
water. Hence foap is very ufeful to cleanfe any fub-
llarices from all fat matters with which they happen to
l)e foiled. Soap is therefore daily ufed for the wafhing
and whitening of linen, for the cleanfing of woollen-
eloths from oil, and for whitening filk and freeing it
from the refinous varnifh with which it is naturally co¬
vered. Pure alkaline lixiviums being capable of diffol-
ving oils more effectually than foap, might be employed
for the fame purpofes ; but when this activity is not
mitigated by oil, as it is in foap, they are capable of al¬
tering, and even of deftroying entirely by their caufti-
city, moft fubftances, efpecialiy animal matters, as filk,
wool, and others : whereas foap cleanfes from oil almoft
as effectually as pure alkali, without danger of altering
®r deftroying ; which renders it very ufetul.
Soap was imperfedly known to the ancients. It is
invention of the Gauls. Aretaeus and others inform us,'———"f
that the Greeks obtained their knowledge of its medi- *
cal ufe from the Homans. Its virtues, according to Botany,
Bergios, are detergent, refolvent, and aperient, and itsF-S^
ufe recommended in jaundice, gout, calculous complaints,
and in obftrudlions of the vifeera. The efficacy of foap
in the firft of thefe difeafes was experienced by Sylvius,
and fince recommended very generally by various au¬
thors who have written on this complaint; and it has
alfo been thought of ufe in fupplying the place of bile
in the primae vise. The utility of this medicine in i&e-
rical cafes was inferred chiefly from its fuppofed power
of diffolving biliary concretions ; but this medicine has-
loft much of its reputation in jaundice, fince it is now
known that gall-Hones have been found in many after,
death who had been daily taking foap for feveral months
and even years. Of its good effedls in urinary calcu¬
lous affections, we have the teftimony of feveral, efpe¬
cialiy when diffolved in lane-water, by which its efficacy
is confiderably increafed ; for it thus becomes a power- ■
ful folvent of mucus, which an ingenious modern author
fuppofes to he the chief agent in the formation of cal- '
culi : it is, however, only in the incipient Hate of the
difeafe that thefe remedies promife effedlual benefit;
though they generally abate the more violent fymptoms
where they cannot remove the caufe. With Boerhaave
foap was a general medicine : for as he attributed moll
complaints to vifeidity of the fluids, he, and molt of the
Boerhaavian fchool, preferibed it in conjundlion with
different refinous and other fubitances, in gout, then-
matifm, and various vifceral complaints. Soap is alfo
externally employed as a refolvent, and gives name to
feveral officinal preparations.
From the properties of foap we may know that if
mull be a very effeftual and convenient anti-acid. It
abforbs acids as powerfully as pure alkalis and abfor-
bent earths, without having the caullicity of the for¬
mer, and without oppreffing the llomach by its weight
like the latter.
Laltly, we may perceive that foap mull be one of.
the bell of all antidotes to Hop quickly, and with the
leall inconvenience, the bad efftdls of acid corrofive poi-
fons, as aquafortis, corrofive fublimate, &c.
Soap imported is fubjedl by 10 Ann. cap. 19. to a
duty of 2d. a pound (over and above former duties)*
and by 12 Ann. Hat. 2. cap. 9. to the farther fum of
i d. a pound. And by the fame a£ls, the duty on foap
made in the kingdom is i^d. a pound. By 17 G. III»-
cap. 52. no perfon within the limits of the head office
of excife in London Ihall be permitted to make any
foap unlefs he occupy a tenement of 1 o 1. a year,
be afieffed, and pay the panffi rates * or elfewhere,
unlels he be affelfed, and pay to church and poor.
Places of making are to be entered on pain of $01.
and covers and locks to be provided under a forfeiture
of 100I.; the furnace-door of every utenfil ufed in the
manufacture of foap {hall be locked by the excife offi¬
cer, as foon as the fire is damped or drawn out, and
fallenings provided, under the penalty of 501.; and.
opening or damaging fuch faftening incurs a penalty of
1001. Officers are required to enter and furvey at all
times, by day or night, and the penalty of obltru&ing
is 20 1. and they may unlock and examine every copper-
&c. between the hours of five in the morning and ele.
§ ven
■Macift.
Utmment.
’»ol> ii.
S O C f 568 ] S O C
Men in the evening, and the penalty of obftrueting is
tool. Every maker of foap before he begins any ma¬
king, if within the bills of mortality, {hall give 12 hours,
if elfe where 24 hours, notice in writing to the officer,
of the time when he intends to begin, on pain of $0 1.
No maker (hall remove any foap unfurveyed on pain of
201. without giving proper notice of his intention.
And it any maker {hall conceal any foap or materials,
he fhall forfeit the fame, and alfo 5001. Every barrel
of foap fhall contain 256 lb. avoirdupois, half barrel
1 28 lb. firkin 641b. half-firkin 321b. behdes the weight
or tare of each caflc: and all foap, excepting hard cake
foap and ball foap, (hall be'put into fuch calks and no
other, on pain of forfeiture, and <; 1. The maker {hall
weekly enter in writing at the next office the foap made
by him in each week, with the weight and quantity at
each boiling, on pain of 501. ; and within one week
after entry clear off the duties, on pain of double duty.
See, befides the ftatutes above cited, 5 Geo. III. cap. 43.
12 Geo. III. cap. 46. 11 Geo. cap. 30. i Geo. ftar. 2.
cap. 36.
Starkey's Soap. See Chemistry, n° 1027.
sicicl Soap. This is formed by the addition of con¬
centrated acpds to the exprefied oils. Thus the oil is
rendered paftially ioluble in water ; but the union is not
fufficiently complete to anfwer any valuable purpofe.
SoAP-Berry Tree. See Sapindus.
SoAP-Earth. See Steatites.
SOAPWOUT. See Saponama.
SOC (Sax.), fignifies power or liberty to minifter
lultice or execute laws : alfo the circuit or territory
wdierein fuch power is exercifed. Whence our law-
Latin word focca is ufed for a feigniory or lordftiip en-
franchifed by the king, with ths liberty of holding or
keeping a court of his fockmen : And this kind of li¬
berty continues in divers parts of England to this day,
and is known by the names offoke and foken.
SOCAGE, in its moft general and extenfive fignifi-
cation, feems to denote a tenure by any certain and
determinate fervice. And in this fenfe it is by our
ancient writers conftantly put in oppofition to chivalry
or knight-fervice, wdiere the render was precarious and
uncertain. The fervice mail therefore be certain, in or¬
der to denominate it focage ; as to hold by fealty and
20s-. rent; or, by homage, fealty, and 20s. rent; or,
by homage and fealty without rent; or, by fealty and
certain corporal fervice, as ploughing the lord’s land for
three days ; or, by fealty only without any other fer¬
vice : for all thefe are tenures in foeage.
Socage is of two forts: /mAocage, wdiere the fer-
vices are not only certain but honourable ; and vi/lein-
focage, where the fervices, though certain, are of a bafer
nature (fee Villenage). Such as hold by the former
tenure are called, in Glanvil and other fubfequent au¬
thors, by the name of lileri fokemanni, or tenants in free-
focage. The word is derived from the Saxon appella¬
tion Jbc, which fignifies liberty or privilege ; and, being
joined to an ufual termination, is called focage^ in La-
vm focagium ; fignifying thereby a free or privileged te¬
nure.
It feems probable that the focage-tenures were the
relics of Saxon liberty; retained by fuch perfons as had
neither forfeited them to the king, nor been obliged to
exchange their tenure for the more honourable, as it
was called, but at the fame time more burthenfome, te¬
nure of knight-fervice. This is peculiarly remarkable Society-
in the tenure which prevails in Kent, called gavelkimly —
which is generally acknowledged to be a fpecies of fo-
cage-tenure ; the prefervation whereof inviolate from
the innovations of the Norman conqueror is a fa£t uni-
verfally known. And thole who thus preferved their
liberties were faid to hold in free and common focage.
As therefore the grand criterion and diftingyithing
mark of this fpecies of tenure are the having iys renders
or fervices afcertained, it will include under jft all other
methods of holding free lands by certain and invariable
rents and duties ; and in particular, Petit Serjeanty^
Tenure in Burgage, and Gavelkind. See thefe ar¬
ticles. j
SOCIETY, a number of rational and moral be-Definition,
ings, united for their common preiervation and happi-
nefs. a
There are fhoals of filhes, herds of quadrupeds, and How far
flocks of birds. But till obfervation enable us to de-}’r,ltes afe
termine with greater certainty, how far the inferior ani-'a^.'^0^
mals are able to look through a feries of means to the gate>
end which theie are calculated to produce, how far
their conduft may be influenced by the hope of re¬
ward and the fear of puniihment, and wdiether they are
at all capable of moral diftimfrions—we cannot with
propriety apply to them the term Society. We call
crows, and beavers, and feveral other Ipecies of animals,
gregarious ; but it is hardly good Englilh to fay that
they are fecial.
It is only human fociety, then, that can become the Mankind
fubjeft of our prefent inveftigati^n. The phenomena the only
which it prefents are highly worthy of our notice. fi cial be-
Such are the advantages which each individual evi-!^5^^^
dently derives from living in a fecial ftate ; and fo help-y(,fervatioa
lefs does any human being appear in a folitary ftate, 4
that we are naturally led to conclude, that if there ever A focial
was a period at which mankind were folitary
that period could not be of long duration; for theirVa,t>e
averfion to folitude and love ot tociety would foon in¬
duce them to enter into focial union. Such is the opi¬
nion which we are led to conceive, when we compare
our own condition as members of civilized and en¬
lightened iociety with that of the brutes around us, or
with that of favages in the earlier and ruder periods of
focial life. When we hear of Indians wandering naked
through the woods, deftitute of arts, unlkilled in agri¬
culture, fcarce capable of moral diftin&ions, void of all
religious fentiments, or poffefled with the mofl abfurd
notions concerning fuperior powers, and procuring
means of fubfiftence in a manner equally precarious with
that of the beads of prey—we look down with pity on
their condition, or turn from it with horror. When
we view the order of cultivated fociety, and confider
our inftitutions, arts, and manners—we rejoice over our
fuperior wifdom and happinefs.
Man in a civilized ftate appears a being of a fuperior
order to man in a favage ftate; yet fome philofophera
tell us, that it is only he who, having been educated in
fociety, has been taught to depend upon others, that
can be helplefs or miferable when placed in a folitary
ftate. They view the favage who exerts himfelf with
intrepidity to fupply his wants, or bears them with for¬
titude, as the greateft hero, and poflefling the greateft
happinefs. And therefore if we agree with them, that
the propenlities of nature may have prompted men to
7 eater
Society.
s o c
enter into focial union, though they may have hoped
to enjoy fuperior feminity and happinefs by engaging
to protect and hipport each other, we muft conclude
that the /-luthor of the univerfe has deftined man to at-
tain greater dignity and happinefs in a favage and fo-
litary than in a focial ftate ; and therefore "that thofe
difpohtions and views which lead us to fociety are fal¬
lacious and inimical to our real intcreft.
Whatever be. the fuppofed advantages of a folitary
state, certain it is that mankind, at the eariieft periods,
were united in fbciety* Various theories have been
foimed concerning the circumftances and principles
which gave rife to this union : but we have elfewhere
ihown, that the greater part of them are founded in er¬
ror; that they fuppofe the original ftate of man to have
been that of lavages ; and that fuch a fuppofition is con¬
tradicted by the moft authentic records of antiquity,
for though the records of the earlier ages are gene-
l ally obfeure, fabulous,. and imperfeift ; yet happily
there is one free from the imperfeaions of the reft, and
uudoiftjted authenticity, to which we may fafely have
tSeeJ^recourfe+ I his record is the Pentateuch of Moles,
7 which prefents us with a genuine account of the origin
of man. and of focicty, perfe&ly confonant to what*we
VC ,d d°Wn hl the article referied to (fee Savage).
Srfocty rACnC01in§;° the firil focIetf that of a
hu^and and united in the bonds of marnWe - th.
C 5^9 ]
S O C
attention from the management of flocks to the culth Sorfetv,
vation of the ground. Next, thefe hufbancimen improve ' 
their powers, and better their condition, by becomin-
artizans and merchants ; and the beginning of this ne°-
nod is the boundary between barbarity and civiliL
Thefe are the ftages through which they who have
employed themfelves on the natural hiftory of fociety
have generally conducted mankind in their progreft
from rudenefs to refinement; but they feem to have
Tkiv°ukjd th^ manner ln wh‘ch mankind were at firft -
e tabhfhed on this earth; for the circumftances in which
the parents of the human race were originally placed •
tor the degree of knowledge communicated "to them *
ana for the inftru<fti0n which they muft have been cal
pable of communicating to their pofterity. They ra¬
ther appear to confider the inhabitants of every diffe-
rent region of the globe as aborigines, fpringing at
ift from the ground, or dropped on the fpot which
they inhabit; no lefs ignorant than infants of the na¬
ture and relations of the obje&s around them, and of
the purpofes which they may accomplifh by the exer-
cite of their organs and faculties.
The abfurdity of this theory has been fully demon- Are La.
mttd in another place : and if we agree to receive the fuk
Mofaic account of the original eftablifhment of man-
k.nd, we fhall be led to view the phenomena of focial
de m a light very different. We muft firft allow, that
though many of the rudeft tribes are found in the ftate
rT °r/^; >’et the h^ting or fifiling ftate
NoT r. the ^ fodety!
Notwithftanding the powers with which we are endovv-
ed, we are in a great meafure the creatures of circum¬
ftances. . Phyfical caufes exert, though indireftly, a
mighty influence in forming the character and direift-
mg the exertions of the human race. From the infor¬
mation of Mofes we gather, that the firft focieties of
men lived under the patriarchal form of government,.
and employed themfelves in the cultivation of the
giound and the management of flocks. And as we
""l fan,kind,’ bein,g fubieaed to the influence
tli of phyfical and moral caufes, are no lefs liable to
egeneracy than capable of improvement; we may ea-
iily conceive, that th«„<vt. nr . I “
of focietv in , .*— ‘U'-Icty was tnat ot a
accordS buiband and Wlfe umte.d ln the bonds of marriage : the
to authen- government that of a father and hufband, the maf-
fiic hiflory. ter of his family. Men lived together under the patriar-
dial form of government while they employed themfelves
chiefly in tending flocks and herds. Children in fuch
circumftances cannot foon rife to an equality with their
parents, where a man(s importance depends on his pro-
perty, not on his abilities. When flocks and herds* are
the chief articles of property, the fon can only obtain
thefe from his father; in general therefore the Ton muft be
■entirely dependent on the father for the means of fubfift-
ence. If the parent during his life beftow on his children
any part of his property, he may do it on fuch conditions
as fhall make their dependence upon him continue till
the period of his death. When the community are by
this event deprived of their head, inftead of continuing
themlel.cs luthorhy of % “oSe^atTourtd we ea”
Of the family, and the phprietor of all the’ofTcTetyToShaSr '° ^ ”5? lifc- ^ ‘rte
herds belonging to it. Such was the ftate of the firft yet as they were eSduafiv8’ ^ ^10US Rations;
focieties which the narrative of Mofes exhibits to ou'r difnerfed 7k d'by VariQUS accidents,
attention. 10 °ur over the earth, being removed to fituations
^ PhnofoPhe.rs who have made fociety, in its va- could but'httr''8 ^ WerC acqua‘»ted
yhefstn r‘ou8 ftages between rudenefs and refinement, the fubjeft poiteT or tdoWe ’ wh^ ^duftry was over-
cerning theot th^' Speculations, have generally confidered mankind, the profufion of nature ^ the feveritf or
origm of in whatever region of the globe, and under whatever r • ^ ^ thL^ mig'ht degenerate and fall
STd ? pTed;ng S of Xd;r.,a!"°! as„hrble p~ -
far gradations from one extreme to the other. They
regard them, firft, as gaining a precarious fubfiftence by
gathering the fpontaneous fruits of the earth, preyinff
on the inhabitants of the waters, if placed on the fea*.
the- banks of larSe rivers 5 or hunting
wi d beafts, if in a fituation where thefe are to be found
m abundance, without forefight or induftry to provide
for future wants when the prefent call of appetite is gra-
i ied. Next, they .ay, man rifes to the fhepherd ftate,
anv^v^:aP^andraen*wh- ^
that of the brutal tribes. Other moral caufes might
alio concur to debafe or elevate the human character in
that early period. 1 he particular chara&er of the ori¬
ginal fettlers in any region, the manner in which they
weie connected with one another, and the arts which
they were beft quahfied to exercife, with various other
caufes of a iimilar nature, would have confiderable in-
in,de.cermming the charadter of the fociety.
When laying a(ide the fpirk of theory and fyftem
we fet ourielves, with due humility, to trace fads and’
to hften to evidence, though our difeoveries may be
4 ^ fewer
s o c
[ 570 1
s o c
Society, fewer than we fhould otherwife fancy them; yet the
—--v  knowledge which we thus acquire will be more ufeful
and folid, and our fpeculations more confident with the
fpirit of true philofophy. Here, though we learn from
the information of the facred writings, that the firft
family of mankind was not cruelly expofed in this
world, as children whom the inhumanity of their parents
induces them to defert; yet we are not, in confequence
of admitting this fad, laid under any neceffity of deny¬
ing or explaining away any of the other phenomena
which occur to our obfervation when tracing the natu¬
ral hiltory of fociety. Tradition may be corrupted ;
arts and fciences may be loft ; the fublimeft. religious
tlu&rines may be debafed into abfurdity.
If then we are delirous of furveying fociety in its ru-
deft form, we muft look, not to the earlieft period of
its exi Hence, but to thofe didrifts of the globe where
external circumftances concur to drive them into a ftate
of ftupidity and wretchednefs. Thus in many places of
the happy clime of Alia, which a variety of ancient re¬
cords concur with the facred workings in reprefenting
as the firft peopled quarter of the globe, we cannot trace
the form of fociety backwards beyond the fhepherd
ftate. In that ftate indeed the bonds which conneft
foqiety extend not to a wide range of individuals, and
men remain for a long period in diftinft families ; but
g yet that ftate is highly favourable to knowledge, to
Yeti'-.fomehappinefs, and to virtue. Again, the torrid and the
particular frozcn regions of the earth, though probably peopled
at a later period, and by tribes fprung from the fame
dock with the ftiepherds of Afxa, have yet exhibited
mankind in a much lower ftate. It is in the parched
deferts of Africa and the wilds of America that human
beings have been found in a condition appioaching the
neared to that of the brutes.
We may therefore with fome propriety defert the
order of time, and take a view' of the different ftages
through which plulofophers have conlidered mankind
as advancing, beginning with that of rudenefs, though
we have fhown that it cannot have been the hrft in
the progrefs. „
Where the human fpecies are found in the lowed
inftances
realized-
■Rudeft ftate
or firft
ft age of
fociety.
and rudeft ftate, their rational and moral powers are very
faintly dilplayed ; but their external fenfes are acute,
and their bod'ily organs aftive and vigorous. Hunting
and fifhing are then their chief employments on which
they depend for fupport. During that portion of their
time which is not fpent in thefe puifuits, they uic funk
in liftleis indolence. Deftitute of forefight, they are
roufed to aftive exertion only by the preffure of imme¬
diate necefiity or the urgent calls of appetite. Accuf-
tomed to endure the feverity of the elements, and but
fcantily provided with the means of fubiiftence, they ac¬
quire habits of refignation and fortitude, which are be¬
held with aftonifhment by thofe who enjoy the plenty
and indulgence of cultivated life. But in this ftate of
want and depreffion, when the powers and poffeffionsof
every individual are fcarce fufficient for his own flip-
port, when even the calls of appetite are repreffed be¬
came they cannot always he gratified, and the more re¬
fined paffions, which'either originate from inch as are
merely animal, or are intimately connefted with them,
have not yet been felt—in this ftate all the milder af-
feftions are unknown ; or if the breaft is at all fenfible to
their impulie, it is extremely feeble, llufbaud aad
wife, parent and child, brother and brother, are united Socie'.y,
by the weakeft ties. Want and misfortune are not v--
pitied. Why indeed fhould they, where they cannot
be relieved ? It is impofiible to determine how far be¬
ings in this condition can be capable of moral diftinc-
tions. One thing certain is, that in no ftate are the
human race entirely incapable of thefe. If we liften,
however, to the relations of refpeftable travellers, we
muft admit that human beings have fometimes been
found in that abjeft ftate where no proper ideas of fub-
ordination, government, or diftinftion of ranks, could be
formed. No diftinft notions of Deity can be here enter¬
tained. Beings in fo humble a condition cannot look
through the order of the univerfe and the harmony of
nature to that Eternal Wifdom and Goodnefs which
contrived, and that Almighty Power which brought
into exiftence, the fyftem of things. Of arts they muft;
be almoft totally deftitute. They may ufe fome inftru-
ments for fifhing or the chace ; but thefe muft be ex¬
tremely rude and fimple. If they be acquaintea with
any means to fhelter them from the inclemency of the
elements, both their houfes and clothing will be auk-
ward and inconvenient. # Xo
But human beings have not been often found in fo 1^°"^
rude a ftate as this. Even thofe tribes which we deno-
minate favage, are for the mod part farther removed gre(s (.f
from mere animal life. They generally appear united fociety.
under fome fpecies of government, exercifing the powers
of reafon, capable of morality, though that morality be
not always very refined ; difplaying fome degree of fa¬
cial virtues, and afting under the influence of religious
fentiments. Thofe who may be confidered as but one
degree higher in the fcale than the flupid and wretched
beings whofe condition we have furveyed, are to be
found dill in the hunting and fifhing ftate ; but they
are farther advanced towards facial lire, and aie become
more fenfible to the impulfe of focial affeftion. By
unavoidable intercourfe in their employments, a few in¬
dividual hunters or fifhers contraft a certain degree of
fondnefs for each other’s company, and are led to take
fome part in each other's joys and forrows ; and when
the focial affeftions thus generated (fee Passion) be¬
gin to exert themfelves, all the other powers of the
mind are at the fame time called forth, and the cir¬
cumftances of the little fociety are immediately impro¬
ved. We behold its members in a more comfortable
condition, and find reafon to view the human ebarafter
with more complacency and relpeft. Huts are now
built, more commodious clothes are fafhioned, inftru-
ments for the annoyance of wild beads and even ot
enemies are contrived; in fliort, arts, and fcience, and
focial order, and religious fentiments, and ceremonies,
now make their appearance in the riling fociety, and
ferve to charafterize it by the particular form which
diftinguifhes each of them. But though focial order
is no longer unknown nor unobferved, yet the form of
government is dill extremely fimple, and its ties are but
loole and feeble. It will perhaps bear fome refemblance
to the patriarchal ; only all its members are on a more
equal footing, and at the fame time lefs clofely con¬
nefted than in the Ihepherd ftate, to which that form of
government feems almoft peculiar. The old men are
treated with veneration ; but the young are not entire¬
ly fubjeft to them. They may liften refpeftfully to
thch- advice $ but they do not fubrait to their arbitrasy
S O 0 [57'] SO
Where mankind are in the {late of hun- riod in the hiftory of every nation.
Society, commands, _   
'~ ' v _ ters and fifhers, where the means of fubliflence are pre-
carioufly acquired, and prudent forelight does not
prompt to accumulate much provifion for the future,
no individual can acquire comparative wealth. As foon
as the fon is grown up, he ceafes to be dependent on
his father, as well as on the fociety in general. Diffe¬
rence of experience therefore conftitutes the only di-
ftin&ion between the young and the old; and if the
old have experience, the young have ftrength and acti¬
vity. Here, then, neither age nor property can give
rife to any ftriking diftin&ion of ranks. All who have
attained to manhood, and are not difabled by unufual
deficiency of ftrength or agility, or by the infirmities of
old age, are on an equal footing; or if any one pofteis
a pre-eminence over the reft, he owes it to fuperior ad-
drefs or fortitude. The whole tribe deliberate; the old
give their advice ; each individual of the affembly re¬
ceives or rejeds it at his pleafure (for the whole body
think. not of exercifing any compullatory power over
the will of individuals) ; and the warrior who is moft
diftinguifhed for ftrength, addrefs, and valour, leads out
the youth ol the tribe to the chace or againft the ene¬
my. War, which in the former ftage did not prevail,
as they who. were ftrangers to focial fentiments were,
at the fame time, fcarce capable of being enemies, now
firft begins to depopulate the thinly inhabited regions
where thofe hunters and fifhers purfue their prey. They
are fcattered, pofiibly in fcanty and feparate tribes, over
an immenfe trad of country ; but they know no me¬
dium between the affedion which brethren of the fame
tribe bear to each other and the hatred of enemies.
Though thinly fcattered over the earth, yet the hunt¬
ing parties of different tribes will fometimes meet as
they range the forefts ; and when they meet, they will
naturally view each other with a jealous eye; for the
fuccefs of the one party in the chace may caufe the
other to be unfuccdsful ; and while the one fnatches
the prey, the other mail return home to all the pangs
of famine. Inveterate hoftility will therefore long pre¬
vail among neighbouring tribes in the hunting ftate.
If u'e find them not incapable of focial order, we
may naturally exped that their condud will be influ¬
enced by fome fentiments of religion. They have at
this period ideas of fuperior beings- They alfo prac-
tife certain ceremonies to recommend them to thofe be¬
ings ; but both their fentiments and ceremonies are fu-
perftitious and abfurd.
We have elfewhere ftiown (fee Polytheism) how
favage tribes have probably degenerated from the pure
worfhip of the one true God to the adoration of a
multitude of imaginary divinities in heaven, earth, and
hell. We have traced this idolatrous worihip from that
of the heavenly bodies, through all the gradations of
daemon-worfhip, hero-worfhip, and ftatue-worftiip, to
that wonderful inftance of abfurd fupeVftition which in¬
duced the inhabitants of fome countries to fall proftrate
in adoration before the vileft reptiles. But though we
are convinced that the heavenly bodies have by aft ido¬
laters been confidered as their fii ft and greateft gods,
we pretend not that the progrefs through the other
ftages of polytheiim has been everywhere in the very
fame older. It is indeed impoffible to exhibit under
one general view an account of arts, manneis, and reli¬
gious ientimentSj which may apply to fome certain pe-
c
„ r* . j  > The characters and Society.
circumitances of nations are fcarce lefs various and ano-
malous than thofe of individuals. Among many of
the American tribes among the ancient inhabitants of
tue forefts of Germany, wdiofe manners have been fo ac¬
curately delineated by the mafterly pen ofTacitus, and
in iome of the iflands icattered over the fouthern ocean
religion, arts, and government, have been found in that
ftate which we have deferibed as characterizing the fe-
cond ftage of focial life. ' But neither can we pretend
that all thofe fimple and rude focieties have been de¬
feribed by hiftorians and travellers as agreeing precifely
in their arts, manners, and religious fentiments; or that
the difference of circumftances always enables us to ac¬
count in a fatisfa&ory manner for the diftindion of their
characters. There is a variety of fads in the hiftory of
the early periods of fociety, which no ingenuity, no in-
duftry however painful, can reduce under general heads.
Here, as well as when we attempt to philofophize on
the phenomena of the material world, we find reafon to
confefs that our powers are weak, and our obfervation
confined within a narrow fphere.
But we may now carry our views a little forward,™- Vn
and furyey human life as approaching fome what nearer in the prT
to a civilized and enlightened ftate. As property is ac-grefs of fo.
quired, inequality and fubordination of ranks neceflarily ciety>in
follow: and when men are no longer equal, the many Wfhich idca8
are foon fubjeaed to the will of the few. But whauid'S™!
gives rife to thefe new phenomena is, that after having lity of 1
often luffered from the precarioufnefs of the huntino-rsnk*aP* "
and fifhing ftate, men begin to extend their cares be°-Pear*
yond the prefent moment, and to think of providing-
fome ftipply for future wants. When they are enabled
to provide fuch a fupply, either by puifuing the chace
with new eagernefs and perfeverance, by gathering the
fpontaneous fruits of the earth, or by breeding tame
animals—-thefe acqmfitions are at firft the property of
the whole fociety, and diftributed from a common ftore
to each individual according to his wants : But as va-
nous reafons wall foon concur to convince the commu¬
nity, that by this mode of diftribution, induftry and ac¬
tivity are treated with injuftice, while negligence and
indolence receive more than their due, each individual
will in a fhort time become his own fteward, and a
community of goods will be abolifhed. As foon as di
ftina ideas of property are formed, it muft be unequal-
ly diftnbuted ; and as foon as property is unequally di¬
ftributed, there antes au inequality of ranks. Here we
have the origin of the depreflion of the female lex hi
rude ages, of the tyrannical authority exercifed by pa¬
rents over their children, and perhaps of fkvery. The
women cannot difplay the fame pentverance, or activi¬
ty, or addrefs, as the men in puriuing the chace. They
are therefore left at home ; and from that moment are
no longer equals, but Haves and dependants, who muft
fubfift by the bounty of the males, and muft therefore
luoinit with implicit obedience to all their capricious
commands. Even before the era of property, the ie-
male fex were viewed as inferiors; but till that ueriod
they were not reduced to a ftate of abject ftavery.’’
n this period of Society new notions are formed of
j relative duties. Men now become citizens, mailers
and fervants ; huihands, parents, &c. It is impoflible
to enumerate all the various modes of government
which take place among the tribes who have advanced
4 Cm ta
J *
s o C [ 57a J s o c
Society, to this ; but one thing cettain u, that the autho-
rity of the few over the many is now firft eflablifhed,
and that the rife of property tirft introduces inequality
of ranks. In one place, we fhali perhaps find the com¬
munity fubje&ed during this period to the will of a
fingle perfon •, in another, power may be lodged in the
hands of a number of chiefs; and in a third, every indi¬
vidual may have a voice in creating public officers, and
in enacting laws for the fupport of public order. But
as no code of laws is formed during this period, juf-
tice is not very impartially adminiftered, nor are the
rights of individuals very faithfully guarded. Many ac¬
tions, which will afterwards be confideied as heinoully
immoral, are now confidered as praife-worthy or incHt-
ferent. This is the age of hero-worfhip, and of houfe-
hold and tutelary gods; lor it is in this ftage of fociety
that the invention of arts, which gave rife to that wor¬
ship, contributes molt confpicuoufly to the public good.
War, too, which we confidered as beginning firft to ra¬
vage the earth during the former period, and which is
another caufe of the deification ol dead men, will itill
prevail in this age, and Jpe carried on with no lefs fero¬
city than before, though in a more fyftematic form.
The prevalence of war, and the means by which fub-
fiftence is procured, cannot but have confiderablc influ¬
ence on the chara&er and fentiments of focieties and in¬
dividuals. The hunter and the warrior are charaefters
in many refpeAs different from the ftepherd and the
hufbandman. Such, in point of government, arts, and
manners, religious and moral fentiments, were feveral of
the German tribes deferibed by Tacitus; and the Bri¬
tons wliofe character has been fketched by the pen of
Csefar: Inch, too, were the Romans in the early period
of their hiftory; fuehtoo the inhabitants of Afia Minor
about the time of the fiege of Troy, as well as the Greeks
whom Homer celebrates as the deftroyers of the T. ro-
ian ftate: the northern tribes alfo, who poured thro’
Afia, Africa, and Europe, and overthrew the Roman
empire, appear to have been of a nearly fimilar charac¬
ter. It feems to be a general opinion among thofe
who have direfted their‘attention to the hiftoiy of fo¬
ciety, that, in the fcale afeendiug from the loweft con¬
dition of human beings to the moft civilized and en¬
lightened ftate of fociety, the Ihephetd ftate is the next
in order above the hunting; and that as mankind im¬
prove in knowledge and in moral fentiments, and as the
forefts are gradually depopulated of their inhabitants,
inftead of deftroying the inferior animals, men become
their guardians and protestors. But we cannot unre-
Tervedly fubferibe to this opinion : we believe, that in
the fhepherd ftate focieties have been fometimes found
fuperio'i- to the moft polilhed tribes of hunters ; but
upon viewing the annals of mankind in eaily ages, we
obferve that there is often no inconfiderable refemblance
even between hunters and fhepherds in point of the im¬
provement of the rational faculties and the moral ftme ,
and we are therefore led to think, that thefe two ftates
are. fometimes parallel: for inftance, feveral of the A-
merican tribes, who ftill procure their fubfiftence by
hunting, appear to be nearly in the ftate which we have
deferibed as the third ft age in the progrels of fociety ;
and the ancient fhepherds oi Afia do not appear to have
been much more cultivated and refined. We even be¬
lieve that men have fometimes turned their attention
iro:n hunting to agriculture without palling through
any intermediate ftate. Let us remember, that much SoHety,
depends upon local circumftances, and fomewhat un-
doubtedly on original infpiration and traditionary in-
ftrudtion. In this period of fociety the ftate of the
arts well deferves our attention. We (hall find, that
the fhepherds and the hunters are in that refpeft on a
pretty equal footing. Whether we examine the records
of ancient hiftory, or view' the Hands fcattered through
the South Sea, or range the wilds of America, or fur-
vey the fnow'y w'aftes of Lapland and the frozen coaff,
oi Greenland—ftill we find the ufeful arts in this pe¬
riod, though known and cultivated, in a very rude ftate;
and the fine arts, or fuch as are cultivated merely to
pleafe the fancy or to gratify caprice, difplaying an odd
and fantaftic, not a true or natural, tafte ; yet this is
the period in which eloquence fhines with the trueft
luftre : all is metaphor or glowing fentiment. Lan¬
guages are not yet copious ; and therefore fpeech is
figurative, expreffive, and forcible. The tones and gef.
tures of nature, not being yet laid afide, as they gene¬
rally are, from regard to decorum, in more polifired
ages, give a degree of force and expreffion to the ha¬
rangues of the ruftic or favage orator, which the molt
laborious ftudy of the rules of rhetoric and elocution
could not enable even a more polifhed orator to dif-
play. iS
But let us advance a little farther, and contemplate Fourth
our fpecies in a new light, where they will appear with 111 ,
greater dignity and amiablenefs of character. Let us aihu-e
view them as hufbandmen, artizans, and legiflators. rifhes, the
Whatever circumftances might turn the attention of arts are
any people from hunting to agriculture, or caufe thefu^fliv,^e<^»
herdfman to yoke his oxen for the cultivation of the anTregular
ground, certain it is that this change in the occupation govern-
would produce an happy change on the character and merit are
circumftances of men; it would oblige them to exert 1Iltroc*ucs^
a more regular and perfevering induftry. The hunter
is like one of thofe birds that are deferibed as palling
the winter in a torpid ftate. The Ihepherd’s life is ex¬
tremely indolent. Neither of thefe is very favourable
to refinement. But different is the condition of the
hulbandman. His labours fucceed each other in regu¬
lar rotation through the year. Each feafon with him
has its proper employments : he therefore muft exert
active perfevering induftry ; and in this ftate wc often
find the virtues of rude and polilhed ages united. This
is the period where barbarifm ends and civilization
begins. Nations have exifted for ages in the hunt¬
ing or the Ihepherd ftate, fixed as by a kind of ftagna-
tion, without advancing farther. But fcarce any in-
ftances occur in the hiftory of mankind of thofe who
once reached the ftate of hulbandmen, remaining long
in that condition without rifing to a more civilized and
polifhed ftate. Where a people turn their attention in
any confiderable degree to the objefts of agriculture, a
diftindion of occupations naturally arifes among them.
The hulbandman is fo clofely employed thro’ the feve¬
ral feafons of the year in the labours of the field, that
he has no longer leifure to exercife all the rude arts
known among his countrymen. He has not time to
falhion the inllruments of hulbandry, to prepare his
clothes, to build his houfe, to manufadure houfehold
utenfils, or to tend thofe tame animals which he con¬
tinues to rear. Thofe different departments therefore
now begin to employ different perfons j each of whom
1 ' dedicates
s o c
Society, dedicates his whole time and attention to his own oc-
p,pwv™~/cupation. The manufacture of cloth is for a confider-
able time managed exclijfively by the women ; but fmiths
and joiners arife from among the men. Metals begin
now to be confidered as valuable materials. The inter-
courfe of mankind is now placed on a new footing. Be¬
fore, every individual praftifed all the arts that were
known, as far as was neceffary for fupplying himfelf
with the conveniences of life. Now he confines him¬
felf to one or to a few of them ; and, in order to ob¬
tain a neceffary fupply of the productions of thofe arts
which he does not cultivate himfelf, he gives in ex¬
change a part of the productions of his own labours.
Here we have the origin of commerce.
C 573 1
s o c
One of the nobleft changes which the introduction of Soeicty.
the arts by agriculture produces on the form and cir- u~-W'—-
cumftances of fociety, is the introduction of regular go-
vernment and laws. In tracing the hiftory of ancient
nations, we fcarce ever find laws introduced at an ear¬
lier period. Minos, Solon, and Lycurgus, do not ap¬
pear to have formed codes of wifdom and juftice for re¬
gulating the manners of their countrymen, till after the
Cretans, the Athenians, and even the Lacedemonians,
had made fome progrefs in agriculture and the ufeful
arts.
Religion, under all its various forms, has in every
ftage of fociety a mighty influence on the fentiments
and conduft of men (fee Religion) ; and the arts cul-
. . o t . n : v4'-'- j “Hu uic arts cm-
After continuing perhaps for fome time in this ftate, tivated in fociety have on’the other hand fome influ-
as arts and diftinaions multiply in fociety, the ex- ence on the fyftem of religious belief. One happy ef~
change of one commodity for another is found trou- fed which will refult from the invention of arts, though
blefome and inconvenient. It is inirenioufiv oontri. nprhans nor immpri.'-.toi.. r.^ » i... .v i
blefome and inconvenient. It is ingenioufly contri¬
ved to adopt a medium of commerce, which being efti-
mated not by its intrinfic value, but by a certain nomi¬
nal value which it receives from the agreement of the
fociety among whom it is ufed, ferves to render the ex¬
change of property, which is fo neceffary for the pur-
pofes of focial life, eafy and expeditious. Wherever me¬
tals have been known, they appear to have been adopt¬
ed as the medium of commerce almoft as foon as fuch a
medium began to be ufed: and this is one important
purpofe for which they ferve ; but they have Hill more
important ufes. Almoft all the neceffary arts depend
on them. Where the metals are known, agriculture
pradifed, and the neceffary arts diftributed among diffe-
rent orders of artifans—civilization and refinement, if
not obftruded by fome accidental circumftances, ad¬
vance with a rapid progrefs. With regard to the firft
applying of the precious metals as the medium of com¬
merce, we may obferve, that this was probably not ac-
complifhed by means of a formal contrad. They might
be firft ufed as ornaments ; and the love of orna¬
ment, which prevails among rude as much as among
civilized nations, would render every one willing to re¬
ceive them in exchange for fuch articles as he could
fpare. Such might be the change produced on fociety
with regard to the neceffary arts by the origin of agri¬
culture. As foon as ornament and amufement are
thought of, the fine arts begin to be cultivated. In
their origin therefore they are not long pofterior to the
neceffary and ufeful arts. They appear long before men
reach the comfortable and refpedable condition of hub
bandmen ; but fo rude is their charader at theii firft
origin, that our Dilettanti would probably view their
produdions of that period with unfpeakable contempt
and difguft. But in the period of fociety which we
nowconfider, they have afpired to an higher charader;
yet poetry is now perhaps lefs generally cultivated than
during the fhepherd ftate. Agriculture, confidered by
itfelf, is not diredly favourable either to refinement of
manners or to the fine arts. The converfation of fhep
*3
perhaps not immediately, will be, to render the charac¬
ter oi the deities more benevolent and amiable, and the
rites of their worfhip more mild and humane.
The female fex in this period generally find the yoke
of their flavery fomewhat lightened. Men now become
eafier in their circumftances; the focial affedions affume
ftronger influence over the mind ; plenty, and fecurity,
and eafe, at once communicate both delicacy and keen-
nefs to the fenfual defires. All thefe circumftances con¬
cur to make men relax in fome degree that tyrannic
fway by which they before depreffed the fofter fex.
T. fie foundation of that empire, where beauty triumphs
over both wifdom and ftrength, now begins to be laid.
Such are the effeds which hiftory warrants us to attri¬
bute to agriculture and the arts; and fuch the outlines
of the charader of that which we reckon the fourth
ftage in the progrefs of fociety from rudenefs to refine¬
ment.
Let us advance one ftep farther. We have not yet Fifth fta^e
furveyed mankind in their molt polifhed and cultivated'11 t^le pro-
ftate. Society is rude at the period when the arts firft ?re.fs of .
begin to fhow themfelves, in comparifon of that ftate wS/.'1*
to which it is raifed by the induftrious cultivation ofterature,
them. The neighbouring commonwealths of Athens arts> a»d
and Lacedemon afford us a happy opportunity of com fciences>
paring this with the former ftage in the pro/refs of fo-^!tivTed
ciety. The chief efted produced by the inftitutions ofand religbu
.Lycurgus feems to have been, to fix the manners of hi3a^uuies a
countrymen for a coniiderable period in that ftate tonuld ancl
which they had attained in his days. Spartan virtue
has been admired and extolled in the language of en-" ^
thufiafm ; but in the fame manner has the charader
and the condition ot the favage inhabitants of the wilds
of America, been preferred by fome philofophers. to the
virtues and the enjoyments of focial life in the molt po¬
lifhed and enlightened ftate. The Spartans in the days
of Lycurgus had begun to cultivate the ground, and
were not unacquainted with the ufeful arts. They
muft foon have advanced farther had not Lycurgus ari-
fen, and by effeding the eftablifhment of a code of laws.
—- - —-;-r ~ ciLduiiinmeui. or a code ot laws,
herds is generally fuppofed to be far more elegant than the tendency of which appears to have been in many
that of hufbandmen ; but though the dired and imme- particulars diredly oppolite to the defi^ns of nature7
diate effeds of this condition of life be not favourable —‘---i-j r . . - - - ’
to the fine arts, yet indiredly it has a ttrong tendency
to promote their improvement. Its immediate influ¬
ence is extremely favourable to the neceffary and ufe¬
ful arts ; and thefe are no lefs favourable to the fine
arts.
retarded their progrefs towards complete civilization
and refinement. The hiftory of the Lacedemonians,
therefore, while the laws of Lycurgus continued in
force, exhibits the manners and charader of a people in
that which we have denominated the fourth ftage in the
progrefs of fociety. But if we turn our eyes to their
neigh-
s o c
[ 574 ]
s o c
Society, neighbours the Athenians, we behold in their hlftory
t)ie natural progrefs of opinions, arts, and manners.
The ufeful arts are firft cultivated with fuch fteady in-
dultry, as to raife the community to opulence, and to
furnilh them with articles for commerce with foreign
nations. The ufeful arts cannot be raifed to this height
of improvement without leading men to the purfuit of
fcience. Commerce with foreign nations, fkill in the
ufeful arts, and a tafte for fcience, mutually aid each
other, and confpire to promote the improvement of the
fine arts. Hence magnificent buildings, noble ilatues,
paintings expreffive of life, action, and pafiion ; and
j oems in which imagination adds new grace and fubli-
mity to nature, and gives the appearances of focial life
more irrefiftible power over the affeclions of the heart.
Hence are moral diftinftions more carefully ftudied, and
the rights of every individual and every order in fociety
better underftood and more accurately defined. Moral
fcience is generally the firft fcientific purfuit which
ftrongly attrafts the attention of men. Lawgivers ap¬
pear before geometricians and aftronomers. Some par¬
ticular circvunftances may caufe thefe fciences to be cul¬
tivated at a very early period. In Egypt the overflow¬
ing of the Nile caui’ed geometry to be early cultivated.
Caufes no lefs favourable to the ftudy of aftronomy,
concurred to recommend that fcience to the attention of
the Chaldean's long before they had attained the height
of refinement. But, in general, we find, that the laws
of morality are underftood, and the principles of morals
inquired into, before men make any confiderable progrefs
in phyfical fcience, or even profecute it with any degree
of keennefs. Accordingly, when We view the ftate of
literature in this period (for it is now become an objedl
of fo much importance as to force itfelf on our atten¬
tion), we perceive that poetry, hiftory, and morals, are
the branches chiefly cultivated. Arts are generally
cafual inventions, and long pradlifed before rules and
principles on which they are founded aflume the form
of fcience. But morality, if confidered as an art, is
that art which men have fooneft and moft conftantly oc-
cafion to pradtife. Betides, we are fo conftituted by
the wifdom of nature, that human adlions, and the events
which befal human beings, have more powerful influ¬
ence than any other objedt to engage and fix our at¬
tention. Hence we are enabled to explain why mora¬
lity, and thofe branches of literature more immediately
connedted with it, are almoft always cultivated in prefe¬
rence to phyfical fcience. Though poetry, hiftory, and
morals, be putfued with no fmall eagernefs and fuccefs
in that period of fociety which we now confider, we
need not therefore be greatly furprifed that natu¬
ral philofophy is neither very generally nor very fuccefs-
fuliy cultivated. Were we to confider each particular
in that happy change which is now produced on the
circumftances of mankind, we fhould be led into a too
minute and perhaps unimportant detail. This is the
period when human virtue and human abilities flu’ne with
moft fplendour. Rudenefs, ferocity, and barbarilm, are
now baniihed. Luxury has made her appearance ; but
as yet (he is the friend and the benefadtrefs of fociety.
Commerce has ftimulated and rewarded induftry, but
Iras not yet contracted the heart and debafed the cha-
rafier. Wealth is not yet become the foie objedl of
puriuit. The charms of focial intercourfe are known
and rehfhed; but domeftic duties are not yet deferted
for public amufements. The female fex acquire new Society,
influence, and contribute much to refine aud polifh the "v—■
manners of their lords. Religion now affumes a milder
and more pleafing form ; fplendid rites, magnificent
temples, pompous facrifices, and gay feftivals, give even
fuperftition an influence favourable to the happinefs of
mankind. The gloomy notions and barbarous rites of
former periods fall into difufe. The fyftem of theology,
produced in formei ages ftill remains : but only the mild
and amiable qualities of the deities are celebrated; and
none but the gay, humane, and laughing divinities, are
worfliipped. Philofophy alfo teaches men to difeard
fuch parts of their religion as are unfriendly to good
morals, and have any tendency to call forth or cheriftt
unfocial fentiments in the heart. War (for in this pe¬
riod of fociety enough of caufes will arife to arm one
nation againft another)—war, however, no longer retains
its former ferocity; nations no longer ftrive to extirpate
one another ; to procure redrefs for real or imaginary
injuries ; to humble, not to deftroy, is now its objeft,
Prifoners are no longer murdered in cold blood, iub-
je&ed to horrid and excruciating tortures, or condemn¬
ed to hopelefs flavery. They are ranfomed or exchan¬
ged ; they return to their country, and again fight un¬
der its banners. In this period the arts of government
are likewife better underftood, and pradiifed fo as to
contribute moft to the interefts of fociety. Whether
monarchy, or democracy, or ariftocracy, be the efta-
blilhed form, the rights of individuals and of focie¬
ty are in general refpedfed. The interefts of fociety
are fo well underftood, that the few, in order to pre-
ferve their influence over the many, find it necelfary to
a£f rather as the faithful fervants than the imperious
lords of the public. Though the liberties of a nation
in this ftate be not accurately defined by law, nor their
property guaranteed to them by any legal inftitutions,
yet their governors dare not violate their liberties, nor
deprive them wantonly of their properties. This is tru¬
ly the golden age of fociety : every trace of barbarifm
is entirely effaced; and vicious luxury has not yet be¬
gun to fap the virtue and the happinefs of the commu¬
nity. Men live not in liftlefs indolence ; but the induftry
in which they are engaged is not of fuch a nature as to
overpower their ftrength or exhauft their fpirits. The
focial affe&ions have now the ftrongeft influence on
mens fentiments and condued.
But human affairs are fcarce ever ftationary.
circumftances of mankind are almoft. always changing, and decline
either growing better or worfe. Their manners are ever foriety-
in the fame fludduating ftate. They either advance to¬
wards perfection or degenerate. Scarce have they at¬
tained that happy period in which we have juft contem¬
plated them, when they begin to decline till they per¬
haps fall back into a ftate nearly as low as that from
which we iuppofe them to have emerged. Inftances
of this unhappy degeneracy occur mote than once in
the hiftory of mankind; and we may finiih this Ihort
fketch of the hiftory of fociety by mentioning in what
manner this degeneracy takes place. Perhaps, ftriftly
fpeaking, every thing but the Ample neceffaries of life
may be denominated luxury: For a long time, how¬
ever, the welfare of fociety is belt promoted, while its
members afpire after fomething more than the mere ne¬
ceffaries of life. As long as thefe fuperfluities are to
be obtained only by active and honeft exertion ; as long
as
T. he Degeneracy
Society
S G C [
^ as. they only engage the kifure hours, without beco-
objefts of purfuit—the employment
which they give to the faculties is favourable both to
the virtue and the happinefs of the human race.
The period arrives, however, when luxury is no long¬
er ferviceable to the interefts of nations ; when ihe is
no. longer a graceful, elegant, aaive form, but a lan¬
guid, overgrown, and bloated carcafe. It is the love
of luxury, which contributed fo much to the civiliza¬
tion of fociety, that now brings on its decline. Arts
aie cultivated and improved, and commerce extended,
, enormous opulence be acquired : the effect of opu-
ence is to awake the fancy, to conceive ideas of new
and capricious wants, and to inflame the breaft with
new defires. Here we. have the origin of that felfifh-
neis which, operating in conjunction with caprice and
the violence of unbridled paffions, contributes fo much
to.the corruption of virtuous manners. Selfiihnefs, ca-
price, .indolence,, effeminacy, all join to loofen the bonds
or locietv. tn hrfncr rm tl,»   r .1 r
s o c
r . \  —j i iuuicu uic Donas
iociety, to bring on the degeneracy both of the ufe-
I aim trip finp nvfn 4-^. . i .
r i j r ^ — —6v.x1v.ia^j .uuui ui me me-
and the fine arts, to banifli at once the mild and the
aultere virtues, to deftroy civil order and fubcrdination,
anc to introduce in their room anarchy or defpotifm.
bca-ce could we have found an example of the beau¬
tiful form of fociety which we lall attempted to defcribe.
ever, at leafl, has any nation continued long to enjoy
fucn happy circumftances, or to difplay fo amiable and
reip.eCtab.e a character. But when we fpeak of the de¬
clining (late of fociety, we have no difficulty in finding
milanees to which we may refer. Hiftory tells of the
Aiiymns, the Egyptians, and the Perfians, all of them
once flouriflung nations, but brought low by luxury
and an unhappy corruption of manners. The Greeks
the Romans, and the Arabians, owed their fall to the*
fame caufes; and we know not if a fimilar fate does
not now threaten many of thofe nations who have long
made a diftingmfhed figure in the fyftem of Europe.
The Portegueje, the Venetians, and the Spaniards,
have already fallen ; and what is the prefent (late of our
neighbours the French! They have long been a peoule
deltitute of religion, corrupted in morals, unfteady in
conduCt, and flaves to pleafure and public amufements.
Among them luxury had arrived at its highefl pitch •
and the confequence has been, that after capricioufly
tnakimr oft the vote r«f *1. i _ /
*.5
ftaking off the yoke of defpotifn,, they have eilabliLli
or rather fet up (for eftablilbed it cannot be), a motely
kind of government, which, in the courfe of a few
years, has exhibited fcenes of tyranny and oppreflion, to
which we doubt if the annals of the world can furnifh
any parallel. Yet this is the people whofe manners the
other nations of Europe were ambitious to imitate.
May thofe nations take warning in time, and avoid the
rocks upon which they have fplit..
575 ]
the progrefs of arts and manners. But our proper bir-
finefs here was merely to mark the gradations between
barbarifm and refinement: and as the painter who is to
exhibit a feries of portraits reprefenting the human
form in infancy, puerility, youth, and manhood, will
not think of delineating all that variety of figures and
faces which , each of thofe periods of life affords, and
will find himfelf unable to reprefent in any fingle
figure all diverfities of form.and features; fo we have
not once^ thought of defcribing particularly under this
article, all the various national characters reducible to
any one of thofe divifions under which we have viewed
the progrefs of fociety, nor have found it poffible to
comprehend under one confiftent view, all the particu¬
lars which may be gathered from the remains of anti¬
quity, from the relations of later travellers, and the ge¬
neral records of hiilory concerning the progreffive cha¬
racter of mankind in various regions, and under the in¬
fluence of various accidents and circumftances. This
indeed would have even been improper, as all that in*
formation, appears under other articles in this Work.
SOCIETIES, aftbciations voluntarily formed by a
number of individuals for promoting knowledge,induftry,
or virtue. .1 hey may therefore be divided into three claf-
fes; focieties for promoting fcience and literature, focie-
ties for encouraging and promoting arts and manufac-
tures,.and focieties for diffufing religion and morality and
relieving.diftrefs.. Societies belonging to the firft clafs ex¬
tend their attention to all the fciences and literature in
general, or devote it to one particular fcience. The
lame obfervation may be applied to thofe which are in-
ftituted for improving arts and manufactures. Thofe
of the third clafs are eftabiiftied, either with a view to
prevent crimes, as the Philanthropic Society ; for the
dinuhon ot the Chnftian religion among unenlightened
nations,, as the Society for the Propagation of the Goi'pel
m Foreign Parts; or for introducing arts and civiliza-
tion, along with a knowledge of the Chriftian religion,
as the Sierra Leona company.
The honour of planning and inftituting focieties
for thofe valuable purpofes is due to modern times
A literary affociation is laid to have been formed in the
reign of Charlemagne (fee Academy) ;, but the plan
leems.to have been rude and defective. Several others
• 7HVS have we.vIewed the feveral ftages in which fo¬
ciety appears in its progrefs from rudenefs to refine¬
ment and decay. The intelligent reader will perceive,
t at the various and anomalous phenomena which occur
m the natural hiftory of fociety, cannot eafily be fol-
y . ; hecaufe the neceffary information cannot be ob¬
tained. Others have been well accounted for by the
researches of curious philafophical inquirers. Local
circumftances, the influence of climate, the intcrcourfe
of nations, m different Hates of civilization, have been
taken notice of, as caufes femng to accelerate or. retard
were mftituted in Italy in the 16th century ; but from
the accounts which we have feen of them, they feem to
have been far inferior to thofe which are molt flouriftW
at prefent. I he molt enlarged idea of literary focieties
feems to have originated with the great Lord Bacon, the
lather of modern philofophy, who recommended to the
reigning prince toinllitute focieties of learned men, who
mould give to the world from time to time a regular
account of their refearches and difeoveries. It was the
idea of this great philofopher, that the learned world
ihould be united, as it were, into one immenfe republic ■
which, though coniiftmg of many detached ftates, fliould
hold a ft net union and prefer ve a mutual intelligence
with each other, in every thing that regards the com¬
mon intereit. 1 he want of this union and intelligence
he laments, as one of the chief obftacles to the advance-
ment of fcience ; and, juftly confidering the inftitution
of public focieties, in the different countries of Europe
under the aufpifes of the fovert-ign, to be the btft re!
niedy for that defe&, lie has given, in his fanciful work,
the Mew Atlantis, the delineation of a philofophical
* fociety
Societfes.
v—
s o c
C 576 1
s o c
SccietiC*.
§ Sprat's
Uijlury of
the Royal
Society,
id edit.
I>‘ i9-
fociety onUe moft extended plan, for the improvement
1 of all arts and fciences ; a work which, though written
in the language, and tinaured with the colouring of
romance, is full of the nobleft philofophic views. The
plan of Lord Bacon, which met with little attention
from the age in which he lived, was deftined to produce
its effea in a period not very diftant. The fcheme of a
philofophical college by Cowley is acknowledged to have
had a powerful influence in procuring the eftablifhment
of the Royal Society of London by charter from
Charles II. $ ♦, and Cowley’s plan is manifeftiy copied
in almofl all its parts from that in the New Atlantis.
The inftitution of the Royal Society of London was
foon followed by the eftablifhment of the Royal Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris ; and thefe two have ferved
as models to the philofophical academies of higheft re¬
putation in the tther kingdoms of Europe.
The experience of ages has fhown, that improvements
of a public nature are belt carried on by focieties of li¬
beral and ingenious men, uniting their labours without
regard to nation, fedt, or party, in one grand jnirfuit
alike interefting to all, whereby mutual prejudices are
worn off, and a humane philofophical fpirit is cherifhed.
Men united together, and frequently meeting for the
pnrpofe of advancing the fciences, the arts, agriculture,
manufaftures, and commerce, may oftentimes faggeft
fuch hints to one another as may be improved to im¬
portant ends : and fuch focieties, by being the repofito-
ries of the obfervations and difeoveries of the learned
and ingenious, may from time to time furnifh the world
with ufeful publications which might otherwife be loft:
for men of ingenuity and modefty may not choofe to
rifle their reputation, by fending abroad unpatronized
what a learned fociety might judge richly worthy the
public eye ; or perhaps their circumftances being ftrait-
cned, they may not be able to defray the expence of
publication. Societies inftituted for promoting know¬
ledge may alfo be of eminent feiwice, by exciting a fpint
«f emulation, and by enkindling thofe fparks of genius
which otherwife might for ever have been concealed ;
and if, when pofleffed of funds fufficient for the pur-
pofe, they reward the exertions of the induftrious and
enterprifing with pecuniary premiums or honorary me¬
dals, many important experiments and ufeful difeoveries
will be made, from which the public may reap the high¬
eft advantages. #
Eminent inftances of the beneficial effefts of fuch in-
ftitutions we have in the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, the Royal Society, and the Society inftituted for
the Encouragement of A rts, Manufactures, and Com-
Tnerce in London, and many others of a fimilar kind.     . . r ,
Hereby a fpirit of difeovery and improvement has been Jhan Knowledge, and has been productive of much good
Sed among th "ngenfeus in almoft every nation , . in the cities of London and Weftm.nfter ; but upon the
knowledge of&various kinds, and greatly ufeful to man-
cieties, that their beneficial effects are already confpieu-
and Hu-
ous. niane S)
We will now give fome account of the moft eminent Reties,
focieties ; arranging them under the three claffts into > y—— j
which we have divided them : I. Religious and Humane
Societies. II. Societies for Promoting Science and Literature,
III. Societies for Encouraging Arts, Manufactures, &c.
I. Religious and Humane Societies.
T, Society for the Propagation of the Gofpel in Foreign
Parts, was inftituted by King William III. in 1701,
in order to i'ecure a maintenance for an orthodox cler¬
gy, and to make other provilions for propagating the
gofpel in the plantations, colonies, and factories beyond
the feas. To that end he incorporated the archbifhops,
feveral of the bifhops, and others of the nobility, gentry,
and clergy, to the number of 90, into one body, which,
by the name of The Society for the Propagation of the
Gofpel in Foreign Parts, was to plead and be impleaded;
to have perpetual fucceflion, with privilege to purchafe
L. 2000 a-year inheritance, and eftates for lives or
years, with other goods and chattels to any value. By
its charter the fociety is authorifed to ufe a common
feal ; and to meet annually on the third Friday in Fe¬
bruary for the purpofe of choofing a preiident, vice-
prefident, and officers for the year enfuing ; and on the
third Friday in every month, or oftener if there fhould
be occafion, to tranfaA bulinefs, and to depute perfons
to take fubferiptions, and colle<£f money contributed for
the purpofes aforefaid ; and of all moneys received and
laid out, it is obliged to give account yearly to the
lord-chancellor or keeper, the lord chief-juftice of the
King’s-bench, the lord-chief-juftice of the Common-
pleas, or to any two of thefe magiftrates. Of this fo¬
ciety there is a {landing committee at St Paul’s chap-
ter-houfe, to prepare matters for the monthly meeting,
which is held at St Martin’s library.
Before the incorporation of the fociety for the pro¬
pagation of the gofpel in foreign parts, there had been
formed, for the promoting of Chriftian knowledge both
at home and in the colonies, a voluntary aftbeiation of
perfons of rank and refpe&ability, who in March 1699
began to hold ftated meetings in London for that pur¬
pofe, regulating themfelves by the laws of the land and
the canons of the church ; and when the new fociety
was formed, they had already tranfinitted to America
and the Weft Indies L. 800 worth of Bibles, Books of
Common Prayer, and treatifes of practical religion, be-
fides fecuring a tolerable maintenance to feveral clergy¬
man on that continent. This affociatubn Hill fubfifts un¬
der the denomination of The Society for Promoting Chri-
kind, has taken place of the dry and uninterefting
fpeculations of fchoolmen ; and bold and erroneous hy-
pothefis has been obliged to give way to demonftrative
experiment. In fhort, fiuce the eftablifhment of thefe
focieties, folid learning and philofophy have more in*
creafed than they had done for many centuries belore.
As to thofe focieties dtabliffied for promoting in-
duftry, religion and morality, and relieving diftrefs, the
defign is laudable and excellent, and prefents a beautiful
pifture of the philanthrspy of modern times. We are
happy to find, from the minutes of iome of thefe fo-
formation of the new fociety, into which all its original
members were incorporated by name, the care which
the voluntary aflbeiation had taken of the colonies de¬
volved of courfe upon the incorporated fociety ; of
which incorporation we believe the objeft has been
fometimes miftaken, anefthe labours of its miffionaries
gi-ofsly mifreprefented. It has by many been fuppofed
that the fociety was incorporated for the/o/e purpofe ot
converting the favage Americans ; and it has been much
blamed for fending miffionaries into provinces where, in
the defpicable cant of the complainers, a gofpel-mimjlry
was already eftabliffied. But; an impartial view of the
rife
sac
T 5.77 1
S O G
Re!*gv'U&
end Hu-
niane So-
cietie-'.
Sef his
Sermon,
II. of
lis IVorlts,
rife and pro^refs of the American provinces, now be¬
come independent ftates, will fhow the folly and injuf-
tice of thofe complaints.
1 The Englifh colonies in North America were in the
laft century formed and firft peopled by religious men ;
who, made uneafy at home by their intolerant brethren,
left the old world to enjoy in peace that firft and chief
prerogative of man, the free nvorfh 'ip of God according to
his own confcience. At one time Puritans were driven
acrofs the Atlantic by the epifcopal church; at another,
Churchmen were forced away by the prefbyterians juft
as the revolutions of ftate threw the civil power into
the hands of the one or the other party ; and not a few
members ot the church of Rome were chafed to the
cieties.
do, good fervice in bringing thofe planters to a ferious RsH^ions
fenfe of religion. “ I fpeak it knowingly (fays he), f:lld
that the minifters of the gofpel, in thofe provinces which niane So‘
go by the name of New England, fent and fupported at»
the expence of the fociety, have, by their fobriety of
manners, difereet behaviour, and a competent degree of
ufeful knowledge, fhown themfelves worthy of the choice
of thofe who fent them.” We have the honour to be
acquainted with fome of the miffionaries fent at a latet*
period, and have reafon to believe that, down to the
era of the American revolution, they had the fame vir¬
tues, and were doing the fame good fervices, which pro¬
cured to their predeceffors this honourable teftimony
from one of the greateft and the beft of men. Surely
wilds of America by the united exertion-s of both. It ‘ fuch a miflion deferved not to be evil fpoken of by fee
has been often obferved, that people perfecuted for their
religion become for the moft part enthufiaftically at¬
tached to it ; and the condudl of thofe colonifts was in
perfeft harmony with this obfervation. Their zeal, in¬
flamed by their violent removal to the other hemifphere,
kept religion alive and aftive among themfelves ; but
their poverty difabled them from fupplying fuel to the
flame, by making provifion for a miniftry to inftrutl
their offspring. The confequence was, that the new
Chrillian commonwealth, without the kindly affillance
of its mother-country, would have been, in the words of
the Roman hiftorian, Res uniuj atotis. Againft this danger
a timely aid was to be provided by the focicty ; which,
as it confifted not of fanatical members, would not in-
truft the impoitant bufinefs of the miffion to fanatical
preachers, who, though always ready for fuch fpiritual
emerptifes, are never qualified to carry them on with
fuccefs.
It was therefore thought fit to affi^na decent main¬
tenance for clergymen of the church of England, who
might preach the gofpel to their brethren in America :
and though thofe miflionaries in general carefully avoid¬
ed the conduct of thofe of Rome, whofe principal aim
is to reduce all churches under iubmiffion to the papal
tyranny; yet fo lately as 1765, did fome of the colo¬
nies, in which the puritanic fpirit of the laft century
chara&erifed the church eftablilhed by law, raife a hi¬
deous outcry againft the fociety for fending a miflion
into their quarters, though only for the fervice of the
difperfed members of the Epifcopal church refiding
among them, and for the converfion of thofe men whom
their rigid fanaticifm had prejudiced againft Chriftianity
itfelf.
Indeed the commodity called Freethinking, as
B'ifhop Warburton expreffes it, was at an early period
imported by the opulent and fafhionable colonifts. The
celebrated Berkeley, who had reiided lomc years in
Rhode Ifland, and at his retilrn was called upon to
preach the anniverfary fermon before the fociety, in¬
forms us, that the ifland where he lived was inhabited
by an Englifh colony, confifling chiefly of fedtaries
of many diflerent denominations; that feveral of the
better fort of the inhabitants of towns Were aecuftomed
to affemble themfelves regularly on the Lord’s day for
the performance of divine worfhip ; but that moft of
thofe who were difperfed through the colony rivalled
fome well bred people ef other countries, in a thorough
indifferetice for all that is facred, being equally carelefs
of outward worfhip and of inward principles. He adds,
that the miflionaries had done, and were continuing.to
Vol. XVII. Part II.
tarifts of any denomination vfho believe in Chrift ; ef-
pecially as the very charter of incorporation affigns aa
a reafon for miflionaries being fent to the colonies,
“ that by reafon of their poverty thofe colonies were
deftitute and unprovided of a maintenance for mini¬
fters and the public worlhip of God.”
The fociety, however, was incorporated for other
purpofes than this. It was obliged by its charter to
attempt the converfion of the native Americans and the
negro flaves ; and we have reafon to believe, that, as
foon as the fpiritual wants of the colonifts were decent¬
ly fupplied, it was not inattentive to thefe glorious ob-
jefts. Its fuccefs indeed in either purfuit has not been
fo great as could be wifhed ; but it would be rafh and
unfair to attribute this failure to the prefident, vice-
prefident, or other officers of the corporation at home,,
An erroneous notion, that the being baptized is incon-
fiftent with a ftate of flavery, rendered the felfifh colo-
nills for a long time averfe from the converfion of their
negroes, and made them throw every obftacle in the
way of all who made the attempt ; while the difficul¬
ties of the Indian miffron are fuch as hardly any clergy¬
man educated in a Proteftant country can be fuppofed
able to furmount.
He who hopes fuccefsfully to preach the gofpel
among a tribe of favage wafiderers, muft have an ardent
zeal and unwearied diligence ; appetites fubdued to all
the diftreffes of want; and a mind fuperior to all the
terrors of mortality. Thefe qualities and habits may
be acquired in the church of Rome by him who from
infancy has been trained up in the feverities of fome of
the monaitic orders, and afterwards fent to the college
de propaganda fide to be inftru&ed in the languages, and
inured to the manners and cuftoms of the barbarous na¬
tions whofe converfion he is deitined to attempt. But
in the reformed churches of Britain there are no mo-
naftic orders, nor any college de propaganda fide ; and
yet without the regular preparation, which is to be
looked for in fuch inllitutions alone, it is not in na¬
ture, whatever grace may effedt, for any man cheerfully,
and at the lame time foberly, to undergo all the accu¬
mulated diftreffes ever ready to overtake a faithful mif¬
fionary among favage idolaters. A fanatic zealot will
indeed undertake it, though he is totally unqualified
for every fober and important work; and a man of
ruined fortunes may be preffed into the fervice, though
the impotency of his mind has ftiown him unable to
bear either poverty or riches. The failure of the fo¬
ciety therefore in its attempts to convert the American
Indians may be attributed, we think, in the firft in-
4 ^ « ftance,
and Hu-
?nane So
cieties.
S O C [ 575
Re’ij»inuB {lance, to the want of a college <le propaganda for train¬
ing up young men for the American million.
Perhaps another caufe of this failure may be found
in the conduct of the mifitonaries, who, it is to be pre-
fumed, have not always employed in a proper manner
even the fcanty qualifications which they actually pof-
fefi'ed. The gofpel, plain and fimple as it is, and fitted
jn its nature for what it was ordained to effedt, cannot
be apprehended but by an intellect fomewhat railed
Above that of a fnvage. Such of the miffionaries there¬
fore as began their work with preaching to favage and
brutal men, certainly fet out at the wrong end ; for to
make the gofpel underftood, and much more to propa¬
gate and eftablilh it, thofe favatres fhould have been firft
taught the neceffary arts of civil life, which, while they
every bodily accommodation, tend at the fame
time to enlarge and enlighten the uuderttanding. For
want of this previous culture, we doubt not, it hath hap¬
pened that fuch of the favages as have been baptized in¬
to the faith have fo feldom perfevered themfelves, or
been able in any degree to propagate among their tribes
the Chrillianity which they had been taught, and that
fuccelfive millions have always found it neceflary to be¬
gin anew the work of converiion.
To one or other ot-' thefe caufes, or to both, may
juflly be attributed the little progrefs which reformed
Cbriftianity has made among the Indians of North A-
menca ; and not to any want of^ zeal, attention, or libe¬
rality, in the direftors of the fociety at home, during
the dependence of the United States on the mother-
country, great patt of the fociety’s funds was propedy
expended in keening alive a juft fenfe of religion among
the Chriftian colonifta from Europe, who had furely the
firft claims upon this heft of charities ; but now that
America has feparated herfelf from Great Britain, and
fhown that (he is able to maintain her independence,
and to make ample provilion for a regnlar clergy of
her own, the members O' the corporation muft feel them¬
felves at liberty to beftow greater attention, and to ex¬
pend more money than they could formerly do, on the
converfion of fuch Indians as have any intercourfe with
the fettlements which we ftill poftefs. To a body fo
refpeAable, we prefume not to offer advice ; but we
cannot help thinking, with Bifhop Berkeley, that the
rttoft fuccelsful miflionaries would be children of In¬
dians, educated in a confiderable number together from
the age of ten or twelve in a college de propaganda Jide,
where they fhould be in no danger of lofing their mo¬
ther-tongue while they were acquiring a competent
knowledge of religion, morality, hiftory, praAical ma-
?rofx>falf«rthematics, and agriculture. “ If there were a yearly
til better fuprfty (fays he) of a dozen fuch miflionaries lent abroad
^Cbur 'dl fr> into their refpeAive countries, after they had received
Mr Foreign the degree of mafter of arts, and been admitted into
J’lnntatio’ii, fioly orders, it is hardly to be doubted but that in a
&c* Httle time the world would fee good and great effeAsof
their million.”
2. Society in Scotland fir Propagating Chrijlian Know-
cieties.
5 ] S O C
ledge, was inftituted Jn the beginning of the prefent een« Tteliginut
tury. At that period the condition of the Scotch High-
landers was truly deplorable. Shut up in deiolate iflands
by tempeftuous feas, or difperfed over a wide extent of i
country, interfeAed by high mountains, rapid rivers,
and arms of the lea, without bridges or highways, by
winch any communication could be kept open either
with remote or neighbouring diftriAs, they lived in
fmall detached companies in hamlets or folitary huts.
Being thus fecluded from intercourfe with the more ci¬
vilized part of the ifland, they could not enjoy the ad¬
vantages of trade and manufaAures. As their foiI-wa»
barren and their climate fevere, in agriculture no pro¬
grefs was to be expeAed: and as they were acquainted
with no language but Gaelic, in which no books were
then written, to poffefs knowledge was impofiible. Their
parilhes being of great extent, often 30 or 40 miles
long and of a proportionable breadth, and fometimes
confiding of feveral iflands feparated by feas, which are
often rmpaffable, a confiderable number of the inhabi¬
tants was entirely deprived of religious inftruAion or
fell a prey to Popifh emiffaries. A tingle fchool in fuch
extenfive parifhes could be of little benefit; yet many
parifnes were entirely deilitute even of this refource :
and where fchools were eftabhfhed, the want of books
prevented them fiom producing the ufeful effeAs other-
wife to have been expeAed from them (a). To all
this we muft add, that they lived in a ftate of the great-
eft oppreffion ; For though the Highlands formed a
part ot the Britifh empire, the bleffings of the Britifti
conftitution had not reached them. The feudal fyftem
reigned in its utmoft rigour; the chieftains exercifing
the moft defpotic fway over the inferior Highlanders*
whom at their pleafure they deprived of then lives or
property ( B).
Thus the Highlanders were ignorant, oppreffed, and
uncivilized; Haves rather than fubjeAs ; and either en¬
tirely deftitute of the advantages of the Chriftian reli¬
gion, or unqualified to improve them. Hitherto they
had been unhappy and ufelefs to themfelves and danger¬
ous to the ftate ; for they were ready at the call of
their chieftains to iffue from their mountains, ami to
turn their arms againft their lawful king and his loyal
iubjeAs. This charaAer, however, arofe from their fi-
tuation. It was therefore impoffible for benevolent
minds to contemplate this unhappy fituation of their
country men without feeling a defire to raiie them to the
dignity of rational beings, and to render them ufeful as
citizens.
Accordingly, in the year 1701, fome private gentle¬
men or the city ot Edinburgh, who had formed them-
felves into a fociety for tire reformation of manners, di-
reAed their attention to the Highlands of Scotland*
and endeavoured to devife tome plan for alleviating the
diftreffes of the inhabitants. The remedy which pro-
mifed to he moft efficacious was, to eftabli U charity
fchools in different places. But as the exigency was
oreat it was no eaiy matter to raife a fufficient fund for
h this
(a) Even fo late a, the year .758, no fewer than >75 parKher, within the boon* of .,9
parochial fchool. We are ferry to add, that even in the prefent enlightened and benevolent age the complaint
is not entirely removed. i • •rj-jn* n,
(a) The feudal fyftem was at length abcliihed in the year 174^ by jurudiAion a At
S O C [579
Religion* this purpofe. They began therefore with what volun- tions
afaneSo- tary fuhfcnptions they could procure, hoping after-
cieties. wards to increafe their capital by vacant ftipends and
—' public contributions. A memorial with this view was
prefented to the General Affembly in 1704, which re¬
ceived their approbation ; and they accordingly paffed
an aft, recommending a general contribution. In 1706
the General Affembly appointed feme of their number
to inquire more carefully into the ftate of the High¬
lands, and the year following appointed a feleft com¬
mittee to confer with the gentlemen who had fuggefted
the plan. The refult oi thefe conferences was the pub¬
lication of propofals “ for propagating Chriftian know¬
ledge in the Highlands and iflands of Scotland, and in
foreign parts of the world.” Copies of thefe propo-
fals, with fublcription papers, were diftributed through
the kingdom; and the contributions having foon a-
mounted to L. 1000, her majefty Qjaeen Anne encou¬
raged this infant fociety by her royal proclamation, and
at the fame time iffued letters patent under the great
feal of Scotland for erefting certain of the fubferibers
into a corporation ; the firff nomination of whom was
lodged with the lords of council and felfion.
This corporation held its firft meeting on Thurfday
3d November 1 709. It was attended by feveral of the
nobility, fourteen ot the lords of feffion, many gentle¬
men of rank, together with moft of the minilters of the
city of Edinburgh and neighbourhood. A prefident,
fecretary, and treafurer, with a committee of fifteen di-
reftors, were appointed for the difpatch of bufmefs. At
their iecond meeting in January 1710, a fcheme of ma¬
nagement was formed and approved; in which it was
propofed, 1. To ereft and maintain fchools in fuch
places or Scotland, particularly in the Highlands and
inlands, as fhould be found to need them molt; in which
fchools all perfons whatfoever (hould be taught by fit
and well qualified fchoolmaffers, appointed by the fo-
cicty, to read the Holy Scriptures and other pious
boosts; as alio to write, and to underitand the common
rules of arithmetic, with fuch other things as ftould be
thought luitable to their circumltances. 2. That the
fchoolmalters fhould be particularly careful to inltruft
their fcholars in the principles of the Chriftian reform¬
ed religion ; and for that end fhould be obliged to cate-
chife them at leaf! twice a-week, and to pray publicly
with them twice a-day. 3. That not only fuch as were
unable to pay fhould be taught gratis, but that thofe
whole circumftances required it, Ihonld have fuch farther
encouragement as the faciety fhould think fit in a con-
filtency with their patent. 4. To name fome prudent
perfons, minilters and others, to be overfeers of thole
ichools, who fhould take care that the fchoolmalters do
their duty, and that the inltruftions to be given from
time to time by the fociety or their committee be punc¬
tually obferved ■; which overfeers fhould make their re¬
port to the fociety quarterly or half-yearly at fartheft.
5. To give fuitable Encouragement to fuch minifters or
catechitls as fhould be willing to contribute their aflilt-
ance towards the farther inftruftion of the fcholars
temote^ from church, by not only catechifing, but
preaching to them; which minifters or catechifts fhould
take the fame care of the other inhabitants as of
the fcholars. 6. 1 o extend their endeavours for the
advancement of the Chriftian religion to heathen na-
] s o c
; and for that end to give encouragement to mi-
nifters to preach the gofpel among them.
Having thus formed a plan, they immediately pro¬
ceeded to eftablifh fchools in the moft ufeful and eco¬
nomical manner ; and as the capital continued Jo accu¬
mulate, the intereft was faithfully applied, and the uti¬
lity of the inftitution was more extenffvely diffufed.
Until the year 1738 the attention of the fociety had
been wholly direfted to the eftablilhment of fchools ;
but their capital being then confiderably augmented,
they began to extend their views of utility much-farther.
The grand objeft of all public affociations ought cer¬
tainly to be the promoting of religion and morality. It
mutt, however, be evident to every man of refkftion, that
thefe can neither be propagated nor prelerved among a
people without agriculture, unaccuftomed to commerce
and manufaftures, and confequently without labour or
exertion. Languor and debility of mind muft always
be the companions of idlenefs. While the Highlanders
roved about with arms in their hands, the latent vigoiir
of their minds muft often have been called forth into ac¬
tion ; but when their arms were taken away, and
themfelves confined to a domeftic life, where there was
nothing to roufe their minds, they muft have funk into
indolence and inaftivity. All attempts therefore to in-
ftruft them in religion and morality, without introdu¬
cing among them fome of the neceffary arts of life,
would probably have been unavailing. The fociety ac¬
cordingly refolved to adopt what appeared to them the
moft efteftual methods of introducing induftry amon®'
the Highlanders. But as their patent did not extend
far enough, they applied to his majefty George II. for
an enlargement of their powers ; and accordingly ob¬
tained a fecond patent, by which they are empowered,
befides fulfilling the purpofes of their original patent,
to caufe fuch of the children as they fhalf think fit to
be bred to. hufbandry and houfewifery, to trades and
manufactures, or in fuch manual occupations as the fo«
ciety fhall think proper.”
i he objefts of this fecond patent the fociety have
not failed to purfue ; and though many obftacles and
diicouragements to their eftorts occurred among a rude
and barbarous people, yet their perfeverance, and the
oovious utility of their plansj at length fo far overcame
the reluftance of the inhabitants, that no lefs than 94
fchools of induftry in various parts of the Highlands and
iflands arc now upon their eftablifhment, at which arc
educated 2360 fcholars.
I he fociety, while anxioufly endeavouring to difliife
a fpint of induftry through the Highlands, were ftiil
equally fohatous to promote the knowledge of the
Chriftian religion. As the Englifh language had been
the only channel by which knowledge was conveyed to
them (a language which, being not ufed in converfa-
tion, was 111 all refpefts foreign to them), it was judged
lequiiitc chat they fhould have the Scriptures in their
vernacular tongue. ^ The fociety therefore firit appoint-
ed a tranflation of the New Teftament to be made in¬
to Gaelic : A tranflation was accordingly undertaken
by the Rev. Mr Stewart minifter of Killin in Perth-
ftnre, and printed in 1767, which is laid to be executed
with much fidelity. Of-this work many thoufand co¬
pies have been diftributed in the Highlands. The great¬
er part of the Old Teftament has alfo been tranilated
4 D 2 , jiy
s o c
Religious by the Rev. Dr Smith of Campbelton and others, but
and Hu- ch|efly by the Rev. Dr Stewart of Lufs, by the appoint-
^detlej0" 111601 311 d at the expence of the fociety : and as foon as
l. - ’ the remaining part can be got ready, the whole will be
fold at fo low a price as the poor may without difficul¬
ty afford. This, plan the fociety have judicioufly cho-
fen, in order to prevent difcontent and murmuring ; ef¬
fects which the diffufion of the-Scriptures ought never
to produce ; but which could not poflibly have been
prevented, had the diftribution been gratuitous, and of
courfe partial.
Forfome years pad the funds of the fociety have ra¬
pidly accumulated, from the very liberal donations of ie.
veraf individuals.
Dady Glenorchy - L. 5,000
By a perfon unknown - x 0,000
Lord Van Vryhouven of Hollarxl 20,000
Mifs Gray of TeafTes - 3>5od'
In confequence of thefe great additions to their flock,
hnfinuations have been thrown out that the fociety have
become fo wealthy as to be at a lofs for proper objects
on which to bellow their increafed revenue. 11 Inch
an opinion be ferwvjly entertained by any one, we mull
beg him to remember, that the fociety have eredled and
endued no lefs than 323 fchools for religion, the full
principles of literature and induftry, at the annual ex¬
pence of L. 3214, 10 s. Sterling ; and that at thefe fe-
minaries are educated from 14,000 to 15,000 chil¬
dren ; who, but for the means of inflrudtion thus ob¬
tained, would in all probability be bred up in ignorance
and idlenefs : That they Employ 12 miffionary minilters
and catechifts in remote parts of the Highlands and
illands, or among the ignorant Highlanders fettled in
the great’towns of Scotland, at the annual expence of
L. 296 : That they bellow a burfary or penfion of
L. 15 per annum on each of fix Undents of divinity ha¬
ving the Gaelic language : That they employ two mif-
fionary minifters and one fchoolmaller among the Onei¬
da and Stockbridge Indians of North America (being
the dellination of certain legacies bequeathed to them for
that purpofe), at the annual expence of L. 140. Such
is their fixed fcheme of annual expenditure, amounting in
all to L.3740, 10s. Sterling—a fum it will be acknow¬
ledged of veryconfiderable magnitude. The wholeof their
incidental expences arifing from the Gaelic tranflation
of the Scriptures of the Old Teftament; from annui¬
ties which they have to pay, in confequence of fums left
them as refiduary legatees ; from land and houfe-taxes ;
from enabling candidates for the office of fchoolmaller
to come to Edinburgh for examination ; from furnilhing
books to poor fcholars in their various fchools; and
from removing fchoolmafters from one llation to an¬
other, is generally about L. 875, which added to the
former fum makes the whole annual expence amount to
L. 4615, 10 s.
If it be inquired at what expence, in the management
of it, this extenfive and complicated charity is annually
neondudted, we are authorifed to fay, that the treafurer.
s o c ,
bookholder, and clerk, are allowed each L. 25 per an- Religious
nmn, the fame falaries which were annexed to thefe of- aiic*
fices Irom the commencement of the fociety. The
beadle or officer is allowed L. 12 per annum. No fa- > - t - /
lary whatever is enjoyed by any of the other officers of
the fociety. The fecretary, comptroller, accountant,
and librarian, although fubjefted, lome of them elpe-
cially, to no fmall expence of time and labour, have no
pecuniary recompenle or emolument. Theirs are la¬
bours of love, for which they leek and expedl no other
reward than the confcioufnefs of endeavouring to pro¬
mote the bell interells of mankind. The whole amount
of the expence of managing the bufinefs of the feciety,
including the above falaries, and coals, candle, llation-
ary ware, pollages, and other incidents, exceeds not at
an average L. 1 l 5 per annum. From this llatement it
appears, that hitherto at leafl the diredlors have been at
no lols for important objedls within the proper fpheie
of their inllitution on which to bellow their increaied
funds. They have, it is true, the difpofal of very con-
fiderable fums for promoting the obje&s of the inllitu¬
tion ; but they are fo far irom accumulating wealth,
that every year their expenditure, notwithllanding the
late increafe of their capital, exceeds rather than falls
Ihort of their income. They have depended upon a
kind Providence and a generous public to refund thefe
anticipations of their revenue, and hitherto they have
never been difappointed.
Thus has the Society forPropagating ChtillianKnow.
ledge proceeded for almoft a century. It was founded
by the pious exertions of a few private individuals,
whofe names are unknown to the world ; and its funds,
by faithful and judicious management, as well as by ge¬
nerous contributions, have now become of fuch magni¬
tude, as to excite the hope that they will be produdlive
of the moll valuable eftedts. The benefits arifing from
public focieties, it is well known, depend entirely upon
the management of their diredlors. If fo, the advanta¬
ges which have accrued from this fociety intitle it to
the praife and gratitude of the nation. While eager to
increale the number of fchools, the fociety have not
been inattentive to their profperrty. In the year X771
Mr Lewis Drummond, a gentleman in whom they pla¬
ced great confidence, was commiffioned by them to vifit
their fchools, and to make an exadt report of their Hate
and circumllances. Again, in the year 1790, a com-
miffion was granted to the Rev. Dr Kemp, one of the
minilters of Edinburgh and fecretary to the fociety, to
vifit all the fchools on their eitablilhfnent., This labo¬
rious and gratuitous talk he accomplilhed in the courfe.
of four fummers'with much ability and care, and highly
to the fatisfadlion of the fociety. At his return he com¬
municated a variety of important information refpedting
the Hate of the Highlands and illands, and the means
nectfiary for their improvement in religion, literature,
and indullry an abllradl of which was publilhed by the
fociety in appendixes to the anniverfary fermons preach¬
ed before them in the years 1789, 90, 91, and 92 (c).
The
[ 580 ]
(c) It is well known, that the number of Roman Catholics in the Highlands is confiderable ; but it mull
give much pleafure to the Protellant reader to be informed, that the ancient malignant fpirit of Popery has lit
that dillria given place to mildnefs and’liberality. This is chiefly owing to the gentleman who fuperintends the
priefts in that quarter, whofe mind is enlightened by fcience and learning, bo far from being hoitile to. the
views
s o c
ReLgiou* The following table will exhibit at a glance the funds,
Se So. and expenditure, of the fociety, from a
cieties. few years after commencement to the prefent time.
' 1 ~» \\ here the number of (cholars is not mentioned, the de-
fed may be fupplied by taking an average from thofe
years where a computation has been made. V/here the
capital is not mentioned, it may eafily be made out by
confidenng the falaries as the intereft.
f 581 3
s o c
A. I).
1-713
J719
1727
1732
1742
1753
1758
1781
!793
1794
Capital.
L.6,177
8,168
9>I3i
19,287
24,308
28,413
34,too
Salaries
3,080
Schools.
1 2
25
48
/8
IC9
128
x 52
176
l8o
3°7
323
Scholars.
2757
6409
7000
J2>9'3
I4>37°
^r,^nr°/ cIe^y havc annually received confiderable Religions
relief from this ufeful charity. and Hu.
4. Society for the Sons of the Clergy of the Eftahlijhed
Church oj Scotland, was inftituted at Edinburgh in Fe¬
bruary^ fjgo, and was conftituted a body corporate by
his majeil'y’s royal charter in 1792. The fociety, after
feveral meetings, are of opinion, that the period in
which the families of clergymen feel moll urgently the
need both of friends and of pecuniary aid, is that which
commences with the intrcdu&ion of the fans either to
an univerfity or to bufinefs, and terminates with their
eftablifhment in their refpeftive profeffions; that ma¬
ny" of the miniflers of this church, living eit great di-
ftances from the feats either of univerfities or of bufi¬
nefs, poffeis incomes which, in the prefent flate of the
country, are inadequate to the purpofes of procuring for
their fons cither the literary or profefiional education
which might enable them to come forward with credit
and fuccefs in the world; that the fons of clergymen,
from domeftic tuition and example, have in general very
advantageous means of receiving in their eaily y^ears the
imnreflinns nf virfiw* 4.   • / ^
ttv, . , , . impreiiions of virtue and honour, together with the ru¬
in u J tat?r n°tlCe °f the correfPcnd- diments of liberal knowledge ; and that of courfe the
thf v°ard which Wras eibbl'ft!e8 London fo early as public interefl may be promoted, by enabling this clafs
fums} ^ThTh’ H -TT fubfC1?r°nS .and lay OUt of yOUnS men to °btaJn their fhare in the reipctfable fi-
in b°aid m^eed remained long madtive ; but tuations of life. The views ef the fociet/have been
■tl7 • , Tbers.be?an ,to c°-operate more cordially limited to the fons only of clergymen • as thev a’-e of
w- h the,.- brethren rn Scotland Since that period an opinion, that within the limit, whth Ihet h,7e fixed
annual fermon has been preached m recommendation the field of beneficence will be Hill very c^tenfive and
of the chanty ; and the preacher is now felcded the claims for aid as many and as trrea as their fnTdi
whi M Td reRar‘ r t0 tht rc'1S10us denomination to can be fuppofed able to anfwer, at'lead for many years
ch he belongs ; fometrmes mom the church of Eng- to come. If the fociety (hall ever be in a fim
land, fometimes from the church of Scotland, and fame- undertake more than tiJaids which will be nertSir '
t.ines 10m ft Claries of different perfuafions/The meet- bringing forward the fons of the clergy, it may then b”
gs o the correfpondent board have been attended by confidered in what manner the daughters alft mav hZ
many. 0 tbe and gentry, who have made great come fliarers in its bounty. ‘J
exertions to promote the views of the fociety. From 5. Eoya/ Humane Society, was inflituted in T ondon
!:LS!fent fl!ounfhl,ng therefore, from the indefa- in 1774, for the recovery of perfons drowned or other-
wife fuffocated. We have already given fame account
ot Societies inftituted in other countries with the fame
views, and have alfo copied the diredions of this fociety
lor the recovery of life, for which fee the article
.Drowning. We have therefore only to Hate, that the-
plan of this fociety is fo adverfe to any private inte¬
rfiled views, that it acquits its founders of all fordid,
motives. I-or the medical pra&itioners accept no pe;
♦ f - , o itj iiuiii iiit. inc.cra-
ttgable exertion and laudable zeal of the managers, and
from the countenance and fupport which they have re¬
ceived from perfons of the firft rank and refpcaability
in the nation, the benevolent mind may look forward
with much confidence and fatisfa&ion to a period not
very diftant, when its beneficial effefts fball be felt nc t
only in the Highlands, but fhall be communicated to
the reft of the nation. We have been thus particular
FnowlXUrh0f thne S°cry ffPropagaungChriftian cuniary recompenfe for the\ime which t^^e^
Knowledge, becaufe we have had accefs to the moft a difficult and tedious procefs : for the anxietv wb,Vh
ht^h °Un-!S of info™at,on’ and becaufe we know they feel while the event is doubtful* for the mortifi
t to be an inflitution calculated to enlighten and im- cation which they too often undergo when •
provea confidcrable pnr. of the Britifl, nation. fpite of all their efforts, at lalt caari?s ^ his ply ’„‘ r
v ^tV ^0cieyrf the Sons of the Clergy was incorporated for the infults to which they willingly expofeythem
. by King Charles II. ,11 1678, by the name of The Go- felves from vulgar incredulity. Them foie reward isTn
vernors ofthe Chanty for Relief ofthe Poor IVidoavs and the holy joy of doing ^od ^Of an ^n^itutimTtffi^Q f
y » the direc- in its o&J front &Cption o? aldlLus ” ewS a"2
on and management of a prefident and vice-prefident, m its plan renouncing felf-intereft in every fliaoe’nhi
ree treafurers, and a court of affiftants compofed of lanthropy muft be the only bafis. The <^od intention
01 y members. Several hundreds of widows and chil- therefore of the fociety is proved by its* conftitution
the
views of the fociety, he recommended to his clergy to promote them. They accordinplv rereiWrl .
wit 1 much pohtenefs ; exhorted the people to lend their children to the Proteilant fchools to be inftrnft rK
terature, to be taught to read the Scriptures in their own language, and to be Se a^^ 111 \
pnueiples 01 religion m which all Chriftians are agreed. What a blcffed reformation ! q ‘ fe gre
s o c
C 582 1
s o c
Ke1ig:cu<i the Wlfdom and utility of the undertaking are proved
and Hu- {ts fuccefs : not lefs than 3000 fellow-creatures ha-
"ctetk^0* v*n3 fince *ts commencement been (1794) reftored to
the° community by its timely and indefatigable exer¬
tions. For it is to be obferved, that the benefit of this
fociety is by no means confined to the two cafes of
drowning and fufpenfion. Its timely fuccours have
roufed the lethargy of opium taken in immoderate and
repeated doles ; they have refcued the wretched viddims
ot intoxication ; rekindled the life extinguifhed by the
hidden tlroke of lightning ; recovered the apoplettic ;
rellored life to the infant that had loll it in the birth ;
they have proved efficacious in cafes of accidental fmo-
thering and of fuffocation by noxious damps ; in in-
ftances in which the tendernefs of the infant body or
the debility of old age greatly leflened the previous
probability of fuccefs; infomuch that no fpecies of
death feems to be placed beyond the reach of this fo-
ciety’s affifiance, where the mifchief had gone no far¬
ther than an obftru&ion of the movements of the animal
machine without any damage of the organs themfelves.
In confequence of every neceffary affifiance afforded by
this fociety, fimilar inftitutions have been eftablilhed at
Algiers, Lifoon, Philadelphia, Bofton, Jamaica, Dublin,
.Leith, Glafgow, Aberdeen, Birmingham, Gloucefier,
Bhroplhire, Northamptonfhire, Lancafter, Briftol, White¬
haven, Norwich, Exeter, Kent, and Newcaftle. J he
fociety has publiffied an 8vo volume with plates, confift-
ing of cafes, correfpondence, and a variety of intereft-
ing matter relating to the objedt of this benevolent infti-
tution.
6. ‘The Philanthropic Society, was inftituted in Sep¬
tember 1788. It aims at the prevention of crimes, by
removing out of the way of evil counfel, and evil com¬
pany, thofe children who are, in the prelent ftate of
things, deftined to ruin. It propofes to educate
and inftruft in feme ufeful trade or occupation the chil¬
dren of convidfs or other infant poor who are engaged
in vagrant or criminal courfes; thus to break the chain
of tbofe pernicious confederacies, deprive the wicked of
fucceffors, the gaols of inhabitants, juft ice of its vidtiras,
and by all thefe means add citizens to fociety. This
inftitution is not only calculated to decreafe vice and
infamy, but to increafe ufeful induftry ; fo that thofe
children who would otherwife fucceed to their parents
hereditary crimes, and become the next race of beggars
aed thieves, will now be taught to fupply by honelt
means their own wants and the wants of others.
To carry into effedl thefe defirable purpofes, it is the
firft bufinefs ef the fociety to feledt from prifons, and
from the haunts of vice, profligacy, and beggary, inch
objedts as appear moft likely to become obnoxious to
the law's, or prejudicial to the community ; and, in the
execution of this duty, the affifiance of the magiftrates,
the clergy, and all who are interefted in the promotion
©f good morals and good government, is moft ear neilly
requefted. For the employment of the children, feveral
hordes are fupported, at Cambridge Heath, near Hack¬
ney, in each of which a mafter-workman is placed for
the purpofe of teaching the children feme ufeful trade.
The trades already eftablifhed are thofe of a printer,
carpenter, fhoemaker, and taylor. The girls are at pre-
fent educated as menial fervants.
In the year 1791 no lefs than 70 children were un¬
der the proteftion of this fociety, among whom were ma- Sociedesfor
ny who have been guilty of various felonies, burglaries,
and other crimes. Yet, fingular as it may appear, inxj^ature
lefs than two years thofe very children became no lefs re- - t - - <
markable for induftry, activity, decency, and obedience,
than they formerly were for the contrary vices. Such
are the grounds on which the Philanthropic Society-
now claims the attention and folicits the patronage of
the public. If we regard humanity and religion, this
inftitution opens an afylum to the moft forlorn and ab¬
ject of the human race ; it befriends the moft friend-
lefs ; it faves from the certain and fatal confequences of
infamy ard vicious courfes orphans and deferted chil¬
dren. If w'e regard national profperity and the public
welfare, it is calculated to increafe induftry ; and it di¬
rects that induftry into the-moft ufeful and neceffary
channels. If we regard felf-intereft, its immediate objeft
is to protect our perfons from affault and murder, our
property from depredation, and our peaceful habitations
from the defperate fury of midnight incendiaries.
One guinea per annum conftitutes a member of the
fociety ; and L. 10 at one payment a member for life.
A life-fubfeription, or an annual payment of at leaft two
guineas, is a neceffary qualification for being elected in¬
to the committee.
II. Societies for Promoting Science and Li¬
terature.
1. The Royal Society of London is an academy or body
of perfons of eminent learning, inftituted by Charles II.
for the promoting of natural knowledge. The origifi
of this fociety is traced by Dr Sprat, its earlieft hifto-
rian, no farther back than to “ fome fpace after the end
of the civil wars” in the laft century. The feene of the
firft meetings of the learned men who laid the founda¬
tion of it, is by him fixed in the univerfity of Oxford at
the lodgings of Dr Wilkins warden of Wadham col¬
lege. But Dr Birch, on the authority of Dr Wallis,
one of its earlieft and moil confiderable members, af-
figns it an earlier origin, According to him, certain
worthy perfons, refiding’in London about the year
1645, being “ inquifitive into natural and the new and
experimental philofophy, agreed to meet weekly on a
certain day, to difeourfe upon fuch fubjefts, and were
known .by the title of The Invi/ible or Philofophical Col¬
lege.” In the years 1648 and 1649, the company who
formed thefe meetings were divided, part retiring to Ox¬
ford and part remaining in London ; but they conti¬
nued the fame purfuits as when united, correfponding
with each other, and giving a mutual account of their
refpedtive difeoveries. About the year 1659 the great¬
er part of the Oxford fociety returned to London, and
again uniting with their fellow-labourers, met once, if
not twice, a-week at Grefham college, during term
time, till they were fcattered by the public diflraftions
of that year, and the place of their meeting made a
quaiter for foldiers. On the reftoration 1660 their
meetings were revived, and attended by a greater con-
courfe" of men eminent for their rank and learning.
They were at laft taken notice of by the king, who
having himlelf a confiderable tafte for phyfical fcience,
was pleafed to grant them an ample charter, dated the
1 cth of July 1662, and afterwards a fecund dated 15th
April 1763, by which they were erected into a corpo¬
ration)
s o a
5ac'et!fsfoi'ration, confifiingof aprefident, council, and fellow,, for
~!d?romoUngn^ knowledge ; and to give their invefti-
J^iterature. g^tions, again ft which ftrange prejudices were entertain-
eyfcry peffible fupport, he fometimes honoured their
meetings with his prefenoe.
[ 58.1 1
s 0 c
Their council are in number 2r, including the prefi
p11*"’ yice_Prehdent, trealurer, and two fecretaries ; 11
of which are continued for the next year, and 10 more
added to them ; all chofen on St •• ndrew’s day. Each
member at his admiflion fubfcribes an engagement that
he will endeavour to promote the good of the fociety ;
irom which he may be freed at any time, bv bonifying
to the prefident that he defires to withdraw. The
Charges have been different at different times, and were
at nr ft irregularly paid ; but they are now five .guineas
paid to the treafurer at admiffion ; and 13 s. per quar-
ter fo long as the perfon continues a member: or, in
heu of the annual fubfcription, a compofitiou of 2 $ gui¬
neas m one payment ^
Iheir deiign is, to “ make faithful records of all the
works of nature or art which come within their reach;
io that the prefect as well as future ages may be enabled
to put a mark on errors which have" been ilrengthened
by ong orefcription ; to reftore truths that have been
neglected ; to pufii thofe already known to more va¬
rious life*; to make the way more paffable to what re¬
mains unrevealed,” &c. T0 this purpofe they have
made a great number of experiments and obfervations
011 moft of the works of nature.; and alfo numbers of
ihort hiltones of nature, arts, manufaaur'es, ufeful en¬
gines, contrivances, &c. I’he iervices which they have
rendered to the public are very grCat. Hiey have im¬
proved naval, e vil, and military architefture ; advanced
the. lecunty and perteftion of navigation ; imurovrd
agriculture ; and put not only this kingdom, but alfo
Ireland, the plantations See, upon planting. They
have reg ftered experiments, hiftories, relations, obfer¬
vations, See. and reduced them into one common itock;
and have, mom tune to time, publiftied thofe w hich they
reckoned moft uk-ffil, under the title of Philofoph'ical
j ranfaSionS) Sec. and laid the '-eft up in public regifters,
to be nakedly tranfmitted to pofterity, as a folid o round-
work for future fyftems.
They have a library adapted to their inftitution ; to¬
wards which Mr Henry Howard, afterwards duke of
loeiety was cftabhftied in Edinburgh by the learned doeien’eMof
Ruddiman and others, which in 1731 was fucceeded by iir.omotip?
a fociety inftituted for the improvement ef medical
knowledge. . In the year 1739 the celebrated Mac- e — ’f
laurin conceived the idea of enlarging the plan of this
lOPIPtv. Kxr pvftf- 4-r*. E.»H! .JTL. f* 1 <* 1 t
ne,V manner of deft™* fellows ia by baUoflng. SS
iur council are m number 2 r, includinir the prefi. literature.  j.1 ^ ^
literature. The inftitution was accordingly ^new-mo-
cielled by a printed fet of laws and regulations, the
number of members was increafed, and they were di«
ftinguiflied from that time by the title of 7he Society for
Improving Arts and Sciences, or more generally by the
title of The Philofophical Society of Edinburgh. Its
meetings, however, were foon interrupted by the difor-
ders of the country during the rebellion in 17,5 ; and
they were not renewed till the year 1752. Soon after
this period the firft volume of the Tranfa&ions of the
Philofophical Society of Edinburgh was publiftied, un¬
der the title ot Ir/fays and Obfe’ vations, Phyficat and Ei-
terary, and was followed by'other volumes of acknow¬
ledged merit. About the end of the year i-82, in a
meeting of the profeffors of the univerfity ol Edinburgh^
many of whom warne like wife members of the Philofo¬
phical Society, and warmly attached to its interefts, 3
fcheme vas propofed by the Rev. Dr Robertfon, pHn-
cipft of the univerfity, for the eftahliftrment of a new
lociety on a more extended plan, and after the model of
fome of the foreign academies. It appeared ah expe¬
dient meafure to folicit the royral patronage to an infti¬
tution of this nature, which promifed to" be of nation¬
al importance, and to requeft an eftablifhment by char¬
ter from the crown. The plan was approved and a-
dopted ; and the Ph lofophical Society, joining its in¬
fluence as a body in feconding the application from the
univerfity, his majefty, as we have already obferved,
was moft gracioufly pleafed to incorporate The Royal
Society of Edinburgh by charter.
I his fociety conhfts of ordinary and honorary mem¬
bers ; and the honorary places are reftridted to per-
fons refiding out of Great Britain and Ireland. The
eleAion of new members is appointed to be made at
two ftated general meetings, which are to be held on
the fourth Monday of January and the fourth Mon¬
day of June. A candidate for the place of an ordi¬
nary member muft fignify by a letter, addreffed to one
of the members, his wilh to be received into the fo¬
ciety. He muft then be publicly propofed at leaft a
great rep„Gt„ry. .ITre.r motto Is ^ and meetmg confining of at leal tt memb^T The ’gine
their place of affembling is Somerfet-houfe in the Strand.
Sir Godfrey Copley, baronet, left five guineas to be
given annually to the perfon who ffiould write the beft
paper in the year, under the head of experimental phi
lofophy. This reward, which is now" changed to a
gold medal, is the hightft honour the fociety can be-
itow. It is conferred on St Andrew’s day.
2. The Roy at Society of Edinburgh, was incorporated
by royal charter on the 29th of March 783, and has
for its objedt the cultivation of every branch of fcience,
erudition, and tafte. Its rife and progrefs towards its
ral bufinefs of the fociety is managed by a prefident
two vice-prcfidents, with a council of 12, a general fe!
cretary, and a treafurer. Thefe officers are chofen by
ballot annually on the laft Monday of November. All
public deeds, whether of a civil or of a literary nature
are tranfadted by this board, and proceed in the name
of the prefident or vice prefideiit.
As it was thought that the members would have a
greater inducement to pun&ual attendance on the meet¬
ings of the fociety, if they had fome general intimation
of the nature of the fubjedfs which were to be confi-
prefeDt flaw was as follows: In the year 1718a literary Led, aad LpCf it wi the"e
^ for
S O C r 584 1 s o c
Societies for fore rcfolved to divide the fociety into two claffes,
lR' 111 •' £, which fliould meet and deliberate feparately. One of
literature thefe claffes is denominated the Phyfical Clafs, and has
i for its department the fciences of mathematics, natural
philofophy, chemiftry, medicine, natural hiftory, and
whatever relates to the improvement ot arts and manu¬
factures. The other is denominated the Literary Clafsy
and has for its department literature, philology, hiftory,
antiquities, and fpeculative philofophy. Every member
is defined at his admiffion to intimate which of thofe
clafles he wilhes to be more particularly affociated with;
but he is at the fame time intitled to attend the meet¬
ings, of the other clafs, and to take part in all its pro¬
ceedings. Each of the claffes has four prefidents and
two fecretaries, who officiate by turns. The meetings
of the phyfical clafs are held on the firft Mondays of
January, February, March, April, July, Auguft, No¬
vember, and December; and the meetings of the Lite¬
rary clafs are held on the third Mondays of January,
February, March, April, June, July, November, and
December, at 7 o’clock afternoon.
At thefe meetings the written eftays and obferva-
tions of the members of the fociety, or their corre-
fpondents, are read publicly, and become the fubjeCts
of converfation. The fubjects of thele eftays and ob-
fervations are announced at a previous meeting, in or¬
der to engage the attendance of thofe members who
may be particularly interefted in them. The author of
each diflertation is likewife defired to furnifh the fociety
with an abftraft of it, to be read at the next enfuing
meeting, when the converfation is renewed with incrca-
fed advantage, from the knowledge previoufty acquired
of the fubjeft. At the fame meetings are exhibited
fuch fpecimens of natural or artificial curiolkies, fuch
remains of antiquity, and fuch experiments, as are
thought worthy of the attention of the fociety. All
obje&s of natural hiftory prefented to the fociety, are
ordered by the charter of the inftitution to be depo-
fited, on receipt, in the mufeum of the univerfity of E-
dinburgh; and aft. remains of antiquity, public records,
or ancient manufcripts, in the library belonging to the
faculty of advocates at Edinburgh.
The ordinary members, whofe ufual refidence is in
ike city of Edinburgh or its immediate neighbourhood,
are expe&ed to attend regularly the monthly meetings ;
and are required to defray, by an annual contribution,
the current expences of the inftitution. The members
who refide at fuch a diftance from Edinburgh, that
they cannot enjoy the advantages arifing from a regular
attendance on the meetings of the fociety, are not fub-
jefted to any contribution for defraying its expences,
but have a right to attend thofe meetings when occa-
fionally it) Edinburgh, and to take part in all their pro¬
ceedings.
Three volumes of the Tranfaftions of the fociety have
been publiffied, which hear ample teftimony to the learn¬
ing and acutenefs of their various authors.
• 3. Medical Society of London, inftituted in the year
1752, on the plan recommended by Lord Bacon (De
Jugm. Scient. lib. iv. cap. 2.), to revive the Elippocra-
tic method of compofing narratives of particular cafes,
in which the nature of the difeafe, the manner of treat¬
ing it, and the confequences, are to be fpecified; to at¬
tempt the cure of thofe difeafes which, in his opinion,
have been too boldly pronounced incurable; and, laft-
ly, to extend their inquiries after the powers of par- Societicsfor
ticular medicines in the cure of particular cafes ; the li>romotlp?
colleftions of this fociety have been already publilhed, Literature,
under the title of Medical Obfewations and Inquiries, ' — — t
in feveral volumes.
4. The Medical Secietv of Edinburgh was incorporated
by royal charter in 1778 ; but there appears to have
been in that city a yoluntary aflbeiation of the fame
name from the firft eftablifhment of a regular fchool of
ph.yfic in the univerfity. To the voluntary fociety the
public is indebted for fix volumes of curious and ufe«
ful eflays, colledfted principally by the late Dr Monro
from June 1731 to June 173b; but in the year 1739
that fociety was united to another, as we have already
obferved in a former article. The ordinary mem¬
bers of the prefent medical fociety are elected by bal¬
lot, and three diffentient exclude a candidate ; an or¬
dinary member may alfo be ele&ed an honorary mem¬
ber, enjoys the privileges of the others, and re¬
ceives a diploma, but is freed from the obligation of at¬
tendance, delivering papers in rotation, &c. to which
the ordinary members are fubjedh ; but in this cafe the
votes mull be unanimous. The meetings of this fociety
are held every Saturday evening in their own hall, du¬
ring the winter feafon, when papers on medical fubjedta
are delivered by the feveral members in rotation ; and
four of thefe are annually elefted to fill the chair in ro¬
tation, with the title of annual prefidents.
5. The Royal Medical Society of Paris was inftituted in
1776. The members are divided into aflbeiates ordi¬
nary, limited to 30, honorary to 12, extraordinary to
fio, and foreign to 60, and correfpondents. This fociety
has publifhed feveral volumes of Memoirs in qto.
6. AJiatic Society, an inftitution planned by the late
illuftrious Sir William Jones, and aftually formed at
Calcutta on the 15th of January 1784, for the purpofe
of tracing the hiftory, antiquities, arts, fciences, and li¬
terature, of the immenfe continent of Alia. As it was
refolved to follow as nearly as poffible the plan of the
Royal Society of London, o! which the king is pa¬
tron, the patronage of the Afiatic Society was offered
to the governor-general and council, as the executive
power in the territories of the company. By their ac¬
ceptance of this offer, Mr Haftings, as governor-gene¬
ral, appeared among the patrons of the new fociety ;
“ but he feemed in his private ftation as the firft liberal
promoter of ufeful knowledge in Bengal, and efpecially
as the great encourager of Perfian and Shanfcrit litera¬
ture, to deferve a particular mark of diftindfion he
wasrequefted, therefore, to accept the honoraiy title of
prefident. This was handfomely declined in a letter
from Mr Haftings, in which he requefted “to yield in’s
pretenfions to the gentleman whofe genius planned the
inftitution, and was moft capable of conducting it to the
attainment of the great and iplendid purpofes of its for¬
mation.” On the receipt of this letter, Sir William
Jones was nominated prefident of the fociety ; and we
cannot give the reader a view of the objeCt of the infti¬
tution in clearer language than that which he employed
in his firft difeourfe from the chair.
« It is your defign, I conceive (faid the prefident),
to take an ample fpace for your learned inveftigations,
bounding them only by the geographical limits of /\fia;
fo that, confidering Hindoftati as a centre, and turning
your eyes in idea to the ftorth, you have on your right
3 many
; s ° ,c . t 58.?
f-nrietieff if many'important kingdoms in the eailern peninfula, the
Pivmicting anc}ent and wonderful empire of China with all her Tar-
i!iterature. tarian dependencies, and that of Japan, with the clufter
/ of precious iflands, in w'hich many lingular curiolities
have too long been concealed: before you lies that pro¬
digious' chain of mountains, which formerly perhaps
were a barrier againft the violence of the fea, and be¬
yond them the very interefting country of Tibet, and
the vail regions of Tartary, from which, as from the
Trojan horfe of the poets, have iffued fo many confum-
mate warriors, whofe domain has extended at lead from
the banks of the Ilylfus to the mouths of the Ganges :
on your lelt are the beautiful and celebrated provinces
of Tran or Perfia, the unmeafured and perhaps unmea-
furable deferts of Arabia, and the once flourilhing king¬
dom of Yemen, with the pleafant ides that the Arabs
have fubdued or colonized ; and farther weftward, the
Afiatic dominions of the Turk'ilh fultans, whofe moon
feems approaching rapidly to its wane. By this great
circumference the field of your ufeful refearches will be
inclofed ; but fince Egypt had unqueftionably an old
conneftion with this country, if not with China, fince
the language and literature of the y^byffinians bear a
manifeft affinity to thofe of Afia, lince the Arabian
arms prevailed along the African coaft of the Mediter¬
ranean, and even eredled a powerful dynafty on the
- continent of Europe, you may not be difpleafed oeca-
fionally to follow the dreams of Afiatic learning a little
beyond its natural boundary ; and, if it be neceffary or
]
s o c
lies; their fydem^ of morality, grammar, rhetoric, and^cietiesfor
dialectic; their /kill in chirurgery and medicine ; and £3r-'',!110firifr
their advancement, whatever it maybe, in anatdmy
chemidry. To this you will add refearches into their ‘ i
agriculture, manufa&ures, trade ; and whild you in¬
quire with pleafure into their mufic, archite&ure, paint¬
ing, and poetry, will not negleft thofe inferior arts by
which the comforts and even elegancies of focial life are
fupplied or improved. You may obferve, that I have
omitted their languages, the diverfity and difficulty of
which are a fad obdacle to the progrefs of ufeful know¬
ledge ; but I have ever confidered languages «s the
mere indruments of real learning, and think them im¬
properly confounded with learning itfelf: the attain¬
ment of them is, however, indifpenfably neceffary ; and
if to the Perlian, Armenian, Turkilh, and Arabic, could
be added not only the Shanfcrit, the treafures of which
we may now hope to fee unlocked, but even the Chi-
nefe, Tartarian, Japanefe, and the various infular dia-
lefts, an immenfe mine would then be open, in which
we might labour with equal delight and advantage^
Of this fociety three volumes of the Tranfa&ions
have been publiffied, which are replete with informa¬
tion in a high degree curious and important; and we
hope that the European world fhall foon be favoured
with another. The much-to be lamented death of the
accomplilhed prefident may indeed damp the fpirit of
inveftigation among the members ; for to conquer diffi¬
culties fo great as they muft meet with, a portion feems
. , ' *11. J 1. vYiiiij a puruon icems
convenient that a fhort name or epithet be given to our . to be neceffary of that enthufiafm which accompanied
fociety, in order s ffiftinguiffi it in the world, that of all the purfuits of Sir William Jones; but his fuccefibr
Jfiatic appears both claffical and proper, whether we
confider the place or the objeft of the inftitution, and
preferable to Oriental, which is in truth a word merely
relative, and though commonly ufed in Europe, con¬
veys no very diftinbt idea.
“ If now it be alked, What arc the intended obje&s
of our inquiries within thefe fpacious limits? we anfwer,
Man and Nature; whatever is performed by the one
or produced by the other. Human knowledge has been
elegantly analyfed according to the three great faciities
of the mind, memory, reafon, and imagination, which we
xxinflantly find employed in arranging and retaining,
comparing and diftinguilhing, combining and diverfify-
ing, the ideas, which we receive through our fenfes, or
acquire by reflexion : hence the three main branches of
learning are, hijlory, faience, and art; the firlt compre¬
hends either an account of natural produftions, or the
genuine records of empires and dates ; the fecond em¬
braces the whole circle of pure and mixed mathematics,
together with ethics and law, as far as they depend on
the reafoning faculty ; and the third includes all the
beauties of imagery and the charms of invention, dif-
played in modulated language, or reprefented by colour,
figure, or found.
“ Agreeably to this analyfis, you will inveftigate
whatever is rare in the llupendoiis fabric of nature, Will
correft the geography of Afia by new obfervations and
difcoveries; will trace the annals and even traditions of
thole nations who from time to time have peopled or
defolated it ; and will bring to light their various forms
■ofgovernment, with their inttitutions civil and religious;
you will examine their improvements and methods in
arithmetic and geometry j in trigonometry, menfura-
teon, mechanics, optics, aftronomy, and general phy.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
is a man of great worth and learning, and we trull will
ufe his utmoll endeavours to have the plan completed of
which Sir William gave the outlines.
5. The American Philofophical Society, held at Phila¬
delphia, was formed in January 1769' by the union of
two focieties which had formerly fubfifled in that city.
This fociety extends its attention to geography, ma¬
thematics, natural philofophy, and aftronomy ; medi¬
cine and anatomy; natural hiftory and chemiftry; trade
and commerce ; mechanics and architecture ; hufbandry
and American improvements. Its officers are a patron,
prefident, three vice-prefidents, one treafurer, four fe-
cretaries, and three curators, who are annually chofen
by ballot. The duty of the prefident, vice-prefidents,
treafurer, and fecretaries, is the fame as in other focie-
ties. The bufinefs of the curators is to take the charge
of all fpecimens of natural produftions, whether of the
animal, vegetable, or foffil kingdom ; all models of
machines and inftruments ; and all other matters be¬
longing to the fociety which fhall be intrufted to them.
The ordinary meetings are held on the firft and third
Fridays of every month from Odober to May incluiive.
This fociety was incorporated by charter 15th March
1780 ; and has publifhed three volumes of its Tranfac-
tions, containing many, ingenious papers on general li-
teiature and the fciencCs, as well as refpefting thofe
fubie&s peculiar to America. It is‘«a delightful prof-
ped to the philofopher to confider, that Afia, Europe,
and America, though far feparated and divided into a’
variety of political Hates, are all three combined to
promote the caufe of knowledge and truth.
6. A Literary and PhUofaphical Society of cofidcrable
reputation has been lately eftahlifhed at Manchefter,
undei the diredion of two prefidents, four vice-prefi-
4 E dents.
/
~s o
Societiesfor ^ents, and two fecretaries
^romotine t0 . ’Def!C]es whom there are feveral honorary
Sc!ence and - .. - .    -'
Literature.1 rntm^ers» a'^ whom are elefted by ballot ; and the
* t- ofificcrs are chofen annually in April. Four volumes of
valuable effays have been already publiflied by this fociety.
y, Society for Promoting the Dfcovery of the Interior
Parts of Africa. This fociety or afibciation for explo¬
ring the internal diitrifts of Africa, of which fo little is
at prefent known, was formed in London by fome opu¬
lent individuals in 1788 ; who, ftrongly imprefTed with
a conviftion of the prafticability and utility of thus en¬
larging the fund of human knowledge, determined if
poffible to refeue the age from that ftigma which at¬
taches to its ignorance of fo large and fo near a portion
of the globe. The founders of this fociety refolded to
admit no man a member for a fhorter period than three
years, during which he muft pay annually into the
public fund five guineas. After three years, any mem¬
ber, upon giving a year’s notice, may withdraw himftlf
from the affociation. During the firil 1 2 months each
of the members was allowed to recommend for the ap¬
probation of the fociety fuch of his friends as he might
think proper to be admitted into it ; but fince that pe¬
riod we believe all additional members have been elefted
by a ballot of the aflbeiation at large. A committee
was chofen by ballot to manage the funds of the fociety',
to choofc proper perfons to be fent on the difeovery of
the interior parts of Africa, and to carry on the focie-
ty’s correfpondence, with exprefs injunftions to difclofe
no intelligence received from their-agents but to the fo¬
ciety at large. But a fuller account of the nature of
this eftablifhment, and the very happy efforts they have
made, may be feen in the fuperb edition of their pro¬
ceedings printed in 1790, 4to, for their own ufe ; or in
the 8vo edition fince made public. They foon found
two gentleman, Mr Lucas and Mr Ledyard, who were
iingularly well qualified for the important million. The
information thev have acquired will be found in {he
above work ; with a new map by Mr Rennel, exhibit¬
ing the geographical knowledge collefted by the Afri¬
can affociation. Mr Ledyard very unfortunately died
during his refearches at Cairo.
8. The Society of Antiquaries of London, was founded
about the year 1572 by Archbifhop Parker, a munifi¬
cent patron of learned men. For the fpace of 20 years
it afiembled in the houfe of Sir Robert Cotton ; in
1589 they refolved to apply to Qrieen Elizabeth for a
charter and a public building where they might hold
their meetings ; but it is uncertain whether any fuch
application was ever made. In the mean time, the re¬
putation of the fociety gradually increafed, and at length
it excited the jealoufy of James I. who was afraid left
it fhould prefume to canvafs the fecret tranfaftions of
his government. Me accordingly diffolved it. But in
the beginaing of the prefent century, the Antiquarian
Society began to revive ; and a number of gentlemen,
eminent for their affeftion to this fcience, had weekly
meetings, in which they examined the antiquities and
hiftory of Great Britain preceding the reign of James I.
but without excluding any other remarkable antiquities
that might be offered to them. From this time the
fociety grew in importance ; and in 1 750 they unani-
moufly refolved to petition the king for a charter ot in¬
corporation. This they obtained the year following, by
c [ 586 ] s o c
The number of members is the influence of the celebrated earl of Hardwicke, then Societies fop
lord-chancellor, and Martin Folk.es,' Efq; who was then Promoting
their prefident. The king declared himfelf their foun-
der and patron, and empowered them to have a body of g1 ^ ^iurey
ftatutes, and a common feal, and to hold in perpetuity
lands, &c. to the yearly value of L. loco.
The chief objeft of the inquiries and refearches of
the fociety are Britifli antiquities and hiftory ; not,
however, wholly excluding thofe of other countries. It
muft be acknowledged, that the ftudy of antiquity of¬
fers to the curious and inquilitive a large field for re-
fearch and amufement. The inquirer in this branch
furnifhes the hiftorian with his heft materials, while he
diftinguifhes from truth the fiftions of a bold invention,
and aieertains the credibility of fafts; and to the philo-
fopher he prefents a fruitful fqurce of ingenious fpecu-
lation, while he points out to him the way of thinking,
and tire manners of men, under all the varieties of afpeft
in which they have appeared.
An antiquarian ought to be a man offolid judgment,
poflefled of learning and fcience, that he may not be an
enthufiaftic admirer of every thing that is ancient mere¬
ly becaufe it is ancient; but* be qualified to diftinguifh
between thofe refearches which are valuable and impor¬
tant, and thofe which are trifling and ufelefs. It is from
the want of thefe qualifications that fome men have con-
trafted fuch a blind pafiion for every thing that is an¬
cient, that they have expofed themfelves to ridicule,
and their ftudy to contempt. But if a regard to utili¬
ty were always to regulate the purfuits of the antiqua¬
rian, the fhafts of fat ire would no longer be levelled at
him; but he would be refpefted as the man who labours
to reftore or to preferve fuch ancient produftions as are
luited to illuminate religion, philofophy, and hiftory, or
to improve the arts of life.
We by no means intend to apply thefe obfervationa
to any particular fociety of antiquarians ; but we throw
them out, becaufe we know that an afliduous ftudy o£
antiquity is.apt, like the ardent purfuit of money, to
lofe fight of its original objeft, and to degenerate into a
paftlon which miftakes the mean for the end, and con-
liders poffdEon without a regard to utility as enjoy¬
ment.
An aflbeiation fimilar to that of the Antiquarian So¬
ciety of London was founded in Edinburgh in 1780,
and received the royal charter in 1783.
Befides thefe literary focieties here mentioned, there
are a great number more in different parts of Europe,
fome of which are noticed under the article Academy,
Thofe which are omitted are not omitted on account
of any idea of their inferior importance ; but either be¬
caufe we have had no accefs to authentic information,
or becaufe they refemble the focieties already deferibed
fo clofely, that we could have gi ven nothing but their
names.
III. Societies for Encouraging and Promoting
Arts, Manufactures, otV.
I. London Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Mi-
nufailures, and Commerce, was inftituted in the year
1754 by Lord Folkftone, Lord Romney, Dr Stephen
Hales, and a few private gentlemen ; but the merit of
this inltitution chiefly belonged to Mr William Shipley,
5 '“a
s o c
•Sorfetfeof'E* an ingenious mechanic ; T\ ho, thougli dsrivitig no ad-
i:Pcoutl' vantages from learning, by unwearied perfonat attend-
pSoting ®nce found means to engage a few perfons of rank and
Arc, Ma- fortune to meet at reek’s cofFeehoufe in Fketllrect,
nufafcures, and to adopt a plan for promoting arts and manufac*
&c- tures.
[ 5S7 1
S o C
No perfon (hail twcire any premium, bounty, or eneou. Sodetle, Cat
rageraent, from the fociety for any matter for which Encoura-
he has obtained or propofes to obtain a patent. No gin* anJ
I he office-bearers of this fociety are a prefident, 12
vice-prefidents, a iecretary, and regifter. Their pro¬
ceedings are regulated by a body of rules and ciders
eltablifhed by the whole fociety, and printed for the ufe
of the member?. All queftions and debates are determi¬
ned by the holding up of hands, or by ballot if required}
and no matter can be confirmed without the aflent of a
majority at two meetings. They invite all the world
to propofe fubjefts for encouragement ; and whatever is
deemed deferving attention, is referred to the confidera-
tion of a committee, which, after due inquiry and de¬
liberation^ make their report to the whole fociety,
where it is approved, reje&ed, or altered* - A lift is
printed and publifhed every year of the matters for
which they propofe to give premiums ; which premiums
are either fums of money, and thofe fometimes very
confiderable ones; or the fociety’s medal in gold or fi¬
ver, which they conffder as the greateft honour they
can bellow. All poflible care is taken to prevent par¬
tiality in the diftribution of their premiums, by defiring
the claimants names to be concealed, and by appoint
mg committees (who when they find occafion call to
their afliftance the mott fkilful artifts) for the ftrift ex¬
amination of the real merit of all matters and things
brought beiore them, in confequence of their pre¬
miums. , r
The chief objea* of the attention of the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, Manufa&ures, and Com-
merce, in the application of their rewards, are ingenuity
in the feveral branches of the polite and liberal arts,
uieful difeovenes and improvements in agriculture, ma-
nufactures, mechanics, and chemiftry, or the laying open
o. any fuch to the public; and, in general, all fuch ufe-
ful inventions, difeoveries, or improvements (though not
mentioned in the book of premiums), as may appear to
nave a tendency to the advantage of trade and com¬
merce.
The following are fome of the moft important regu¬
lations of this fociety. ft is required that the matters
for which premiums are offered be delivered in without
names, or any intimation to whom they belong • that
each particular thing be marked in what manner each
claimant thinks fit, fuch claimant fendino- with it a pa-
per fealed up, having on the outfide a'corresponding
mai k, and on the iniide the claimant’s name and ad-
orefs ; and all candidates are to take notice, that no
claim for a premium will be attended to, unlefs the con¬
ditions of the advertifement are fully complied with.
No papers fhall be opened but fuch as fhall gain pre¬
miums, unlefs where it appears to the fociety abfolute-
ly neceffary for the determination of the claim : all the
reft fhall be returned unopened, with the matters to
which they belong, if inquired after by the marks with*
In nT ,aftCr whlch lime’ n°t demanded, they
ihall be pubhcly burnt unopened at fome meeting of the
fociety. All the premiums of this fociety are defigned
for that part of Great Britain called England, the do-
T™°n, °f 1V7Ies’ a"dT the town of Berwick upon
1 weed, unlefs exprefsly mentioned to the contrary.
member of this fociety fhall be a candidate for or in- ITS
titled to receive any premium, bounty, or reward what- nufa<W,
foever, except the honorary medal of the fociety. &c-
1 he refpeftability of the members who compofe it'
may be feen by perufmg the lift which generally accom¬
panies their Franfaftions. In the laft volume (vol. xii )
it occupies no lei's than 43 pages. Some idea may be
.ornied of the wealth of this fociety, by obferving that
the hit of their premiums fills 96 pages, and amounts to
250 m number. 1 hefe confift of gold medals worth from
3° to 50, and in a few inftances to too, guineas ; and
iiiver medals valued at 10 guineas.
This fociety is one of the moil important in Great
Britain. Much money has been expended by it, and
many are the valuable effeas of which it has been pro-
dactive. Among thefe we reckon not only the difeo-
venes which it has excited, but the ft flitution of other
iocieties on the fame principles to which it has given
bn tii; and we do not hefitate to conclude, that future
ages will confider the founding of this fociety as one of
the moft remarkable epochs in the hiftory of the arts.
We contemplate with pleafure the beneficial effeas
which muft refult to this nation and to mankind by the
ddfuiion of inch inftitutions; and rejoice in the hope
that the aa.ve minds of the people of Great Britain,
inftead of being employed as formerly in controverfies
about religion, which engender ftrife, or in difeuffions
concerning the theory of politics, which lead to the
adoption of ichemes inconfiftent with the nature and
condition or map, will foon be more generally united
into affociations for promoting ufeful knowledge and folid
improvement, and for alleviating the diftreffes of their
xeiiow-creatures.
2 Society injiituted at Bath for the Encouragement of
Agnculture, Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce" It was
ounded in the year 17 77 by feveral gentlemen who met
at the city of Bath. This fcheme met with a very fa¬
vourable ^’ception both from the wealthy and learned*
Ihe wealthy fubfenbed very liberally, and the learned
communicated many important papers. On application
to the London and provincial focieties inftituted for the
hke purpofes, they very politely offered their aftifiance.
Seven volumes of their tranfadlions have already been
publifhed, containing very valuable experiments and ob-
ervations, particularly relpediing agriculture, which well
defen-e the attention of all farmers in the kingdom.
We have confulted them with much fatisfadion on fe.
veral occafions and have frequently referred to them in
the courfe o; this work ; and therefore, with plealure,
embiaee the prefent opportunity of repeating our obli¬
gations. ^ e owe the fame acknowledgments to the
Society for the Improvement of Arts, &c of London
3. Sonety for Working Mines, an affociation lately
formed on the continent of Europe. This inftitution
accidfJal m^ting of feveral mineralo-
g.i s at bkleno near Schemmtz in Hungary, who were
collected m order to examine a new method of am a hr a-
mation. Struck with the fhackles impofed on mineral
logy by monopolizers of new and ufeful proceffes thev
thought "O method fo effeau,! to break fhemias VoS
ing a fociety, whofe common labours ftiould be direded to
fix mining on its fureft principles; and whofe memoirs,
4 1 2 fpread
S O C [ 588 ] * s o c
Societiesf'.r fpread over all Europe, might offer to every adventurer
Ei coura- t[ie rcfult of the refearches, of which they are the ob-
ydog ‘ ud gy t|iefe mean3 they fuppofed, that there would
AtTs^M?- be a rnafs of information collefted ; the interefts of in-
nufaitures, dividuals would be loff in the general intereft ; and the
one would materially affill the other. Ivnpotlure and
V. J qUackery would, by the fame means, be banifhed from
a fcience, which muff be improved by philofophy and
experience; and the fociety, they fuppofed, would tind,
in the confidence which they infpired, the reward and
the encouragement of their labours. They defign, that
the memoirs which they publilh {hall be fhort and
clear ; truth muff be their bails, and every idle dilcuf-
fion, every foreign digrefiion, mull be banilhed; poli¬
tics and finance muff be avoided, though the diflcrta-
tions may feem to lead towards them ; and they oblige
themfelves to oppole the affectation ot brilliancies, and
the oftentation of empty fpeculation, when compared
with plain, fimple, and ufeful faCts.
The objeCt ot the fociety is phyfical geography ; mi¬
neralogy founded on chemiftry; the management of e>re
in the different operations which it undergoes ; fubter-
raneous geometry ; the hiilory of mining ; founderies,
and the proceffes for the extraction of metals from the
ores, either by fufion or amalgamation, in every inttance
applied to praCtice. The end of this inftitution is to
colleCt, in the molt extenfive fenfe, every thing that can
affdt the operations of the miner, and to communicate
it to the different members, that they may employ it
for the public good, in their refpeCtive countries. Each
member muff confider himfelf as bound to fend to the
fociety every thing which will contribute to the end ol
its inffitution ; to point out, with precifion, the feveral
fads and obiervations ; to communicate every experi¬
ment which occurs, even the unfuccefsful ones, -if the
relation may feem to be advantageous to the public ;
to communicate to the fociety their examination of
fchemes, and their opinions on queilions propoied by
it; and to pay annually two ducats (about 18 s. 6 d.)
to the direction every Eafter. The fociety, on the
other hand, is bound to publifh every novelty that fhall
be communicated to it ; to communicate to each mem¬
ber, at the member’s expence, the memoirs, defigns,
models, productions, and every thing connected with
the institution ; to anfwer all the neceffary demands
made, relating in any refpeCt to mining ; and to give
its opinion on every plan or projedt communicated
through the medium of an honorary member.
The great centre of all intelligence is to be at Zel-
lerfield in Hartz, Brunfwick : but the fociety is not
fixed to any one foot ; for every particular {late fome
praCtical mineralogift is nominated as director. A-
mong thefe are the names of Baron Bom, M. Pallas,
Ml Charpentier, M. Prebra, and M. Henkel. Their
office is to propofe the members ; to take care that the
views of the iociety are purfued in the different coun¬
tries where they refide ; to anfwer the m(uefts of the
members of their country who are qualified to make
them ; in cale of the death of a direCtor, to choofe an¬
other ; and the majority is to determine where the ar¬
chives and the ftrong box is to be placed.
/ 11 the eminent minera ogifts in Europe are members
of this fociety. It is ereCled on fo liberal and fo ex¬
tenfive a plan, that we entertain the higheft hopes of
its fucceis j and have only to add, that we wifh much
to fee the fludy of feveral other fciences purfued in the Societiesfof
fame manner. Encoura.
4. The Society for the Improvement Naval Arch'itec- Tinfr ^ ,
ture, was rounded in 1791. J he object 01 it is to en- A n. Ma.
courage every ufeful invention and difeovery relating torufadures,
naval architecture as far as Ihall be in their power, both ^c< •
by honorary and pecuniary rewards. They have in' " v -
view particularly to improve the theories of floating bo¬
dies and of the refiftance of fluids ; to procure draughts
and models of different veffels, together with calcu¬
lations of their capacity, centre of gravity, to/mage,
&c. ; to make obfervations and experiments themfelves,
and to point out fuch obfervations and experiments as
appear beft calculated to further their defigns, and molt
deferving thole premiums which the fociety can be¬
llow. But though the improvement of naval architec¬
ture in all its branches be certainly the principal objeCt
of this inffitution, yet the fociety do not by any means
intend to confine themfelves merely to the form and
{IruCture of vefiVls. Every fubordinate and collateral
purfuit will claim a fhare of the attention of the fociety
in proportion to its merits; and whatever may have
any tendency to render navigation more fafe, falutary,
and even pleafant, will not be negleCted.
This inftitution owes itsexiffence to the patriotic dif-
pofition and extraordinary attention of Mr Sewel a
private citizen of London, who though engaged in a
line of bufinefs totally oppofite to all concerns of this
kind) has been led, by mere accident, to take iuch occu-
lar notice of, and make luch obfervations on, the a£hial
{fate of naval architecture in this country, as naturally
occurred to a man of plain underhand!ng, zealous for
the honour and intereft of his country, and willing to
bellow a portion of that time for the public good,
which men of a different defeription would rather have
devoted to their own private advantage. His attention
was the more ferioufiy excited, by finding that it was
the opinion,of fome private fhip-builders, who, in a de¬
bate on the failure of one of our naval engagements,
pronounced, that fuch “ would ever be the cafe while
that bufinefs (the conitrudtion of our {hips of war) was
not ftudied as a fcience, but carried on merely by prece¬
dent ; that there had not been one improvement in-our
navy that did not originate with the French, who had
naval fchools and femmaties for the ftudy of it ; and
that our {hips were not a match for thofe of that nation
either fingly or in a fleet, &c. &c.”
In fi ihort time the iociety were enabled to offer very
confiderable premiums for particular improvements in
the conftrudion of our {hipping, &c. &c. and alfo to
encourage our philolophers, mathematicians, and me¬
chanics,"to make latisfa&ory experiments, tending to af-
certain the laws o{ refiltance of water to lolids of diffe¬
rent forms, in all varieties of circumffance. On this
head the reward is not lefs than E. 100 pounds or a
gold medal. Other premiums of 50, 30, and 20 gui¬
neas, according to the importance or difficulty of the
particular fubjeft or point of inveftigation, are likewiie
offered, for different difeoveries, inventions, or improve¬
ments. 1 he terms of admiffion into the fociety are a
fubfeription of two guineas annually, or twenty guineas
for life.
3. Society of Artifls of Great Britain, which confifts
of diredors and fellows, was incorporated by charter in
176?, and empowered to purchafe and hold lands, not
exceeding
s o
SfK'et'e?for exceeding L. leoo a year.
/"“and ciety, annually ele&ed, are to confift of 24 perfons, in-
Promaing ciu^'n? the prdjdent, vice-prelident, treafurer, and fe-
ArtsMa- cretary ; and it is required that they be cither painters,
nufadures, fculptors, archite&s, or engravers by profdTion.
v &c‘ , 6. Britifh Society for Extending the Fiji erics and Im¬
proving the Sea-Coajis of this Kingdom, was inftituted in
5786. The end and dcfign of this fcciety will belt
appear from their charter, of which we prefent an ab-
. ftradt.
SocinLn?
1 he preamble. Hates, “ the great want of improve¬
ment in h(Irenes, agriculture, and manufadtures, in the
Highlands and iflands of North Britain; the prevalence
of emigration from the want of employment in thofe
parts ; the prolpecl of a new nurfery of feamen, by the
eftablifhment of fifhing towns and villages in that quar¬
ter. i he act therefore declares, that the perfons there¬
in named, and every other perfon or perfons who fhall
thereafter become proprietors of the joint flock men¬
tioned therein, (hall be a diftinft and feparate body po¬
litic and corporate, by the name of 7he Britifh Society
for Extend ng the Ftfheries and Improving the Sea coajis
ot this Kingdom : That the faid Ibciety may raife a ca¬
pital joint Hock not exceeding L. 150,000, to be ap¬
plied to pinchafing or otherwife acquiring lands and te¬
nements in perpetuity, for the building thereon, and on
no other land whatever, free towns, villages, and fifhing
ftations: That the joint flock ihall be divided into
fliares of T. ,0 each : That no one peifon fhall in his
or her name poffefs more than ten fhares, or L. 500 :
I hat the fociety fhall not borrow any ium or funis of
money whatfoever : That the fums to be advanced for
this undertaking, and the profits arihng therefrom, fhall
be divided proportionably to the fum fubferibed ; and
that no perion fhall be liable for a larger fum than he
or fhe fhall have refpeftively fubferibed : ‘That one or
two fhares fhall ictitle to one vote and no more, in per¬
fon or by proxy', at all meetings of proprietors; three
or four fhares to two votes ; five, fix, or feven fhares,
to three votes ; eight or nine fhares to four votes; and
ten fhares to live votes and no more : 1 hat more yer-
fons than one inclining to hold in. their joint names one
or more fhares fhall be intitled to vote, by one of fuch
perfons, according to the priority of their names, or by
proxy : 1 hat bodies corporate fhall vote by proxy un¬
der their feal: That all perions holding proxies fhall be
proprietors, and that no one perfon Hiall hold more than
five votes by proxy : That the affairs of the fociety fhall
be managed by a governor, deputy governor, and 1 ;
other directors, to be defied annually on the 2jth of
March, from among the proprietors of the fociety, hold-
ing at leafl one full fhare, by figned lifts of their names
to be tranfmitted by the proprietors to the fecretary of
the fociety ; that five proprietors, not being governor,
dheftor, or other officer, fhall be in like manner an¬
nually defied to -audit the accounts of the fociety :
That there fnall be one general meeting of the pioprie-
tors annually on the 25th of March . That occafional
general meetings fhallbe called on the requeft of nine or
moie proprietors: That the general meetings of the
proprietors fhall make ail bye laws and confutations for
the government of the fociety, and for the good and
ordeily carrying on of the bufmefs of the fame : That
no transfer fhall be made of the flock of the fociety
for three years from the ioth of Augull 1786 ; That
9 [ j89 ] s o c
The dire£lors of this fo- the cafh of the fociety fhall be lodged in the bank dfSce;cde»for
England, bank of Scotland, or the royal bank of Scot- ^ncoura-
land : That no director, proprietor, agent, or officer of
the fociety, fhall retain any fum or fums of money in his Arts, Ma«
hands beyond the fpace of 30 days, on any account nufadijrcs,
whatfoever: Tjiat all payments by the fociety fhall be &c-
made by drafts on the faid banks, under the hands of-
the governor or deputy-governor, counterfigned by the
fecretary or his deputy, and two or more dire&ors :
And that the books in which the accounts of the fo¬
ciety fhall be kept fnall be open to all the proprie¬
tors.” %
The inftitution of this public-fpirited fociety was in
a great meafure owing to the exertions of the patriotic
John Knox; who, in the courfe of 23 years, traverfed
and explored the Highlands of Scotland no lefs than 16
times, and expended feveral thoufand pounds of his own
fortune in purfuing his patriotic defigns.
7. Biitijh Wool Society. See Briitjh Wool Society.
Society IJles, a duller of ifles, fo named by Captain
Cook in 1769. rI hey are lituated between the latitudes
of 16. 10. and 16. 55. fouth, and between the longi¬
tudes of 150. 57. and 152. weft. They are eight in
number; namely, Otaheite, Huahine, Ulietea, Otaha,
Bolabola, Mantua, Toobouai, and Tabooyamanoo of
Saunders’s Ifland. The loti, productions, people, their
language, religion, cuftoms, and manners, are fo nearly
the fame as at Otaheite, that little need be added
here on that fubjedt. Nature has been equally bounti¬
ful in uncultivated plenty, and the inhabitants' are ?$■
luxurious and as indolent. A plantain branch is the
emblem of peace, and exchanging names the gt eateft to¬
ken of friendil ip. Their dances are more elegant, their
dramatic entertainments have fomething of plot and
confiftency, and they exhibit temporary occurrences as
the objetls of praife or fatire ; fo that the origin of an¬
cient comedy may be already difeerned among them*
The people of Huahine are in general ftouter and fairer
than thofe of Otaheite, and this ifland is remarkable for
its populoufnefs and fertility. Thofe of .Ulietea, on the
contrary, are fmaller and blacker, and much lefs order¬
ly. Captain Cook put on fhore a Cape ewe at Bolabola*
where a ram had been left by the Spaniards ; and alH
an Englifh boar and fow, with two goats, at Ulietea.
If the valuable animals which have been tranfported thi¬
ther from Europe fhould be fuffered to multiply, nu
part of the world will equal thefe iflands in variety and
abundance of refrdhments for future navigators.
SQCINIANS, in church-hiftory, a fed of Chriftiaa
heretics, fo called from their founder Fauftus Socinus
(fee Socinus). They maintain, “ That Jefus Cirri ft
was a mere man, who had no cxiftence before he
was conceived by the Virgin Mary; that the Uoly
Ghoit is no dillind perlon, but that the Father is
truly and properly God.^ They own, that the name of
God is given in the Holy Scriptures to Jefus. Chrift.^
hut contend, that it is only a deputed title, which, how¬
ever, invefls him with an abiolute fovereignty over all-
created beings, and renders him an objt-d of worfhfp to
men and angels. They deny the dodrines of fatis ac¬
tion and imputed righteoufnefk; and fay that Chrift
only preached the truth to mankind, let before them
in hirnfelf an example of heroic virtue, and lealed his
dodrines with his blood. Original fin and abfolute pre-
deilmation they elteem Icholaflic chimeras. They hke-
wifs.
5 O C r 59® 1 * s O C
Stovnians,- wife maintain the fleep of tiie foul, which they fay be-
.^'cnus. comes xnfenfible at death, and is raifed a.^ain with the
body at the rtfurrertion, when the good (hall be efla-
blifhed in the pofieffion of eternal felicity, while the
wicked iball be configned to a tire that will not torment
them eternally, but for a certain duration proportioned
to their demerits.”
This fed has long been indignant .at being ftyled So-
anians. They difclaim every human leader ; and pro-
feffing to be guided folely by the word of God and the
deductions of reafon, they call themfelves Unitarians,
"and affect to coufider all other Chriftians, even their
friends the Arians, as Polytheijls. Modern Unitaria-
Iiifm, as taught by Dr Prieftley, is, however, a very
different thing from docinianifm, as we find it in the
Racovian catechifm -and other ffandard works of the
fe£t. This far-famed philofopher has difcovered what
eicaped the fagacity or all the fratres poioni, that Jefus
Chrift was the fon of Jofeph as w'ell as Mary ; that the
evanpelills miftook the meaning of Ifaiah’s prophecy,
that “ a virgin (hould conceive and bear a fonthat the
applying of this prophecy to the birth of our Saviour,
led them to conclude that his conception was miracu¬
lous ; and that we are not to wonder at this mi (fake, as
the apoftles were not always infpired, and were in ge¬
neral inconclufive reafoners. The modefty of the wri¬
ter in claiming the merit of fuch difcoveries will appear
in its proper colours to all our readers : the truth of
his doclrine (hall be confidered in another place. See
Theology.
SOCINUS(Lrelius), the firft author ofthefeft of the
Socinians, was born at Sienna in Tufcany in 1525. Be¬
ing deiigned by his father tor the law, he began very early
to fearch for the foundation of that fcience in the Word
of God ; and by that ftudy difcovered that the llomifh
religion taught many things contrary to revelation; when,
being defirous of penetrating farther into the true fenfe
of the Scriptures, he ftudied Greek, Hebrew, and even
Arabic. Jn 1547 he left Italy, to go and converfe with
the Proteftants; and (pent four years in travelling thro*
France, England, the Netherlands, Germany, and Po¬
land, and at length fettled at Zurich. He by this
means became acquainted with the moil learned men of
his time, who teifified by their letters the efteem they
had for him : but as he difcovered to them his. doubts,
he was greatly fufpefted of herefy. He, however, con¬
ducted himfelf with fuch addrefs, that he lived among
the capital enemies of his opinions, without receiving
the lead injury. He met with feme drfciples, who
heard his inftruCtions with refpedt ; thefe were Italians
who left their native country on account of religion,
and wandered about in Germany and Poland. He
communicated likewife his fentiments to his relations by
his writings, which he caufed to be conveyed to them
at Sienna. He died at Zurich in 1562. Thofe who
were of fentiments oppofite to his, and were perfo-
nally acquainted with him, confefs that his outward
behaviour was blamelefs. Pie wrote a Paraphrafe on
the fit'll chapter of St John ; and other works are aferi-
bed to him.
Socinus (Fauftus), nephew of the preceding, and
principal founder ot the Socinian fed, was born at Si¬
enna. in r 559. rI he letters which his uncle Lrelius wrote
to 1 us relations, and which infuled into them many feeds
Qt herefy, made an irnDrefOon uuon him ; io that,
knowing himfelf not innocent, he fled as well as the Saeima
reft when the inquifition began to perfecute that family. il
Pie was at Lyons when he heard of his uncle’s death, ‘Cinrcljt;etj
and departed immediately to take poffeffion of his wri-
tings. He returned to Tufcany; and made himfelf fo
agreeable to the grand duke, that the charms which he
found in that court, and the honourable pods he filled
there, hindered him for twelve years from remembering
that he had been confidered as the perfon who was to
put the laft hand to the fyftem of famofatenian divinity,
of which his uncle Lselius had made a rough draught.
At laft he went into Germany in 1574, and paid rta
regard to the grand duke’s advices to return. He (laid
three years at Bafil, and ftudied divinity there; and
having adopted a fet of principles very different from
the fyftem of Proteftants, he refolved to maintain and
propagate them ; for which purpofe he wrote a treat!to
De lefu Chrijlo Ssrvatore. In 1579 Socinus retired
into Poland, and defired to be admitted into the com¬
munion of the Unitarians; but as he differed from them
in fome points, on which he refufed to be lilent, he
met with a repulfe. However, he did not ceafe to write
in defence of their churches againft thofe who attacked
them. At length his book againft James Paleologua
furnifhed his enemies with a pretence to exafperate the
king of Poland againft him; but though the mere read¬
ing of it was fufficient to refute his accufers, Socinus
thought proper to leave Cracow, after having refided
there four years. Pie then lived under the proteeftiori
of ieveral Polifit lords, and married a lady of a good fa¬
mily : but her death, which happened in 1587, io deep¬
ly afflidted him as to injure his health; and to complete
his forrow, he was deprived of his patrimony by the
death of Francis de Medicis great duke of Florence.
The confolation he found in feeing his fentiments at
laft approved by ieveral minifters, was greatly interrupt¬
ed in 1598 ; (or he met with a thoufand intuits at Cra¬
cow, and was with great difficulty faved from the 'hands
of the rabble. His houfe was plundered, and he loft
his goods ; but this lofs was not fo uneafy to him as
that of fome manuferipts, which he extremely regretted.
To deliver himfelf from fuch dangers, he retired to a
village about nine miles diftant from Cracow, where he
fpent the remainder of his days at the houfe of Abra¬
ham Blonfki, a Polifh gentleman, and died there in
1604. All Fauftus Socinus’s works are contained in
the two firft volumes of the Bibliotheca Fratrum Polo*
norum.
SOCMANS, SoKEMANS, or Socmen (Socmanni), are
fuch tenants as hold their lands and tenements by focage
tenure. See Socage.
SOCOTORA, an ifland lying between Afia and A-
rabia Felix ; about 50 miles in length, and 22 in
breadth. It is particularly noted (or its fine aloes,
known by the name of Socotrine short. The religion
of the natives is a mixture of Mahometanifm and Pa-
ganifm ; but they are civil to ftrangers who call there
in their paffage to the Eaft Indies. It abounds in fruit
and cattle ; and they have a king of their own, who is
dependent on Arabia.
SOCRATES, the greateft of the ancient philofo-
phers, was born at Alopece, a village near Athens, in
the fourth year of the 77 th olympiad. His parents
were of low rank ; his father Sophronifcus being a fta-
tuary, and his mother -Phsenareta a midwife. Sophro-
nifeus
S O G
Socrat*'. nifciw brought up Ins fon, contrary to Ins inclination,
in his own manual employment ; in which Socrates,
though his mind was continually afpiring after higher
objedhs, was not unfuccefsful; forwhilft. he was a young
man, he is faid to have formed flatues of the habited,
graces, which were allowed a place in the citadel of A-
thens. Upon the death of his father he was left in fuch
ftraitened circumftauces as laid him under the neceffity
of exercifing that art to procure the means of fubfill-
ence, though he devoted, at the fame time, all the lei-
fure which he could command to the ftudy of philofo-
phy. His diiirefs, however, was foon relieved by Crito,
a wealthy Athenian ; who, remarking his ftrong pro-
penfity to ftudy, and admiring his ingenuous difpofition
anu. diitinguifhed abilities, generoufly took him under
his patronage, and intrufted him with the inftruaion of
his children. The opportunities which Socrates by
tins means enjoyed of attending the public ledfures of
the moft eminent phtlofophers, io far increafed his third:
after wifdom, that he determined to relinquifli his occu¬
pation, end every profpeft of emolument which that
might afford, in order to devote himielf entirely to his
favourite purfuits. Under Anaxagoras and Archelaus
he piofecuted the ftudy ot nature in the ufual manner
of the philofophers of tlie age, and became well ac¬
quainted with their doctrines. Frodicus the fophift
was his preceptor in eloquence, Evemis inf poetry, The-
odorus in geometry, and Xftamo in muhe. Afpafia, a.
woman no lefs celebrated for her intellectual than her
perfonal accomphfhments, whofe houfe was frequented
by tbe moft celebrated characters, had alfo fome fliare
in the education of Socrates. Under fuch preceptors'
it cannot reafonably be doubted but that he became
mailer of every kind of learning which the age in which
he lived could afford ; and being bieffed with very un¬
common talents by nature, he appeared in Athens, un¬
der the relpeC: able characters of a good citizen and a
tme philofopher Being called upon by his country to
take arms in the long and fevere druggie between A-
thens and Sparta, he fignalized himfelf at the fiege of
Pctidasa, both by his valour and by the hardinefs with
which he endured fatigue. During the feverity of a
I hracian winter, whillt others were clad in furs, he
wore only his ufual clothing, and walked barefoot up¬
on the ice. U an . engagement in which he faw Au-
cibiades falling down wounded, he advanced to defend
him, and faved both him and his arras : and though tire
prize of valour was on this occofion unqueiUonably due
to Socrates, he generoufly gave his vote that it might
be bellowed upon Alcibiades, to encourage his riling
merit. He ferved in other campaigns with diftinguifh-
ecl braveiy, and had the happmefs on ore occalion to
fave the life of Xenophon, by bearing him, when co¬
vered with wounds, out of the reach of the enemy.
It was not till Socrates was upwards of 60 years of
age that he undertook to fei ve his country in any civil
office, when he was chofen to reprefent his own diltn'Ct,
in the fenate ot five hundred. In this office, though he
at hrtl expo fed himfelf to fome degree of ridicule from
the want of experience in the forms of bufinefs, he foon
convinced his colleagues that be was fuperior to them
ail in wiidom and integrity. IVlulft they, intimidated
by the clamoins of the populace, paffed an unjuft fen*
tence of condemnation upon the commanders, who,
aiter the engagement at the Arginuiian iflands, had
C ]
s o c
been prevented by a florin from paying funeral honours
to the dead, Seicrates itood forth fingly in their defence, *
and to the Lift refuted to give his lufFrage againlt them,
declaring that no force ffiould compel himto acl con¬
trary to jullicevand the laws. Under the fubfequent
tyranny he nevei ceaied to condemn the oppreffive and
cruel proceedings of the thirty tyrants ; and when his
boldneis provoked their refeutment, fo that his life v/as
in hazard, fearing neither treachery nor violence, he
ilill continued to fupport with undaunted firmnefs’ the
rights of his fellow-citizens.
Having given thefe proofs of public virtue both in a
military and civil capacity, he wiffied to do ilill more
for his country. Obferving with regret how much the
opinions of the Athenian youth were milled, and their
principles and tafle corrupted by philofophers who fpent
all their tune in refined fpeculations upon nature and
the origin of things, and by fophifts who taught in
their ft bools the arts of falfe eloquence and deceit'ul
reaioning ; Socrates formed the wife and generous de-
fi,>n of inflituting a new and more ufeful method of in-
ftrmfticn. He juftly conceived the true end of philo-
iophy to be, not to make an oflentatious diiplay of fu-
peri.or learning and ability in fubtle difputations or in¬
genious conjeaures, but to free mankind from the do¬
minion of pernicious prejudices ; to correH their vices •
to infpire them with the love of virtue; and thus con¬
duct them in the path of wifdorn to true felicity. Ho
therefore affumed thecharaclerof a moral philofoplier;
and, looking upon the v/hole city of Athens as his
fchool, and all who were difpofed to lend him their
attention as his pupils, he feized every occafion of com¬
municating moral wifdom to his fellow citizens. He "
palled the greater part of .his time in public; and the me¬
thod of inftruaion of which he chiefly made ufe was, to
propole a ferious of queftions to the perfon with whom he
converfed, in order to lead him to feme unforefeeu con.
clufion. He firfl gained the confent of his refpondent
to fome obvious truths, and then obliged him to admit
others from their relation or refemblance to thofe to
which he had already affi ved. Without making ufe
of any direcl argument or perfuafion, he chofe to lead
the perfon he meant to inflrua, to deduce the truths of
which he wilhed to convince him, as a neceftary confe-
qucnce from his own conceffions. He commonly con-
du.aed thefe conferences with fuch addrefs, as to con¬
ceal Ins defign till the refpondent had advanced too fir
to recede. On fome occafions he made ufe of ironical
language, that vam men might be caught in their own
replies, and be obliged to confefs their ignorance. He
never affumed the air of a morofe and rigid preceptor,
but communicated ufeful inftruaiou with all the'cafe
and pleafantry of polite converfation. Thouoh cmk
nenlly furniflted with every kind of learning, he prefer-
icd moral to fpeculative wifdom. Convinced that obi.
lofophy is valuable, not as it furnifhes queltions for ^he
fehools, hut as it provides men with a law of life, h-'
cenfured his predeceflbrs for fpending all their tirne in
abftrufe refearches into nature, and takin r no pains to
render thtmftlves ufeful to mankind. His favourite
maxim was, Whatever is above us doth not concern us.
He Climated the value of knowledge by its utility and
recommended the iludy of geometry, aftronomy,’ and
other fciences, only io far as they admit of a practical
application to the purpofes of human life. His great
- obiedt •
SocratJA'
——y—«3
S O C [59
okjeft in all liis conferences and difcourfes was, to lead
men into an acquaintance with theirfelves; to convince
them oi their tollies and vices; to infpire them with the
love of virtue ; and to furnifh them with ufeful moral
intlrufticns. Cicero might therefore very jullly lay of
Socrates, that he was the firll who called down philo-
fophy from heaven to earth, and introduced her into the
public walks and domeftic retirements of men, that Ihe
might inftruft them concerning life and manners.
Through his whole life this good man difcovered a
mind fuperior to the attractions of wealth, and power.
Contrary to the general pradtice of the preceptors of
his time, he inftrudfed his pupils without receiving from
them any gratuity. He frequently fefufed rich pre-
1'ents, which were offered him by Alcibiades and others,
though importunately urged to accept them by his
wife. The chief men of Athens were his Itewards :
they fent him in proviiions, as they apprehended he
wanted them; he took what his prefent wants required,
and returned the reft. Obferving the numerous articles
of luxury which were expofed to fale in Athens, he ex¬
claimed, “ How many things are there which I do not
want!” With Socrates, moderation fupplied the place
of wealth. In his clothing and food, he confulted only
the demands of nature. He commonly appeared in a
neat but plain clock, with his feet uncovered. Though
his table was only fupplied with fimple fare, he did not
jcruple to invite men of luperior rank to partake of his
meals ; and when his wife, upon fome fuch occafion,
exprefied her diftatisfadlion on being no better pro¬
vided, he defired her to give herfelf no concern ; for if
his guefts were wife men, they would be contented with
whatever they found at his table ; if otherwife, they
were unworthy of notice. Whilft others, fays he, live
to eat, wife men eat to live.
Though Socrates was exceedingly unfortunate in his
domeftic connexion, he converted this infelicity into an
occafion of exercifing his virtues. Xantippe, concern¬
ing whofe ill humour ancient writers relate many amu-
ling tales, was certainly a woman of a high and unma¬
nageable fpirit. But Socrates, while he endeavoured
to curb the violence of her temper, improved his own.
When Alcibiades exprebed his furprife that his friend
could bear to live in the fame houfe with fo perverfe
and quarrelfome a companion, Socrates replied, that be¬
ing daily inured to ill humour at home, he was the
better prepared to encounter perverfenefs and injury
abroad.
In the midft of domeftic vexations and public difor-
ders, Socrates retained fuch an unruffled ferenity, that
he was never feen either to leave his own houfe or to
return home with a difturbed countenance. In acqui-
ving this entire dominion over his pafftons and appetites,
lie had the greater merit, as it was not effedled without
a violent ftruggle againft his natural propenfities. Zo-
pyrus, an eminent phyfiognomift, declared, that he dif¬
covered in the features of the philofopher evident traces
of many vicious inclinations. The friends of Socrates
who were prel'ent ridiculed the ignorance of this pre¬
tender to extraordinary fagacity. But Socrates himfelf
ingenuoufty acknowledged his penetration, and confeffed.
that he was in his natural difpofttion prone to vice, but
that he had fubdued his inclinations by the power of
teafon and philofophy.
'I hrough the whole of his life Socrates gave himfelf
2.1 ' s o c
up to the guidance of unbiaffed reafon, which is fuppo- Socrates,
fed by fome to be all that he meant by the genius or
d/tmon from which he profefled to receive inftru&ion.
But this opinion is inconfiftent with the accounts given
by Ins followers of that daemon, and even with the lan¬
guage in which he fpoke of it himfelf. Plato lome-
times calls it his guardian, and Apuleius his god; and as
Xenophon attefts that it was the belief of his mafter
that the gods occafionally communicate to men the
knowledge of future events, it is by no means impro¬
bable that Socrates admitted, with the generality of his
countrymen, the exiftence of thoie intermediate beings
called damans, of one of which he might fancy himfelf
the peculiar care.
It was one of the maxims of Socrates, “ That a wife
man will worfhip the gods according to the inftitutions
of the ftatc to which he belongs.” Convinced of the
weaknefs of the human underfianding, and perceiving
that the pride of philofophy had led his predecefibrs in¬
to futile fpeculations on the nature and oiigin of things,
he judged it moft confident with true wifdom to fpeak
with caution and reverence concerning the divine na¬
ture.
The wifdom and the virtues of this great man, whilft
they procured him many followers, created him alfo
many enemies. The Sophifts$, whofe knavery and ig-§ See
norance he took every opportunity of expofing to pub-MA
lie contempt, became inveterate in their enmity againft
fo bold a reformer, and devifed an expedient, by which
they hoped ^to check the current of his popularity.
They engaged Ariilophanes, the firft buffoon of the
age, to write a comedy, in which Socrates fhould be
the principal charaftev. Ariftophanes, pleafed with fo
promifing an occalion of difplaying his low and malig¬
nant wit,- undertook the talk, and produced the comedy
of The Clouds, ftill extant in his works. In this piece,
Socrates is introduced hanging in a bafket in the air,
and thence pouring forth abfurdity and prophanenefs.
But the philofopher, fhowing in a crouded theatre that
he was wholly unmoved by this ribaldry, the fatire
failed of its effett ; and when Ariilophanes attempted
the year following to renew the piece with alterations
and ^additions, the reprefentation was fo miuch difeou-
raged, that he was obliged to difeontinue it.
From this time Socrates continued for many years to
purlue without interruption his laudable ddign of in-
ftru&ing and reforming his fellow-citizens. At length,
however, when the inflexible integrity' with which he
had difeharged the duty of a fenator, and the firmnefs
with which he had oppofed every kind of political cor¬
ruption and opprefiion, had greatly increafed the num¬
ber of his enemies, clandeltine arts were employed to
raife a general prejudice againft him. The people were
Induftrioufly reminded, that Critias, who had been one
of the moft cruel of the thirty tyrants, and Alcibiades,
who had infulted religion, by defacing the public fta-
tues of Mercury, and performing a mock reprefentation
of the Eleuftnian myfteries, had in their youth been dif-
ciples of Socrates ; and the minds of the populace be¬
ing thus prepared, a direct accufation was preferred
againft him before the fupreme court of judicature. His
accufers were Anytus a leather-dreffer, who had long
entertained a perfonal enmity againft Socrates, for re¬
prehending his avarice, in depriving his fons of the be¬
nefits of learning, that they might purfue the gains of
6 trade;
S O G
trace ; Mehtuf, a young rhetorician, who was capable
ot undertaking any thing for the fake of gain ; and
JLycon, who was glad of any opportunity of difplaying
his talents. The accutation, which was delivered to the
fenate under the name of Melitus, was this : “ Melitus
fon of Mehtus, of the tr&e of Pythos, accufeth Socra¬
tes, ion of Sophromfcus, of the tribe of Alopece So¬
crates violates the laws, in not acknowledging the gods
which the Hate acknowledges, and by introducing new
divinities. He alfo violates the laws by corrupting the
youth. Be his puniihment death.”
I his charge was delivered upon oath to the fenate •
and Cnto a friend of Socrates became furety for his ap¬
pearance on the day of trial. Anytus foon afterwards
lent a private meflage to Socrates, alluring him that if
he would defxft from cenfuring his conduit, he would
withdraw his accufation. But Socrates refufed to com-
pJy with to degrading a condition ; and with his ufual
fp.nt replied, “ Whilft I live I will never difguife the
truth,_ nor fpeak otherwife than my duty requires.”
1 he interval between the accufation and the trial he
ipent in philofophical converfations with his friends
choofing to difcourfe upon any other fubjedt rather than
his own fituation.
- ^hen the day of trial arrived, his accufers appeared
in the fenate and attempted to fupport their charge in
t ree^ ddtindt fpeeches, which ttrongly marked their re-
peftive charadlers. Plato, who was a young man, and
a zealous follower of Socrates, then rofe up to addrefs
the judges in defence of his mafter; but whilll he was
attempting to apologife for his youth, he was abruptly
commanded by the court to fit down. Socrates, how¬
ever needed no advocate. Afcending the chair with all
tne ieremty of confcious innocence, and with all the
dignity of fupenor merit, he delivered, in a firm and
manly tone, an unpremeditated defence of himfelf, which
menced his opponents, and ought to have convinced his
r kY fuer trarm? the Pr°gref8 of the confpiracy
which had been raifed againft him to its true fource,
the jealoufy and refentment of men whofe ignorance he
had expofed, and whofe vices he had ridiculed and re¬
proved, he diftinaiy replied to the feveral charo-es
brought againft him by Melitus. To prove that Ire
had not been guilty ot impiety towards the gods of his
country, he appealed to his frequent pra&ice of attend-
mg the public religious /eftivals. The crime of intro¬
ducing new divinities, with which he was charged, chief-
y as it feems on the ground of the admonitions which
ie Pjo efled to have received from an invilible power,
dlft'Ia'med by pleading that it was no new thing for
Zl Cpnfult, tle Pdsu and rfeive inftruftions from
them. I o refute the charge of his having been a cor¬
rupter of youth, he urged the example which he had
uniformly exhibited of juftice, moderation, and tempe
ranee 5 the moral fpirit and tendency of his difeourfes •
and the eftedf which had adually been produced by his
doctrine upon the manners of the young. Then dif-
iaming to foheit the mercy of his judges, he called up-
on them for that juftice which their office and theft
oath obliged them to adminifter; and profeffing his faith
and confidence in God, refigned himfelf to Their pt-
Thej’udges, whafe prejudices would not fuffer them
Pay due attention to this annffimr
Vou. XVII. Part II. P g7, or to.exan”»e
C 593 1
S O C
wieh impanMtf the merits of the caufe, I’mmediatelr Soeiwi,
declared him guilty of the crimes of which he flood ac-
culed. Socrates, in this ftage of the trial, had a right
o enter his plea againft the punifhment which the ac-
cufers demanded, and inftead of the fentence of death,
to propofe fome pecuniary amercement. But he at firft
peiemptonly refilled to make any propofal of this kind,
imagming that it might be conftrued into an acknow!
ledgment of guilt; and afferted, that his conduct merit¬
ed from the ftate reward rather than puniffiment. At
length, however, he was prevailed upon by his friends
to offer upon their credit a fine of thirty m/na. The
judges, notwithflanding, ftill remained inexorable • they
proceeded, without farther delay, to pronounce fentence
upon him and he was condemned to be put to death
by the poifon of hemlock. 1
I he fentence being paffed, he was fent to prifon s
which, lays Seneca, he entered with the fame refolu-
Jion and firnjnefs with which he had oppofed the thirty
tyrants ; and took away all ignominy from the place,
which could not be a prifon while he was there/ He
lay in fetters 30 days; and was conftantly vifited
y Cnto, Plato, and other friends, with whom be paf¬
fed the time in dffpute after his ufual manner. Anxious
to fave fo valuable a life, they urged him to attempt his
efcape. or at leaft to permit them to convey him away;
and Cnto went io far, as to affure him that, by his in!
ancl \ WIt i.the, jaiIor’ ^ might be eafily acco Jpliffied,
re ecAd ^ V?™1 in TheffaI^ but Socrates ,
J ded the propofal, as a criminal violation of the
laws; and aflted them, whether there was any place
-V/Attlca wbich death could not reach.
At length the day arrived when the officers to wlrcfe
care he was committed delivered to Socrates early in
the morning the final order for his execution, and im-
mediately, according to the law, fet him at liberty from
!s bonds. His friends, who came thus early to the
prifon that they might have an opportunity o/conver!
ling with their mafter through the day, foind his wife
fitting by him with a child in her arms. Socrates that
the tranquilhty of his laft moments might not be dif¬
an bed by her unavailing lamentations, requefted that
ffie might be condu&cd home. With the molt frantic
expreffions of grief ffie left the prifon. An interelling
converfation then paffed between Socrates and hi!
friends, which chiefly turned upon the immortality of
f !t I/1"//" thf C?Urfe °f thIs <™verfation, he expref-
fed ffis di approbation of the praftice of fuicide, and af-
fured his friends that his chief fu|>port in his p!efent fi.
tuation was afl expeftation, though not unmfted with
doubts, of a happy exiftence after death, “ It would
be inexcufable in me (faid he) to defpife death, if I
were not perfuaded that it will condua me into the
prdence of the gods, who are the moft righteous oo-
vernors, and into the fociety of juft and good me^i •
but I derive confidence from the hope that fome thing
of man icmains after death, and that the condition of
good men will then be much better than that of the
1 qi V/T af15erwards him, in what manner
/ wifhed , Je, buned? Socrates replied, with a fmile.
As you pleafe, provided I do not efcaoe out of youi-
hands.^ I hen, turning to the reft of his friends! he
faid, Is it not ftrange, after all that I have faid to
convince you that I am going to the fociety of the hap-
PTj
S O c [ 59‘
py, that Crlto ftill thinks that this body, which will
foon be a lifelefs corpfe, is Socrates ? Let him difpofe of
rny body ns he pleafes? but let hini not st its intciiTient
mourn over it as if it were Socrates.”
Towards the clofe of the day he retired into an ad¬
joining apartment to bathe ; his friends, in the mean
time, expreffin.r to one another their grief at the prof-
pe& of lofmg fo excellent a father, and being left to
pafs the reft of their days in the folitary ftate of or¬
phans. After a fhort interval, during which he gave
fome neeeffary inftruftions to Ins domeftics, and took
his laft leave of his children, the attendant ol the priion
informed him, that the time for drinking the poifon
was come. The executioner, though accuftomed to
fuch feenes, fhed tears as lie prefented the fatal cup.
Socrates received it without change of countenance or
the leaft appearance of perturbation : then offering up
a prayer to the gods that they would grant him apreft-
perous paffacre into the inviiible world, with perfefb
eompofure he fwallowed the poilonous draught. His
friends around him burft into tears. Socrates alone le-
mained unmoved. He upbraided their pufnlanimity,
and entreated them to exercife a manly conftancy wor¬
thy of the friends of virtue. He continued walking till
the chilling operation of the hemlock obliged him to lie
down upon his bed. After remaining for a fhort time
filcnt, he requefted Crito (probably in order to refute a
calumny which might prove injurious to his friends af¬
ter his deceafe) not to negleft the offering of a cock
which he had vowed to Lfculapius. i hen, coveiing(
him fell with his cloak, he expired. Such was the fate
of the virtuous Socrates ! A ftory, fays Cicero, which
I never read without tears.
The friends and difciples of this ilhdrious teacher
of wifdom were deeply afflifted by his death, and at¬
tended his funeral with every expreftion of grief. Ap-
prehenhve, however, for their own fafety, they foon af¬
terwards privately^ withdrew from the city, and took up
their refidence in diftant places. Several of them vilit-
ed the philofopher Euclid of Megara, by whom they
were kindly received. No fooner was the unjuft con¬
demnation of Socrates known through Greece, than a
general indignation was kindled in the m nds of good
men, who univerfally regretted that fo diftinguifhed. an
advocate for virtue fhould have fallen a facrifice to jea-
loufy af.d envy. The Athenians themteNes, fo remark¬
able for their caprice, who never knew the value of
their great men till after their death, foon became fen-
fible of the folly as well as criminality of putting to
death the'man who had been the1 chief ornament of
their city and of the age, and turned their indignation
againft his accufers. Melitus was condemned to death;
and Anytus, to efcape a fimilar fate, 'went into volun¬
tary exile. To give a farther proof of the fincerity of
their regret, the Athenians for a while interrupted pub¬
lic bufinefs ; decreed a general mourning ; recalled the
exiled friends of Socrates; and eredted a ftatue to his
memory in one of the moft frequented parts of the cuy.
His death happened in the firft year of the 96th olym¬
piad, and in the 70th year of his age.
Socrates left behind him nothing in writing ; but
his illuftrious pupils Xenophon and Plato have in fome
meafure fupplied this defedf. The Memoirs of Socra¬
tes, written by Xenophon, afford, however, a much
] , SOD
more accurate idea of the opinions of Socrates, and of So:patet
his manner of teaching, than the Dialogues of Plato, ^ ^ ^
who everywhere mixes his own conceptions and drftion T ,
with the ideas and language of his matter. It is rela¬
ted, that when Socrates heard Plato recite his Lyiis,
he laid, “ How much does this yonng man make me
fay which I never conceived !”
His diftinguifhing character was that of a moral phi¬
lofopher; and his doctrine concerning God and religion
was rather practical than fpecwlative. But he did not
negleft to build the ftrufture of leligious faith upon
the firm foundation of an appeal to natural appearances:
ITe taught, that the Supreme Being, though invifible,
is clearly feen in his works ; which at once demonftrate
his exiftence and his wife and benevolent providence. He
admitted, befrdes the one Supreme Deity, the exiftence
of beings who poffefs a middle ftation between God
anchman, to whofe immediate agency he afcribecT the
ordinary phenomena of nature, and whom he fuppofed
to be particularly concerned in the management of hu¬
man affairs. Hence he declared it to be the duty of
every one, in the performance of religious rites, to fol¬
low the cuftoms of his country. At the fame time, he
taught, that the merit of all religious offerings depends
upon the charafter of the worfhipper, and that the gods
take pleafure in the facrificses of none but the truly pious. -
Concerning the human foul, the opinion of Socrates,
according to Xenophon, was, that it is allied to the Di¬
vine Being, not by a participation of effence, but by a
fimilarity of nature ; that man excels all other animals
hi the faculty of reafon ; and that the exiftence of good
men will be continued after death in a ftate in which
they will receive the reward of their virtue. Although
it appears that on this latter 'topic he was not wholly
free from' uncertainty, the confolation which he profef-
,fe,i to derive’from this fource in the immediate profpedt
of death, leaves little room to doubt that he entertained
a real expe&ation of immortality : and there is reafon
to believe that he was the only philofopher of ancient
Greece whofe principles admitted ef fuch an expecta¬
tion (fee Metaphysics, Part III. Chap iv.) Ot his
moral fyftem, which was in a high degree pure, a*d
founded on the fureft bafts, the reader will find a ihort
view in our article Moral Philosophy, nJ 4.
Socrates was alfo the name of an ecclefiaftical hif-
torian qf the 5th century, born at Conftantinople in the
beginning of the reign of Theodofius : he profeffed the
law and pleaded at the bar, whence he obtained the
name of Scholajlicus. He wrote an ecclefiaftical luftory
from the year 309, where Eufebius ended, down to
440 ; and wrote with great exaftnefs and judgment.
An edition of Eufebius and Socrates, in Greek and
Latin, with notes by Reading, was pubhihed'at Lon-
' don in 1720.
SODA, the name given by the Frencn chemiits to the
mineral alkali, which is found native in many parts of
the woild : it is obtained alfo from common fait, and^
from the afties of the kali, a fpecies of falfola. See Al¬
kali, ji° 7. and Chemistry-/«<^w. .
Soda is alfo a name for a heat in the ftomach or
heart-burn. See Medicine, n0 277.
SODOM, formerly a town of Paleftine in Afia, fa¬
mous in Scripture for the. wickednefs of its inhabitants,
and their deftru&ion by fire from heaven on account ol
that
SOD [ 505 ] S O F
Sodomy, that wickednefs. The place where it ftood is now co-
t’0(lor, vered by the waters of the Dead Sea, or the Lake Af-
~m‘ phaltites. See Asphv\ltites.
SODOMY, an unnatural crime, fo called from the
city of Sodom, which was deftroyed by fire for the
fame. The Levitical law adjudged thofe guilty, of this
execrable crime to death ; and the civil law affigns the
feme punilhment to it. The law of England makes it
felony. There is no flatute in Scotland againfl Sodo¬
my ; the libel of the crime is therefore founded on the
divine law, and pradtice makes its punifhment to be
burned alive.
SODOR, a name always conjoined with Man, in
mentioning the bifnop of Man’s diocefe. Concerning
the origin and application of this word, very different
opinions have been formed by the learned. Buchanan
(lib. i. cap. 34 ) fays, that before his time the name of
«SWor was given to a town in the ifle of Man. In
Oough’s edition of Camden’s Britannia (vol. iii. p. 701.)
it is faid,.that after the ifle of Man was annexed to the
crown of England, this appellation was given to a fmall
ifland within mufket-fhot of Man, in which the cathe
dral ftands, called by the Norwegians the Holm, and by
the inhabitants the Peel. In fupport of this opinion a
charter is quoted A. D. 150?, in which Thomas earl
of Derby and lord of Man confirms to Huan Hefketh
bifhop of Sodor all the lands, &c. anciently belonging
to the bifhops of Man. “ Ecclefiam cathedralem fandi
German! in Holm Sodor vel Pels vocatam, ecclefiam
fandi Patricii ibidem, et locum pnefatum in quo eccle-
fise prsefatae litse funt.” The truth of either, or per¬
haps of both, thefe accounts might be allowed ; but
neither of them are fufficient to account for the conftant
conjundion of Sodor and Man, in charters, regifters,
and hiftories. It Sodor was a fmall town or ifland be-
longing to Man, it cannot be conceived why it is al¬
ways mentioned before it, or rather why it flrould be
mentioned at all in-fpeaking of a bifhop’s diocefe. To
• fpeak of the bifhopric of Sodor and Man in this cafe
would be as improper as it would be to call the bi-
ffiopric of Durham the bifhopric -of Holy Ifland and
Durham, or the bifhopric of Darlington and Durham ;
the former being a fmall ifland and the latter a town
belonging to the county and diocefe of Durham. Nei¬
ther of thefe accounts, therefore, give a fatisfadory ac¬
count of the original conjundion of Sodor and Man.
The ifland o! Iona was the place where the bifhop of
the ifles refided, the cathedral church of which, it is
faid, was dedicated to our Saviour, in Greek Soter,
hence Sotorenfes, which might be corrupted into Sodo.
renfes, a name frequently given by Danifh writers to
the weftern ifles of Scotland. That we may be the
more difpofed to accede to this Grecian etymology,
the advocates for this opinion tell us, that the name
Icolumki/l, which is often applied to this ifland, is alfo
of Greek extradion, being derived from olumba, “ a
pigeon;” a meaning that exadly conefponds to the
Celtic word Co/um and the Hebrew word Iona. We
muff confefs, however, that we have very little faith in
the conjedures of etymologiffs, and think that upon no
occafion they alone can eftabhfh any adl, though when
concurring with fads they certainly tend to confirm
and explain them. It is only from hiftorical fads that
, we can know to what Sodor was applied.
^ aPPears ‘tom the hiitory of the Orkneys, compiled
by an old Iflandic writer, tranflated and enlarged by Sodor
Torfseus, that the iEbudas or Weftern ifles of Scotland II
were divided into two drifters, Nordureys and Sndereys.
The Nordureys, which were feparated from the Sude-
reys by the point of Ardnamurchan, a promontory in
Argyldhire, confifted of Muck, Egg, Rum, Canna,
Sky, Rafay, Barra, South Uift, North Uift, Benbecu-
la, and Lewis, including Harris, with a great number of
fmall ifles. The Sudereys were, Man, Arran, Bute,
Cumra, Avon, Gid, Ila, Colonfay, Jura, Scarba, Mull,
Iona, Thee, Coll, Ulva, and other fmall Hands. All
thefe, when joined together, and fubjed to the fame
prince, made up the kingdom of Man and the ifles. In
the Norwegian language Suder and Norder, fignifying
fouthern and northern, and ey or ay an ifland. When
the iEbudae were under one monarch, the feat of em¬
pire was fixed in the Sudereys, and the Nordureys were
governed by deputies ; hence the former are much of-
tener mentioned in hiftory than the latter ; hence, too,
the Sudereys often comprehend the Nordureys, as in our
days Scotland is fometimes comprehended under'England.
Sudereys, or Suder, when anglicifed, became Sodor ;
and all the weftern ifles of Scotland being included in
one diocefe'under the Norwegian princes, the bifhop
appointed to fuperintend them was called the bifhop of
Man and the ifles, or the bifhop of Sodor and Man.
Since Man was conquered by Edward III. it has been
feparated from the other -ifles, and its bifhops have ex-
erciled no jurifdidtion over them. Should it now be
afked, why then is the bifhop of Man ftill called the bi¬
fhop of Sodor and Man ? we reply, that we have been >
able to difeover no reafon ; but fuppofe the appellation
to be continued in the fame way, as the title king of
France, has been kept up by the kings of Great Britain,
for feveral centuries after the Englifh were entirely ex¬
pelled from France. 1
SOFA, in the eaft, a kind of alcove railed half a
foot above the flo^r of a chamber or other apartment ;
and ufed as the place of ftate, where vifitors of diitinc-
tion are received. Among the Turks the whole floor
of their ftate-ropms is covered with a kind of tapeftry,'* '
and on the window-fide is raifed a foia or fopha, laid
with a kind of matrafs, covered with a carpet much
richer than the other. On this carpet the Turks are
feated, both men and women, like the taylors in Eng¬
land, crofs-legged, leaning againft the wall, which is
bolftered with velvet, fattin, or other fluff fuitable to
the feafon. Here they eat their meals; only laying a
fkm over the carpet to ferve as a table-cloth, and,a
round wooden board over all, covered with plates, &c.
SOFALA, 01 Cefala, a kingdom of Africa, lyinrr
on the coaft of Mofambique, near Zanguebar. It is
bounded on the north by Monomotapa ; on the eaft by
the Mofambique Sea; on the fouth by the kingdom of
Sabia ; and on the weft by that of Man'ica. It con¬
tains mines of gold and iron, and a great number of ele¬
phants. ' It is governed by a king, tributary to the
I ortuguefe, who built a fort at the principal town,
which is of the fame name, and of great importance for
their trade to the Eaft Indies. It is ieated in a fmall
ifland, near the mouth of a river. E. Long. 35.40.
S. Lat. 20. 2c. '
SOFFLTA, or Soffit, in architedure, any timber
ceihng formed of crofs beams of flying cornices, the
iquare compartiments Xir pannels of which are enriched
4^3 s with
SoFita
s O H [ co5 1 SOI
with fculpture, painting, or gilding ; fuch are thofe in
the palaces of Italy, and in the apartments of Luxem¬
bourg at Paris.
Soffita, or Soffit, is alfo ufed for the utiderlide or
face of an architrave ; and more particularly for that of
the corona or larmier, which the ancients called lacunar,
the French plafond, and we ufually the drip. It is en¬
riched with compartments of rofes ; and in the Doric
order has 18 drops, difpofed in three ranks, fix in each,
placed to the right of the guttse, at the bottom of the
triglyphs.
SOFI, or Sophi. SceSoPHi.
SOFTENING, in painting, the mixing and diluting
of colours with the brufh or pencil.
SOHO, the name of a fet of works, or manufaftory
of a variety of hard-wares, belonging to Mr Boulton, fi-
tuated on the borders of Staffordfhire, within two miles
of Birmingham ; now fo juftly celebrated as to deferve
a fhort hillorical detail.
About 30 years ago the premifes confided of a fmall
mill and a few obfcure dwellings. Mr Boulton, in con-
jiinftion with Mr Fothergill, then his partner, at an ex-
pcnce of L. 9000, ereHed a handfome and extenfive
edifice, with a view of manufacturing metallic toys.
The firft productions confided of buttons, buckles,
watch-chains, trinkets, and fuch other articles as were
peculiar to Birmingham. Novelty, tade, and vaiiety,
were, however, always confpicuous ; and plated wares,
known by the name of Sheffield plate, comprifing a
gnat variety of ufeful and ornamental articles, became
another permanent fub'ieCt of manufacture.
To open channels for the confumption of thefe com¬
modities, all the northern part of Europe was explored
by the mercantile partner Mr Fothergill. A wide and
extenfive correfpondence was thus edablifhed, the un¬
dertaking became well known, and the manufacturer,
by becoming his own merchant, eventually enjoyed a
double profit.
Impelled by an ardent attachment to the arts, and
by the patriotic ambition of forming his favourite Soho
into a-fruitful feminary of artifts, the proprietor extend¬
ed his views ; and men of tade and talents were now
fought for, and liberally patronifed. A fuccefsful imi¬
tation of the French or mould ornaments, confiding of
vafes, tripods, candelabra, &c. &c. extended the cele¬
brity of the works. Services of plate and other works
in lilver, both maffive and airy, were added, and an af-
fay office rvas edablifhed in Birmingham.
Mr Watt, the ingenious improver of the deam en¬
gine, is now in partnerfhip with Mr Boulton ; and they
carry on at Soho a manufactory of deam engines, not
lefs beneficial to the public than lucrative to themfelves.
This valuable machine, the nature and excellences of
which are defcribed in another place (fee STKAM-Engine),
Mr Boulton propofed to apply to the operation of coin¬
ing, and fuitable apparatus was erefted at a great ex¬
pence, in the hope ef being employed by government
to make a nev copper-coinage for the kingdom. Ar-
tifls of merit were engaged, and fpecimens of exquifite
delicacy were exhibited ; but as no national coinage
has taken place, the works are employed upon high
finifhed medals and private coins. To enumerate all S if,
the productions of this manufactory would be tedious (a).' Seidons*-
In a national view, Mr Boulton’s undertakings are “'r v
highly valuable and important. By collecting around
him artids of various defcriptions, rival talents have
been called forth, and by fucceffive competition have
been multiplied to an extent highly beneficial to the
public. 1 he manual arts partook of the benefit, and
became proportionably improved.
A barren heath has been covered with plenty and
population ; and Mr Boulton’s works, which in their
infancy were little known and attended to, now qover
feveial acres, give employment to more than 600 per-
fons, and are faid to be the fird of their kind in Europe.
SOIL, the mould covering the furface of the earth,
in which vegetables grow. It fervcs as a fupport for
vegetables, and as a refervoir for receiving and commu¬
nicating their nourifhment.
Soils are commonly double or triple compounds of
the feveral reputed primitive earths, except the barytic
(fee Earths). The magnefian likewife fparingly oc¬
curs. The more fertile foils afford alfo a fmall pio-
portion of coally fubdance arifing from putrefaCtion,
and iome’ traces of marine acid and gyplutn. The vul¬
gar divifion into clay, chalk, fand, and gravel, is welt
underftood. Loam denotes any foil moderately adhe-
five ; and, according to the ingredient that predomi¬
nates, it receives the epithets of clayey, chalky, fandy,
or gravelly. The intimate mixture of clay with the
oxydes of iron is called till, and is of a hard confidence
and a dark reddilh colour. Soils are found by analyfis
to contain their earthy ingredients in very different pro¬
portions. According to M. Giobert, fertile mould in
the vicinity of Turin, where the fall of rain amounts
yearly to 40 inches, affords for each 100 parts, from
77 to 79 of filex, from 8 to 14 of argill, and from 5
to X 2 of calx ; befides about one-half of carbonic mat¬
ter, and nearly an equal weight of gas, partly carbonic
and partly hydrocarbomc. The lame experimenter re-
prefents the compoiition of barren foils in fimilar fixa¬
tions to be from 42 to 88 per cent, of lilex, from 20 to
30 of argill, and from 4 to 20 of calx. The celebrated
Bergman found rich foils in the valleys of Sweden,
where the annual quantity of rain is 24 inches, to con¬
tain, for each xoo parts, 56 of liliceous fand, 14 of ar¬
gil!, and 30 cf calx. In the climate of Paris, where the
average fall of rain is 20 inches, fertile mixtures, ac¬
cording to M. Tillet, vary from 46 to 52 per cent, of
lilex, and from 11 to 17 of argill, with 37 of calx.
Hence it appears that in dry countries rich earths are of
a clofer texture, and contain more of the calcareous in¬
gredient, with lefs of the liliceous. Mr Arthur Young
has dilcovered, that the value of fertile lands is nearly
proportioned to the quantities of gas which equal
weights of their foil afford by diftillation. See Agri¬
culture, n0 24. and 118.
SOISSONS, an ancient, large, and confiderable cky
of France, in the department of Aifne and late province
of Soiffonnois. It was the capital of a kingdom of the
fame name, under the firft 1 ace of the French monarchs.
It contains about 12,000 inhabitants, and is a bifhop’a
fee.
(a) It was at this place, in the year 1 772, that Mr Eginton invented Ixis expeditions method of copying
pictures in oil.
S >ke
!!
Solanum
fee.
SOL
The environs are charming,
narrow, and the houfes ill-built. The fine cathedral
— has one of the rnoft conliderable chapters in the kino-,
com ; and the bifhop, when the archbifhop of Rheims
vas ablent, had a no fit to crown the king. I’he cattle
nough ancient, is not that in which the kings of the
firft race refided, Soiffons is feated in a very pkafant
and fertile valley, on the river Aifne, miles weft by
north of Rheims, and 60 north eaft of Paris. E.Lon'r
3- 24. N.Lat.49. 23.
b tv 12, or Sok. See Socagk.
^°c an(^ Socage.
bOi ,n mafic, the fifth note of the gamut, ut, re,
Wh fa9 Jol, la. £>ee Gamut.
SoL’ or1.'Sc“’ a French coin made up of copper mix-
ed with a little filver, and is worth upwards of an Eng-
!p, ha-fPeMy> or the 23d part of an Engl,‘Hr dulling.
The fol when firft ftruck was equal in value to 1 2 de-
iners ournois, whence it was alfo called rfo«zrrr«, a name
U itill retains, tho’ its ancient value be changed ; the fol
having been fince augmented by three deniers’, and ftruck
with a puncheon of a fleur-de-lis, to make it current %r
i 5 deniers. Soon after the old fols were coined over
again, and both old and new were indifferently made
current for tj deniers. In 1709, the value of the fame
fins was raffed to ,8 derners. Towards the latter end
of the reign of Louis XIV. the fol of 18 deniers was
again lowered to 15 ; and by the late king it was re-
duceu to the original value of !2. What it is at pre-
ient polcenty may perhaps difeover.
The Dutch have alfo nvo kinds of fols: the one of
idver, calledde gros, and likewife fcbelling; the other
of copper, called alfo the Jluyver,
Sol, the Sun, m aftronomy, aftrolopry, &c. gee
Astronomy, p ^ee
. S°D chemiftry, is gold ; thus called from an opi-
nion that this metal is in a particular manner under the
influence of the fun.
Sol, in heraldry, denotes Or, the golden colour in
•tne arms or lovereign princes.
SOLiEUS, or Soleus, in anatomv, one of the ex
tenfor mufcles of the foot, rifing from the upper and
hinder parts of the tibia and fibula.
’ -in IornitholQffy- See Pelicanus.
SOL.-lNDRA, in botany: A genus of plants be¬
longing to the clals of monoektybia, and to the order of
polyandria ; and m the natural fyftem arranged under
tlie 38th order, Tncocce*. The calyx is limple ; the
capfule oblong wreathed, and five-celled ; the feeds are
in any, difpofed m cells in a double order. The valves
after maturity are divaricated, even to the bafe, and
winged inwards by the partition. The only fpecies Is
the Lob at a. This genus was fhft named Solandra, in
honour of Er Solander by Murray in the 14th edition
of the byjtema Vegetabiltum.
SOLANUM, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandnu clals of plants ; and
m the natural method ranking under the 28th order
• rhe ca!yx !'s inferior; the corolla is rotate!
and generally monophyllous; the fruit a berry, hilocu-
Jar, and containing many fmall and fiat feeds. Of this
fT mo{' stives of the
^“ ,,ari1 ; ■ ft llclia- rhe moil remarkable of which
are the following.
1. The Dulcamara, a native of Britain and of Africa
r 507 '1 SOL
but the ftreets are ? Render climbing plant, rifing to fix or more feet in Solatium
height. The leaves are generally oval, pointed, and of '   
a deep green colour; the flowers hang in loofe chillers,
of a purple colour,.and divided into five pointed feg!
to^ve -n ^ r }n ‘S pUrple> Per6ltent, and divided in¬
to five. I he five filaments are fhort, black, and inferted
into the tube of the corolla. The anthers yellow, erect
and united m a point as iffual in this genus. Ti c ftyk
,s long,, and.terminates in an. obtuie ftigma. The berry
w ten ripe, is red, and contains many flat yellowifh feeds
It grows m hedges well fupplied with water, and
flowers about the end of June. On chewing the roots
we hrft feel a bitter, then a fweet, tafte Whence the
"T'k 1 m frn? are faid to be Poifonous, and may
eafily be mrftaken by children for currants. The flipSs
or younger, branches are directed for ufe, and may be
employed either frcfli or dried : they ftiould be gather¬
ed in the autumn. 1 his plant is generally enVerf in de
co; ,on or mfufion. Razou direfts the following: Take
dried dulcamara twigs half a dram, and pour upgon it ^
ounces of ipnng water, which mull be boiled^iown to
8 ounccs . then ftrain it. Three or fi2ur tea ipoonfuk To
be taken every four hours, diluted with milk to prevent
ts exciting a naufea Several authors take notice that
the duJcamara partakes of the milder powers of the
nightfltade, joined to a refolvent and fapcmaceous quit
H 5 henrce ,L Pr«motes the fecretions of urine Lax
the menfes, and iochta. It is recommended in J • ’
«* <■»-*" > j-f pwticnla-ljr in ^
dffeX S’ " Chia’ ^ In 101116 cutaneous
feet in hefofo rpi n ,, ^ 6 11 nfes to ab»'it two
reet in height I he ftalk herbaceous, the leaves alter
rate, irregularly oval, indented, and clothed with foft
hmrs. The flowers ore white ; the berries black an
filming. It appears to poilefs the deleaerious onalff.
ol the other nightfhades in a very hbh deoree ^ a
the Imell of the plan, is faid t^ Lufc flt^. ^ ^
nes are equally poffonous with the leavesranLL ,
dfc„d
eraal ufe in md fores, in fcrofolous and cancerous ulcers"
cutaneous eruptions, and in droplies. Hefavs thqt ’
gram mfufed in an „,mee of wa£r fometimes piod X
confiderable efM ; that in the dofe of two or Three
grams ,t feldorn fafled to evacuate the firft pafliges to in-
create very fenlibly the difeharges by theflein^n^
neys and fometimes to ocoaflon headsTh, drowfinefs rid'
dmefs, and d.mneis of %ht. Mt Broomfield deciams*
that in cafes in which lie tried this folanum, they were
much aggravated by ,t , and that in one cafe in the
dofc of one gram ,t proved mortal to one of his oa
twiits ; thereiore he contends its ufe is prejudicial Thi ■
opinion fee,ns tacitly to be confirmedfas it Ts now ni
ver given mternally. I„ ancient times it "“TloT
ed externally as a difciment and anodyne in fome 'cuta
neous affeflions, tumefaSions of the glands, ulcers T„d
oifoi ders of the eyes. The/»/nn,™ ‘
native of the Weft Indies, is called by thc ’ “
htTfiia/itb d {"/'“'n hn""'g any d£j«™>is qua.
y, that it is daily ferved up at table as greens or fni„
nage. It has an agreeable bitter tafte ^ b °r T111*
. Ly'°P<rfc™, the love-apple, or tomato, cultivated
in gardens in the warmer parts of Europe and in all trt
' pical
SOL [ 59
Solar.nm plcal countries. 1 be ftalk is herbaceous, the leaves
1 H • ■ pinnated, oval, pointed, and deeply divided. The flowers
tJl_‘der- are on Ample/tot : they are fmall and yellow. The
s*p«—v—j^rry is of the fize of a plum; they are fmooth,
fhining, foft; and are either of a yellow or reddifli co¬
lour. 1 The tomato is in daily ufe ; being either boiled
in foups or broths, or ferved up boiled as garnifhes to
flelh-meats.
4 Mclongena, the egg-plant, or vegetable egg., ihis
is alfo cultivated in gardens, particularly in Jamaica. It
feldom rifes above a foot in height, ihe italic is her¬
baceous and fmooth ; the leaves oval and downy ; the
flowers are large and blue ; the fruit is as big, and very
the egg oi a goofe. It is often ufed boiled as a
vegetable along with animal food or butter, and luppo-
fed to he aphrodifiac and to cure fterility.
j. Longum. This plant is alfo herbaceous, but grows
much ranker than the foregoing. The flowers are blue;
and the fruit is fix or eight inches long, and propor¬
tionally thick. It is boiled and eaten at table as the
egg-plant. ^ ‘
6. Tuler of urn, the common potato, bee Potato.
SOLAR, fomething belonging to the Sun.
Solar-Sms. See Astronomy-/«</«c.
SOLDAN. See Sultan.
SOLDANELLA, in botany; A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and order of mono-
gynia; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
2i ft order, T-ecue. The corolla is campanulated ; the
border being very finely cut into a great many feg-
ments. The capfule is unilocular, and its apex poly-
dentate. .
SOLDER, Sodder, or Soder, a metallic or mineral
compofition ufed in foldering or joining together other
metals. . .r
Solders are made of gold, filver, copper, tin, bitmuth,
and had ; ufually obferving, that in the compolkion
there be feme ot the metal that is to be foldered mixed
with fome higher and finer metals. Goldfmiths ufually
make four kinds of folder, viz. folder of eight, where
to feven parts of filver there is one of brafs or copper ;
folder of fix, where only a fixth part is. copper; folder
of four, and folder of three. It is the mixture of cop¬
per in the folder that makes raifed plate come always
, cheaper than flat.
As mixtures of gold with a little copper are found
to melt with lefs heat than pure gold itfelf, thefe mix¬
tures ferve as folders for gold : two pieces of fine gold
are foldered by gold that has a fmall admixture of cop-
per; and gold alloyed with copper is foldered by fuch
as is alloyed with more copper: the"workmen add a
little filver as well as copper, and vary the proportions
of the two to one another, lo as to make the colour ot
the folder correfpond as nearly as may be to that of the
piece. A mixture of gold and copper is alfo a folder
for fine copperas well as for fine trold. Gold being
particularly difpofed to unite with iron, proves an ex¬
cellent folder for the finer kinds of iron and fteel inftru-
ments. •
The folder ufed by plumbers is made of two pounds
of lead to one of block tin. Its goodnefs is tried by
melting it, and pouring the bignefs ot a crowm piece on
a table ; for, it good, there will arile little bright Alining
liars therein. The folder for copper is made like that
of the plumbers; only with copper and tin ; and for
5 ] SOL
very nice works, inftead of tin, they Ibrnetirnes ufe a Solderirg.
quantity of filver. Solder for tin is made of two-thirds ^
of tin and one of lead, or of equal parts of each ; but
where the work is any thing delicate, as in organ pipes,
where the junfture is fcarce difcernible, it is made of
one part of bifmuth and three parts of pewter. The
pewterers ufe a kind of folder made with two parts of
tin and one of bifmutfr'; this compofition melts with the
leaft heat of any of the folders.
Silver folder is that which is made of two parts of
filver and one of brafs, ^nd ufed in foldering thofe me¬
tals. Spelter folder is made of one part of brafs and
two'of ipelter or zinc, and is ufed by the braziers and
copperfmiths for foldering brafs, copper, and iron. This
folder is improved by adding to each ounce of it one
pennyweight of filver ; but as it does not melt without
a confiderable degree of heat, it cannot be ufed when
it is inconvenient to heat the work red-hot; in which
cafe copper and brafs are foldered with filver.
I hough fpelter folder be much cheaper than filver-
folder, yet workmen in many cafes prefer the latter.
And Mr Boyle informs us, that he has found it to run
with fo moderate a heat, as not much to endanger the
melting of the delicate parts of the work to be loldered;
and if well made, this filver folder will lie even upon the
ordinary kind itfelf; and fo fill up thofe little cavities
that may chance to be left in the firft operation, which
is ^ot eafily done without a folder more eafily fulible .
than the firft made ufe of. As to iron, it is fufficient
that it be heated to a white heat, and th^two extremities,
in this Hate, be hammered together; by which means
they become incorporated one with the other.
SOLDERING, the joining and faftening together of
two pieces of the fame metal, or of two different metals,
by the fufion and application of fome metallic compofi¬
tion on the extremities of the metals to be joined
To folder upon filver, brafs, or iron ; Take filver,
five pennyweights ; brafs, four pennyweights ; melt
them to ) ether for foft folder, which runs fooneft. Take
filver, five pennyweights; copper, three pennyweights;
melt them together for hard folder. Beat the folder
thin, and lay it on the place to be foldered, which mull
be firft fitted and bodnd together with wire as occafion
requires ; then take borax in powder, and temper it
like pap, and lay it upon the folder, letting it dry ; ,
thtn cover it with live coals, and blow, and it will
run immediately ; take it prefently out of the fire, and
it is done. It is to be obferved, that if any thing is to
be foldered in two places, which cannot well be done at
one time, you mull firft folder with the harder folder,
and then wuth the foft ; for if it be firft done with the
foft, it will unfolder again before the other is faflened.
Let it be obferved, that if you would not have your
folder run about the piece that is to be foldered, you
mull rub fuch places over, with chalk—In the foldering
either of gold, filver, copper, or either of the metals
above mentioned, there is generally ufed borax in pow- '
der, and fometimes rofin. As to iron, it is frifficient
that it be heated r^d-hot, and the two extremities thus
hammered together, by which means they will become
incorporated with each other. For the finer kinds of
iron and fteel irftruments, however, gold proves an ex¬
cellent folder. . This metal will diffolve twice or thrice
its weight of iron in a degree of heat very far lefs than
that in which iron itfelf melts : hence if a fmall plate of
gold ,
-)
SOL
SoMier gold Is wrapped round the parts to be joined, and af-
jll, terwards melted by a blow-pipe, it ftrongly unites the
.nieces together without any injury to the inftrument,
however delicate.
SOLDIER, a military man lifted to ferve a prince
or ftate in confideration of a certain daily pay.
SoiniER-Crab. See Cancer
Frefo Water Soldier. See Stratiotes.
SOLE, in the manege, a fort of horn'under a horfe’s
foot, which is much more tender- than the other horn that
encompaffes the loot, and by reafon of its hardneis is pro¬
perly called the horn or hoof.
Sole, in ichthyology. See.PLEURONECTEs.
•SOLEA. See Sandal and Shoe.
SOLECISM, in grammar, a falfe manner of {peak¬
ing, contrary to the rules of grammar, either in refpe6t
of declenfton, conjugation, or fyntax.—The word is
Greek, <ro\oir.uTy.<@r, derived from the Soli, a people of
Attica, who being tranfplanted to Cilicia, loft the pu¬
rity of their ancient tongue, and became ridiculous
to the Athenians for the improprieties into which they
fell.
SOLEMN, fomething performed with much pomp,
ceremony, and expence. Thus we fay, folemn feafts,
folemn funerals, folemn games, &c.—In hew, folemn fig-
nines fomething authentic, or what is clothed in all its
formalities.
SOLEN, razor-sheath, or Knife-handle Shell', a
genus belonging to the clafs of vermes, and order of
tefacea. The animal is an afeidia. The fhell is bivalve,
oblong, and opening at both.ftdes: the hinge has a tooth
fhaped like an awl, bent back, often double, not infert-
ed into the oppofite ft ell ; the rim at the fides fome-
w hat worn away, and has a horny cartilaginous hinge.
There are 23 fpecies. Three of them, viz. the filiqua,
vagina, and enfis, are found on the Britifh coafts, and
lurk in the fand near the low-water mark in a perpen¬
dicular direction. When in want of food they elevate
one end a little above the furface, and protrude their
bodies far out of the fhelk On the approach of dan¬
ger they dart deep into the fand, fometimes two feet at
leaft. Their place is known by a frnall dimple on the
furface. Sometimes they are dug out with a fhovel; at
other times they are taken by ftriking a barbed dart
fuddenly into them. When the fea is down, thefe fifh
ufually run deep into the fand ; and to bring them up,
the common cuftom is to throw a little fait into the
holes, on which the fifh raifes itfelf, and in a few mi-
nutes appears at the mouth of its hole. When half the
fhell is difeovered, the fifherman has nothing more to
.do than to take hold of it with his fingers and draw it
out : but he muft be cautious not to lofe the occalion,
for the creature does not continue a moment in that
ftate ; and if by any means the fifherman has touched
it, and let it flip away, it is gone for ever ; for it will
not be decoyed again out of its hole by fait ; fo that
there is then no way of getting it but by digging un¬
der it, and throwing it up with the fand. The fifh has
two pipes, each compofed of four or five rings or por¬
tions of a hollow cylinder, of unequal lengths, joined
one to another ; and the places where they join arc
marked by a number of fine itreaks or rays. Now the
reafon why the fait makes thefe creatures come up out
of their holes, is, that it gives them violent pain, and
even corrodes thefe pipes. Tins is fomewhat ft range,
S O L
as the cieature is nomifhed by means of fait-water; but Soleure, ■
it is very evident, that if a little fait be ftrewed upon SolLiug.
thefe pipes in a fifh taken out of its habitation, it will ^ J
corrode the joinings of the rings, and often make one
or more joints drop off: the creature, to avoid this mif-
chief, arifes out of its hole, and throws off the fait, and
then retires back again. The ufe of thefe pipes to the
animal is the fame with that of many other pipes of a
like kind in . other fhell-fifh ; they all ferve to take in
water: they are only a continuation of the outer
membrane of the fifh, and ferve indifferently for taking
in *nd throwing out the water, one receiving, and the
other difeharging it, and either-anfwering equally welt
to. their pnrpofe. See Animal Motjon.
This fifh was ufed as food by the ancients; and
Athemeus, from Sophron, fpeaks of it as a great de- x
licacy, and particularly grateful to widows. It is often
ufed as food at prefeiit, and is brought up to table fried
in eggs.
SOLEURE, a canton of Swifferland, which holds
the 1 ith rank in the Helvetic confederacy, into which
it was admitted in the year 1481. It ftretches partly
through the plain, and partly along the chains of the
Jura, and contains about 50,000 inhabitants. It is 35
miles in length from north to fouth, and 35 in breadth
from eaft to weft. The foil for the moft part is exceed¬
ingly fertile in corn ; and the diftrkfts within the Jura
abound in excellent paftures. The trade both of the
town and canton is of little value, although they 'are
very commodioufty fituated for an extenfive commerce.
It is divided into \ 1 bailiwicks, the inhabitants of which
are all Roman Catholics except thofe of the bailiwick of
Buckegberg, who profefs the reformed religion. Ths
lovereign power refides in the great council, which,
comprifing the fenate or little council of 36* confifts of
io.> members, chofen by the fenate in equal proportions
from the 11 tribes or companies into which the ancient
burghers are diftributed ; and, owing to the diftinitron
between the ancient and the new burghers (the former
confifting of only 85 families) the government is a com¬
plete arillocracy.
Soleure, an ancient and extremely neat town of
Swifferland, capital of the canton of the fame name. It
contains about 4000 inhabitants, and is pleafantly feat-
ed on the Aar, which here expands into a noble river;
Among the moft remarkable objects of currofity in this
town is the new church of St ’Urs, which was begun
in 1762 ancf finifhed in 1772. It is a noble edifice of
a whitifh grey ftone, drawn from the neighbouring quar¬
ries, which admits a pohftr, and is a fpecies of rude mar*
ble. The lower part of the building is of the Corin¬
thian, the upper of the Compofite order. The facade,
which Confifts of a portico, furmounted by an elegant
tower, prefents itfelr finely at the extremity of the prin¬
cipal ftreet. It coft at leaft L. 80,000, a confiderable
fum for fuch a final! republic, whole revenue fcarcely
exceeds L. 12,000 a year. Soleure is furrounded by
regular ftone fortifications, and is 20 miles north north-
eafl of Bern, 27 fouth fouth-weft of Bafle, and'45 weft
of Zurich. £. Long. 7. 20. N. Lat. 47. 15.
SOLFAING, in mufic, the naming or pronouncing
the feveral notes of a fong by the fyllables ut, re, mi, fa,
fol, &c. in learning to fing it.
Of the feven notes in the French fcale vt, re, mi, fa,
fol, la, ft, only four are ufed among us in linging, as
8 mi,
[ .599 ]
s o L [ <5oo 1 SOL
t^faing, Kif j'0j' /,,; their office is principally, in finning,
^iter, a. that by applying them to every note of the fcale, it may
not only be pronounced with more eafe, but chiefly
that by them the tones and femitones ot the natural
fcale may be better marked out and dittinguiihed. Thi,s
dehgn is obtained by the four fyilables fu, fol, la, mi.
Thus from fa to fol is a tone, nl o from fol to la, and
from la to mi, without diftinguiffiing the greater or lefs
tone ; but from /a to /h, alio from mi to fa, is only a
iemitone. If then thefe be applied in this order, fa, Jb/,
la, fa, fol, la, mi, fa. See. they exprefs the natural feries
from C ; and if that be repeated to a ftcond or third
odfave, we fee by them how to exprefs all the different
orders of tones and femitones in the'diatonic fcale ; and
Hill above mi will .fland/a, fol, la, and below it the fame
inverted la, fol, fa, '&\\d one wi is always diflant from
another an oefave ; which cannot be faid of any of the
reft, beeaufe after mi alcending come always fa, fol, la,
which are repeated invertedly defeending.
To conceive the life of this, it is to be remembered,
that the firft thing in learning to ling, is to make one
raife a fcale of notes by tones and femitones to an oc¬
tave, and defeend again by the lame ; and then to rife
and fall by greater intervals at a leap, as thirds and
fourths, &c. and to do all this by beginning at notes of
different pitch. Then thofe notes are reprefented by
lines and fpaces, to which thefe fyllables are applied,
and the learners taught to name each line and fpace
thereby, which makes what we call folfaing ; the ufe
whereof is, that while they are learning to tune the de¬
grees and intervals of found exprefi'edby notes on a line
or fpace, or learning a fong to which no words are ap¬
plied, they may not only do it the better by means of
articulate lounds, but chiefly that by knowing the
degrees and intervals expreffed by thole fyllables, they
may more readily know the places of the femitones, and
the true diflance of the notes. See the article Sing¬
ing.
SOLFATERRA, a mountain of Italy in the king¬
dom of Naples, and Terra dt Lavoro. This mountain
appears evidently to have been a volcano in ancient
times ; and the foil is yet fo hot, that the workmen em¬
ployed there in making alum need nothing elfe befides
the heat of the ground for evaporating their liquids.
Of this mountain we have the following account by Sir
William Hamilton. “ Near Attruni (another mourn-
tain", formerly a volcano likewife) rifes the Solfatena,
which not only retains its cone and crater, but much
of its former heat. In the plain within the crater,
fmoke iffues from many parts, as alfo from its lides :
here, by means of Hones and tiles heaped over the cre¬
vices, through which the imoke paffes, they colledf in
an aukward manner what they call fate armoniaco;
and from the land of the plain they extraft iulphur and
alum. This Ipot, well attended to, might certainly
produce a good revenue, whereas I doubt if they have
hitherto ever cleared E. 200 a-year by it. The hollow
found produced by throwing a heavy Hone on the plain Soifjterrn
of the crater of the Solfaten a, feems to indicate that it II
is fupported by a fort of arched natural vault; and one S<^"^
is induced to think that there is a pool of wrater be¬
neath this vault (which boils by the heat of a fubter-
raneous fire ftill deeper), by the very moift fleam that
iffues from the cracks in the plain of the Solfatena,
which, like that of boiling water, runs off a fword or
knife, prefented to it, in great drops. On the outfide,
and at the foot ot the cone of the Solfaterra, towards
the lake of Agpano, water ruffes out of the rocks fo
hot as to raite the quickfilver in Fahrenheit’s thermo-
meter to the degree of boiling water (a) ; a fadf of
which I was mylelf an eye-witnefs. This place, well
worthy the obfervation of the curious, has been taken
little notice of; it is called the Ptfciarelli. The com¬
mon people of Naples have great faith in the efficacy of
this water ; and make much of it in all cutaneous dif-
orders, as well as for another diforder that prevails here.
It feems to be impregnated chiefly with fulphur and
alum. When you approach your ear to the rocks of
the Pifciarclli, from whence this water ouzes, you hear
a horrid boiling noife, which feems to proceed from
the huge cauldron that may be fuppofed to be under
the plain of the Solfaterra. On the other fide ef the
Solfaterra, next the fea, there is a rock which has com¬
municated with the fea, till part of it was cut away to
make the road to Puzzole; this was undoubtedly a con-
fiderable lava, that ran from the Solfaterra when it was
an aftive volcano. Under this rock of lava, which i>
more than 70 feet high, there is a ffratum of pumice
and affies. This ancient lava is about a quarter of a
mile broad.; you meet with it abruptly before you come
in fight of Puzzole, and it finiffies as abruptly within
about 100 paces of the town. The ancient name of
the Solfaterra was Forum Vulcani; a ftrong proof of its
origin from fubterraneous fire. The degree of heat
that the Solfaterra has preferved for fo many ages,
feems to have calcined the ftones upon its cone and in
its crater, as they are very white and crumble eafily in
the hotteft parts. See Chemistry, n° 656.
SOLICITOR, a perfon employed to take care of
and manage fuits depending in the courts of law or
eqtdty. Solicitors are within the ftatute to be fworn,
and admitted by the judges, before they are allowed
to pradfife in our courts, in like manner as attorneys.
There is alfo a great officer of the law, next to the
attorney-general, who is ftyled the king’s folicitor-ge-
neral ; who holds his office by patent during the king’s
plealure, has the care and concern of managing the
king’s affairs, and has fees for pleadmg, befidts other
fees arifing by patents, &c. He attends on the privy-
council; and the attorney-general and he were anciently
reckoned among the officers of the exchequer; they
have their audience, and come within the bar in all
other courts.
SOLID, in philofophy, a body whofe parts are fo
firmly
(a) “I have remarked, that after a great fall of ram, the degree of heat in this water is much lefs;
which will account for what Padre Torre lays (in his book, intitled Jrhjloire tt Phmomenes du Vejuve), that
when he tried it in company with Monfieur de la Condamine, the degree of heat, upon Reaumur’s thermo¬
meter, was 68 p.
SOL [601] SOL
“W"? ei*« ^ '’l>ole bafe into a t!n,d part of 3o!ilo,„v.
toPilzV/ ^ 0ther, m WkiCh {™tQf°ltd ftand8 0PPofe(i the height, or the whole height into a third part of the Snl'limi-
to fluid.
Geometricians define a folid to be the third fpecies
of magnitude, or that which has three dimeufions, viz.
length, breadth, and thicknefs or depth.
Solids are commonly divided into regular and irregu-
lar. The regular folids are thofe terminated by regular
and equal planes, and are only five in number, viz. the
tetrahedron, which conlifts of four equal triangles ; the
cube or hexahedron, of fix equal fquares; the oftahe-
dion, of eight equal triangles; the dodecahedron, of
twelve ; and the icofihedron, of twenty equal triangles.
The irregular folids are almoll infinite, comprehend-
ing all fuch as do not come under the definition of re¬
gular folids ; as the fphere, cylinder, cone, parallelo¬
gram, prifm, parallelepiped, &c.
Solids, in anatomy, are the bones, ligaments, mem¬
branes, mufcles, nerves and veffels, &c.
The folid parts of the body, though equally compo-
fed of vefl'eb, arc different with regard to their confid¬
ence ; fome being hard and others foft. The hard, as
the bones and cartilages, give firmnefs and attitude to
the body, and fuftain the other parts : the foft parts,
either alone or together with the hard, ferve to execute
the animal fun&ions. See Anatomy.
SOLID AGO, in botany: A genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs fyngens/ia, and to the order of
poly gam ta fuperflua ; and in the natural fyflem ranging
under the 49^^ order, Compojitx. The receptacle is na¬
ked ; the pappus fimple ; the radii are commonly five ;
the feales of the calyx are imbricated and curved inward.
There are 14 fpecies ; fempervirens, canadenfis, altifix-
ma, lateriflora, bicolor, lanceolata, coefia, mexicana, flex-
icauhs, latifolia, virgaurea, minuta, rigida, noveboracen-
lis.. Among thefe there is only one fpecies, which is a
native of Britain, the virgaurea, or golden rod, which
grows frequently in rough mountainous paftures and
woods. 1 he ftems are branched, and vary from fix
inches to five feet high, but their common height is
about a yard. The leaves are a little hard and rough
to the touch ; the lower ones oval-lanceolate, generally
a little ferrated and fupported on footffalks ; thofe on
the flalks are elliptical; the flowers are yellow, and
grow in fpikes from the ala; of the leaves ; the feales of
the calyx are lanceolate, of unequal length, and of a
pale green colour; the female florets in the rays are
from five to eight in number; the hermaphrodite flowers
in the dife from ten to twelve. There is a variety of
this fpecies called chmbrica to be found on rocks from
fix inches to a foot high.
SOLIDITY, that property of matter, or body, by
which it excludes all other bodies from the place which
itfelf pofTeffes; and as it would be abfurd to fuppofe
that two bodies could poflefs one and the fame place at
the fame time, it follows, that the fofteft bodies are
equally folid with the hardeft. See Metaphysics,
n°44. 173. &c.
Among geometricians, the folidity of a body denotes
the quantity or fpace contained in it, and is called alfo
its fohd content.
. ^ he iolidity of a cube, prifm, cylinder, or parallelo-
PpPeCVs.h.ad by milltip]ying its bails into its height.
1 he folidity o! a pyramid or cone is had by mul-
Vol. XVII. Part II. 7
bafe.
SOLILOQUY, 3 teafoning or difeourfe which a
man holds with himfelf; or, more properly, according
to 1 apias, it is a difeourfe by way of aiifwer to a quef-
tion that a man propofes to himfdf.
Soliloquies are become very common on the mo¬
dern ftage; yet nothing can be more inartificial, or
moie unnatural, than an a£for,s making long fpeeches
to himfelf, to convey his intentions to the audience.
Where fuch difeoveries are neceflary to be made, the
poet fhould rather take care to give the dramatic per-
fons fuch confidants as may neceflarily fhare their in-
moft thoughts ; by which means they will be more na¬
turally conveyed to the audience ; yet even this is a
Ihift which an accurate poet would not have occafion
for. The following line? of the duke of Buckingham
concerning the ufe and abufe of fohloquies deferve* at¬
tention :
Soliloquies had need be very few,
Extremely fhort, and fpoke in paffion too.
Our lovers talking to themfelves, for want
Of others, make the pit their confidant:
Nor is the matter mended yet, if thus
They trull a friend, only to tell it us.
■ SO LIMAN II. emperor of the Turks, furnamed
the Magnificent, was the only fon of Selim I. whom he
fucceeded in 1520. He was educated in a manner ve¬
ry different from the Ottoman princes in general; for he
was inltru&ed in the maxims of politics and the fecrets
of government. He began his reign by reftoring thofe
pertons their pofleflions whom his father had unjultly
plundered*.. He re-eltablifhed the authority of the tri-
bunals, which was almoft annihilated, and bellowed the
government of provinces upon none but perfons of
wealth and probity: “ I would have my viceroys (he
ufed to fay) relemble thofe rivers that fertilize the
fields through which they pafs, not thofe torrents which
fweep every thing before them.”
Alter concluding a truce with Ifmael Sophy of Per-
fia, and fubduing Gozeli Bey, who had raifed a rebel¬
lion in Syria, he turned his arms a^ainll Europe. Bel¬
grade was taken in 1521, and Rhodes fell into his
hands the year following, after an ubllinate and enthu-
fiallic defence. In 1526 he defeated and flew the kimr
of Hungary in the famous battle of Mohatz. Three
years after he conquered Buda, and immediately laid
liege to Vienna itfelf. But after continuing 20 days
before that city, and aflaulting it 20 times, he was obli¬
ged to retreat with the lots of 8o,oco men. Some time
after he was defeated by the Perfians, and difappointed
in his hopes of taking Malta. He fucceeded, however,
in difpolTefling the Genoefe of Chio, an Hand which
had belonged to that republic for more than 203
years.
He died at the age of 76, while he was befieging Si-
geth, a town in Hungary, on the 30th Augull 1566.
. He was f prince of the ftri&efl probity, a lover of jiif-
tice, and vigorous in the execution of it; but he tar-
nilhed all his glory by the cruelty of his difpofition
After the battle of Mohatz he ordered 1500 prifoners,
moll of them gentlemen, to be ranged in a circle, and
beheaded in prefence of his whole army.
4 G Soliman
SOL [ 602 ]
SoKpuga Soliman thought nothing impoffible which he com¬
il manded : A general having received orders to throw a
^So’omon. over the Drave, wrote him, that it was impof-
fible? The fultan fent him a long band of linen with
thefe words written on it: “ The emperor Soliman,
thy mailer, orders thee to build a bridge over the Drave
in fpite of the difficulties thou mayeft meet with. He
informs thee at the fame time, that if the bridge be not
finifhed upon his arrival, be will hang thee with the
very linen which informs thee of his will.”
SOLIPUGA, or Solifuga, in natural hiftory, the
name given by the Romans to a fmall venomous infeft
of the fpider-kind, called by the Greeks ;
both words iignifying an animal which flings moil in
the country, and feafons where the inn is moil hot.
Solinus makes this creature peculiar to Sardinia ; but
this is contrary to all the accounts given us by the an¬
cients. It is common in Africa and fome parts of Eu¬
rope. A-lmoil all the hot countries produce this veno¬
mous little creature. It lies under the fand to feize
other infedts as they go by ; and if it meet with any
uncovered part of a man, produces a wound which
proves very painful: it is laid that the bite is abiolutely
mortal, but probably this is not true. Solinus writes
the word and fo do many others, erroneoufly
deriving the name from the notion that this animal flies
from the fun’s rays, and buries itfelf in the fand.
SOLIS (Antonio de), an ingenious Spanifh writer,
of an ancient and illuftrious family, born at Piacenza
m Old Caftile, in 1610. He was intended for the
law ; but his inclination toward poetry prevailed, and
he cultivated it with great fuccefs. Philip IV. of Spain
made him one of his fccretaries ; and after his death
the queen-regent appointed him hiftoriographer of the
Indies, a place of great profit and honour : his Hiltory
of the Conqueft of Mexico ffiows that ffie could not
have named a fitter perfon. He is better known by this
hiflory at leafl abroad, than by his poetry and dramatic
writings, though in thefe he was alio diflinguiffied. He
turned prieil at 57 years of age, and died in 1686.
SOLITARY, that which is remote from the com¬
pany or commerce of others of the fame fpecies.
SOLITA RIES, a denomination of nuns of St Peter
of Alcantara, inftituted in 1676, the delign of which
was to imitate the fevere penitent life of that faint.
Thus they are to keep a continual lilence, never to
open their mouths to a ftranger ; to employ their time
wholly in fpiritual exercifes, and leave their tempo¬
ral concerns to a number of maids, who have a particu-
lar fuperior in a feparate part of the monallery : they
always go bare-footed, without fandals ; gird themfelves
with a thick cord, and-wear no linen.
SOLO, in the Italian mulic, is frequently ufed in
pieces confifting of feveral parts, to mark tbofe that ate
to perform alone ; as fiauto folo, ■violino folo. It is alio
ufed for fenatas compofed for one violin, one German
flute, or other inflrument, and a bafs ; thus we fay,
Corelli's Jolos, Geminiani’s folos, See. When two or three
parts play or fine feparately from the grand chorus,
they are called a dot Joh, a tre Jail) &c. Solo is fome-
times denoted by S.
SOLOMON, the fern of David king of Ifrael, re¬
nowned in Scripture for his wifdom, riches, and magni-
ficent temple and other buildings. Towards the end
of his life he fullied all hi a former glory by his apoftacy
SOL
from God; from which caufe vengeance was denoun¬
ced againft his houfe and nation. He died about 975 ,
B. C.
Solomon's Seal, in botany; a fpecies of Convalla-
RIA.
SOLON, one of the feven wife men of Greece, was
born at Salamis, ot Athenian parents, who were de-
feended from Codrus. His father leaving little patri¬
mony, he had recourfe to merchandife for his fubfiil-
ence. hie had, however, a greater thirft after know¬
ledge and fame than after riches, and made bis mercan¬
tile voyages lubfervient to the increafe of his intellec¬
tual treafures. He very early cultivated the art of poe¬
try, and applied himfelf to the fludy of moral and civil
wifdom. When the Athenians, tired out with a long
and troublefome war with the Megarenfians, for the re¬
covery of the ifle of Salamis, prohibited any one, under
pain of death, to propofe the renewal of their claim to
that iiland, Solon thinking the prohibition difhonourable
to the flate, and finding many of the younger citizens de-
lirous to revive the war, feigned himfelf mad, and took
care to have the report of his infanity fpread thro’ the
city. In the mean time he cpmpofed an elegy adapted
to the ftate of public affairs, which he committed to
memory. Every thing being thus prepared, he fallied
forth into the market-place with the kind of cap on his
head which was commonly worn by fick perfons, and,
afeending the herald’s Hand, he delivered, to a nume¬
rous crowd, his lamentation for the defertion of Sala¬
mis. The verfes were heard with general applaufe ;
and Pififtratus feconded his advice, and urged the
people to renew the war. The decree was immediately
repealed ; the claim to Salamis was refumed ; and the
conduct of the war was committed to Solon and Pifif-
tratus, who, by means of a ftratagem, defeated the Me¬
garenfians, and recovered Salamis.
His popularity-was extended through Greece in con-
fequence of a fuccefsful alliance which he fonnedamong
the ftates in defence of the temple at Delphos againft the
Cirrhasans. When diffenfions had arifen at Athens be¬
tween the rich creditors and their poor debtors, Solon
was created archon, with the united powers of fupreme
legiflator and magiftrate. He foon reflored harmony
between the rich and poor: He cancelled the debta
which had proved the occafion of fo much oppieffion ;
and ordained that in future no creditor fhould be allow¬
ed to feize the body of the debtor for his fecurity : He
made a new diftribution of the people, inftituted new
courts of judicature, and framed a judicious code of
law’s, which afterwards became the bails of the laws of
the twelve tables in Rome. Among his criminal laws
are many wife and excellent regulations ; but the code
is necefl'arily defective with refpedft to thofe principles
which mull be derived from the knowledge ot the true
God, and of pure morality, as the certain foundations of
national happinefs. Two of them in partitular w-ere
very- exceptionable ; the permiffion of a voluntary exile
to perfons that had been guilty of premeditated mur¬
der, and the appointment of a lefs fevere puniffiment
for a rape than for feduttion. Thofe who vvifh to fee
accurately dated the comparative excellence of the laws
of Mofes, of Lycurgus, and Solon, may confult Prize
Diffeitations relative to Natural and Revealed Religion
by Teyler’s Theological Society, Vol. IX.
The interview which Solon is faid to have had with
Credits.
Solomos;
Solon.
Selfticc
SOM [
Croefns kln^ of Lydia, the folid remarks of the fage
Sombrero. after furveyin3 tlie monarch’s wealth, the recolleftion of
t, f . , thofe remarks by Croefus when doomed to die, and the
noble condud of Cyrus on that occafion, are known to
every fchoolboy. Solon died in the ifland of Cyprus,
about the 8oth year of his age. Statues were ereded
to his memory both at Athens and Salamis. His thud
after knowledge continued to the laft : “ I grow old
(laid he) learning many things.” Among the apo¬
thegms and precepts which have been afcribed to So¬
lon, are the following : Laws are like cobwebs, that
entangle the weak, but are broken through by the
ftrong. He who has learned to obey, will know how to
command. In all things let reafon be your guide. Di¬
ligently contemplate excellent things. In every thing
that you do, confider the end.
SOLSTICE, in aftronomy, that time when the fun
L in one of the folflitial points ; that is, when he is at
his greateft diftance from the equator ; thus called be-
caufe he then appears to Hand Hill, and not to change
his diftance from the equator for fome time; an appear¬
ance owing to the obliquity of our fphere, and which
thofe living under the equator are {dangers to.
1 he folftices are two in each year; the seftival or
fummer folftice, and the hyemal or winter folftice. The
fummer folftice is when the fun feems to defcribe the
tropic of cancer, which is on June 22. when he makes
the longeft day: the winter folftice is when the fun en¬
ters the firfl: degree, or feems to defcribe the tropic of
capricorn, which is on December 22. when he makes
the fhorteft day. This is to be underftood as in our
northern hemifphere ; for in the fouthern, the fun’s en¬
trance into capricorn makes the fummer folftice, and
that into cancer the winter folftice. The two points
of the ecliptic, wherein the fun’s greateft afcent above
the equator, and his defcent below it, are terjninated,
are called the foljittial points ; and a circle, fuppofed to
pafs through the poles of the world and thefe points, is
called the fol/litial colure. The fummer folftitial point is
in the beginning of the firft degree of cancer, and is
called the ajlival or fummer point ; and the winter fol¬
ftitial point is in the beginning of the firft degree of ca¬
pricorn, and is called the winter point. Thefe two
points are diametrically oppoftte to each other.
SOLUTION, in chemiftry, denotes an intimate
union of folid with fluid bodies, fo as to form a tranf-
parent liquor. See Dissolution, and Index to Che¬
mistry.
SorunoN of Metals. See Metals {Solution of).
SOLVENT, that which diflblves a folid body into a
tranfparent fluid.
SOLWAY moss. See Moving Moss.
SOMBRERO, the name of an uninhabited ifland
in the Weft Indies in the form of an hat, whence the
name is derived- It is alio the name of one of the
Nicobar iflands in the Eaft Indies.
Wonderful Plant of Sombrero, is a ftrange kind of
fenfttive plant growing in the Eaft Indies, in fandy bays
and in fhallow water. It appears like a flender ftraight
ftiek ; but when you attempt to touch it, immediately
withdraws itfelf into the fand. Mr Miller gives an ac-
Pbilofopbical'Couni of it in his defcription of Sumatra. He fays,
^tf^e Malays call it inlan lout, that is, fea grafs. He nc.
ver could obferve any tentacula 4 but, after many unfuc-
cefsiul attempts, drew out a broken piece about a foot
fhire.
vol. Ixv.ii.
b 178
603 ] SOM
long. It was perfe&ly ftraight and utn’form, and re- Sormrs,
ftmbled a worm drawn over a knitting needie. When
dry it appears like a coral.
SOMERS ( John), lord high chancellor of England,
was born at Worcefter in 1652. He was educated at
Oxford, and afterwards entered himfelf at the Middle-
Temple, where he ftudied the law' with great vigour. In
1688 he w7as one of the counfel for the feven bifhops at
their trial, and argued wnth great learning and eloquence
apainft the difpenftng power. In the convention which
met by the prince of Orange’s fummons, January 22.
1689, he reprefented Worcefter; and was one of the
managers for the Houfe of Commons, at a conference
with the Houfe of Lords upon the word abdicated.
Soon after the acceflion of King Will am and Queen
Mary to the throne, he was appointed folicitor-general,
and received the honour of knighthood. In 1692 he
was made attorney general, and in 1693 advanced to
the poll of lord keeper of the great feal of England. In
169 j he propofed an expedient to prevent the practice
of clipping the coin. In 1697 he was created lord
Somers, baron of Eveftiam, and made lord high chan¬
cellor of England. In the beginning of 1700 he wag
removed from his poll of lord chancellor, and the year
after was impeached of high crimes and mifdemeanprs
by the Houfe of Commons, of wdiich he was acquitted
upon trial by the Houfe of Lords. He then retired
to a ftudious courfe of life, and was chofen prefident of
the Royal Society. In 1 70b he propofed a bill for the
regulation of the law ; and the fame year was one of
the principal managers for the union between England
and Scotland. In 1 708 he was made lord prefident of
the council; from which poft he was removed in 1710,
upon the change of the miniftry. In the latter end of
Queen Anne’s reign his lordlhip grew very infirm in
his health ; which is fuppofed to be the reafon that he
held no other poft than a feat at the council-table, after
the acceflion of King George I. He died of an apo-
pleftic fit in 1716. Mr Addifon has drawn his cha¬
racter very beautifully in the Freeholder.
SOMERSE I SHIRE, a county of England, taking
its name from Somerton, once the capital, between
and 51027' north latitude, and between i0 25'and2° 59'
weft longitude. It is bounded on the weft by Devon-
flure, on the fouth by Dorfetfhire, on the north by
Briftol Channel or the Severn Sea, on the north-caftby
a fmall part of Gloucefterfhire, and on the eaft by Wik-
It is one of the iargeft counties in England, ex¬
tending in length from eaft to weft about 68 miles’; in
breadth, where broadeft, from fouth to north, about
47 ; and 240 in circumference. It is divided into 42
hundreds, in which are 3 cities, 32 market-towns, 1700
villages, 385 parifhes of wdiich 132 are vicarages, contain¬
ing more than 1,000,000 of acres, and about 300,000
fouls. It fends 18 members to Parliament, viz.' two for
the county, two for Briftol, two for Bath, two for Wells,
twx) for Taunton, two for Bridgewater, two for Ilchefter,
two for Milbourn-port, and two for Minehead.
T. he air of this county is very mild and wholefome,
efpecially that of the hilly part. X he foil in general is
exceeding rich, fo that Angle acres very commonly
produce forty or fifty buftiels of wheat, and there have
been inftances of fome producing fixty of barley. As
there is very fine pafture both for fheep and black cat¬
tle, it abounds in both, which are as large as thofe of
4 G 2 Lin-
SON l 604 ] SON
Somerfet- Lincolnniire, and their flefh of a finer grain. In confe-
lll|1lre quence of this abundance of black cattle, great quanti-
Scnata t*es cheele are made in it, of which that of Cheddar
U—y—— is thought equal to Parmefan. In the hilly parts are
found coal, lead, copper, and lapis calarninaris. Wood
thrives in it as well as in any county of the kingdom.
It abounds alio in peafe, beans, beer, cyder, fruit, wild¬
fowl, and falmon ; and its mineral waters are celebrated
all over the world.
The riches of this county, both natural and acqui¬
red, exceed thole of any other in the kingdom, Middle-
fex and Yorklhhe excepted. The woollen manufac¬
ture in all its branches is carried on to a very great ex¬
tent ; and in fome parts of the county great quantities
of linen are made. If to thefe the produce of various
other commodities in which it abounds is added, the
amount of tke whole mull undoubtedly be very great.
Its foreign trade muft alfo be allowed to be very exten-
iive, when it is confidered that it has a large trade for
fea coal, and poffelfes, befides other ports, that of Brif-
tol, a town of the greateft trade in England, next to
JLondon.
Befides fmall llreams, it is well watered and fupplied
with fifh by the rivers Severn, Avon, Parrel, Froome,
Ax, Torre, and Tone. Its greatelt hills are Mendip,
Pouldon, and Qnantock, of which the (ir'I abounds in
coal, lead, &c. The rivers Sevein and Parrel breed ve¬
ry fine falmon. The chief town is Briftol.
SOMER TON, an ancient town in Somerfetfhire,
from whence the county derives its name. It is 123
»mles from London ; it has five ftreets, containing 2 11
houfes, which are mollly built of the blue Hone from
the quarries in the neighbourhood. It is governed by
conttables, and has a hall for petty feflions. The mar¬
ket for corn is confiderable, and it has feveral fairs lor
cattle. The church has what is not very frequent, an
otiangular tower with fix bells. N. Lat, 5 1.4. W. Long.
J* 53*
SOMNAMBULI, perfons who walk in their deep.
See Sleepwalkers.
SOMNER (William), an eminent Englifh antiquary,
was born at Canterbury in 1606. His tirft treatife was
s The Antiquities of Canterbury, w'hich he dedicated to
Archbifhop Laud. He then applied himfelr to the ftu-
dy of the Saxon language ; and' having made himlelf
mailer of it, he perceived that the old gloffary prefixed
to Sir Roger Twifden’s edition of the laws of King
Henry I. printed in 1644, was faulty in many places;
he therefore added to that edition notes and obferva-
tions valuable for their learning, with a very ufeful
glofiary. His Treatife of Gavelkind was linilhed a-
bout 1648, though not publilhed till 1660. Our
author was zealotidy attached to King Charles I. and
in 1648 he publilhed a poem on his fufferings and
death. His /kill in the Saxon tongue led him to in¬
quire into molt of the European languages ancient and
modern. He afiilled Dugdale and Dodiworth in com¬
piling the Monajticon Angllcanum. His Saxon Dic¬
tionary was printed at Oxford in 1659. He died in
1669.
SON, an appellation given to a male child confidered
in the relation he bears to his parents. See Pare-nt
and Filial Piety.
SONATA, inmufic, a piece or compofition, intend¬
ed to be performed by inftruments only; in which fenfe
it Hands oppofed to cantata, or a piece defigned for the
voice. See Cantata.
The fonata then, is properly a grand, free, humo¬
rous compohtion, diverfifted with a great variety' of mo¬
tions and exprefiions, extraordinary and bold llrokes, fi¬
gures, &c. And all this purely according to the fancy
of the compofer ; who, without confining himfelf to
any general rules of counterpoint, or to any fixed num*-
her or meafure, gives a loole to his genius, and runs
from one mode, meafure, &c. to another, as he thinks
fit. This fpecies of compolition had its rife about the
middle of the 17th century ; thofe who have moil ex¬
celled in it were Baffani and Corelli. We have fonatas
of », 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and even 8 parts, but ufualiy
they are performed by a fingle violin, or with two vio¬
lins, and a thorough bafs for the harplichord ; and fre¬
quently a more figured bafs for the bafs viol, &c.
There are a thoufand different fpecies of fonatas ;
but the Italians ulually reduce them to two kinds. Su-
onatc cle c hie fa, that is, fonatas proper for church mufic,
which ufually begin with a grave folemn motion, fuit-
able to the dignity and fandlity of the place and the
fervice, after which they ftrike into a brifker, gayer,
and richer manner. Thefe are what they more pecu¬
liarly call fonatas. Suonate cle camera, or fonatas for the
chamber, are properly feriefes of feveral little pieces, for
dancing, only compofed to the fame tune. They ulually
begin with a prelude or little fonata, ferving as an in-
troduftion to all the reft: afterwards come the allemand,
pavane, courant, and other ferious dances ; then jigs,
gavots, minuets, chacons, paffecailles, and other gayer
airs : the whole compofed in the fame tune or mode.
SONCHUS, sow-thistle, in botany: A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs atfyngenejia, and to the or¬
der of pn/ygamia aqua/is ; and in the natural fyftem ran¬
ged under the 49th order, Gompojitte. The receptacle
is naked; the calyx is imbricated, bellying and conical;
the down of the feed is frmple, feffile, and very foft ;
the feed is oval and pointed. There are 13 fpecies ;
the maritimus, paluftris, fruticcfus, arvenfis, oleraceus,
tenerr imus, plumieri, alpinus, floridanus, ftbiricus, tata-
ricus, tuberofus, and canadeniis. Four of thefe are na¬
tives of Britain.— 1. Palujiris, marfti fow-thiftle. The
ftem is ereef, from fix to ten feet high, branched and
hairy towards the top : the leaves are firm, broad, half
pinnated, ferrated, and fharp-pointed ; the lower ones
lagittate at the bafe : the flowers are of a deep yellow',
large, and difperfed on the tops of the branches: the
calyx is rough. It is frequent in marlhes, and flowers
in July or Auguft.— 2. Arvenjis, corn fow-thiftle. The
leaves are alternate, runcinate, and heart-ftiaped at the
bafe ; the root creeps under ground ; the ftem is three
or four feet high, and branched at the top. It grows
in corn-fields, and flowers in Auguft. — 3. Oleraceus,
common fow-thiftle. The ftalk is fucculent, piftular,
and a cubit high or more ; the leaves are broad, embra¬
cing the ftem, generally deeply finuated, fmooth or
prickly at the edges ; the flowers are of a pale yellow,
numerous, in a kind of umbel, and terminal; the calyx
is fmooth. It is frequent in wafte places and cultivated
grounds.—4. Alpinus, blue-flowered fow-thiftle. The
Item is ere<ft, purplifh, branched, or iimple, from three
to fix feet high : the leaves are large, fmooth, and finu¬
ated ;
Sonata,
Sonchus,
i
I '*ipsf5r
SON [ 6of I SON
Song, ated; the extreme fegment large and triangular: the
flowers are blue, and grow on hairy vifc-id pedicles, in
long fpikes : the calyx is brown. This fpecies is found
in Northumberland.
SONG, in poetry, a little compofition, confifting of
eafy and natural verfes, fet to a tune in order to be fung.
See Poetry, n° 120.
Song, in mafic, is applied in general to a fingle piece
of mufic, whether contrived for the voice or an mflru-
ment. See Air.
Song of Birds, is defined by the honourable Daines
Barrington to be a fuccdlion of three or more different
notes, which are continued without interruption, during
the fame interval, with a mufical bar of four crotchets
in an adagio movement, or whillt a pendulum fwings
four feconds.
It is affirmed, that the notes of birds are no more in¬
nate than language in man, and that they depend upon
imitation, as far as their organs will enable them to imi¬
tate the founds which they have frequent opportunities
of hearing : and their adhering fo fteadily, even in a
wild ftate, to the fame fong, is owing to the neftlings
attending only to the inftru&ion of the parent bird,
whilfl they difregard the notes of all others that may
perhaps be finging round them.
Birds in a wild date do not commonly fing above 1 o
weeks in the year, whereas birds that have plenty of
food in a cage fing the greatefl part of the year : and
we may add, that the female of no fpecies of birds ever
fings. This is a wile provifion of nature, becaufe her
fong would difeover her neft. In the fame manner, we
may rationally account for her inferiority in plumage.
'I he faculty of finging is confined to the cock birds ;
and accordingly Mr Hunter, in diffedfing birds of fe-
veral fpecies, found the mufcles of the larynx to be
flronger in the nightingale than in any other bird of
the fame fize; and in all thole inftances, where he dif¬
fered both cock and hen, the fame mufcles were {bong,
er in the cock. To the fame purpofe, it is an obferva-
tion as ancient as the time of Pliny, that a capon does
not crow.
Some have aferibed the finging of the cock-bird in
the fpring folely to the motive or pleafing his mate during
incubation ; others, who allow that it is partly for this
end, believe it is partly owing alfo to another caufe, viz.
the great abundance of plants and infeds in the fpring,
which, as well as feeds, are the proper food of fingino-
birds at that time of the year.
Mr Barrington remarks, that there is no inftance of
any finging bird which exceeds our blackbird in fize;
and this, he fuppofes, may arife from the difficulty of
its concealing itlelf, if it called the attention of its ene¬
mies, not only by its bulk, but by the proportionable
loudtiels of its notes. This writer farther obferves, that
fome paflages of the fong in a few kinds of birds corre-
fpond with the intervals of our mufical fcale, of which
the cuckoo is a ftriking and known inflance; but
the greater part of their fong cannot be reduced to a
mufical fcale ; partly, becaufe the rapidity is often fo
great, and it is alfo fo uncertain when they may flop, Song
that, we cannot reduce the paflages to form a mufical
bar in any time whatfoever ; partly alfo, becaufe the
pitch of moll birds is confiderably higher than the
molt fhrill notes of thofe inftruments which have the
gieateh compals ; and principally, becaufe the inter¬
vals ufed by birds are commonly fo minute, that
we cannot judge of them from the more grofs inter¬
vals into which we divide our mufical odave. This
writer apprehends, that all birds fing in the fame key ;
and in order to difeover this key, he informs us, that
the following notes have been obferved in different birds,
A, B flat, C, D, F, and G ; and therefore E only is
wanting to complete the fcale : now thefe intervals, he
fays, can only be found in the key of F with a fharp
third, or that of G with a flat third ; and he fuppofes
it to be the latter, becaufe, admitting that the firtt mu¬
fical notes were learned from birds, thofe of the cuckoo,
which have been moil attended to, form a flat third*
and rnofl; of our compofitions are in a flat third, where
mufic is fimple, and confifls merely of melody. Asa
farther evidence that birds ling always in the fame key,
it has been found by attending to a nightingale, as well
as a robin which was educated under him, that the notes
reducible to our intervals of the odtave were always pre-
cifely the fame.
. people, who have not attended to the notes of
birds, fuppofe, that every fpecies fing exadtly the fame
notes and paffages: but this is by no means true; though it
is admitted that there is a general refemblance. Thus the
London bird-catchers prefer the fongof the Kentilh gold¬
finches, and Effex chaffinches ; and fome of the nightin¬
gale-fanciers prefer a Surry bird to thofe of Middlefex.
Of all finging birds, the long of the nightingale has
been moll univerfally admired : "and its fuperiority (de¬
duced from a caged bird) coniills in the following
particulars ; its tone is much mpre mellow than that of
any other bird, though at the fame time, by a proper
exertion of its mufical powers, it can be very brilliant.
Another point of fuperiority is its continuance of fong
without a paufe, which is fometimes no lefs than 20 fe¬
conds ; and when refpiration becomes neceffary, it takes
it with as much judgment as an opera-finger. The fky-
lark in this particular, as well as in compafs and variety,
only.lecond to the nightingale. The nightingale alfo
fings (if the expreffion may be allowed) with Wrier
judgment and tafte. . Mr Barrington has obferved, that
his nightingale, which was a very capital bird, began
fo tly like the ancient orators; referving its breath to
iwell certain notes, which by thefe means had a moll
aflomfhing effeA. This writer adds, that the notes of
birds, which are annually imported from Alia, Africa,
and America, both hngly and in concert, are not to be
compared to thofe of European birds.
The following table, formed by Mr Barrington, a-
greeably to the idea of M. de Piles in ellimating the
merits of painters, is deligned to exhibit the compara¬
tive merit of the Britilh finging birds; in which 20 isx
fuppofed to be the point oi ablolute perfeAion.
Nightingale
SOP
Fhilofophical
'Tratfafiions
woL ixiii. Nightingale
Sky-lark
Wood-lark
Tit-lark
X-innet
Goldfinch
Chaffinch
Greenfinch
Hedge-fparrow
Abeidavine or filkin
Red-poll
Thrufh
Blackbird
Robin
Wren
Reed fparrow
Black-cap, or Norfolk
mock nightingale
19
4
18
12
12
4
4
4
6
2
o
4
4
6
o
o
14
H
19
4
12
16
19
12
4
o
4
4
4
4
16
12
4
12
!9
4
i7
12
12
4
4
4
6
o
o
4
o
12
o
o
12
606 ]
Perfia;
pher.
19
18
12
12
16
12
8
4
4
4
4
4
2-
I 2
4
2
14
19
18
8
12
18
12
8
6
4
4
4
4
2
12
4
2
14
SOP
importing as much as wife, fage, or philofo-
Sophi*,
Sophifm.
SONNA, abook of Mahometan traditions, which all
the orthodox muffulmen are required to believe.
SONNERATIA. in botany ; a genus of plants
belonging to the clals of icojandria, and to the order of
monogynia. The calyx is cut into fix fegments ; the pe¬
tals are fix ; the capfule is multilocular and fucculent;
and the cells contain many feeds. The only Ipecies is
the acida.
SONNET, in poetry, a compofition contained in 14
<verfes, viz. two llanzas or meafures of four verfes each,
and two of three, the eight firft verfes being all in three
rhimes.
SONNITES, among the Mahometans, an appella¬
tion given to the orthodox muffulmen or true believers ;
in oppofition to the feveral heretical fedls, particularly
the Shiites or followers of Ali.
SOOJU, or Soy. See Dolichos.
SOONTABURDAR, in the Eafl Indies; an at¬
tendant, who carries a iilver bludgeon in his hand
about two or three feet long, and runs before the pa¬
lanquin. He is inferior to the Chubdar ; the propriety
of an Indian newaury requiring two Soontaburdars for
every Chubdar in the train. The Chubdar proclaims the
approach of vifitors, &c. He generally carries a large
filver flaff about five feet long in his hands : and
among the Nabobs he proclaims their praifes aloud as
he runs before their palanquins.
SOOT, a volatile matter arifing from wood and other
fuel along with the fmoke ; or rather, it is the fmoke
jtfelf condenfed and gathered to the fides of' the chim¬
ney. Tho’ once volatile, however, foot cannot be again
relolved into vapour ; but, if diitilled by a ftrong fire,
yields a volatile alkali and empyreumatic oil, a confider-
able quantity of fixed matter remaining at the bottom
of the diftilling vefiel. If burnt in an open fire, it
flames with a thick fmoke, whence other foot is pro¬
duced. It is ufed as a material for making fal am¬
moniac, and as a manure. See Chemistry, n° 796.;
and Agriculture, n0 20.
Soor-Black. See Colour-Making.
SOPHI, or SoFi, a title given to the emperor of
The title is by fome faid to have taken its rife from
a young (hepherd named Soph:, who attained to the
crown of Perfia in 1370; others derive it from the fo-
phoi or fages anciently called magi. Voffius gives a dif¬
ferent account of the word : fophi in Arabic, he ob-
ferves, fignifies wW; and he adds, that it was applied
by the Turks out of derifion to the kings of Perfia
ever fince IffimaePs time; hecaufe, according to their
fcheme of religion, he is to wear no other covering on
his head but an ordinary red woollen fluff; whence the
Perfians are alfo called hezelbafchs, q. d. red-heads. But
Bochart affures us, that fophi in the original Perfian
language, fignifies one that is pure in his religion, and
who prefers the iervice of God in all things : and de¬
rives it from an order of religious called by the fame
name. The fophis value themfelves on their illuftrious
extradfion. They are defeended in a right line from
Houffein, fccond fon of Ali, Mahomet’s coufin, and Fa¬
tima, Mahomet’s daughter.
Sophis, or Sofees, a kind of order of religious among
the Mahometans in Perfia, anfwering to what are other-
wife called dervifes, and among the Arabs and Indians
faquirs. Some will have them called fophis from a kind
of coarfe camblet which they wear calledfouf, from the
city Souf in Syria, udiere it is principally manufadtured.
The more eminent of thofe fophis are complimented
with the title fchiek, that is, reverend, much as in Ro-
mifii countries the religious are called reverend fathers.
Schiek fophi, who laid the foundation of the gran¬
deur of the royal houfe of Perfia, was the founder, or
rather the reftorer of this order: Ifhmael, who conquer¬
ed Perfia, was himfelf a fophi, and greatly valued him-
felf on his being fo. He chofe all the guards of his
perfon from among the religious of this order; and would
have all the great lords of his court fophis. The king
of Perfia is ftill grandmafter of the order; and the lords
continue to enter into it, though it be now fallen under
fome contempt.
SOPHISM, in logic, a fpecious argument having
the appearance of thith, but leading to faliehood. So-
phifms are reduced by Ariftotle into eight claffes, an ar¬
rangement fo juff and comprehenfive, that it is equally
proper in prefent as in former times. 1. Ignoratio elenchi,
in which the fophift feems to determine the queftion,
while he only does it in appearance. Thus the queftion,
“ Whether excefs of wine be hurtful?” feems to be de¬
termined by proving, that wine revives the fpirits and
gives a man courage: but the principal point is here kept
out of light; for ftill it may be hurtful to health, to for¬
tune, and reputation. 2. Petitio principil, a begging of
the queftion, or taking for granted that wTich remains
to be proved, as if any one ihould undertake to prove
that the foul is extended through all the parts of the
body, becaufe it refides in every member. This is af¬
firming the fame thing in different words. 3. Reafon-
ing in a circle ; as when the Roman Catholics prove the
Scriptures to be the word ot God by the authority of
the church, and the authority of the church from the
Scn'otures. 4. Nan caufa pro caufu, or the afiigning of
a falle caufe to any effedl. Thus the fuppofed prin¬
ciple, that nature abhors a vacuum, was applied to ex¬
plain the rifing of water in a pump before Galileo
difeovered that it was owing to the preffure of the
atmo-
SOP
Sophift'ca
tion.
Sophifm atmofphere In this way the vulgar afcribe accidents
to divine vengeance, and the hereiies and infidelity
of modern times are faid to be owing to learning.
5* FaUacia accidcntist in which the fophift reprefents
what is merely accidental as effential to the nature of
the fubjedf. This is nearly allied to the former, and is
committed by the Mahometans and Roman Catholics.
The Mahometans forbid wine, becaufe it is fometimes
the occafion of drunkcnneis and quarrels ; and the Ro¬
man Catholics prohibit the reading of the Bible, be¬
caufe it has fometimes promoted berefies. 6. By dedu¬
cing an univerfal affertion from what is true only in par¬
ticular circumftances, and the reverfe ; thus fome men
argue, “ tranferibers have committed many errors in
copying the Scriptures, therefore they are not to be de¬
pended on•,,. 7' By aiferting anything in a compound
ienie which is only true in a divided fenfe; fo when the
Scriptures allure us, that the worft of finners may be
faved, it does not mean that they {hall be laved while
they remain linners, but that if they repent they may be
faved. 8. By an abufe ol the ambiguity of words.
1 nus Mr Hume reafons in his Efiay on Miracles:
“ Experience is our only guide in reafoning concerning
matters ol fadf ; now we know from experience, that
the laws of nature are fixed and invariable. On the
other hand, teftimony is variable and often falfe; there¬
fore fince our evidence for the reality ol miracles refts
folely on teftimony which is variable, and our evidence
for the uniformity of the laws of nature is invariable,
miracles are not to be believed.” The fophiftry of this
reafoning depends on the ambiguity of the word expe¬
rience, which in the firll propofition lignifies the ma¬
xims which w’e form from our own obfervation and re¬
flection ; in the fecond it is confounded with teftimo¬
ny ; for it is by the teftimony of others, as well as our
own obfervation, that we learn whether the laws oi na¬
ture are variable or invariable. The Efiay on Miracles
may Le lecommended to thofe who wifh to fee more
examples ol fophiftry ; as we believe moft of the eight
fpecies of fophilms which we have mentioned are well
illuftrated by examples in that effay.
SOPHIST, an appellation affumed in the early pe¬
riods oi Grecian hiftory by thofe who devoted their
time to the ftudy of fcience. This appellation appear¬
ing too arrogant to Pythagoras, he declined it," and
wiihedto be called aphilofopher ; declaring that, though
he could not confider himfeli as a wile man, he was indeed
a lover of wifdom. True wifdom and modefty are ge¬
nerally united. i he example of Pythagoras was fol¬
lowed by every man of eminence ; while the name So-
phijl was retained only by thofe who with a pomp of words
made a magnificent difplay of wifdom upon a very flight
foundation of knowledge. Thofe men taught an arti¬
ficial ftru&ure of language, and a falfe method of rea-
foning, by which, in argument, the vrorfe might be made
to appear the betterreafon (fee Sophism). In Athens
they were long held in high repute, and fupported, not
only by contributions from their pupils, but by a regu¬
lar falary from the ftate. They were among the bit-
tereft enemies of the illuftrious Socrates, becaufe he em¬
braced every opportunity of expofmg to contempt and
ridicule their vain pretenfions to fuperior knowledge,
and the pernicious influence of their do&rines upon the
[ 607 1
SOP
tafte and morals of the Athenian youth
SOPHISTICATION, the mixing
of
any
thing
with what is not genuine ; a pra&ice too common in Sophode*.
the making up of medicines for fale; as alfo among ' v™
vintners, diftillers, and others, who are accufed of io-
phifticating their wines, fpirits, oik, &c. by mixing
with them cheaper and coarfer materials ; and in many
cafes the cheat is carried on fo artfully as to deceive the
heft judges.
SOPHOCLES, the celebrated Greek tragic poet,
the fon of Sophilus an Athenian, was born at Co^
lonn, and educated with great attention. Superior vi¬
gour and addrefs in the exercifes of the paleltra, and
fkill in mufic, were the great accomplifhments of young
men in the ftates of Greece. In thefe, Sophocles ex¬
celled ; nor was he lefs diftinguifhed by the beauty of
his perfon._ He was alfo inftruaed in the nobleft of all
Iciences, civil polity and religion : from the firft of
thefe he derived an unfhaken love of his country, which
he ferved in fome embaffies, and in high military com¬
mand with Pericles ; from the latter he was imprefled
with a pious reverence for the gods, manifefted by the
inviolable integrity of his life. But his ftudies were
early devoted to the tragic mufe ; the fpirit of Efchy-
lus lent a fire to his genius, and excited that noble emu¬
lation which led him to contend with, and fometimes to
bear away the prize from, his great mailer. He wrote
43 tragedies, of which 7 only have efcaped the ravages
of time : and having teftified his love of his country by
refufing to leave it, though invited by many kings ;
and having enjoyed the uninterrupted efteem and affec¬
tion of his fellow-citizens^ which neither the gallant ac¬
tions and fublime genius of Efchylus, nor the tender
fpint and philofophic virtue of Euripides, could fecure
to them, he died in the 91ft year of his age, about 406
years before ChrifL The burial-place or his anceftors
was at Decelia, which the Lacedemonians had at that
time feized and fortified; but Lyfander, the Spartan
chief, permitted the Athenians to inter their deceafed
poet ; and they paid him all the honours due to his love
of his country, integrity of life, and high poetic excel¬
lence. Efchylus had at once feized the kigheft poll of
honour in the field of poetry, the true fublime ; to that
eminence his claim could not be difputed. Sophocles,
had a noble elevation of mind, but tempered with fo
fine a tafte, and fo chaftened a judgment, that he never
paffed the bounds of propriety. Under his condudt
the tragic mufe appeared with the chafte dignity of fome
noble matron at a religious folemnity ; harmony is in
her voice, and grace in all her motions. From him the
theatre received fome additional embellifhrr.ents ; and
the drama the introdu&ion of a third fpcaker, which
made it more a&ive and more interefting: but his diftin-
guiflied excellence is in the judicious difpofition of the
tabie, and To nice a connection and dependence of the
parts on each other, that they all agree to make the
event not only probable, but even neceffary. This is pe¬
culiarly admirable in his “ CEdipus King of Thebes ;’*
and in this important point he is far luperior to every
other dramatic writer. A *
The ingratitude of the children of Sophocles is well
known. They wifhed to become immediate mafters of
their father’s poffeffions ; and therefore tired of his
long li.e, they accufed him before the Areopagus of
infaruty. The only de-erce the poet made was to read
ms tragedy of GSdipus at Colonos, which he had lately
Jmilhed ; and then he alked his judges, whether the an*
^ thou
Sorbus.
X . S O R [ 608
•foph^ra t'hor oF Fucli a performance could "be taxed with infa-
nity ? The father upon this was acquitted, and the chil-
j dren returned home covered with (liame and coniu-
fion. The feveu tragedies of Sophocles which ftill re¬
main, together XC'ith the Greek Scholia which accom¬
pany them, hav'C been tranflated into Latin by Johnfon,
ard into Englilh by Dr Franklin and Mr Potter.
SOPH ORA, in botany : A genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of decandrio, and to the order of mono-
gyma ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
3 2 d order, Papilionncea. The calyx is quinquedentate
and gibbous above : the corolla is papilionaceous ; the
wings being of the fame length with the vexillum: the
feed is contained in a legumen. inhere are 16 fpecies ;
the tetraptera, microphylla, flavefeens, alopecuroides, to-
mentofa, occidentalis, capenhs, aurea, japonica, geniftoi-
<les, auftralis, tinftoria, alba, lupinoides, biflora, andhir-
futa.
SOPORIFIC, or Soporiferous, a medicine that
produces fleep. Such are opium, laudanum, the feed
of poppies, &c. The word is formed from the Latin
fopor “ fleep.” The Greeks in place of it ufe the word
hypnotic.
SORBONNE, or Sorbon, the houfe or college of
the faculty of theology eftabliflied in the univerlity of
Paris. It was founded in 1252 by St Louis, or rather
by Robert de Sorbon his confeflbr and almoner, firft ca¬
non of Cambray, and afterwards of the church of Paris;
who gave his own name to it, which he himfelf took
from the village of Sorbon or Serbon, near Sens, where
he was born. The foundation was laid in 1250 ; queen
Blanche, in the abfence of her huiband, furnifhing him
with a houfe which had formerly been the palace of
Julian the apoltate, of which fome remains are ftill
feen. Afterwards the king gave him all the hoiifes he
had in the fame place, in exchange for fome others.
The college has been fince magnificently rebuilt by the
cardinal de Richelieu. The delign of its inftitution was
for the ufe of poor ftudents in divinity. There are
lodgings in it for 36 dodlors, who are faid to be of the
Jociety of the Sorhonne; thofe admitted into it without
being doftors, are faid to be of the hofpitality of the Sor-
lonne. Six regent doftors formerly held le&ures every
day for an hour and a half each ; three in the morning,
and three in the afternoon.
Sorbonne, is alfo ufed in general for the whole fa¬
culty of theology at Paris; as the aftemblies of the
whole body are held in the houfe of the Soibonne ;
and the bachelors of the other houfes of the facul¬
ty, as the houfe of Navarre, &c. come hither to hold
their forbonnique, or aft for being admitted doftor in
divinity.
SORBUS, service-tree, in botany; a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of icofandria, and to the
order of trigynia. The calyx is quinquefid ; the petals
are five ; the berry is below the flower, foft and con¬
taining three feeds. There are three fpecies ; the au-
cuparia, domeftica, and hebrida.
1. The aucuparia, mountain-afli, quicken-tree, quick-
beam, or roan-tree, rifes with a ftraight upright ftem
and regular branching head, twenty or thirty feet high
or more, covered with a fmooth greyifti brown bark;
pinnated leaves of eight or ten pair ot long, narrow, fer-
rated folioles, and an odd one, fmooth on both fides;
&nd large umbellate clutters of white flowers at the fides
] SOR
and ends of the branches, fucceeded by clutters of fine
red berries, ripe in autumn and winter. ’I here is a va*- ^
riety with yellow ftriped leaves. 'This fpecies grows wild
in many parts of this ifland in mountainous places,
woods, and hedge-rows, often growing to the fize ot tim¬
ber; and is admitted into moft ornamental plantations, for
the beauty of its growth, foliage, flowers, and fruit; the
latter, in particular, being produced in numerous red
large bunches all over the tree, exhibit a fine appear¬
ance in autumn and winter, till devoured by the birds,
efpecially the blackbird and thtufh, which are fo allured
by this fruit as to flock from all parts and feed on
it voracioufly.— In the ifland of Jura the juice of
the berries is employed as an acid for punch. It is pro¬
bable that this tree was in high efteem with the Druids;
for it is more abundant than any other tree in the neigh¬
bourhood of thofe Druidical circles of ftones, fo com¬
mon in North Britain. It is ftill believed by fome per-
fons, that a branch of this tree can defend them from
enchantment or witchcraft. Even the cattle are fuppo-
fed to be preferved by it from danger. The dairy-maid
drives them to the fummer paftures with a rod of the
roan-tree, and drives them home again with the fame.
In Strathfpey, we are told, a hoop is made of the wood
of this tree on the 1 ft of May, and all the fheep and
lambs are made to pafs through it.
2. The domejlica, or cultivated fervice-tree, with eat¬
able fruit, grows with an upright ftem, branching 30
or 40 feet high or more, having a brownilh bark, and
the young fhoots in fummer covered with a mealy down;
pinnated leaves of eighc or ten pair of broadifh deeply
lerrated lobes and an odd one, downy underneath, and
large umbellate clutters of white flowers at the fides and
ends of the branches, fucceeded by bunches -oi large,
fldhy, edible red -fruit, of various ftiapes and fizes.
This tree is a native of the fouthern warm parts of
Europe, where its fruit is ufed at table as a defert, and
it is cultivated here in many of our gardens, both as a
fruit-tree and as au ornament to diveriify hardy planta¬
tions.
The helrida, or mongrel fervice tree of Gothland
Sorhu*,-
Sorcery.
grows twenty or thirty feet high ; it has half-pinnated
leaves, very downy underneath ; and clutters ot white
flowers, fucceeded by bunches of round reddifh berries
in autumn.
SORCERY, or Magic ; the power which fome
perfons were formerly fuppofed to poffefs of, command¬
ing the devil and the infernal fpirits by (kill in charms
and invocations, and of foothing them by fumigations.
Sorcery is therefore to be diftinguiftred from witchcraft;
an art which was fuppofed to be praftifed, not by com¬
manding evil fpirits, but by compaft with the devil.
As an in fiance of the power of bad fmells over demons
or evil fpirits, we may mention the flight of the evil
fpirit mentioned in Tobit into the remote parts of E-
gypt, produced, it is faid, by the fmell of the burnt
jjver of a fifh. Lilly informs us, that one Evans ha-
vincr raifed a fpirit at the requeft of Lord Bothwell and
Sir Kenelm Digby, and forgetting a fumigation, the
fpirit, vexed at the difappointment, pulled him with¬
out the circle, and carried him from his houfe in the
Minories into a f eld near Batterfea Caufeway.
King James, in his Dxmonolog'a, has given a very-
full account of the art of forcery. “ Two principal
things (lays he) cannot well in that errand be wanted:
1 AHy
sou
[ 609 ]
sou
—^ fome prefJt of or to hf i“,'laWM l0Vt’
Iikewife certa.ne dates and houres that theyobferve in this effeSed he or Z lh, l ,l ’ir ' -r e w're not
rmrnnfp. u„: n , ; , L b cucciea, ne or iht ihould luifer impnfonment and pil-
purpote. Thefe things being all ready and prepared,
circles are made, triangular, quadrangular, round, dou¬
ble, or iingle, according to the forme of the apparition
they crave. When the conjured fpirit appeares, which
will not be while after many eircumitances, long prayers,
and much muttering and murmurings of the conjurors,
like a papilt pneft difpatching a hunting maife - how
toone,1 lay, he appeares, if they have miffed one iote of
all their rites ; or if any of their feete once flyd over
the circle, through terror of his fearfull apparition, he
TV7 /0r-.the hr.ft offe.nce* ar*d death for the fecond.
I hefe a els continued in force till lately, to the terror
of all ancient females in the kingdom ; and many poor
wretches were faenficed thereby to the prejudice of their
neighbours and their own illufions, not a few having-
by fome means or other confelfed the fadt at the gaf-
Jows. But all executions for this dubious crime are now
at an end ; our legiflature having at length followed
the wile example of Louis XIV. in France, who
^ught proper by an edict to reltrain the tribunals of
paies himfelf at riiatTrime, in his 0^X7^ 1 W proper to reltrain the trib
debt which they ought him and otherwife ^ 1^ 1 UC U rom Reiving informations of withcraft. And
dt-laied longer to plTed him" I m T. -,e ls rith “ by llatute „ Geo. 11.
them with him, body and foule ” How the eord^^3 C' 1 n° P^^eution ihall for the future be carried
any difficu.ty in the matter. We are therefor^d"gX
fervprllv rtnnifl-learl V,   • ‘r * . -
r - j aiC uicrcfore iea to
luppole, that he learned his mathematics from the fame
fyltem as Dr Sacheverell, who, in one of his fpeeches
or lermons, made ufe of the following fimile: “ They
concur like parallel lines, meeting in one common cen-
Another mode of confulting fpirits was by the beryl
by means of a fpeculator or feer; who, to have a com¬
plete light, ought to be a pure virgin, a youth who had
not known woman, or at leaft a perfon of irreproach¬
able life and purity of manners. The method of fuch
confultation is this : The conjuror having repeated the
necelfary charms and adjurations, with the litany or in-
vocation peculiar to the fpirits or angels he wifhes to
cal (for every one has his particular form), the feer
looks into a cryflal or beryl, wherein he will fee the
a rawer, reprefented either by types or figures ; and
fometimes, though very rarely, will hear the angels or
fpmts fpeak articulately. Their pronunciation is, as
Lilly lays, like the Inlh, much in the throat. Lilly
defenbes one of thefe beryls or cryllals. It was, he
lays, as large as an orange, fet in filver, with a crofs at
t >e top, and round about engraved the names of the
angels Raphael, Gabriel, and Uriel. A delineation of
MifceUranTe8engraVed ^ Uie froatifPiece to Aubery’s
Thefe forcerers or magicians do not always employ
their art to do nnichief; but, on the contrary, frequent¬
ly exert it to cure drfeafes inflicted by witches ; to dif-
cover thieves ; recover Helen goods; to foretel future
events, and the Hate of abfent friends. On this account
they are frequently called white etches. See Magic
Witchcraft, &c.' ’
Our forefathers were ftrong believers when they
enabled, by flatute 33 Hen. VIIL'c. 8. all witchcraft
and lorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy; and
.again, by ftatute 1 Jac. I. c. 12. that all perfons invo¬
king any evil fpirit, or confulting, covenanting with,
entertaining employing, feeding, or rewarding any evil
pint; or takmg up dead bodies from their graves to
be ufed in any witchcraft, forcery, charm, or inchant-
ment ; or kilhng or otherwife hurting any perfon by
mch infernal arts; ftould be guilty of felony without
C J,--1 ,  sciences, is itm de-
lervedly pumflied with a year’s imprifonment, and Hand¬
ing four times in the pillory.
SO REX, the Shrew, in natural hiHory; a ge-nus
of animals belonging to the clafs of mammalia, and or-
• 11 l!as two lonS fore-teeth in the upper
jaw, which are divided into two points ; in the lower
jaw-are two or four fore-teeth, the two middle ones, in
e latter cale, being Hiorter than the others : On each
fide m both jaws are two or more tu/ks ; The ^rindeis
are knobbed. The animals of this genus have in'general
thick clumfy bodies, and five toes on each of their feet ;
the head retembles that of the mole, being thick at the
fore-head, much elongated, and ending in a conical
fnout and having verv fmall eyes ; in other circumHan-
ces of general figure they referable the murine tribe of
quadrupeds. They burrow in the ground, fome fpe-
cies hvmg moHly about the lides of waters; and molt
of them feeding on worms and infers. There are 16
fpecies ; of which the moH remarkable are,
1. The araneus, or field fhrew-moufe, with fliort
rounded ears ; eyes fmall, and almoH hid in the fur
nofe long and flender, upper part the longelt; head and
pptr part of the body of a brownilh red ; belly of a
dirty wh.te ; length from nofe to tail, two inclJand a
half, tad one and a half. Inhabits Europe; lives in old
walls and heaps of Hones, or holes in the earth ; is fre¬
quently near hay-ricks, dung-hills, and neceflary-houfes;
lives on corn, infeds and any filth ; is often obferved
rooting in orduie like a hog ; from Hs food, or the
p aces it frequents, has a dilagreeable fmell; cats will
kdl, but not eat_ it: it brings four or five young at a
time. T he ancients believed it was injurious to cattle •
an error now deleted. There feems to be an annual
monahty of thefe animals in Augull, numbers beinu-
then found dead in the paths. 0
2. I he jodiens, or water-fhrew, has a long flender
nofe ; very minute ears ; very fmall eyes, hid in the
fur , colour of the head and upper part of the body
black ; throat, breaH and belly, of a light afh-colour'-
beneath the tad a tnangular dufky foot; much W
than the laH ; length, from nofe to tail, three inches
ithrCer_qUar,terS ’ ta.lI’„two. iHches. Inhabits Europe
benefit of clergy, and fuffer death ; iaii, two inches. Inhabits Europe-
Ihould attempt by forcefy to difeover birHp t 'r °n 1-I1Ce *nj7n inbut loH till May ij6P
Vol. XVII. Part IT Y C° ^ hldden treafure’ When 11 was dlfcovered ^ the fens near Revefley Ab!
4 H
Sores,
S o R [ 61
Sorites bey, Lincolnfhi're ; barrows in the banks near the wa¬
ll ter ; is called by the fenmen the blind-moufe.
SorreL , 3. The minutus, or minute threw, has a head near as
* big as the body : very flender nofe ; broad fhort naked
ears; whilkers reaching to the eyes; eyes fmall, and
capable of being drawn in ; hair very fine and {hining ;
grey above, white beneath; no tail; the lead of qua¬
drupeds, according to Linnseus. Inhabits Siberia; lives
in a neft made of hchens, in fome moift place beneath
the roots of trees; feeds on feeds, digs, runs fwittly,
and has the voice of a bat.
4. The tuemi, or Mexican threw, has a fharp nofe ;
fmall round ears ; without light; two long fore-teeth
above and below ; thick, fat, and flethy body ; thoit
kgs, fo that the belly almoft touches the ground; long
crooked claws ; tawny hair ; fhort tail ; length,- horn
nofe to tail, nine inches. Inhabits Mexico ; burrows,
and makes fuch a number of cavities, that trav'elleis can
fcarce tread with fafety ; if it gets out of its hole, does
not know how to return, but begins to dig another ;
grows very fat, and is eatable ; feeds on roots, kidney-
beans, and other feeds. M. de Buffon thinks it a mole;
but it feems more properly to belong to the genus of
forex. .
SORITES, in logic, a fpecies of reafoning in which
a great number of propofitions are fo linked, together,
that the predicate of the one becomes continually the
fubjeft of the next following, till at lalt a conclution is
formed by bringing together the fubjeft of the firlt pro-
pofition and the predicate of the lall. Such was that
merry argument of Themiftocles, to prove that his little
fon under ten years old governed the whole world.
Thus : My fon governs his mother ; his mother me; ] the
Athenians ; the Athenians the Greeks ; Greece commands
Europe ; Europe the whole world: therefore my fon com-
viands the whole world. See Logic, n^ 96, 97.
SORNING, in Scots law. See Law, N° clxxxvi.
3 SORREL, in botany, a fpecies of the rume x, which
grows in paftures and meadows, and is well known. The
natives of Lapland boil large quantities of the leaves m
water, and mix. the juice when cold with the milk of
their rein-deers which they efteem an agreeable and
wholefome food. The Dutch are faid to cultivate this
plant for its ufefulnefs in the dyeing of woollen cloths
black ; and we know that by means of the common
broad-leaved forrel an excellent black colour is, in
many places of Scotland, given to woollen Huffs with¬
out the aid of copperas. As this mode of dyeing
does not in the fmalleft degree injure the texture
of the cloth, which continues to the laft foft and filky,
without that hardnefs to the touch which it acquires
when dyed black by means of copperas, our readers will
probably thank us for the following receipt, with which
we have been favoured by a learned phyfician:
Let the Huff to be dyed be. well walhed with foap
and water, and afterwards completely dried. Then of
the common broad-leaved forrel boil as much as (hall make
an acid deco&ion of fufficient quantity to let the Huff
to be dyed lie in it open and ealy to be ftirred. The
greater quantity of forrel that is ufed, the better will
the colour be ; and therefore if the pot or cauldron will
not hold enough at once, when part has been fufficient-
ly boiled, it muft be taken out and, wrung, and a freffi
o ] S O R
quantity be boiled in the fame juice or decodion. When Sorrel
the liquor is made fufficiently acid, drain it from the SorJje7€
forrel through a fieve, put the cloth or yarn into it, and i - ^
let it boil for two hours, flirring it frequently. If dock¬
ings be among the duff to be dyed, it will be expe¬
dient, after they have been an hour in the boiling li¬
quor, to turn them infide out, and at the end of the
fecond hour let the whole be poured into a tub or any
other veffel. The pot or cauldron mud then be waffl¬
ed, arid water put into it, with halt a pound of log¬
wood chips for every pound of dry yarn or cloth. The
logwood and water fhould boil dovvly for four hours ;
and then the cloth or yarn being wrung from the four
liquor, and put into the logwood decoftion, the
whole muff be differed to boil flowly for four hours,
dockings, if there be any, being turned infide out at
the end of two hours. Of this lad decodtion there mud
as of the former be enough to let the cloth lie open arid
eafy to be dirred while boiling. At the end of the four
hours the cloth mud be taken out, and among the boil¬
ing liquor, fird removed from the fire, mud be poured a
Scotch pint or Engii'h gallon of dale urine for every
pound of dry cloth or other duff to be dyed. When
this compound liquor has been dirred and become cold,
the cloth mud be put into it and fuffered to remain well
covered for 1 2 hours, and then dried in the {hade; after
which, to dived it of fmell or any other impurity, it may¬
be wafhed in cold water, and dried for ufe.
IVood-SoRREi, in botany. See Oxali-s.
SoRREL-Colour, in the manege, is a reddifh colour,
generally thought to be a fign of a good horfe.
SORRENTO, a fea-port town of the kingdom of
Naples, with an archbiffiop’s fee. It is feated in a pe-
ninfnla, on the bay of Naples, at the foot of a moun¬
tain of the fame name, jy miles fouth-eaft of Naples..
It is the birth-place of Torquato Taffo. E. Long. 14*
24. N. Lat. 40. 36.
SORTILEGE (Sortilegium J, a fpecies of divination
performed by means of fortes or lots.
The fortes Prenejlince, famous in antiquity, confided
in putting a number of letters, or even whole words,
into an urn ; and then, after fhakin£ them together,
they were thrown on the ground; and whatever fen-
tences could be made out from them, condituted the
anfwer of the oracle. To this method of divination,
fucceede^ that which has been called the fortes Home-
riatue and fortes Virgiliana, a mode of inquiring into fu¬
turity, which undoubtedly took its rife from a general
cultom of the oracular prieds of delivering their anfwers
in verfe ; it fubfifted a long time among the Greeks and
Romans ; and being from them adopted by the Chri-
dians, it was not till after a long fucceffion of centuries
that it became exploded. Among the Romans it con¬
fided in opening fome celebrated poet at random, and
among the Chriffians the Scriptures, and drawing, from
the fird paffage which preferred itfelf to the eye, a
prognodic of what would befal one’s felf or others,
or direction for conducd when under any exigency.
There is good evidence that this wa1- none of the vulgar
errors; the greated perfons, philolophers of the bed
repute, admitted this fuperdition. Socrates, when in
prifon, hearing this line of Homer,
Within three days I Phthia’s ffiore ffiall fee,
immediately
S O R [ t
Sivtilege. fmtr.cdiatelj’' fa!d, within three days I fliall be out of the
u“•‘V"—^ world ; gathering it from the double meaning of the
word Phthia, which in Greek is both the name of a
country and fignides corruption or death. This pre¬
diction, addrefled to iEfchinus, was not eafiiy forgotten,
as it was verified.
When this fuperftition paffed from Paganifm into
Chriftianity, the Chriftians had two methods of confult-
ing the divine will from the Scriptures ; the one, ca-
fually, to open the divine writings, and take their di¬
rection, as above-mentioned; the other, to go to church
with a purpofe of receiving, as a declaration of the will
or heaven, the words of the Scripture, which were fing-
ing at the initant of one’s entrance.
i his unwarrantable pradtice of inauiring into futuri¬
ty prevailed very generally in England till the begin¬
ning of the prefent century ; and fometimes the books
or Scripture, and fometimes the poems of Virgil, were
confuked for oracular refponfes. One remarkable in-
Itance is that of King Charles I. who being at Oxford
during the civil wars, went one day to fee the public
library, where he was fhowed, among other books, a
Virgil nobly printed and exquifitely bound. The lord
Falkland, to divert the king, would have his majefty
make a trial of his fortune by the Sortes Virgiltana.
Whereupon the king opening the book, the period
which happened to come up was this :
Pi hello avdacis populi nexatus, e( annist
Fin thus extorris, complexu avulfus lull,
jtnx'iiium imploret ; vide iique indigna fuorum
Funera\ nec, cum fe fub leges pans iniquee
Fradiderat, regno aut opt at a luce jruatur ;
Sed csdat ante diem, mediaque inhumatus arena.
^Eneid. lib. iv.
Yet let a race, untamed and haughty foes,
His peaceful entrance with dire arms oppofe;
OpprefTed with numbers in the unequal field.
His men difeouraged, and himfelf expelled,
Let men for fuccour fue from place to place,
Torn from his fubje&s, and his fon’s embrace :
Fir ft let him fee his friends in battle (lain,
And their untimely fate lament in vain ;
And when at length the cruel war fhall ceafe,
On hard conditions may he buy his peace.
Nor let him then enjoy fupreme command,
But fall untimely by fome hoftile hand,
And lie unburied on the barren land.
Soteria,
II
Sound.
I
Lord Falkland obferving that the king was concern¬
ed at this accident, would likewife try his own fortune
in the fame manner, hoping he might fall upon fome
paffage that would have no relation to his cafe, and
thereby divert the king’s thoughts from any impreffion
which the other might have upon him ; but the place
be Humbled upon was as much fuited to his deftiny as
the other had been to the king’s ; being the lamenta¬
tion of Evander for the untimely death of his fon Pal-
^Fne'u!. * : f°r this lord’s eldeft fon, a young man of an
b. xi. amiable charafter, had been (lain in the' firft battle of
N ewbury.
We have ourfelves known feveral whofe devotion has
not always been regulated by judgment purfue this me¬
thod of divination ; and have generally obferved, that
the confequcnce has been defpair or prefumption. To
'ueb we beg leave to recommend one paffage in Scrip-
3
II] SOU
ture which will never difappoint them : Thou Jhalt not
tempt the Lord thy Cod.
SOFERIA, in antiquity, facrifices offered to the ,
gods for delivering a perfon from danger; as alfo poe¬
tical pieces compofed for the fame purpofe.
SOUBISE, a town of France, in the department of
Lower Charente, and late territory of Saintonge. It is
feated on the river Charente, 22 miles fouth of Rochelle,
in W. Long. 1.2. N. Lat. 45. 57.
SOUGH, among miners, denotes a paffage dug un¬
der ground, to convey off waters from mines. See
Mine.
SOVEREIGN, in matters of government, is applied
to the fupreme magiftrate or magiftrates of an indepen¬
dent government or ffate ; becaufe their authority is only
bounded by the laws of God and the laws of the Hate ;
fuch are kings, princes, &c. See Prerogative, &c.
Sovereign Power, or Sovereignty, is the power of
making laws; for wherever that power relides, all
others mnft conform to it, and be diredled by it,
whatever appearance the outward form and admini-
ftration of the government may put on. for it is at
any time in the option of the legiflature to alter that
form and adminiftration by a new edift or rule, and
to put the execution of the laws into whatever hands
it pleafes : and all the other powers of the ftate rnuft
obey the legiflative power in the execution of their fe¬
veral functions, or elfe the conftitution is at an end.
In our conftitution the law aferibes to the king the at-Blacifi.
tribute of fovereignty : btit that is to be underftood in Comment.
a qualified fenfc, i. e. as fupreme magiftrate, not as foie
legifiator; as the legiflative power is veiled in the king,
lords, and commons, not in any of the three eftates
alone.
SOU. See Sol.
SOUL, the principle of perception, memory, intel¬
ligence, and volition, in man ; which, fince the earlieft
era of philofophy, has furnifhed queftionsof difficult in-
vcftigation, and materials of keen and important con--
troverfy (fee Metaphysics, Part III. chap. ii. iii. iv.
V. ; and Resurrection, n° 42—48.) In the fourth
volume of the Memoirs of the Literary and Philofophi-
cal Society of Manchefter, the reader will find a very
valuable paper by Dr Farrier, proving, by evidence ap¬
parently complete, that every part of the brain has been
injured without afte&ing the ad of thought. An
abridgment of that memoir would weaken its reafon-
ing ; which, built on matters of fa6t and experience,,
appeals to us to have fhaken the modern theory of the
Materialifts from its very foundation.
Soul of Brutes. See Brutes.
SOUND, in pity lies, is a term of which it would be
prepofterous to offer any definition, as it may almoil be
faid to exprefs a iimple idea ; But when we confider it
as a sensat ion, and ftill more when we conlider it as
a perception, it may not be improper to give a de-
fcnption of it ; becaufe this muft involve certain rela¬
tions of external things, and certain trains of events in
the material world, which make it a proper objeft of
philofophical difeuffion. Sound is that primary infor¬
mation which we get of external things by means of
the fenfe of hearing. I his, however, does not explain
ft: for were we in like manner to deferibe our fenfe of
hearing, we fhould find ourfelves obliged to fay, that it
is the faculty by which we perceive found. Languages
4 ^ 3 are
SOU [ 61
Sown.!. ai-e noj the Invention of philosophers ; and we mult not
v—— eXpe^ precifion, even in the fimpleft cafes. Our me¬
thods of expreffing the inf rmation given us by our
different fenfes are not fimilar, as a philofopher, cau-
tioufly contriving language, would make them. We
have no word to exprefs the primary or generic obi eft
of our fenie of feeing ; for we believe, that even the
vulgar conf’der light as the medium^ but not the objeft.
This is certainly the cafe (how juftly we do not fay)
with the phdoiopher. On the other hand, the words
fmell, lound, and perhaps tafle, are conceived by moft
perfonsas exprefling the immediate objefts of the fenfes
of fmel'ing, hearing, and tailing. Smell and found are
haftily conceived as feparate exiflences, and as mediums
of information and of intercourfe with the odoriferous
and founding bodies; and it is only the very cautious
philofopher who diftinguifhes between the fmell which
he feels and the perfume which fills the room. Thofe
of the ancients, therefore, who taught that founds were
beings wafted through the air, and felt by our ears,
fhould not, even at this day, be confidered as aukward
obfervers of nature. It has required the long, patient,
and fagacious confiderat'on of the moft penetrating ge-
r.iufes, from Zeno the ftoic to Sir Ifaac Newton/to
difeover that what we call found, the immediate external
objeft of the fenfe of hearing, is nothing hut a particu¬
lar agitation of the parts of furrounding bodies, a ft in g
by mechanical impulfe on our organs; and that it is not
any feparate being, nor even a fpecific quality inherent
in any particular thing, by which it can affeft the or¬
gan, as we fuppofe with refpeft to a perfume, but
merely a mode of exiftence competent to every atom of
matter. And thus the defeription which we propofed
to give of found mull be a defeription of that Hate of
external contiguous matter which is the caufe of found.
It is not therefore prefatory to airy theory or let of
doftrines on this fubjeft; but, on the contrary, is the
fum or refult of them all.
To difeover this ftate of external body by which,
without any farther intermedium of fubftance or of ope¬
ration, it affefts our fenfitive faculties, muft be confi¬
dered as a great ftep in fcience. It will flrow us at
leaft one way by which mind and body may be con-
nefted. It is fuppofed that we have attained this know¬
ledge with refpeft to found. Our fuccefs, therefore, is
a very pleafing gratification to the philofophic mind. It
is ftill more important in another view : it has encou¬
raged us to make fimilar attempts in other cafes, and
has fupplied us with a faft to which an ingenious mind
can eafily fancy fomething analogous in many abftrufe
operations of nature, and thus it enables us to give fome
fort of explanation of them. Accordingly this ufe has
been moft liberally made of the mechanical theory of
found ; and there is now fcarcely any phenomenon, ei¬
ther of matter or mind, that has not been explained in
a manner fomewhat iimilar. But we are forry to fay
that thefe explanations have done no credit to philofo-
phy. They are, for the moft part, ftrongly marked
with that precipitate and felf-conceited impatience
which has always charafterifed the inveftigations con-
dufted folely by ingenious fancy. The confequences
of this procedure have been no lefs fatal to the progrefs
of true knowledge in modern times than in the fchools
of ancient Greece; and the ethereal philofophers of this
age, like the followers of Ariftotle of old, have filled
2 ] SOU
ponderous volumes with nonienfe and error. It is Sown!
ftrange, however, that this fhould be the effeft of a ' ^
great and a fuccefsful ftep in philofophy: But the fault
is in the philofophers, not in the fcience. Nothing can
be more certain than the account which Newton lias
given of the propagation of a certain clafs of undula¬
tions in an elallic fluid. But this procedure of nature
cannot be feen with diftinftnefs and precifion by any
but well-informed mathematicians. They alone can
reft with unfhaken confidence on the conclufions legiti¬
mately deduced from the Newtonian theorems ; and
even they can infure fuccefs only by treading with the
moft fcrupulous caution the liens of this patient philo¬
fopher. But few have done this ; and we may ven¬
ture to fay, that not one in ten of thofe who employ
the Newtonian doftrines of elaftic undulations for the
explanation of other phenomena have taken the trouble,
or indeed were able, to go through the fteps of the fun¬
damental propofition (Prin. II. 5c, &c.) But the yr-
neral refults aie fo plain, and admit of fuch impreflive
illuftration, that they draw the a fieri t of the moft care-
leis reader; and all imagine that they underiland the
explanation, and perceive the whole procedure of na¬
ture. Emboldened therefore by thus liiccefsful ftep in
philofophy, they, without fancy fimilar inter¬
mediums in other cafes ; and as air has been found to
be a vehicle for found, they have fnopofed that fome¬
thing which they call ether, fomehow refembling air, is
the vehicle of vifion. Others have proceeded farther,
and have held that ether, or another .fomething like air,
is the vehicle of fenfation in general, from the organ ta
the brain ; nay, we have got a great volume called A
Theory of Man, where all our fenfations, emotions,
affeftions, thoughts, and purpofes or volitions, are laid
to be fo many vibrations of another fomething equally
unfeen, gratuitous, and incompetent; and, to crown all,
this exalted doftrine, when logically profecuted, muft
terminate in the difeovery of thofe vibrations which
pervade all others, and which conftitute what we have
been accuftomed to venerate by the name Deity. Such
mujl be the termination of this philofophy ; and a truly
philofophical difl'ertation on the attributes of the Divine
Being can be nothing eife than an accurate defeription of
thefe vibrations !
This is not a needlefs and declamatory rhapfody. If
the explanation of found can be legitimately transferred
to thofe other clafles of phenomena, thefe are certain
refults ; and if fo, all the difeoveries made by Newton
are but the glimmerings of the morning, when compa¬
red with this meridian fplendor. But if, on the other
hand, found logic forbids us to make this transference
of explanation, we muft continue to believe, for a little
while longer, that mind is fomething different from vi¬
brating matter, and that no kind of ofcillations will con¬
ftitute infinite wifdom.
It is of immenfe importance therefore to underftand
thoroughly this doftrine of found, that we may fee
clearly and precifely in what it confifts, what are the
phenomena of found that are fully explained, what are
the data and the aflumptions on which the explanations
proceed, and what is the precife mechanical fuel in which
it terminates. For this, or a faft perfeftly fimilar, muft
terminate every explanation which we derive from this
by analogy, however perfeft the analogy may be. This
previous knowledge mult be completely poffefied by eve-
4
SOU [ (
Sound, ryperfon who pretends to explain other phenomena in a
fimilar manner. Then, and not till then, he is able to
fay what clafles of phenomena will admit of the expla¬
nation : and, when all this is done, his explanation is
ildl an hypothejis, till he is able to prove, from other in-
difputable iources, the exiftence and agency of the fame
thing analogous to the eiaftrc fluid, from which all is
borrowed.
_ Such conliderations would juilify us for confidering
with great attention the nature of found. But a work
like this will not give room for a full difcufiion ; and
we muff refer our readers to the writers who treat it
more at large. Much curious information may be got
from the pains-taking authors of the laft century ;
1 ich as Lord Bacon; Kircher; Merfennus; Cafferius in
his great work JJe Voce et Auditu; Perrault in his Dif-
_/t/ iuticn (tu bruit ; Muffenbroek in his great Syftem of
Natural Philofophy, in 3 vols 4to ; and in his E/fuis de
Phyjique ; and the writings of the celebrated phvfioio-
gifts of the p re lent age. We alfo refer to what has
been faid by us in the article Acoustics.
.. •p'-t pi'elent therefore we muft content ourfelves with
giving a fhort hiftory of the fpeculations of philofophers
on this iubjeft, tracing out the fteps by which we liave
arrived at the knowledge which we have of it. We ap¬
prehend this to be or great importance ; becaufe it
fhovvs us what kind of evidence we have for its truth,
and the paths which we muft fhun if we with to pro¬
ceed farther: and we truft that the progrefs which we
have made will appear to be fo real, and the objedt to
be attained fo alluring to a truly philofophical, mind,
that men of genius will be incited to exert their utmoft
efforts to pais the prefcnt boundaries of our real pro¬
grefs. 1
In the infancy of philofophy, found was held to be a
feparate exiftence, fomcthing which would be, although
no hearing animal exiited. f his was conceived as waft¬
ed through the air to our (organ of hearing, which it
was fuppofed to _affe& in a manner refembiino that in
which our noftrils are affefted when they give us the
feniation of fmell. It was one of the Platonic species,
fitted for exciting the intellectual fpecies, which is the
immediate objedl of the foul’s contemplation.
Yet, even in thofe early years of fcience, there were
fome, and. in particular, the celebrated founder of the
ftoic fchool, who held that found, that is, the caufe of
found, was only the particular motion of external grofs
matter, propagated to the ear, and there producing that
agitation of the organ by which the foul is immediate¬
ly afteckd with the fenfation of found. Zeno, as quo-
* B v;i. ted by Diogenes Laertius*, fays, “ Hearing is produced
5 5- by the air which intervenes between the thing founding
and the ear. The air is agitated in a fpherical form,
and moves off in waves, and tails on the ear, in the fame
manner as the water in a ciftern undulates in circles when
a Itone has been thrown into it.” The ancients were not
remarkable for preciffon, either of conception or argu¬
ment in their difcuffions, and they were contented with
a general and vague view of things. Some followed the
Platonic notions, and many the opinion of Zeuo, but
without any farther attempts to give a diftinCt conception
of the explanation, or to compare it with experiment.
Butin later times, during the ardent refeaiches in
Ihe hut century into the phenomena of nature, this be-
'.1 ] sou
came an intereftlng fubjeCt of inquiry. The invention S' unrf.
of the air-pump gave the firft opportunity of deciding
by expeiiment whether the elattic undulations of air
were the caufes of found; and the trial fully eftablifhed
tnis point ; for a bell rung m vacuo gave no found, and
one rung in condenfcd air gave a very loud one. It
was therefore icceived as a doctrine in general nhvfics
that air was the vehicle of found. S 1 ^
ihe celebrated Galileo, the parent of mathematical
phnofophy, dilcovered the nature of that connection be¬
tween the lengths of mufical cords and the notes which
they produced, which had been obferved by Pi thago-
ras, or learned by him in his travels in the eaft, and
which he made the foundation of a refined and beauti¬
ful fcience, the theory of muiic. Galileo fliowed, that
the real connexion iubfifted between the tones and the
vibrations of thefe cords, and that their different degrees
of acute nets correlponded to the different frequency of
their vibrations.^ 1 he very elementary and familiar de¬
mon ft. rai ion which he gave of this connection did not
fatisfy the curious mathematicians of that inquifitive
and thv mechanical theoiy of mufical cords was
piolecuted to a great degree of refinement. In the
courfe of this inveftigation, it appeared that the cord
vibrated in a manner precifely fimilar to a pendulum vi¬
brating in a cycloid. It mull therefore agitate the air
contiguous to it in the fame manner; and thus there is
a particular kind of agitation which the air can receive
and maintain, which is veiy intereftin r.
. |iaac Newton took up this queftion as worthy of
his notice ; and endeavoured to afeertain with mathe¬
matical precision tne mechanifm of this particular clals
of undulations, and gave us the fundamental theorems
concerning the undulations of Gallic fluids, which make
the 47, &c. propofitions of Book II. of his Principles
of Natural Philofophy. They have been (perhaps haf-
tily) conudered as giving the fundamental dodnines con¬
cerning the propagation of found. They are therefore
given in this work in the article Acoustics ; and a
variety of facls are narrated in.ghe article Pneumatics,
to fhow that fuch undulations a dually obtain in the air
of our atmofphere, and are accompanied by a fet of
phenomena of found which precifely tally or conefpond
to all the mechanical circumftances of thefe undulations.
In the mean time, the anatomifts and phyfiologifts were
bufily employed in examining the ilrufture of our or-
gans of hearing. Imprefl'ed with the validity of this
d cm mine of aerial undulations being the caufes of found,
their refearches were always direfifed with a view to dif-
cover thole circumftances in the fttuGure of the ear
which rendered it an organ fufceptible of agitations
Uom this caufe ; and they difeovered many which ap¬
peared .as contrivances for making it a drum, on which
the aemal undulations from without muft make very for¬
cible impulles, lo as to produce very fonorous undula¬
tions in the air contained in it. Thefe therefore they
confidered as the immediate objects of fenfation, or the
immediate caufes of found.
But fome anatomifts law that this would not be a full
account of the matter : for after a drum is agitated it
Lis done all that it can do; it has produced a no’ife.
rf. ^ farther Procefs goes on in our ear; There is
behind the membrane, which is the head of this ebum
a curious raechaniim, which communicates tUe agitations
of
SOU [ 6r
Ponnc!, 0f the membrane (the only thing aftcj on by the un-
~*'v dvilating air) to another chamber of moft fingular con-
ftruftion, where the auditory nerve is greatly expanded.
1’hey conceive, therefore, that the organ called the
drum does not add as a drum, hut in foine other way. In¬
deed it feems bad logic to fuppofe that it adds as a drum
merely by producing a noife. This is in no relpett dif¬
ferent from the noiie produced out of the ear; and if it
is to be heard as a noife, we muft have another ear by
which it may be heard, and this ear mull be another
Juch drum ; and this muft have another, and fo on for
ever. It is like the inaccurate notion that vifion is the
contemplation of the pidhire on the retina. Thefe ana-
tomifts attended therefore to the ftrudture. Here they
obferved a prodigious unfolding of the auditory nerve
of the ear, which is curioufly diftributed through every
part of this cavity, lining its fides, hung acrofs it like a
curtain, and fending off fibres in every direction, fo as
to leave hardly a point of it unoccupied. They thought
the machinety contained in the drum peculiarly fitted
for producing undulations of the air contained in this
labyrinth, and that by thefe agitations of the air the
■contiguous fibres of the auditory nerve are impelled,
and that thus we get the fenfation of found.
The cavity intervening between the external air and
this inner chamber appeared to thefe anatomifts to have
no other ufe than to allow a very free motion to the
Jlapes or little pifton that is employed to agitate the air
in the labyrinth. This pifton condenfes on a very fmall
furface the impulfe which it receives from a much lar¬
ger furface, ftrained by the malleus on the entry of the
tympanum, on purpofe to receive the gentle agitations
of the external air in the outer canal. This membra¬
nous furface Could not be agitated, unlefs completely
detached from every thing round it ; therefore all ani¬
mals which have this mechanifm have it in a cavity
containing only air. But they held, that nature had
even taken precautions to prevent this cavity from aft-
ing as a drum, by making it of fueh an irregular ram¬
bling form ; for it is by no means a cavity of a fymme-
trical (hape, like a veffel, but rather refembles the ram¬
bling holes and blebs which are often feen in a piece of
bread, fcattered through the fubftance of the cranium,
and communicating with each other by fmall paffages.
The whole of theie cavernulae are lined with a foftifh
membrane, which (till farther unfits this cavity for pro¬
ducing found. This reafoning is fpecious, but not very
conclufive. Wc might even affert, that this anfra&uous
form, with narrow paffages, is well fitted for producing
noife. If we place the ear clofe to the fmall hole in
the fide of a military drum, we ftiall hear the fmalleft
tap of the drumftick like a violent blow. The lining
of the cavernulae is nervous, and may therefore be ftrong-
jy affedfed in the numerous narrow pafiages between the
cells.
While thefe fpeculations were going on with refpedl
to the ear of the breathing animals, obfervations were
occafionally made on other animals, fuch as reptiles,
rerpents, and fifties, which give undoubted indications
of hearing; and many very familiar fadts were obferved
or reeolledf ed, wlrere founds are communicated through
or by means of folid bodies, or by water: therefore,
without inquiring how or by what kind of mechanifm
it is brought about, it became a very general belief
among phyfiologifts, that all fifhes, and perhaps all ani-
4 ] SOU
rmls hear, and that water in particular is a vehicle of Suinb
found. In 1767 or 1768 the writer of this article, at
the fuggeftion of the late profeflbr of aftronomy in the
univerfity of Glafgow, made an experiment in a lake in
that neighbourhood, by ftriking a large hand-bell under
water, and heard it very diftindlly and ftrongly when
his head was plunged in the water at the diftance of
more than 1 200 feet. Many experiments are mention¬
ed by Kircher and others on the communication of
found through folid bodies, fuch as mafts, yards, and
other long beams of dry fir, with fimilar refults. Dr
Monro has publifhed a particular account of very cu¬
rious experiments on the propagation of found through
water in his DifTertation on the Phyliology of Fifhes ;
fo that it now appears that air is by no means the only
vehicle of found.
Iti 1 760 Cotunni publifhed his important difeovery,
that the labyrinth or inmoft cavity of the ear in animals
is completely filled with water. This, after fome con-
teft, has been completely demonftrated (fee in parti¬
cular Meckel Junior de Labyrinthi Anns Contends, Ar-
gentor, 1777), and it feems now to be admitted by
all.
This being the cafe, our notions of the immediate
canfe of found muft undergo a great revolution, and a
new refearch muft be made into the way in which
the nerve is affefted : for it is not enough that vve
fubftitute the undulations of water for thofe of air in
the labyrinth. The well informed mechanician will fee
at once, that the vivacity of the agitations of the nerve
will be greatly increafed by this fubftitution ; for if wa¬
ter be perfe&ly elaftic through the whole extent of the
undulatory agitation which it receives, its effeft will be
greater in proportion to its fpecific gravity: and this is
confirmed by an experiment very eafily made. Immerfe
a table-bell in water contained in a large thin glafs vef¬
fel. Strike it with a hammer. The found will be
heard as if the bell had been immediately ftruck on the
fides of the veffel. The filling of the labyrinth of the
ear with water is therefore an additional mark of the
wifdom of the Great Artift. But this is not enough for
informing us concerning the ultimate mechanical event
in the procefs of hearing. The manner in which the
nerve is expofed to thefe undulations muft be totally
different from what was formerly imagined. The fila¬
ments and membranes, which have been deferibed by
former anatomifts, muft have been found by them in a
{late quite unlike to their fituation and condition in the
living animal. Accordingly the moft eminent anato¬
mifts of Europe feem at prefent in great uncertainty as
to the Hate of the nerve, and are keenly occupied in
obfervations to this purpofe. The deferiptions given by
Monro, Scarpa, Camper, Comparetti, and others, are
full of moft curious difeoveries, which makealmoft a to¬
tal change in our notions of this fubjeA, and will, we
hope, be productive of moft valuable information.
Scarpa has difeovered that the'folid cavity called the
labyrinth contains a threefold expanfion of the auditory
nerve. One part of it, the cochlea, contains it in a ft-
brillous ftate, ramified in a moft fymrnetrical manner
through the whole of the zona .nollis of the lamina fpi-
ralisy where it anaftomofes with another production of
it diffufed over the general lining of that cavity. An¬
other department of the nerve, alio in a fibrous ftate, is
fpread over the external furface of a membranaceous
bag,
sou
Sound, bacr, which nearly fills that part of the veftibule into
which the femicircular canals open, and alfo that orifice
which receives the imprefiions of the ftapes. This bag
fends off tubular membranaceous dudts, which, in like
manner, nearly fill thefe femicircular canals. A third
department of the nerve is Ipread over the external fur-
face of another membranaceous bag, which lies between
the one juft now mentioned and the cochlea, but ha-
•ving no communication with either, almoft completely
filling the remainder of the veftibule. Thus the veftibule
and canals feem only a cafe for prote&ing this fenlitive
membranaceous vefi'el, which is almoft, but not altoge¬
ther, in contact with the ofleous cafe, being feparated
by a delicate and almoft fluid cellular fubftance. The
fibrillous expanfion of the nerve is not inddcriminately
diffufed over the furface of thefe facculi, but evidently
directed to certain foci, where the fibres are conftipated.
And this is the laft appearance of the fibrous ftate of
the nerve; for when the infide of thefe facculi is infpedt-
ed, no fibres appear, but a pulp (judged to be nervous
from its fimilarity to other pulpy productions of the
brain) adhering to the membranaceous coat, and not fe-
parable from it by gently wafhing it. It is more abun¬
dant, that is, of greater thicknefs, oppofite to the ex¬
ternal fibrous foci. No organical ftrudfure could be
difcovered in this pulp, but it probably is organifed ;
for, befides this adhering pulp, the water in the facculi
was obferved to be clammy or mucous ; fo that in all
probability the vafcular or fibrous ftate of the nerve is
fucceeded by an uninterrupted produftion (perhaps
columnar like bafalt, though not cohering); and this at
laft ends in fimple diflemination, fymmetrical however,
where water and nerve are alternate in every dire&ion.
To thefe obfervations of Scarpa, Comparetti adds
the curious circumftances of another and regular tym¬
panum in the foramen rotundum, the cylindric cavity
of which is inclofed at both ends by a fine membrane.
The membrane which feparates it from the cochlea ap¬
pears to be in a ftate of variable tenfion, being drawn
up to an umbo by a cartilaginous fpeck in its middle,
which he thinks adheres to the lamina fpiralis, and thus
ferves to ftrain the drumhead, as the malleus ftrains the
great membrane known to all.
Thefe are moft important obfervations, and muft
greatly excite the curiofity of a truly philofophical
mind, and deferve the moft careful inquiry into thtir
juftnefs. It thefe are accurate defcriptions of the or¬
gan, they feem to conduct us farther into the fecrets of
nature than any thing yet known.
We think that they promife to give us the greateft
ftep yet made in phyfiology, viz. to {how us the laft
mechanical facft which occurs in the long train inter-
pofed between the external body and the incitement of
©ur fenfitive fyftem. But there is, as yet, great and
eftential differences in the defcription given by thofe
celebrated naturalifts. It cannot be otherwife. The
containing labyrinth can be laid open to our view in
no other way than by deftroying it; and its moft deli¬
cate contents are the firft fufferers in the fearch. They
are found in very different fituations and conditions by
different anatomifts, according to their addreis or their
good fortune. Add to this, that the natural varieties
are very confiderable. Faithful defcriptions muft there¬
fore give very different notions of the ultimate action
[ 615 ]
sou
and reaction between the unorganised matter in the la¬
byrinth and the ultimate expanfion of the auditory
nerve. 1
We muft therefore wait with patience. Since this
Work of ours was begun, the progrefs which has been
made in many parts of natural fcience has been great
aim wonderful; and perhaps before it be completed,
we may be furnilhed with fuch a colleaion of fads re-
fpe&ing the ftrudure and the contents of the or^an of
hearing, as might enable us to give a jufter theory of
found than is yet to be found in the writings of philo-
fophers. There feerns to be no abatement of ardour in the
refearches of the phyfiologifts; and they will not remain
long ignorant of the truth or miftake in the accounts
given by Scarpa and Comparetti. Should the refult of
their inquiries be what we exped, we fhould be glad of
a proper opportunity of laying it before our readers,
togethei with feme difquifition on the nature of hear¬
ing. A colleaion of accurate obfervations on the ftruc-
ture of the ear would give us principles on which to
proceed in explaining the various methods ©f produ¬
cing external founds. The nature of continued foundt
might then be treated of, and would appear, we be¬
lieve, very different from what it is commonly fup-
pofed. Under this head animal voices might be par¬
ticularly confidered, and the elements of human fpe^ch
properly afeertained. When the produftion of conti¬
nued founds is once fhown to be a thing regulated
by principle, it may be fyftematically treated, and this-
principle may be confidered as combined with every
mechanical ftate of body that may he pointed out.
1 bis will iuggeft to us methods of producing found
which have not yet been thought of, and may there¬
fore give us founds with which we are unacquainted.
Such an acqmlition is not to be defpifed nor reiefted.
1 he bountiiul Author of our being and of all our fa
culties has made it an objed of moft enchanting re-
hlh to the human mind.. The Greeks, the moft culti¬
vated people who have ever figured on the ftage of life
enjoyed the pleafures of mufic with rapture. Even the
poor negro, after toiling a whole day beneath the tro¬
pical fun, will go ten miles- in the dark to dance al!
night to the fimple mufic of the balafoe, and return
without fleep to his next day’s toil. The penetrating
eye of the anatomift has-difeovered in the human larynx,
an apparatus evidently contrived for tempering the great
movements of the glottis, fo as to enable us to produce
the intended note with the utmoft precifion. There i3
no doubt therefore that the confummate Artift has not
thought it unworthy of his attention. We ought there
fore to receive with thankfulnefs this prefent from our
Maker—this lalorum duice lenimen ; and it is furely worthy
the attention of the philofopher to add to this innocent
elegance of life. I his, however, is not the time to en~
teiupen the fubjed. hrom the jarring obfervations
which have yet been made, we could, only amufe the
curious reader by holding up to his view a fpecious
theory ; an^. we are not fo defiroua of filling our Work
with what is called original matter, as to attempt the
attainment of that end by fubftituting fidion for fad
and hypothefis for fcience.
Sound in geography, denotes in general any ftrait,
or inlet of the fea between two headlands. It is given
by way of. eminence to the ftrait between Sweden and
Denmark^
Sound.
Sound'ng.
SOU [ 61
Denmark, joining the German ocean to the Baltic, be¬
ing about three miles over. See Denmark, n° 32. and
Elsinore.
SOUNDING, the operation of trying the depth of
the fea, and the natuie of the bottom, by means ol a
plummet funk from a fhip to the bottom.
There are two plummets ufed for this purpofe in na¬
vigation ; one of which is called the hand-lead, weigh¬
ing about 8 or 9 pounds ; and the other the deep fea-
lead, which weighs from 25 to 30 pounds ; and both
are fhaped like the fruftum of a cone or pyramid. The
former is ufed in fhallow waters, and the latter at a
great diilance from the fhore; particularly on approach¬
ing the land after a fea-voyage. Accordingly the lines
employed for this purpofe are called the deep-fea lead¬
line, and the hand lead-line.
The hand lead-line, which is ufually 20 fathoms in
length, is marked at every two or three fathoms ; fo
that the depth of the water may be afeertained either in
the day or night. At the depth of two and three fa¬
thoms, there are marks of black leather ; at 5 fathoms,
there is a white rag; at 7, a red rag; at 10, black
leather; at 13, black leather ; at 15, a white rag; and
at 17, a red ditto.
Sounding with the hand lead, which is called heaving
the lead by feamen, is generally performed by a man who
Hands in the main chains to windward. Having the
line quite ready to run out without interruption, he holds
it nearly at the diftance of a fathom from the plummet;
and having fwung the latter backwards and forwards
three or four times, in order to acquire the greater ve¬
locity, he fwings it round his head, and thence as far
forward as is neceffary ; fo that, by the lead’s finking
whilft the fhip advances, the line may be almoft perpen¬
dicular when it reaches the bottom. The perfon found¬
ing then proclaims the depth of the water in a kind of
fong refembling the cries of hawkers in a city. Thus
if the mark of live fathoms is clofe to the furface of the
water, he calls, ‘ By the mark five !’ and as there is no
mark at four, fix, eight, &c. he ellimates thofe num¬
bers, and calls, ‘ By the dip four,’ &c. If he judges it
to be a quarter or an half more than any particular
number, he calls, ‘And a quarter five! and a half four,’
&c. If he conceives the depth to be three quarters
more than a particular number, he calls it a quarter lefs
than the next : thus, at four fathoms and three fourths
he calls ‘ A quarter lefs five !’ and fo on.
d he deep fea-lead is marked with two knots at 20
fathoms, three at 30, four at 40, and fo on to the end.
It is alfo marked with a fingle knot in the middle of
each interval, as at 25, 35, 45 fathoms, &c. To ufe
this lead more effedlually at fea, or in deep water on
the fea-coall, it is ufual previoufly to bring to the fhip,
in order to retard her courfe : the lead is then thrown
as far as poffibie from the Ihip on the line or her drift,
fo that, as it finks, the (hip drives more perpendicularly
over it. The pilot, feeling the lead ilrike the bottom,
readily difeovers the depth of the water by the mark on
the line nearefl its furface. The bottom of the lead
being alfo well rubbed over with tallow, retains the diilin-
guilhing marks of the bottom, as (hells, ooze, gravel,
&c. which naturally adhere to it.
The depth of the water, and the nature of the ground,
•which is called the foundings, are carefully marked in the
log-book, as well to determine the diftance of the place
6 ] SOU
from the fhore, as to corredt the obfervations of former Soup
pilots. I!
SOUP, a ftrong decodtion of flefh or other fub-
fiances.
Portable or dry foup is a kind of cake formed by ChaptaV,
boiling the gelatinous parts of animal fubltances till the Cbemifry,
watery parts are evaporated. This fpecies of foup is
chiefly ufed at fea, and has been found of great ad¬
vantage. The following receipt will fhow how it is
prepared.
Of calves feet take 4 ; leg of beef t 2 lbs. ; knuckle
of veal 3 lbs. ; and leg of mutton jo lbs. Thefe are
to be boiled in a fufficient quantity of water, and the
feum taken off as ufual; after which the foup is to be
feparated from the meat by (training and preffure. The
meat is then to be bpiled a fecond time in other water;
and the two decodtions, being added together, mult be
left to cool, in order that the fat may be exa&ly fepa¬
rated. The foup rmlft then be clarified with five or fix
whites of eggs, and a (ufficient quantity of common fait
added. The liquor is then ftrained through flannel,
and evaporated on the water-bath to the confiHence of
a very thick palte j a:ter which it is fpread rather thin
upon a fimooth Hone, then cut into cakes, and laHly
dried in a Hove until it becomes brittle: thefe cakes are
kept in well clofed bottles. The fame procefs may be
uled to make a portable foup of the flefh of poultry ;
and aromatic herbs may be uled as a feafoning, if
thought proper.
Thefe tablets or cakes may be kept four or five
years. When intended to be ufed, the quantity of
half an ounce is put into a large glafs of boiling water,
which is to be covered, and fet upon hot afhes for a
quarter of an hour, or until the whole is entirely dif-
lolved. It forms an excellent foup, and requires no ad¬
dition but a fmull quantity of fait.
SOUR-croute. See Croute.
SovR-Gourd, or African Calabajh-tree. See Adan-
SONIA.
SOUTH (Dt Robert), an eminent divine, was the
fon of Mr William South a merchant of London, and
was born at Hackney near that city in 1633. He Hu-
died at Weltminfler fchool, and aSterwards in ChriH-
church college, Oxford. In 1654, he wrote a copy of
Latin verfesto congratulate Cromwell upon the peace
concluded with the Dutch ; and the next year a Latin
poem, intitled Mujtca Incantam. In 1660 he was elect¬
ed public oiator of the univerfity ; and the next year
became domeltic chaplain to Edward eailof Clarendon,
lord-high-chancellor of England. In 1663 he was in-
Hailed prebendary of WeHnnrHer, admitted to the de¬
gree of doctor of divinity", and had a finecure bellowed
on him in Wales by his patron the earl of Clarendon ;
after whofe retirement into France in 1667 he became
chaplain to the duke of York. In 1670 he was inHal-
led canon of Chrilt-church in Oxford ; and in 1676 at¬
tended as chaplain to Laurence Hyde, Efq; ambaflador
extraordinary to the king of Poland. In 1678 he was
prefented to the redtory ot Blip in Oxfordshire ; and
in 1680 rebuilt the chancel of that church, as he after¬
wards did the redtory-houie belonging to it. After the
revolution he took the oath of allegiance to king Wil¬
liam and queen Mary, though he excufed himfelf from
accepting a great dignity in the church, vacated by the
perfonal refufal ot that oath. His health began to de¬
cline
Soirtti.
SOU [6
f*>[ne feveril years before bis death, which happened in
^ 1716. He was interred in Weftminfter Abbey, where
a monument is erefted to his memory. He publifhed,
j. Animadwrfions on Dr Sherlock^ Vindication of the
Holy and Ever Blefled Trinity, 1. A Defence of his
Animadverfions. 3. Sermons, 8 rols 8vo. And after
his deceafe were pubiilhed his Opera Pojlhuma Latina^
and his pofthumous EngliCh works. Dr South was re¬
markable for his wit, which abounds in all his writings,
and particularly in his fermons ; but at the fame time
they equally abound in ill-humour, fpleen, and latire.
He was remarkable tor being a time ferver. During
the life of Cromwell he was a Haunch Prefbyterian, and
then railed againft. the Independents : at the Reftora-
tion he exerted his pulpit-eloquence againft the Prefby-
terians ; and in the reign of Queen Anne, was a warm
advocate for Sacheverel.
South, one of the four cardinal points from which
the winds blow.
South Sea, or Pacific Ocean, is that vaft body of
water interpofed between Afia and America. It does
not however, ftriftly fpeaking, reach quite to the con¬
tinent of Afia, excepting to the northward of the pe-
ninfula of Malacca : for the water interpofed between
the eaftern coaft of Africa and the peninfula juft men¬
tioned has the name of the Indian Ocean. The South
Sea then is bounded on one fide by the weftern coaft of
America, through its whole extent, from the unknown
regions in the north to the ftraits of Magellan and
Terra del Fuego, where it communicates with the fou-
thern part of the Atlantic. On the other fide, it is
bounded by the coaft of Afia, from the northern promon¬
tory of Tfchukotfkoi Nofs, to the peniniula of Malacca
already mentioned. Thence it is bounded to the fouth-
ward by the northern coafts of Borneo, Celebes, Ma-
cafiar, New Guinea, New Holland, and the other ifiands
in that quarter, which divide it from the Indian Ocean.
Then, waffling the eaftern coaft of the great ifland of
New Holland, it communicatee with that vaft body of
water encompafling the whole fouthern part of the
globe, and which has the general name of the Southern
Ocean all round. Thus does this vaft ocean occupy al-
moft the femicircumference of the globe, extending al-
moft from one pole to the other, and about the equato¬
rial parts extending almoft i8o°in longitude, or 12,500
of our miles.
The northern parts of the Pacific Ocean are entirely
deftitute of land; not a fingle ifland having yet been
difeovered in it from the latitude of 40° north and up¬
wards, excepting fuch as are very near the coaft either
of Afia or America; but in the fouthern part there
are a great number-
Till very lately the South Sea was in a great mea-
fure unknown. From the great extent of ice which
covers the fouthern part of the globe, it was imagined
that much more land exifted there than in the northern
regions : but that this could not be juftly inferred mere¬
ly from that circumftance, is plain from what has been
advanced under the article America, 3—24; and
the fouthern continent, long known by the name of
%erra Aujlralls, has eluded the fearch of the moft ex¬
pert navigators fent out from Britain and France by
royal authority. See Terra Australis,
South Sea Company. See Company.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
17 1 s o z
SOUTHAMPTON, a fea-port town of Hampfhire Scuthamp-
in England. It is commodioufly feated on an arm of ^
the fea; is a place of good trade, and well inhabited. Sozomemiv.
It is furrounded by walls and feveral watch-towers, and ——y—
had a ftrong caftle to defend the harbour, now in ruins.
It is a corporation and a county of itfelf, with 'the title
of an earldom, and fends two members to parliament.
W. Long. 1. 26. N. Lat. 50. 55.
SOUTHERN (Thomas), an eminent dramatic wri¬
ter, was born at Dublin in 1660, and received his edu¬
cation in the univerfity there. He came young to
London to ftudy law; but inftead of that devoted himfelf
to poetry and the writing of plays. His Perfian Prince,
or Loyal Brother, was introduced in 1682, when the
Tory intereft was triumphant in England; and the cha-
ra&er of the loyal brother being intended to compli¬
ment James dnke of York, he rewarded the author
when he came to the throne with a commiffion in the
army ^ On the Revolution taking place, he retired to
his ftudies, and wrote feveral plays, from which he is
fuppofed to have derived a very handfome fubfiftence,
being the firft who raifed the advantage of play-writing
to a fecond and third night. The moft finifhed of all
his plays is Oroonoko, or the Royal Slave, which 19
built on a true ftory related in one of Mrs Behn’s no¬
vels. Mr Southern died in 1746, in the 86th year of
his age; the latter part of which he fpent in a peaceful
ferenity, having, by his commiffion as a foldier, and the
profits of his dramatic works, acquired a handfome for¬
tune ; and being an exaft economift, he improved what
fortune he gained to the belt advantage. He enjoyed
the longeft life of all our poets } and died the richeft of
them, a very few excepted. His plays are printed in
two vols 12mo.
Southern Continent. See America, n°3—24. and
Terra Auflralu.
SOUTHERNWOOD, in botany. See Artemi¬
sia.
SOUTHWARK, a town of Surry, and a fuburb
of the city of London, being feparated from that me¬
tropolis only by the Thames. See London, n° 96.
SOW, in zoology. See Sus.
Sow, in the iron works, the name of the block or
lump of metal they work at once in the iron furnace.
Soiv-Thljlle. See Sonchus.
SOWING, in agriculture and gardening, the depo-
fiting any kind of Teed in the earth for a f uture crop.
See Agriculture.
Drill-SoiriNG. See DRiLL-Sotving.
SOY. See Dolichos.
SOZOMENUS (Hermias), an ecclefiaftical hifto-
rian of the 5th century, was born in Bethelia, a town
of Paleftine. He was educated for the law, and be¬
came a pleader at Conftantinople. He wrote an A-
bridgment of Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, in two books, from
the afeenfion of our Saviour to the year 323. This
compendium is loft; but a continuation of it in nine
books, written at greater length, down to the year
440, is ftill extant. He feems to have copied Socrates,
who wrote a hiftory of the fame period. The ftyle of
Sozomenus is perhaps more elegant; but in other re-
fpe&s he falls far Ihort of that writer, difplaying through¬
out his whole book an amazing credulity and a fuper-
flitious attachment to monks and the monaftic life. The
41 heft
■ SPA [ 618
heft edition of Sozomcnus is that of Robert Stephen in
1 C44. He has been tranflated and pubhftied by vale-
fms, and republifhed with additional notes by Reading
at London, 1720, in 3 vols folio. . ,
SPA, a town of Germany, in the circle ©t \\ eitpha-
lia and biflioprxc of Liege, famous for its mineral wa¬
ters, lies in E. Long. 5. so. N. Lat. 50. 30. about 21
miles fouth-eaft from Liege, and 7 fouth-weft nom
Lombtirg. It is fituated at one end of a deep valley
on the banks of a fmall rivulet, and is furrounded on all
fides by high mountains. The fides of thefe mountains
next to Soa are rude and uncultivated, prefentmg a
rugged appearance as if fhattcred by the convuliions o.
earthquakes ; but as they are ftrewed with tall oaks and
abundance of fhrubs, the country around forms a wild,
romantic, and beautiful landfcape. The accefs to the
town is very beautiful. The road winds over the
mountains till it defeends to their bottom, when it runs
along a fmooth valley for a mile or a mile and a half.
The town confifts of four ftreets in form of a croft,
and contains about 400 inhabitants. Spa has no wealth
to boaft of. It can fcarcely furnifh the neceffanes of
life to its own inhabitants during the winter, and almoft
all the luxuries which are requifite for the great con-
courfe of affluent vifitors during the fummer are earned
from Liege by women. Its only fource of wealth is its
mineral waters. No fooner does the warm feafon com¬
mence, than crowds of valetudinarians arrive, as well as
many other perfons who are attrafted folely by the love
of amufement, and fome from left honourable motives.
The inhabitants, who fpend feven or eight months o.
the year without feeing the face of a ftranger, wait for
the return of this period with impatience. The wel¬
come found of the carriages brings multitudes from the
town, either to gratify their curiofity, or to offer their
fervices in the hopes of fecuring your employment while
you remain at Spa. Immediately after your arrival your
name and defignation is added to the printed lift of the
annual vifitors ; for which you pay a dated fum to the
bookfeller, who has a patent for this purpofe from the
prince bifhop of Liege. This lift not only enables one
to know at a glance whether any friends or acquaint¬
ance are redding there, but alfo to diftinguifh perfons
of rank and faihion from adventurers, who feldorn have
the effrontery to infert their names.
There are two different ways of accommodating the
vifitors at Spa with lodging and neceffaries. Peopie
may either lodge at an hotel, where every thing is fur-
siihed them in a fplendid and expenfive ftyle ; or they
]
SPA
may take up their refidence in private lodgings, from (
which they may fend for provilions to a cook’s (hop.
Among the people who vilit Spa, there are many
perfons of the firft rank and fafflion in Europe. Per-"
haps indeed there is no place in Europe to which fo
many kings and princes refort; but it is alio viiited by
many felf-created nobility, who, under the titles of
counts, barons, marquifes, and knights, contrive by
their addreft and artifices, to prey upon the rich and
unexperienced.
The manners eftablifhed at Spa are conducive both to
health and amufement. Every body _ rifes early in the
morning, at fix o’clock or before it, when a great
many horfes ftand ready faddled for thofe who choofe
to drink the Sauveniere or Geronftere waters at a little
diftance from Spa. After this healthy exercife a part
of the company generally breakfaft together at Vaux-
hall, a magnificent and fpacious building. At this
place a number of card-tables are opened every fore¬
noon, round which many perfons affemble and play for
ftakes to a very confiderable amount. A ball too is gene¬
rally held once a week at Vauxhall, befides two balls at
the affembly rooms near the Pouhon in the middle ot
the town.
The moft remarkable waters at Spa are, 1. The Pou¬
hon, fituated in the middle of the town ; 2. The Sau¬
veniere, a mile and a half call from it ; 3' Groifbeck,
near to the Sauveniere; 4. I onnelet, fituated a little to
the left of the road which leads to the Sauveniere ;
5. Geronftere, two miles fouth from Spa; 6. War-
troz, near to the Tonnelet; 7. Sarts or Nivefet, in the
diftrift of Sarts ; 8. Chevron or Bru, in the principality
of Slavelot ; 9. Couve ; 10. Beverfe ; 11. Sige ; 12.
Geremont. Thefe four laft are near Malmedy.
Dr Brownrigg was the firft perfon who difeovered
that fixed air, or," as it is now generally called, carbonic
acid gas, forms a principal ingredient in the composition
of the Spa waters, and adually Separated a quantity of
this elaftic fluid, by expofing it to different degrees of
heat from no0 to 170° of Fahrenheit. From 20 oun¬
ces 7 drams and 14 grains apothecaiies weight of the
Pouhon water, he obtained 8 ounces 2 drams and $0
grains. Since June 1765, when Dr Brownrigg read a
paper on this fubjed before the Royal Society of Lon¬
don, the waters of Spa have been, often analyfed, but
perhaps by none with more accutacy than by Dr Affl,
who publifhed a book on the chemical and medicinal pro¬
perties of thefc waters in 1788. We fflallprdent his ana-
lyfis of the five principal Springs in the following table*.
Fountain0.
Quantity!
of Wa¬
ter.
Pouhon
Geronftere
Sauveniere
Groifbeck
Tonnekt
Ounce
tneafures
of Gas.
Ounces.
33
32-75
32.50
32-25
32.
j Solid
contents.
Aerated
Lime.
Aerated! Aerated I Aerated
Magne- Mineral ,ron
fia. Alkali.
Selenite.
35-75
24-75
33-50
35-50
40-75
Grains.
16.25
5*50
3-75
5-25
2.00
2.75
2.50
1.50
1.50
0.25
9.50
2.25
i-75
o-75
1.
o-75
i-75
o-75
o 50
0.75
1.
0.50
Aerated
Vegefab.
Alkali.
The
\r
-<
9
1
Q
I
XJ1
v
*Th\c'kneJJi s
’’Journey
hsough the
Pais Bas.
SPA [ 619 1 SPA
The Pouhon fprin^ nfes from the hill .to the north SPACE. See Metaphysics, Part II. Chap. W. s^ce f
of Spa, which confiits of argillaceous fchiftus and fer- Space, in geometry, denotes the area of any figure, s »in>
rugineous flate. The other fountains rife from the fur- or that which fills the interval or diftance between the
rounding hills to the fouth-eatt, fouth, weft, and north- lines that terminate it. .
weft of the town; and this ridge of mountains is form- SPADIX, in botany, anciently ftgmfied the recep.
ed of calcareous eaiths mixed with filiceous fubftances. tacle of the palms. It is now ufed to exprefs every
The furface of the mountains is covered with woods, fiower-ftalk that is protruded out of a fpatha or {heath,
jnterfperfed with large boggy fwamps filled with mud The fpadix of the palms is branched ; that of all
and water. The Pouhon is conlidered as the principal other plantu iimple. I his laft caie admits of fome va-
fpring at Spa, being impregnated with a greater quan- rkty : in calla, dracontium, and pothos, the florets co-
tity of iron than any of the reft,' and containing more ver it on all fides ; in arum, they are difpokd on the
fixed air than any except the Tonnelet. It is from this lower part only ; and in zoftera on one fide,
faring that the Spa water for exportation is bottled ; SPAGIRIC art, a name given by authors to that
for which the demand is fo great, that, according to fpecies of chcmiftry which works on metals, and is em-
the beft information which Mr Thickneffe could obtain, ployed in the fearch of the philofopher’s ttone.
the quantity exported amounts to 200,000 or 250,000 SPAHIS, horfemen in the Ottoman army, chiefly
bottles annually. This exported water is inferior in its raifed in Afia. The great ftrength of the grand ferg-
virtue to that which is drunk on the fpot; for the vef- nior’s army confifts m the jamfanes, who are the foot;
fels into which it is collefted are injudicioufly expofed to and the fpahis, who are the horfe.
the fun, rain, wind, and dull, for feveral hours before SPAIN, a country of Europe, famous both in an-
they are corked, by which means a confiderabk part of cient and modern hiftory, fituated in that large perun-
its volatile ingredrerits muft be evaporated; for it has fula which forms the fouth-wefiem-part o> Europe. It
been found by experiment, that by expofing it to a gen- is bounded on the fouth and eaft by the Mediterranean
tie heat, air-bubbles afeend in great numbers. It is in fea and ftraits of Gibraltar, on the north and weft by
its greateft perfeiftion when colkaed in cold dry wea- the Bay of Bifcay and Atlantic Ocean, on the fouth-
ther; it is then pellucid, colourlefs, and without ftnell, weft by Portugal, and on the north-eaft by the Pyre-
and almoft as light as diftiiled water. It varies in its nees. _ 1
heat f rom 523 or 530 to 67° of Fahrenheit’s thermome- Themoft ancient name of Spain was Iberia, fuppofed Different
teri by fome to be derived from the Iberians, a people inha- names oi'
The Geronftere is a much weaker chalybeate water biting Mount Caucafus, a colony of whom {ettled in
than the Pouhon ; and as it is exceedingly naufeous, this country. Others derive it from the Phenician word
and taftes and.fmells like rotten eggs, it certainly con- Ebra ox lbrxi, fignifying a paflage ©r limit. By the
tains fome hepatic gas. This is a circumftance which Romans it was called Spania or Hfpania, from the Phe-
Dr Afh feems not to have attended to fufficiently. The nician name Spbanija ; and this again from Jhaphart, a
Sauveniere water alfo, when newly taken from the well, Phenician word fignifying a rabbit, becaufe the weftern
fmells a little of fulphur. The Groifbeck contains more part of Spain abounded with thofe animals,
alkali, and almoft as much gas as the Pouhon, and has Spain, as well as the reft of Europe, was probably-
been celebrated for its good effedls in the cafe of ealeu- peopled by the Celtes ; but the Spanifh hiftorians de-
lous concretions. The Tonnelet contains more gas rive the origin of their nation from Tubal the fifth fon
than any of the reft. So fmall is the quantity of any of Japhet, aflerting that Spain had been a monarchy
fofiil body held in fufpehfion by the aerial acid in it, for 2226 years before the coming of the Celtes into it«c *efts
and fo volatile is the gas, that it begins to pafs off very Till the coming of the Carthaginians into Spain, _how-c,f the Car<!
rapidly the moment it is taken out of the well, and in a ever, nothing certain can be affirmed of the Spaniards ;thaginiana
flrort time is entirely gone. Dr Affi informs us, that and this happened not long before the commencement^ Spain,
in the neighbourhood°of this well, the cellars, on any of the 6# Punic war. Their fuccefs in reducing the
approaching change of weather, are found to contain country, and their final expulfion by the Romans, haa
much fixed air ; and the beft prognoftic which they already been related under the articles Rome and Car-
have of rain is the averfion which cats (how to be car- thage ; we have here therefore only to take notice of
ried into thefe cellars. the ftate of Spain under the Roman government, until
The Spa waters are diuretic, and fometimes pursa- the Romans were in their turn expelled by the northern
tive. They exhilarate the fpirits with an influence much barbaiians. _ 3,t
more benign than wine or fpirituous liquors, and they At the time of the Roman cor.queft, Spain, though
are more cooling, and allay third more effedtually than prodigious quantities of fiiver had. been carried out of^cthe IC Ee
common water." They are found beneficial in cafes it by the Carthaginians and Tyrians, was yet a very country,
of weaknefs and relaxation, either partial or univerfal ; rich country. In the moft ancient times, indeed, its
in nervous diforders ; in obflrudtions of the liver and riches are laid to have exceeded what is 1 elated of the
fpleen ; in cafes where the blood is too thin and pu- moft wealthy country in America. . A rift o tie allures us,
trefeent; in cafes of exceffive difeharges proceeding that when the Phenicians firft arrived in Spain, they
from weaknefs ; in the gravel and ftone ; and in moft 'exchanged their naval commodities for fuch immenle
cafes where a ftrengthening remedy is wanted. But they quantities of filyer, that then {hips could neither con-
are hurtful in confirmed obftrudtions attended with fe- tain nor fuftairi its load, though they ufed it for ballad,
vev, where there is no free outlet to the matter, as in ul- and made their anchors and other implements of fiiver.
eerations of the lungs. They are alfo injurious to hi- When the Carthaginians firft came to Spain, they found
lious and plethoric conftiuitions, when ufed before the the quantity of fiiver nothing leffened, fince the inha-
body is cooled by proper evacuations. bitants at that time made all their utenfrhr, and even
qla. mangers,
V
Spain.
SPA
mangers, of that precious metal.
Romans this amazing plenty was very much diminifh-
cd; however, their gleanings were by no means defpi-
cable, fince in the fpace of nine years they carried off
i»1,542 pounds of filver, and 4095 of gold, befides an
immenfe quantity of coin and other things of value.
The Spaniards were always remarkable for their brave*
ry, and fome of Hannibal’s beft troops were brought
from thence. But as the Romans penetrated farther
into the country than the Carthaginians had done, they
met with nations whofe love of liberty was equal to
their valour, and whom the whole llrength of their em¬
pire was fcarce able to fubdue. Of thefe the moft for¬
midable were the Numantines, Cantabrians, and Aftu-
rians.
f In the time of the third Punic war, one Viriathus, a
Roman ^ celebrated hunter, and afterwards the captain of a gang
power with of banditti, took upon him the command of fome na-
Spiia,
4
V:mthrs
fuccefs.
Is reduced
to great
ftraits by
JVletelius.
6
War be¬
tween 'he
Rom an a
and Nu¬
mantines.
tions who had been in alliance with Carthage, and ven¬
tured to oppofe the Roman power in that part of Spain
called Lujitanldy now Portugal. The praetor, named
VetiliuSy who commanded in thofe parts, marched againft
him with 10,000 men ; but was defeated and killed,
with the lofs of 4000 of his troops. The Romans im¬
mediately difpatched another praetor with 10,coo foot
and 1300 horfe: but Viriathus having firfl cut off a de¬
tachment of 4000 of them, engaged the reit in a pitch¬
ed battle; and having entirely defeated them, reduced
great part of the country. Another praetor, who was
fent with a new army, met with the fame fate ; fo that,
after the deftru&ion of Carthage, the Romans thought
proper to fend a conful named Quintus Fabiusy who de¬
feated the Lufitanians in feveral battles, and regained
two important places which had long been in the hands
of the rebels. After the expiration of Fabius’s conh>
late, Viriathus continued the war with his ufual fuccefa,
till the fenate thought proper to fend againft him the
conful Q^Caecilius Metellus, an officer of great valour
and experience. With him Viriathus did not choofe to
venture a pitched battle, but contented himfelf with
adting on the defenfive ; in confequenee of which the
Romans recovered a great many cities, and the whole
of Tarraconian Spain was obliged to fubmit to their
yoke. The other conful, named Servihanujy did not
meet with the fame fuccefs; his army was defeated in
the field and his camp was nearly taken by Viriathus.
Notwithftanding the good fortune of Metelius, how¬
ever, he could not withftand the intrigues of his coun¬
trymen againft him, and he was not allowed to finith
the war he had begun with fo much fuccefs. In re-
fentment for this he took all imaginable pains to weak¬
en the army under his command : he dilbanded the
flower of his troops, exhaufted the magazines, let the
elephants die, broke in pieces the arrows which had
been provided for the Cretan archers, and threw them
into a river. Yet, after all, the army which he gave
up to liis fuccefl’or Q- Pompeius, confifting of 30,003
foot and 2000 horfe, was fuflicient to, have crufhed Vi¬
riathus if the general had known how to ufe it. But,
inftead of oppofing Viriathus with fuccefs, the impru¬
dent conful procured much more formidable enemies.
The Termantians and Numantines, who had hitherto
kept themfelves independent, offered very advantageous
terms of peace and alliance with Rome ; but Pompeius
infilled on their delivering up their arms. Upon this,
[ 620 ] SPA
In the time of the war was immediately commenced. The eonful with
great confidence invefted Nurnantia; but being repulfed
with confiderable lofs, he fat down before Termantia,
where he was attended with ftill worfe fuccefs. The
very firft day, the Termantines killed 700 of his le¬
gionaries ; took a great convoy which was coming to
the Roman camp ; and having defeated a confiderable
body of their horfe, pulhed them from port to poll till
they came to the edge of a precipice, where they all y
tumbled down, and were daftied to pieces. In the mean The Ro.
time Servilian, who had been continued in his com-0,8118 ft)r*
mand with the title of proconfuly managed matters fo ill, ^ii^ef 011
that Viriathus furrounded him on all fides, and obliged and forced
him to fue for peace. The terms offered to the llo- to conclude
mans were very moderate ; being only that Viriathus aPe?ccwl,l
ffiould keep the country he at that time poffeffed, and^‘r‘at^U5‘
the Romans remain mailers of all the reft. This peace
the proconful was very glad to fign, and afterwards got
it figned by the fenate and people of Rome.
The next year Pompeius was continued in his
command againft the Numantines in Farther Spain,
while Servilius Csepio, the new conful, had for his
province Hither Spain, where Viriathus had eftablilhed
his new ftate. Pompeius undertook to reduce Numan-
tia by turning afide the ftream of the Durius, now the
Hour©, by which it was fupplied with water ; but, ia
attempting this, fuch numbers of his men were cut off,
that, rinding himfelf unable to contend with the enemy,
he was glad to make peace with them on much worfe
terms than they had offered of their own accord. The
peace, however, was ratified at Rome; but in the mean
time Caepio, defirous of ffiowing his prowefs againft the
renowned Viriathus, prevailed upon the Romans to de¬
clare war againft him without any provocation. As,
Ctepio commanded an army greatly fuperior to the jLu~
fitanians, Viriathus thought proper to fue for peace 4
but finding that Csepio would be fatisfied with nothing
lei's than a furrender at diferetion, he refolved to Hand
his ground. In the mean time, the latter having
bribed fome of the intimate companions of Viriathus tOyy ^huj
murder him in his lleep, he by that infamous method ^”4^. *
put an end to a war which had lafted 14 years, very roufly mur.
little to the honour of the republic. dered.
After the death of Viriathus, the Romans with ^
treachery ordered their new conful Popilius to break the ^,ans ^
treaty with the Numantines. His infamous condudl feated by
met with the reward it deferved the Numantines fal- the Num>a»
lying out, put the whole Roman army to flight with111168,
fuch flaughter, that they were in no condition to a£t
during the whole campaign. Mancinus, who fucceeded
Popilius, met with ftill worfe fuccefs ; his great army,
confifting of 30,000 men, was utterly defeated by 4000
Numantines, and 20,000 of them killed in the purfuit.
The remaining 10,000, with their general, were peat
up by the Numantines in fuch a manner that they could
neither advance nor retreat, and would certainly have
been all put to the fword or made prifoners, had not
the Numantines, with a generofity which their enemies
never poffeffed, offered to let them depart upon conditioa
that a treaty fliould be concluded with them upon very
moderate terms. This the coniul very willingly pro-
mifed, but found himfelf unable to perform. On the
contrary, the people, not fatisfied with declaring his
treaty null and void, ordered him to be delivered up to
the Numantines. The latter refufed to accept him, ur*-
kf»
SPA
r
l Spi"- lefs he had along with him the j 0,000 men whom they
*' had relieved as above related. At laft, after the conful
had remained a whole day before the city, his fucceflbr
Furius, thinking this a fufficient recompenfe to the Nu*
mantines for breaking the treaty, ordered him to be re¬
ceived again into the camp. However, Furius did not
choofe to engage with fuch a defperate and refolute
enemy as the Numantines had ihowed themfelves; and
Scipio JE. war them was difcontinued till the year 133
milianus C* when Scipio ^Emilianus, the deftroyer of Car-
fent againft thage, was fent againft them. Againft this renowned
them. commander the Numantines with all their valour were
not able to cope. Scipio, having with the utmoft care
introduced ftrift difcipline among his troops, and re¬
formed the abufes which his predeceffors had fuffered in
their armies, by degrees brought the Romans to face
their enemies, which at his arrival they had abfolutely
refufed to do. Having then ravaged all the country
round about the town, it Was foon blocked up on all
fides, and the inhabitants began to feel the want of pro-
vifions. At laft they refolved to make one defperate at¬
tempt for their liberty, and either to breakthrough
their enemies, or perifh in the attempt. With this view
they marched out in good order by two gates, and fell
upon the works of the Romans with the utmoft fury,
i he Romans, unable to Itand this defperate fhock, were
on the point of yielding ; but Scipio, haftening to the
places attacked, with no fewer than 20,000 men, the
unhappy Numantines were at laft driven into the city,
where they fuftained for a little longer the miferies of
famine. Finding at laft, however, that it was altoge¬
ther impoflible to hold out, it was refolved by the ma¬
jority to fubmit to the pleafure of the Roman comman¬
der. But this refolution was not univerfally approved.
Many flrut themfelves up in their houfes, and died of
hunger, while even thofe who had agreed to furrender
repented their offer, and fetting fire to their houfes,
perifhed in the flames with their wives and children, fo
that not a Angle Numantine was left alive to grace the
triumph of the conqueror of Carthage.
After the deftru&ion ofNumantia the whole of Spain
fubmitted to the Roman yoke; and nothing remarkable
happened till the times of the Cimbri, when a prsetorian
army was cut off in Spain by the Lufitanians. From
this time nothing remarkable occurs in the hiftory of
Spain till the. civil war.between Marius and Sylla. The
latter having crulhed the Marian fa&ion, as related un¬
der the article Rome, profcribed all thofe that had fided
againft him whom he could not immediately deftroy.
Among thefe was Sertorius, a man of confummate va-
fiipportsthelour ?nd exPerience 5n war. He had by Marius been
Marian fac- aPP°jn^e^ pnetor of Spain ¥r and upon the overthrow of
Spain,
10
Miferable
end of the
people.
11
Sertorius
tion in
Spain.
Marius, retired to. that province. Sylla no fooner
heard of his arrival in that country, than he fent thi¬
ther one Cams Annius with a powerful army to drive
him out. As Sertorius had but few troops along with
him, he difpatched. one Julius Salinator with a body
of 6000 men to guard the paffes of the Pyrenees, and
to prevent Annius from entering the country.. But Sali¬
nator having been treacheroufly murdered by affaffins
hired by Annius for that, purpofe, he no longer met
with any obftacle ; and Sertorius was obliged to em-
uuucrzoes *°r t^e C°a^ °f ^-fr’ca with 3000 men, being all
jinany haid--. had now remaining. With thefe he landed in Mau-
Ikips,. ritania; but as his men were ftraggling carcl'efsly about,
IV
Is driven
out, and
undergoes
621 } SPA
great numbers of them were cut off by the Barbarians.
This new misfortune obliged Sertorius to re-embark for
Spain j but finding the whole coaft lined with the
troops of Annius, he put to fea again, not knowing
what courfe to fteer. In this new voyage he met with
a fmall fleet of Cilician pirates ; and having prevailed
with them to join him, he made a defcent on the coaft
of Yvica, overpowered the garrifon left there by An¬
nius, and gained a confiderable booty. On the news
of this viftory Annins fet fail for Yvica, with a confi¬
derable fquadron, having 5000 land forces on board.
Sertorius, not intimidated by the fuperiority of the
enemy, prepared to give them battle. But a violent
llorm arifing, moft of the ftu’ps were driven on. fhore
and daflred to pieces, Sertorius himfelf with great diffi¬
culty efcaping with the fmall remains of his fleet. Fov
fome time he continued in great danger, being prevent¬
ed from putting to fea by the fury of the waves, and
from landing by the enemy; at laft, the florin abating,
he paffed the ftraits of Gades, now Gibraltar, and land¬
ed near the mouth of the river Baeotis. Here he met
with fome feamen newly arrived from the Atlantic or For¬
tunate Iflands; and was fo taken with the account which
they gave him of thofe happy regions, that he refolved
to retire thither to fpend the reft of his life in quiet and
happinefs. But having communicated this defign to
the Cilician pirates, they immediately abandoned'him,
and fet fail for Africa, with an intention to affift one of-
the barbarous kings againft his fubje&s who had rebel-
led. Upon this Sertorius failed thither alfo, but took Lands3 in
the oppolite fide; and having defeated the king named ^frica, and
■dfcalis, obliged him to fhut himfelf up; in the city offarr:f!'fon a
Tingis, now Tangier, which he clofely befieged... Butrin that
in the mean time Pacianus,- who had been fent by Sylla country. '
to aflift the king, advanced with a confiderable army
againft Sertorius. Upon this the latter, leaving part
of his forces before the city, marched with the reft to
meet Pacianus, whofe army, though greatly fuperior to
his own in number, he entirely defeated; killed the ge- I4
neral, and took. all his forces prifoners. —The fame of Returns to
this viftory foon reached Spain; and the Lufitanians, si’ain» and
being threatened with a new war from Annius, invited £ feat9 ther'
Sertorius to head their armies. With this requeft hether^*3
very readily complied, and foon became very formidable
to the Romans. Titus Didius, governor of that part
of Spain called Batica, firft entered the. lifts with him ;
but he being defeated, Sylla next difpatched Meteilus,
reckoned one of the beft commanders in Rome, to flop
the progrefs of tliis new enemy.. But Meteilus, not-
withftanding all his experience, knew not how to adf
againft Sertorius, who was continually changing hisfta-
tion, putting his army into new forms,.and contriving
new ftratagems. On his firft arrival he lent for L. Do-
mitius, then prsetor of Hither Spain, to. his affiftance ;
but Sartorius being informed of his march, detached
Hirtuleius, or Herculeius, his quaeftor, againft him, who
gave him a total overthrow. Meteilus then difpatched
Lucius Lollius praetor of Narbonne Gaul againft Hir¬
tuleius ; but he met .with no better fuccefs, being ut¬
terly defeated, and his lieutenant-general killed.
The fame of thefe vi&aries brought to the camp of reflsLn-1
Sertorius fuch a number of illuftrious Roman citizens fitania into
of the Marian, faftion, that he formed a defign of eredt-^ republic,
ing Lufitania into a republic in oppolition to that of
Rome. Sylla was continually fending frelh fupplits to
Meteliue #
Spain.
16
Obliges
SPA [
Metellus; but Sertorius with an handful of men, ac-
cuftomed to range about the mountains, to endure hun-
rer and third, and live expofed to the inclemencies of
the weather, fo haraffed the Roman army, that Metel¬
lus him felt began to be quite difcouraged. At laft,
Sertorius, hearing that Metellus had fpoken difrefpcd.-
fully of his courage, challenged his antagonift to end
the war by fingle combat; but Metellus very pru¬
dently declined the combat, as being advanced in years;
yet this refufal brought upon him the contempt of the
unthinking multitude,, upon which Metellus refolved to
Metellus to retrieve his reputation by fome fignal exploit, and
raife the therefore laid fiege to Lacobriga* a confiderable city in
fiege of L?- tho|-e tg> fi his he hoped to reduce in two days, as
eobnga. t^ere was p)Ut onc wep ;n the place ; but Sertonus, ha¬
ving previoufly removed all thofe who could be of no
fervice during the fiege, and conveyed 6000 flans full of
water into the city, Metellus continued a long time be¬
fore it without making any impreffion. At laft, his
provifions being almoft fpent, he fent out Aquinus at
the head of 6000 men to procure a new fupply; but
Sertorius falling unexpcftedly upon them, cut in pieces
or took the whole detachment; the commander himiell
being the only man who efcaped to carry the news of
the difafter ; upon which Metellus was obliged to raife
17 the fiege with difgrace. . . , f
Civilizesthe now Sertorius, having gained fome interv?ls ot
iyalitaniai.So confequence of the many advantages he had ob¬
tained over the Romans, began to civilize his new fub-
ieefs. Their (avage and furious manner of fighting he
changed for the regular order and difeipline of a well-
formed army; he beftowedliberally upon them gold ami
filver to adorn their arms, and by converlmg familiarly
with them, prevailed upon them to lay afide their own
drefs for the Roman toga. He fent for all the children
of the principal people, and placed them in the great
city of Ofca, now Herefca, in the kingdom Arra-
gon, where he appointed them mailers to inilruct tnem
fn the Roman *nd Greek learning, that they might, as
he pretended, be capable of fharing with him the go¬
vernment of the republic. Thus he made them really
hoftages for the good behaviour of their parents ; how¬
ever, the latter were greatly pleafed with the care he
took of their children, and all Lufitania were in the
higheft degree attached to their new fovereign. This
attachment he took care to heighten by the power ot
fuperftition ; for having procured a young hind ot a
milk-white colour, he made it fo tame that it followed
him wherever he went; and Sertorius gave out to the
ignorant multitude, that this hind was infpired by Dia¬
na, and revealed to him the defigns of his enemies, ot
which he always took care to be well informed by the
great.numbers of fpies he employed. .
While Sertorius was thus employed in eftabhftung his
authority, the republic of Rome, alarmed at his iuccefs,
refolved to crufh him at all events. Sylla was now dead,
and all the eminent generals in Rome folicited this ho¬
nourable though dangerous employment. After much
debate a decree was paffed in favour of Pompey the
fern again ft Qreat) but without recalling Metellus. In the mean
■ iiim. time, the troops of one.Perpenna, or Perperna, had,
in fpite of all that their general could do, abandoned
him and taken the oath-of allegiance to Sertorius.
This was a moil fignal advantage to Sertorius; for Per-
na conunanckd &n army of 33,000 men, and had
S P A
flpalfli
19
]
come into Spain with a defign to fettle there as Serto- ^
vius had done ; but as he was defeended from one of
the firil families in Rome, he thought it below his dig¬
nity to ferve under any general, however eminent he
might be. But the troops of Perperna were of a dif¬
ferent opinion; and therefore declaring that they would
ferve none but a general who could defend himfelf, they
to a man joined Sertorius; upon which Perperna him¬
felf, finding he could do no better, confented to ferve
alfo as a fubaltern.
On the arrival of Pompey in Spain, feveral of the
cities which had hitherto continued faithful to Serto¬
rius began to waver ; upon which the latter refolved,
by fome fignal exploit, to convince them that Pompey
could no more fereen them from his refentment than Me- ^
tellus. With this view he laid fiege to Lauron, now Sertorius
Lirias. a place of confiderable ftrength. Pompey, notbefie^es
doubting but he fhould be able to raife the fiege, march-
ed quite up to the enemy’s lines, and found means to
infoim the garrifon that thofe who befieged them were
themfelves befieged, and would loon be obliged to re¬
tire with lofs and difgrace. On hearing this meflage,
“ I will teach Sylla’s difciple (faid Sertorius), that it is
the duty of a general to look behind as well as before
him.” Having thus fpoken, he fent orders to a detach¬
ment of 6000 men, who lay concealed among the moun¬
tains, to oome down and fall upon his rear if he ftiould
offer to force the lines. Pompey, furprifed at their fud- $©
den appearance, durft not ilir out of his camp; and in Take, and
the mean time the befieged, defpairing of relief, fur-
rendered at diferetion ; upon which Sertonus granted
them their lives and liberty, but Teduced their cit^ to
While Sertorius was thus fuccefsfully contending
with Pompey, his quaeftor Hirtuleius was entirely de¬
feated by Metellus, with the lofs of 20,000 men ; upon
which Sertorimradvanced wife the utmoft expedition to
the banks of the Sucro in 1 arraconian Spain, with aDefeats
defign to attack Pompey before he could be joined by
Metellus. Pompey, on his part, did not decline theo‘the
combat; but, fearing that Metellus might fhare the sucro*
glory of the vi&ory, advanced with the greateft expe¬
dition. Sertorius put off the battle till towards the
evening; Pompey, though he knew that the night would
prove difadvantageous to him, whether vanquilhed or
vi&orious, becaufe his troops were unacquainted with
the country, refolved to venture an engagement,^ elpe-
eiajly as he feared that Metellus might arrive in the
mean time, and rob him of part of the glory of con-
onefing.fo great a commander. Pompey, who com¬
manded his own right wing, focn obliged Perperna,
who commanded Sertorius’s left, to give way. Here¬
upon Sertorius himlelt taking upon him the command
)f that wing, brought back the fugitives to the charge,
18
Pompey
! the Great
:peri
and obliged Pompey to fly in his turn. Tn his flight
he was overtaken by a gigantic African, who had al¬
ready lifted up his hand to di(charge a blow at him
with his broad fword ; but Pompey prevented him by
cutting off his right hand at one blow. As he ftill
continued his flight, he was wounded and thrown from
his horfe; fo that he would certainly have been taken
prifoner, had not the Africans who puriued him quar¬
relled about the rich furniture of his horfe. This gave
an opportunity to the general to make bis elcape ; fo
that at length he reached his camp with much difficul-
5 ^
11
Pompey de¬
feated a fe-
corid time.
^3
Pompey
and Meted-
lus driven
out ofSpair
by dei to-
ffius.
"4
Settorius
treacher-
oully mur¬
dered.
Spain en¬
tirely re¬
duced by
the Ro¬
mans.
S PA [ 623 ] SPA
ty. But in the mean time Afrannis, who commanded
the left wing of the Roman army, had entirely defeated
the- wing which Sertorius had left, and even purfued
them fo clofe that he entered the camp along with
them. Sertor'us, returning fuddenly, found the Romans
bufy in plundering the tents ; when, taking advantage
of their iituation, he drove them out with great {laugh¬
ter, and retook his -camp. Next day he offered battle
a fecond time to Pompey ; but Metellus then coming
up with ail his forces, he thought proper to decline an
engagement with both commanders. In a few days,
however, Pompey and Metellus agreed to attack the
camp of Sertorius. Metellus attacked Perperna, and
•Pompey fell upon Sertorius. The event was funilar to
that of the former battle ; Metellus defeated Perperna,
and Sertorius routed Poinpey. Being then informed of
Perperna’s misfortune, he hadened to his relief; rallied
the fugitives, and repulfed Metellus in his turn, wound¬
ed him with his lance, and would certainly have killed
him, had not the Romans, aihamed to leave their gene¬
ral in diftrefs, haftened to his alfiitance, and renewed the
fight with great fury. At laft Sertorius was obliged to
quit the field, and retire to the mountains. Pompey
and Metellus haftened to befiege him ; but while they
were forming their camp, Sertorius broke through their
lines, and efcaped into Lufitania. Here he foon failed
fuch a powerful army, that the Roman generals, with
their united forces, did not think proper to venture an
engagement with him. They could not, however, re-
-fiit the perpetual attacks of Sertorius, who now drove
them from place to place, till he obliged them to fepa-
’ rate, the one went into Gaul, and the other to the foot
of the Pyrenees.
Thus did this celebrated commander triumph over all
the power of the Romans; and there is little doubt
but he would have continued to make head againft all
the other generals whom the republic could have fent ;
had he not been affaffinated at an entertainment by
the infamous treachery of Perperna, in 73 B. C. after
he had made head againft the Roman forces for almoft
ten years. Pompey was no fooner informed of his death,
than, without waiting for any new fuccours, he march¬
ed againft the traitor, whom he ealily defeated and took
prifoner ; and having caufed him to be executed, thus
put an end, wdth very little glory, to a moft dangerous
war.
Many of the Spanifh nations, however, ftill continued
to bear the Roman yoke with great impatience ; and as
the civil wars which took place firft between Julius Cae-
far and Pompey, and afterwards between Oclavianus
and Antony, diverted the attention of the republic
from Spain, by the time that Auguftus had become
foie mafter of the Roman empire, they were again in a
condition to affert their liberty. The Cantabrians
and Asturians were the moft powerful and valiant na¬
tions at that time in Spain; but, after incredible efforts,
they were obliged to lay down their arms, or rather
were almoft exterminated, by Agrippa, as is related un¬
der thefe articles. From this time the Spaniards con¬
tinued in quiet fubjettiou to the Romans ; but on the
decline of the empire they were attacked by the north¬
ern nations, who put an end to the Roman name in the
weft. As the inhabitants had by that time entirely loft
their ancient valour, the barbarians met with no reftft-
ance but from one another. In the reign of the em¬
peror Honorius, the Vandals, Alans, and Suevians, en- Spain,
tered this country ; and having made themfelves mailers ,J
of it, divided the provinces among themfelves. In 444 Seized by
the Romans made one effort more to recover their barbarsi;s
power in this part of the world ; but being utterly de-nations on
feated by the Suevians, the latter eftablifheda kingdom
there which lafted till the year 584, when it was utter-tcrnempjr^
ly overthrown by the Viftgoths under Leovigildc. The
Gothic princes continued to reign over a confiderable
part of Spain till the beginning of the 8th century,
when their empire was entirely overthrown by the Sa¬
racens. During this period, they had entirely expelled
the eaftern emperors from what they poffeffed in Spain,
and even made confiderable conquefts in Baibary ; but The Gothic
towards the end of the 7th century the Saracens over-kingdom
-ran all that part of the world with a rapidity" which no-?ver[th^own
thing could refift ; and having foon poffeffed thenafelves
of the Gothic dominions in Barbary, they made a de-
feent upon Spain about the year 711 or 7 1 2. The
king of the Goths at that time was called RoJeric, and
by his bad conduct had occafioned great difaffedlion
among his fubjedts. He therefore determined to put
ail to the iffue of a battle, knowing that he could not
depend upon the fidelity" of his own people if he allow¬
ed the enemy time to tamper with them. The two ar¬
mies met in a plain near Xeres in Andalufia. The
Goths began the attack with great fury ; but though
they fought like men in defpair, they were at laft de¬
feated with exceflive {laughter, and their king himfelf
was fuppofed to have perifhed in the battle, being never
more heard of.
By this battle the Moors in a fhort time rendered
themfelves mailers of almoft all Spain. The poor re-
mains of the Goths were obliged to retire into the
mountainous parts of Afturias, Burgos, and Bifcay;
the inhabitants of Arragon, Catalonia, and Navarre,
though theyr might have made a confiderable Hand a-
gainft the enemy, chofe for the mofl part to retire into jg
France. In 718, however, the power of the Goths be-The power-
gan again to revive under Don Pelagio or Pelayo, a®| c^e
prince of the royal blood, who headed thofe that had V|vt«Sr'nJ.-
retired to the mountains after the fatal battle of Xeres. Pdagio.
The place where he hrft laid the foundation of his go¬
vernment was in the Afturias, in the province of Lie-
bana, about nine leagues in length and four in breadth.
This is the meft inland part of the country", full of
mountains enormoufly high, and fo much fortified by
nature, that its inhabitants are capable of refilling al¬
moft any number of invaders. Alakor the Saracen go¬
vernor was no fooner informed of this revival of the Go-
thifh kingdom, than he fent a powerful army, under the
command of one Alchaman, to crufh Don Pelagio be¬
fore he had time to eftablifh his power. The king,
though his forces were fufficiently numerous (every one He gives
of his fubjefts arrived at man’s eflate being a foldier),1^ Sara-
did not think proper to venture a general engagement
in the open field ; but taking poll with part of them overthrows
himfelf in a cavern in a very" high mountain, he con¬
cealed the reft among precipices, giving orders to them
to fall upon the enemy as foon as they fhould perceive
him attacked by them. Thefe orders were punftually
executed, though indeed Don Pelagio himfelf had re¬
pulfed his enemies, but not without a miracle, as the
Spanifh hiftorians pretend. The flaughter was dread¬
ful j for the troops who lay in ambufeade joining the
reft.
SPA
t 6*4 ]
SPA
P
taken
3i
Spain. reftj ancj rou;ng down huge ftones from the mountains
Up0n ^ jvfoor8 (the name by which the Saracens were
known in Spain)', no fewer than 124,000 of thefe un-
bappy people perilhed in one day. The remainder fled
till they were flopped by a river, and beginning to
coafl it, part of a mountain fuddenly fell down, flopped
up the channel of the river, and either cruflied or
drowned, by the fudden riling of the water, almoft;
every one of that vaft army.
The Moors were not fo much dilheartened by this
jo difatter, but that they made a fecond attempt againft
Another Don Pelagio. Their fuccefs was as bad as ever, the
army cut in greaj,e^ part 0f their army being cut in pieces or
i- taken; in confequence ol which, they loft all the
Afturias, and never dared to enter the lifts with Pelagio
afterwards. Indeed, their bad fuccefs had in a great
meafure taken from them the deftre of conquering a
country where little or nothing was to be got ; and
therefore they rather direfted their force againft France,
where they hoped for more plunder. Into this coun-
The Sara- try they poured in prodigious multitudes; but were
tens Utterly utterly defeated, in 732, by Charles Martel, with the
Charles^ ^ lofs of 300,000 men, as the hiftorians of thofe times
-Martel. pretend. > r , • , ,
Don Pelagio died in 737, and foon after his death
fnch inteftine divilions broke out among the Moors, as
greatly favoured the increafe of the Chriftian power.
In 745 Don Alonfo the Catholic, fon-in-law to Pela¬
gio, in conjun&ion with his brother Froila, palled the
mountains, and fell upon the northern part of Galicia ;
and meeting with little refiftance, he recovered almoft:
Conquefts the whole of that province in a Angle campaign. Next
of the Chri-year he invaded the plains of Leon and Caftile ; and
iiians. before the Moors could afiemble any force to oppefe
him, he reduced Aftorgas, Leon, Saldagna, Montes de
Oca, Amaya, Alava, and all the country at the foot of
the mountains. The year following he pulhed his con-
quefts as far as the borders of Portugal, and the next
campaign ravaged the country as far as Caftile. Being
fenlible, however, that he was yet unable to defend the
fiat country which he had conquered, he laid the whole
of it wafte, obliged the Chriftians to retire to the
mountains, and carried off all the Moors for Haves.
Thus fecured by a defert frontier, he met with n® in¬
terruption for fome years ; during which time, as his
kingdom advanced in ftrength, he allowed his fubje&s
gradually to occupy part of the flat country, and to re¬
build Leon and Aftorgas, which he had demoliftied.
33 He died in 757, and was fucceeded by his fon Don
The"tiara- Froila. In his time Abdelrahman, the khaliff’s vice-
cens in r0y |n Spain, threw off the yoke, and rendered him-
yPai'1thr<l)vfelf independent, fixing the feat of his government at
©f the kha-C Cordova. Thus the inteftine diviiions among the
Moors were coippofed; yet their fuccefs feems to have
been little better than before; for, foon after, Froila
encountered the Moors with fuch fuccefs, that 54,000
of them were killed on the fpot, and their general ta¬
ken prifoner. Soon after he built the city of Oviedo,
which he made the capital of his dominions, in order to
be in a better condition to defend the flat country,
which he now determined to people.
In the year 758 the power of the Saracens received
another blow by the rife of the kingdom of Navarre,
-dom of Na- This kingdom, we are told, took its origin from an ac-
varre. cidental meeting of gentlemen, to the number of 600,
Jiff.
. 34 „
Hiftory of
the king-
at the tomb of an hermit named Jotm, who had died SpaSa,
among the Pyrenees. At this place, where they had
met on account of the fuppofed fantlity of the decca-
fed, they took occaiion to converfe on the cruelty of
the Moors, the miferies to which the country was ex-
pofed, and the glory that would refult from throwing
off their yoke ; which, they fuppofed, might ealily be
done, by reafon of the ftrength of their country. On
mature deliberation, the project was approved; one Don
Garcia Ximenes was appointed king, as being of illu-
ftrious birth, and looked upon as a perfon of great abi¬
lities. He recovered Ainla, one of the principal towns
of the country, out of the hands of the infidels, and his
fucceffor Don Garcia Inigas extended his territories as
far as Bifcay ; however, the Moors ftill poffeffed Por¬
tugal, Murcia, Andalufia, Valentia, Granada, Tortofa,
with the interior part of the country as far as the moun¬
tains of Caftile and Saragoffa. Their internal diffen-
ftons, which revived after the death of Abdelrahman,
contributed greatly to reduce the power of the infidels
in general. In 778, Charles the Great being invited Qonq„e(^
by fome difeontented Moorifti governors, entered Spain of Charles
with two great armies ; one palling through Catalonia, the Great
and the other through Navarre, where he pulhed his
conquefts as far as the Ebro. On his return he was at¬
tacked and defeated by the Moors ; though this did
not hinder him from keeping poffeffion of all thofe
places he had already reduced. At this time he feems
to have been mailer of Navarre: however, in 831 count
Azner, revolting from Pepin fon to the emperor Louis,
again revived the independency of Navarre ; but the
fovereigns did not alfume the title of kings till the time
of Don Garcia, who began to reign in 857.
In the mean time, the kingdom founded by Don Pe¬
lagio, now called the kingdom of Leon and Oviedo, con¬
tinued to increafe rapidly in ftrength, and many advan¬
tages were gamed over the Moors, who having two ene¬
mies to contend with, loft ground every day. In 921,
however, they gained a great victory over the united
forces of Navarre and Leon, by which the whole force
of the Chriftians in Spain mull have been entirely bro-
ken, had not the vi&ors conduced their affairs fo
wretchedly, that they fuffered themfelves to he almolt
entirely cut in pieces by the remains of the Chriftian
army. In Ihort, the Chriftians became at length fo ter¬
rible to the Moors, that it is probable they could not 36
long have kept their footing in Spain, had not a great Exploits of
general, named Mohammed Ebn Amir Almanzor, ap- Almanzor
peared, in 979, to fupport their finking caufe. This* aerr^“
man was vilir to the king of Cordova, and being ex-B
ceedingly provoked againlt the Chrillians on account
of what his countrymen had fuflered from them, made
war with the moll implacable fury. He took the city
of Leon, murdered the inhabitants, and reduced the
houfes to alhes. Barcelona lhared the fame fate ; Caf¬
tile was reduced to a defert; Galicia and Portugal ra¬
vaged ; and he is faid to have overcome the Chriftians
in fifty different engagements. At laft, having taken
and demolifhed the city of Compoftella, and carried off
tn triumph the gates of the church of St James, a flux
happened to break out among his troops, which the fu-
perllitious Chriftians fuppofed to be a divine judge¬
ment on account of his facrilege. Taking it for
granted, therefore, that the Moors were now entirely
ckftime of all heavenly aid, they fell upon them with
6 fuch
P A
r
fywn. fac-h fury m the next engagement, that all the valour
and conduit of Almanzor could not prevent a defeat.
Hpis de. Overcome with fliame and defpair at this misfortune,
teated, and he deftred his followers to drift for themfelves, while he
ftarvenhim-himfelf retired to Medina Cosli, and put an end to hia
death! ^'e hy abltinence in the year 998.
38 During this period a new Chriftian principality ap-
Hiftory of peared in Spain, namely that of Caftile, which is now
the king, divided into the Old and New Caftile. The Old
Si. CaftIIe WaS recovered hmg before that called the New.
11 was feparated from the kingdom of Leon on one fide
by fome little riycrs; on the other, it was bounded by
the Afturias, biicay, and the province of Rioja. On
the fouth it had the mountains of Segovia and Avila;
thus lying in the middle between the Chriftian king¬
dom of Leon and Oviedo, and the Moorifh kingdom of
Cordova. Hence this diftridt foon became an objedt of
contention between the kings of Leon and thole of
Cordova , and as the former were generally vidforious,
(ome of the principal Caftilian nobility retained their
independency under the proteAion of the Chriftian
kings, even when the power of the Moors was at its
greateft height. In 884 we firft hear of Dc/n Rodri¬
guez a (fuming the title of taunt of Cajlile, though it
does not appear that either his territory or title "’were
given him by the, king ot Leon. Neverthelels, this
monarch having taken upon him to punifii fome of the
Caftilian lords as rebels, the inhabitants made a formal
renunciation of their allegiance, and let up a new kind
oi- government. The fupreme power was now vefted
in two perfons of quality ftyled judges ; however, this
method did not long continue to give fatisPaAion, and
the fovereignty was once more vefted in a Angle perfon.
13y degrees Caftile fell entirely under the power of the
SpuiRf--..
At
kings of Leon and Oviedo ; and, in 103^, Don S;
.39
Hftlory of
Arragon.
40
•Slate of
Century.
chez beftowed it on his eldeft fon Don Ferdinand, with
the title of king; and thus the territories of Caftile
were firft firmly united to thofe of Leon and Oviedo,
and the fovereigns were thenceforth ftyled kings of Leon
and Cafh/e.
Belides all thefe, another Chriftian kingdom was fet
up in Spain about the beginning of the 1 ith century.
This was the kingdom of Arragon. The inhabitants
were very brave, and lovers of liberty, fo that it is pro¬
bable they had in fome degree maintained their inde¬
pendency, even when the' power of the Moors was
greateft. 1 he hiftory of Arragon, however, during
its infancy, is much lefs known than that of any olf
  t,ie others hitherto mentioned. We are only afiured,
Spain in the that about the year 1035, Don Sanchez, furnamed the
SthTmh k'QS of Navarre, ereAed Arragon into a king¬
dom in favour of his fon Don Rarnira, and afterwards
it became very powerful. At this time, then, we may
imagine the continent of Spain divided into two unequal
parts by a ftraight line drawn from eaft to weft, from
the coafts of Valenda to a little below the mouth of the
Duro.^ The country north of this belonged to the
Chriftians, who, as yet, had the fmalleft and" lead valu¬
able (hare, and all the reft to the Moors. In point of
wealth and real power, both by land and fea, the
Moors were greatly fuperior ; but their continual dif-
ieniions greatly weakened them, and every day fiicili-
tated the progrefs of the Chriftians. Indeed, had either
°t the parties been united, the other muft foon have
yielded for though the Chriftians did not make war
Vol. XVII. Part II.
625 ] SPA
upon each other conftantly as the Moors did, {heir mu¬
tual feuds were yet fuffictent to have ruined them, had
their adverfaries made the leaft ufe of the advantages
thus afforded them. But among the Ivloors almoft eve¬
ry city was a kingdom ; and as thefe petty fovereign-
ties fupported one another very indifferently, they fell
a prey one after another to their enemies. In 1080,
the king of Toledo was engaged in a war with the kirn-r
of Seville, another Moorilh potentate ; which beintr ob-
ferved by Alphonfo king of Caftile, he alfo invaded his
territories and in four years made himfelf mafter of Toledo and
the city of Toledo, with all the places of importance in Madrid ra¬
ils neighbourhood; from thenceforth making Toledo kei> by the
the capital of his dominions. In a (hort time the whole Cbriilian*'
province of New Caftile fubmitted ; and Madrid, the
prefent capital of Spain, fell into the hands of the
Chriftians, being at that time but a fmall place.
The Moors were fo much alarmed at thefe conquefts,
that they not only entered into a general confederacy
again ft the Chriftiaias, but invited to their afliftance
Mahomet Ben Jofeph the fovereign of Barbary. HeAfi^ t
accordingly came, attended by an incredible multitude 5 vidtory
but was utterly defeated by the Chriftians in the defiles ?a*ne(3 over
of the Black Mountain, or Sierra Morena, on the bor-the Moor®‘
ders of Andalufia. This viAory happened on the 16th
uf July 12 j 2, and the anniverfary is ftfil celebrated at
Toledo. This viAory was not improved ; the Chrif¬
tian army immediately difperfed themfelves, while the
Moors of Andalufia were ftrengthened by the remains
of the African army ; yet, inftead of being taught, by
their paft misfortunes, to unite among themfelves, their
diffenfions became worfe than ever, and the conquefts of
the Chriftians became daily more rapid. In 1236, Don
I erdrnand of Caftile and Leon took the celebrated citv
of Cordova, the refidence of the firft Moorifh kings ; at
the fame time that James I. of Arragon difpoffeffed
them of the ifland of Majorca, and drove them out of"
Valentia. Two years after, Ferdinand made himfelf
mailer of Murcia, and took the city of Seville ; and in
1303 Ferdinand IV. reduced Gibraltar.
In the tjmeot Edward III. we find England, for the England in.
nift time, interfering in the affairs of Spain, on the fol-terferes in
lowing occalion. In the year 1284 the kingdom of Na-!he sPaniiIi
vane had been united to that of France by the mar-affairs’
riage of Donna Joanna queen of Navarre with Philip
the Fair of France. In 1328, however, the kingdoms
were again feparated, though the fovereigns of Navarre
were ftill related to thofe of France. In 1350, Charles,
furnamed the IVicked, afeended the throne of Navarre,
and married the daughter of John king of France.
Notwithftandmg this alliance, and that he himfelf was
related to the royal family of I*ranee, he fecretly enter*
ed into a negociation with England againft the French
monarch, and even drew into his fchetries the dauphin
Charles, arterwards furnamed the Wife. The young-
prince, however, was foon after made fully fenfible of
the danger and folly of the conneAions into which he
had entered; and, by way of atonement, promiled to
faenfice his affociates. Accordingly he invited the king
of Navarre, and fome of the principal nobility of the
fame party, to a feaft at Rouen, where he betrayed
them to his father, ft he moft obnwxious were execu-
    _ ^
ted, and the king of Navarre was thrown into prifon. Nwa^rem^
In this extremity, the party of the king of Navarre had prifoned by
recoarfe to England. The prince of Wales, furnamed ■ohn k,nS
4 K ^ of France.
malecon-
t«nts.
SPA [626
Spain, the Btaeh Prince, invaded France, defeated king John at
Poidiers, and took him prifonerf; vhich unfortunate
f 3eefranc#event pro(iuced the moil violent ditlurbances in that
•3 hinodom. The dauphin, now about 19 years of age,
naturally affumed the royal power during his father’s
captivity: but pofieffed neither experience nor autho¬
rity fufficient to remedy the prevailing evils. In order
to obtain {applies, he affembled the Hates of the king¬
dom : but that affembly, inftead of fupporting his ad-
miniilration, laid hold of the prefent opportunity to de¬
mand limitations of the prince’s power, the punifnment
of pail malverfations, and the liberty of the king of Na¬
varre. Marcel, provoft of the merchants of Paris, and
frit magiilrate of that city, put himfelf at the head of
the unruly populace, and pulhed them to commit the
moil criminal outrages againil tire royal authority. They
detained the dauphin in a kind of captivity, rnurdeied
in his prefence Robert de Clermont and John de Con-
jlans, marefchals of France ; threatened all the other
minitlers with the like fate ; and when Charles, who
had been obliged to temporize and difiemble, made his
ei’eape from their hands, they levied wav againit him,
and openly rebelled. The other cities of the kingdom,
in imitation of the capital, ihook oil the dauphin s au¬
thority, took the government into their own hands, and
fpread the contagion into every province.
Efcapi " Amidil thefe diforders, the king of Navarre made his
and heads efcape from prifon, and prefented a dangerous leader
the French t0 t^e furious malecontents. He revived his pretenfions
t0 the crown of France : but in all his operations he
afted more like a leader of banditti than one who afpi-
red to be the head of a regular government, and who
was engaged by his ftation to endeavour the re-eftabhfh-
ment of order in the community. All the French,
therefore, who wilhed to reftore peace to their country,
turned their eyes towards the dauphin ; who, though
not remarkable for his military talents, daily gained by
his prudence and vigilance the afeendant over his ene¬
mies. Marcel, the feditious provoft of Paris, was flam
in attempting to deliver that city to the king of Na¬
varre. The capital immediately returned to its duty :
the moll confiderable bodies of the mutinous peafants
were difperfed or put to the fword ; fome bands of mi¬
litary robbers underwent the fame fate ; and I ranee
began once more to affume the appearance of civil go¬
vernment. .
John was fncceeded in the throne of France by his
fon Charles V. a prince educated in the fchool of adver-
fity, and well qualified, by his prudence and experience,
to repair the Ioffes which the kingdom had fuftained
from the errors of his predeceffors. Contrary to the
practice of all the great princes of thofe times, who
held nothing in eliimation but military courage, he
feems to have laid it down as a maxim, never to appear
at the head of his armies ; and he was the firft Euro¬
pean monarch that {bowed the advantage of policy and
forelight over a ralh and precipitate valour.
Before Charles could think of counterbalancing fo
great a oower as England, it was necefiary for him to
remedy the many diforders to which his own kingdom
3s defeated was expofed. He accordingly turned his arms againft
and obligedking of Navarre, the great difturber of trance du-
to fubmu to r-ng t>iat age . anj lie defeated that prince, and redu-
preferibed ced him to terms, by the valour and conduft of Ber-
by Char. V trand du Guefclin, one of the moll accomplilhed cap-
of France.
Sp^in.
47
. ] SPA
tains of thofe times, whom Charles had the differnmertt
to choofe as the inftrument of his victories. He aifo
fettled the affairs of Brittany, by acknowledging the
title of Mountfort, and receiving homage lor his do¬
minions. But much was yet to be done. On the conclu-
fion of the peace of Bretigni, the many military adven¬
turers who had followed the fortunes of Edward, being
difperfed into the feveral provinces, and poffeffed of
ftrongholds, refufed to lay down their arms, or relin-
quilh a courfe of-life to which they were now accuf-
tomed, and by which alone they could earn a fubfift-
ence. They affociated themfelves with the banditti, Aacount of
who were already inured to the habits of rapine andt!,e. banci,d
violence ; and, under the name of companies and compa-^nies or
nions, became a terror to all the peaceable inhabitants.empanh/t;.
Some Englifh and Gai'con gentlemen of charafter were
not afhamed to take the command of thefe ruffians,
whofe number amounted to near 40,000, and who bore
the appearance of regular armies rather than bands of
robbers. As Charles was not able by power to redrefs
fo enormous a grievance, he was led by necefhty, as well
as by the turn" of his character, to correcl it by policy;
to difeover fome method of difeharging into foreign
countries this dangerous and inteftine evil; and an oc-
4.6
cafion now offered.
48
Alphonfo XI. king of Caftile, who took the city ofRcipnof
Algezira from the Moors, after a famous fiege of two gter the
years, during which artillery are faid firft to have beenof Caftile®
ufed by the belieged, had been fucceeded by'his fon
Peter I. furnamed the Cruel; a prince equally perfidi¬
ous, debauched, and bloody. He began his reign with
the murder of his father’s miftrefs Leonora de Gufman:
his nobles fell every day the vitlims of his feverity : he
put to death his coufin and one of his natural brothers,
from groundlefs jealoufy ; and he caufed his queen
Blanche de Bourbon, of the blood of France, to be
thrown into prilon, and afterwards poifoned, that he
might enjoy in quiet the embraces of Mary de Padella,
with whom he was violently enamoured.
Henry count of Traftamara, the king’s natural bro¬
ther, alarmed at the fate of his family, and dreading his
own, took arms agaitift the tyrant; but having failed
in the attempt, he fled to France, where he found the
minds of men much inflamed againft Peter, on account 4?>
of the murder of the French princefs. He alked per-The Com-'
miffion of Charles to enlift the companies in his fervice, yames em-
and to lead them into Caftile againft his brother. 1 he P
French king, charmed with the projedl, employed du
Guefclin in negociating with the leaders of thefe ban¬
ditti. The treaty was foon concluded ; and du Guef¬
clin having completed his levies, led the army firft to
Avignon, where the Pope then refided, and demanded,
fword in hand, abfolution for his ruffian foldiers, who
had been excommunicated, and the fum of 200,000
livres for their fubfiftence. The firft was readily pro-
mifed him; but fome difficulty being made with regard
to the fecond, du Guefclin replied, 44 My fellows,
believe, may make a ffiift to do without your ablohi-
tion, but the money is abfolutely neceffary.” His Ho-
linefs then extorted from the inhabitants of the city and
its neighbourhood the fum of 100,000 livres, and of¬
fered it to du,Guefclin. “ It is not my purpofe (cried
that generous warrior) to opprefs the innocent people.
The pope and his cardinals can fpare me double the
fum from their own pockets. I therefore mfift, that
8 ‘h,)
SPA
Spam-
.5°.
Heisdriven
fiftqd by
the Black
PWnce.
tins rnoney be reftored to the owners; and if I hear
they are defrauded of it, I will myfelf return from
the other fide of the Pyrenees, and oblige you to make
them, reftitution.” The pope found the neceffity of
fubmitting, and paid from his own, treafury the fum
demanded.
A body of experienced and hardy foldiers, conduced
Xdby by f° able a Senera1’ ea% prevailed over the king of
Caftile, whofe fubjedls were ready to join the enemy
againft their oppreffor. Peter fled from his dominions,
took fhelter in Guienne, and craved the protection of
the prince of Wales, whom his father had invefted with
the fovereignty of the ceded provinces, under the title
of the principality of Aquitaine. The prince promifed
his afliftance to the dethroned monarch ; and having
obtained his father’s confent, he levied an army, and
.fet out on his enterprife.
The firfl; lofs which Henry ofTraftamara fufFered
fiom the interpofition of the prince of Wales, was the
recalling of the companies from his fervice; and fo much
reverence did they pay to the name of Edward, that
great numbers of them immediately withdrew from
Spain, and inlifted under his ftandard. Henry, how¬
ever, beloved by his new fubjeCls, and fupported by the
king of Arragon, was able to meet the enemy with an
army of 100,000 men, three times the number of thofe
commanded by the Black Prince : yet du Guefclin, and
all his experienced officers, advifed him to delay a deci-
five aCtion ; fo high was their opinion of the valour and
conduct of the Englifh hero ! But Henry, trufting to
his numbers, ventured to give Edward battle on the
banks of the Ebro, between Najara and Navarette ;
where the French and Spaniards were defeated, with
the lofs of above 20,000 men, and du Guefclin and
[ 627 ]
SPA
Spain.
_ St
The Spa¬
niards de-
fe'erVc fto-0t bcr.ofricers of diftmCtion taken prifoners. All Caflile
« 111 r\rv* 1 f XT „_ T") . _ n i «
red
fubmitted to the viCtor; Peter was reftored to the
throne, and Edward returned to Guienne with his ufual
glory ; having not only overcome the greateft general
of h;s age, but reftrained the moft blood-thirfty tyrant
from executing vengeance on his prifoners.
1 his gallant warrior had foon reafon to repent of his
connections with a man like Peter, loft to all fenfe of
virtue and honour. The ungrateful monfter refufed the
ftipulated pay to the Englifh forces. Edward abandon¬
ed him : he treated his fubjeCts with the utmoft barba¬
rity ; their animolity was roufed againft him ; and du
Gueiclin having obtained his ranfom, returned to Caftile
with the count of Traftamara, and fome forces levied
anew in France. They were joined by the Spanifh
malecontents; and having no longer the Black Prince to
Is again dri-encounter, they gained a complete victory over Peter in
ISIeT^d the nei£hbourhoocl of Toledo- The tyrant now took
pm t0’ an< refuge in a caftle, where he was foon after befieged by
death. viCtors, and taken prifoner in endeavouring to make
his.efcape. Pie was conducted to his brother Henry ;
againft whom he is faid to have ruftied in a tranfport of
rage, difarmed as he was. Plenry flew him with his
own hand, in refeutment of flis cruelties ; and, though
a baftard, was placed on the throne of Caftile, which he
tranfmitted to his pofterity.
After the death of Peter the Cruel, nothing remark-
able happened in Spain for almoft a whole century; but
the debaucheries of Henry IV. of Caftile roufed the re-
fentment of Iris nobles, and produced a molt lingular in-
51
furreCtion, which led to the aggrandizement of the Spa-
mflr monarchy. v 1 ¥
This prince, furnamed the Impotent> though conti-Opr/Af
nually furrounded with women, began his unhappy reign Henry the
111 I454. Pie vvas totally enervated by his pleafures ;'mp016111*
and every thing in his court confpired to fet the Cafti-
hans an example of the moft abjeCt flattery and moft
abanuoned hcentioufnefs. The queen, a daughter of
Portugal, lived as openly with her parafites and her gal-
lants.as the king did with his minions and his miftreftes.
1 lealure vvas the only objeCt, and effeminacy the only
recommendation to favour: the affairs of the ftate went
every day into diforder; till the nobility, with the
archbrlhop of Toledo at their head, combining againft
tiie weak and flagitious adminiitration of Henry* ano-*
gated to themfelves, as one of the privileges of their or¬
der, the right.of trying and palling fentence on their
ioverergn, which they executed in a manner unprece-
dented in hiftory.
All the malecontent nobility were fummoned to meet He iffor.
at. Avila : a fpacious theatre was ereCted in a plain maliy del
without the walls of the town : an image, reprefentingP0^
the king, was feated on a throne, clad in royal robes,
with a crown on its head, a feeptre in its hand, and the
Iword of juftree by its fide. The accufation againft
j-Ieniy was read, and the fentence of depofition pro¬
nounced, in prefence of a numerous affembly. At the
clofe of the frrft article of the charge, the archbifhop ©f
i oledo advanced, and tore the crown from the head of
the image ; at the clofe of the fecond, the Conde de
Placentia matched the fword of juftice from its flde- at
the clofe of the third, the Conde de Benavente wrefted
the feeptre from its hand; and at the clofe of the laft,
JJon -Diego Lopez de Stuniga tumbled it headlong
from the throne. At the fame iiiftant, Don Alphoii-
10, Henry s brother, a boy of about twelve yea’-s of
fffad WaS Pr0daimed kin2 of Caftile and Leon in his
1 his extraordinary proceeding was followed by a ci¬
vil war,. which did not ceafe till fome time after the
deatn of the young prince, on whom the nobles had
beftowed the kingdom. The archbifhop and his party
then continued to carry on war in the name of Itabella
the king s filter, to whom they gave the title 0$ Infan¬
ta ; and Henry could not extricate himfelf out of thefeh oblied
troubles, nor remain quiet upon his throne till he hadt0 acknow.
ngned one of the moft humiliating treaties ever extort- Ie'i>?e his •
ed irom a iovereign ; he acknowledged his After Label ^fr If\*
hte only lawful heirefs of his luafdom,
1 f n^hts °L.hls rePUted daughter Joan, whom the he king,
malecontents affirmed to be the offspring of an adulter-dom*
oi:s commerce between the queen and Don la Cueva.
i he grand objedt of the malecontent party now was the
marriage or the princeis Ifabella, upon which, it was
evident, the fecurity of the crown and the happinefs of
tue people muft in a great meafure depend. The al¬
liance was fought by feveral princes : the king of Por
tugal offered her his hand; the king of ITance de¬
manded her for his brother, and the king of Arragon .n j6 „
PKffen-eddm'A11131111'* Tlie. raaIecontents very wifelyriedIVferl
pretened the Arragoman prince, and Ifabella prudent-dinand of
ly made the fame choice : articles were drawn up • a„fi Arragon,
they were privately married by the archbifhop of To-
4 K 2
Plenry
Spain,
■S7 r
Union oi
the king¬
doms of
Arragon
and Sicily
vd'h Leon
SPA [ 628
Hemy was enraged at this alliance, which he fore-
faw would utterly ruin his authority, by furnifhing hia
rebellious fubjefts with the fupport of a powerful neigh¬
bouring prince. He difinherited bis filter, and. efta-
blillied the rights of his daughter. A furious civil war
defolated the kingdom. The names of Joan and Ifa-
bella refounded from every quarter, and were every¬
where the fummons to arms. But peace was at length
brought about. Henry was reconciled to his lifter and
Ferdinand; though it does not appear that he ever re¬
newed Ilabella’s right to the fucceftxon : for he affix med
in his laft moments, that he believed Joan to be his own
daughter. The queen fwore to the fame effeft ; and
Henry left a teftamentaiy deed, tranfmitting the crown
to this princefs, wdio was proclaimed queen of Caftile at
Placentia. But Hie fuperior fortune and fuperior arms
of Ferdinand and Ifabella prevailed : the king, of Por¬
tugal was obliged to abandon his niece and intended
bride, after many ineffeaual ftruggles, and feveral years
of war. Joan retired into a convent; and the death of
Feidinand’s father, which happened about this time,
added the kingdoms of Arragon and Sicily to thole of
Leon and Caftile.
Ferdinand and Ifabella were perfons of great pru-
and CalUle.dcncej and, a8 fovereigns, highly worthy of imitation:
Ad s-8 • but they do not feem to have merited all the praifes
ftration of beftow'ed upon them by the Spanilh hiftorians. . T hey
Ferdinand did not live like man and wife, having all things in
andlfabella. common under the dire&ion of the hufband; but like
two princes in clofe alliance ; they neither loved nor
hated each other; were feldom in company together;
had each a feparate council; and were frequently jea¬
lous of one another in the adminiftration. But they
were rnfeparably united in their common mterefts ; al¬
ways afting upon the fame principles, and forwarding
the fame ends. Their firft objefl was the regulation
of their government, which the civil wars had thrown
into the greateft diforder. Rapine, outrage, and mur¬
der, were become fo common, as not only to interrupt
commerce, but in a great meafure to fufpend all inter-
eourfe between one place and another. I hefe evils the
joint fovereigns ftlppreffed by their wife policy, at the
J9 fame time that they extended the royal prerogative.
InfUtution About the middle of the 13th century, the cities in
S-thh H.°ly the kingdom of Anagon, and after their example, thofe
hood/* iR Caftile, had formed themfelves into an aflbeiation,
diftinguiffied by the name of the No/y Brotherhood.
They exafted a certain contribution from each of the
affociated towns ; they levied a conftderable body of
troops, in order to protect travellers and purfue crimi¬
nals ; and they appointed judges, who opened courts
in various parts of the kingdom. Whoever w^as guilty
of murder, robbery, or any aft that violated the public
peace, and was leixcd by the troops of the Brother¬
hood, was carried before their judges;. who, without
paying any regard to the exclufive jurifcliftion which
the lord of the place might claim, w7ho was generally
the author or abettor of the injuftice, tried and con¬
demned the criminals. 1 he nobles often murmured
againft this falutary inftitution ; they complained of it
& an encroachment on one of their moft valuable pri¬
vileges, and endeavoured to get it aboliffied. But Fer¬
dinand and Ifabella, fenfible of the beneficial effefts of
the Brotherhood, not only in regard to the police of
tiv»r kingdom, but in it* tendency to abridge, and by de-
]
SPA
grees annihilate, the territorial jurifdi&ion of the nobi¬
lity, countenanced the inftitution upon every occaiion,l
and fupported it with the whole force of royal autho¬
rity ; by which means the prompt and impartial admi¬
niftration of juftice was reftored, and with it tranquillity
and order returned.
But at the fame time that their Catholic majefties
(for fuch was the title they now7 bore) wrere giving vi¬
gour to their civil government, and fecuring their fub-
Ppain.
60
jefts from violence and oppreffion, an intemperate zeal And of
led them to eftabliffi an eccleliaftical tribunal, equally jrj(jUifu;on>
contrary to the natural rights of humanity and the mild
fpirit of the gofpel. This was the court of inquifition;
which decides upon the honour, fortune, and even the
life, of the unhappy wretch who happens to fall under
the fufpicion of herefy, or a contempt of any thing
preferibed by the church, without his knowing, being
confronted with his accufers, or permitted either de¬
fence or appeal. Six thoufand perfons were burnt by , ;
order of this fanguinary tribunal within four years af¬
ter the appointment of Tovquemada, the firft inqui-
fitor-general; and upwards of ico,ooo felt its fury.
The fame furious and blinded zeal which led to the
depopulation of Spain, led alfo to its aggrandize¬
ment. 61
The kingdom of Granada now' alone remained of all Conqueft
the Mahometan pofleffions. in Spain. Princes equallyoi GracaJa-
zealous and ambitious were naturally diipofed to turn
their eyes to that fertile territory, and to think of in-
creafing their hereditary dominions, by expelling the
enemies of Chriftianity, and extending its do&rines.
Every thing confpired to favour their project : the
Mooriffi kingdom was a prey to civil w'ars ; when Fer¬
dinand, having obtained the bull of Sixtus IV. autho¬
rizing a crufade, put himfelf at the head of his troops,
and entered Granada. He continued the war with ra¬
pid fuceefs: Ifabella attended him in feveral expedi¬
tions ; and they were both in great danger at the fiege
of Malaga; an important city, which was defended
with great courage, and taken in Baza was re¬
duced in 1489, alter the lofs of 20,oco men. Guadix
and Almeria were delivered up to them by the Moorilh
king Alzagel, who had firft dethroned his brother Al-
boacen, and afterwards been chafed from his capital by
bis nephew Abdali. That prince engaged in the fer-
vice of Ferdinand and Ifabella ; who, after reducing
every other place of eminence, undertook the fiege of
Granada. Abdali made a gallant detence ; but all com-
murecation with the country being cut off, and all hopes
of relief at an end, he capitulated, after a liege of eight
months, on condition that he fhould enjoy the revenue
of certain places in the fertile mountains of Alpujarros;
that the inhabitants ihould retain the undifturbed pof-
feffion of their houfes, goods, and inheritances; the ufe
of their law's, and the free exerciie of their religion.
Thus ended the empire of the Arabs in Spain, alter it
had continued about 8co years. They introduced the
arts and fciences into Europe at a time when it was
loft in darknefs ; they poffdfed many of the luxuries of
life, when they were not even known among the neigh¬
bouring nations; and they feem to have given birth to
that romantic gallantry which fo eminently prevailed in
the ages of chivalry, and which, blending itfelf with the
veneration of the northern nations for the fofter fex*
ftill particularly diftinguiffies ancient from modern man-
1 nera.
Spain.
6z
Jews expel¬
led from
Spain.
SPA [ 629 ] S
ners. But the Moors, notwithstanding thefe advanta- anceftors had ever poflefled.
ges, and the eulogies bellowed upon, them by fome wri¬
ters, appear always to have been dellitute of the effen-
tial qualities of a polilhed people, humanity, generality,
and mutual fympathy.
The conqueft of Granada was followed by the expul-
fion, or rather the pillage and banilhment, of the Jews,
who had engroffed all the wealth and commerce of Spain.
6,1
P A
Confcious of his own in* Spam.
tegrity and merit, he could not therefore refrain from ^-•■v—"■■J
giving vent, at times, to indignation and complaint.
He lamented the late of his country, and foretold the
calamities to which it would be expofed from the info-
lence* the rapacioufnefs, and the ignorance of ftrangers.
But in the mean time he received a letter from the king,
- r  difmiffing him from his councils, under pretence of ea-
ihe mqinlxtion exhauited its rage againll thefe unhappy fmg his age of that burden which he had fo long and
people, many of whom pretended to embrace Chriltia- fo ably fuftained. This letter proved fatal to the mini-
mty, m order to preferve their property. About the Iter ; for he expired in a few hours after reading it.
lame time their Catholic majeilies conclnded an alliance While Charles was taking poffelTion of the throne of Maximilian*
with the emperor Maximilian, and a treaty ot marriage Spain, in eonfequence of the death of one grandfather,atfemPts t©
for their daughter Joan with his fon Philip, archduke of another was endeavouring to obtain,for him the impe-get CharIe9
Direuvery Auftria andfovereign of the Netherlands. About this
ef America, time alfo the contract was concluded with Chriltopher
^c* C®lumbus for the difeovery of new countries.; and the
counties of Rouffillon and Cerdagne were agreed to be
reftored by Charles VIII. ot France, before his expe¬
dition into Italy. The difeovery of America was foon
followed by exteniive conquefts in that quarter, as is re¬
lated under the articles Mexico, Peru, Chili, See.
which tended to raife the Spanilh monarchy above any
64 other in Europe.
Charlei V°* t^ie ^eat^ lobelia, which happened in i 50^,
Philip archduke of Auftria came to Caitile in order to
take pofTeflion of that kingdom as heir to his mother-
in-law; but he dying in a fhort time after, his fon
Charles V. afterwards emperor of Germany, became
heir to the crown of Spain. His father at his death
left the king of France governor to the young prince,
and Ferdinand at his death left cardinal Ximeneslole re¬
gent of Caftile, till the arrival of his grandfon. This
man, whofe character is no lefs lingular than illuftrious,
who united the abilities of a great ftatefman with the
abjeft devotion of a fuperftitious monk, and the magni¬
ficence of a prime minilter with the feverity of a mendi¬
cant, maintained order and tranquillity in Spain, not-
withllanding the difeontents of a turbulent and high-
fpirited nobility. When they difputed his right to the
regency, he coolly (bowed them the teftsment of Ferdi¬
nand, and the ratification of that deed by Charles ; but
thefe not fatisfying them, and argument proving inef-
feftual, he led them infenfibly towards a balcony, whence
they had a view of a large body of troops under arms,
and a formidable train of artillery. “ Behold (faid the
cardinal) the powers which I have received from his
Catholic majefty: by thefe I govern Caitile ; and will
govern it, till the king, your mafter and -mine, (hall
come to take pofieffion of his kingdom.” A declara¬
tion fo bold and determined filenccd all oppofition; and
Ximenes maintained his authority till the arrival of
Charles in 1517.
_ The young king was received with univerfal acclama*
of cardinal t‘°nS ’ but X,menes found caufe to rejoice.
Ximene" was with a violent diforder, fuppofed to be
the effeft of poifon ; and when he recovered, Charles,
prejudiced againft him by the Spanifh grandees and his
Flemifh courtiers, flighted his advice, and allowed him
every day to fink iato negleft. The cardinal did not
bear this treatment with his ufual fortitude of fpirit.
He expefted a more grateful return from a prince to,
whom he delivered a kingdom more fiourifhing than it
had been in any former age, and authority more exten-
five and better eftablifhed than the molt illuftrious of his
peror.
Xhf^race
rial crown. With this view Maximilian afiembled a diet
at Auglburg, where he cultivated the favour of the
eleftors by many arts of beneficence, in order to engage
them to choofe that young prince as his fucceflbr. But
Maximilian himlelf never having been crowned by the
pope, a ceremony deemed elfential in that age, as well
as in the preceding, he was confidered only as king of
the Romans, or emperor eledt; and po example occur¬
ring in hifiory of any perfon being chofen fucceffor to a
king of the Romans, the Germans, always tenacious of
their forms, obftinately refufed to confer upon Charles a
dignity for which their confiitution knew no name.
But though Maximilian could not prevail upon the
German eledors to choofe his grandfon of Spain king
of the Romans, he had difpofed their minds in favour
of that prince ; and other circumftances, on the death
of the emperor, confpirtd to the exaltation of Charles.
The imperial crown had fo long continued in the Au-
firian line, that it began to be confidered as hereditary
in that family j and Germany, torn by religious dif-
putes, flood in need of a powerful emperor, not only to
preferye its own internal tranquillity, but alfo to protedt
it again ft the vi&orious arms of the Turks, who under
Sehm I. threatened the liberties of Europe. This fierce
and rapid conqueror had already fubdued the Mama-
lukes, and made himfelf mafter of Egypt and Syria.
1 he power of Charles appeared necefiary to opnofe
that of belim. The exteniive dominions of the houfe
of Auftria, which gave him an intereft in the preferva-
tion of Germany ; the rich lover eignty of the Nether¬
lands and Franche Compte; the entire pofTefiton of the
great and warlike kingdom of Spain, together with that
of Naples and Sicily, all united to hold him up to the
firil dignity among Chnftian princes ; and the new
world leemed only to be called into cxiftence that its
treafures might enable him. to defend Chriftendom
againft the infidels. Such was the language of his par-
tilans. r
Francis I. however, nofooner received intelligence of Frants f,
the death of Maximilian, than he declared hirnfelf a can-.aft>ires to
didate for the empire ; and with no lefs confidence, of ^ fsrn&
fuecefs than Charles. He trurted to his fuperior years dismty'
and experience; his gyeat reputation in arms; and it
was farther urged in his favour, that the impetuofity of
the French cavalry, added to the firmneis of the Ger¬
man infantry, would prove irrefiftible, and not only be
fufficient, under a waclike emperor, to fet limits to the
ambitien of Selim, but to break entirely the Ottoman
povyer, and prevent it from ever becoming dangerous
again to Germany.
Both claims were plaufible. The dominions of Eras*
eta.
SPA
Spain.
<53
Speech of
Frederic
duke of
Saxony in
favour of
Charie?.
[ 630
ei-? were lefs extenfive, but more united than thofe of
Charles. His fubjedts were numerous, active, brave, lo¬
vers of glory, and lovers of their king. Thefe were
ftrong .arguments in favour of his power, fo neceffary at
ihis jundtuve : but he had no natural intereft in the Ger¬
manic body; and the eleftors, hearing fo much of mili¬
tary force on each fide, became more alarmed for their
own privileges than the common fafety. They deter¬
mined to rejedt both candidates, and offered the impe¬
rial crown to Frederic, furnamed the Wife, duke of
Saxony. But lie, undazzled by the fplendour of an
objedt courted with fo much eagernefs by two mighty
monarchs, rcjedted it with a magnanimity no lefs fingu-
lar than great.
“ In times of tranquillity (faid Frederic), we wifh
for an emperor who has no power to invade our liber¬
ties ; times of danger demand one who is able to fccure
our fafety. The Turkifh armies, led by a warlike and
vidtorious monarch, are now aflembling: they are ready
to pour in upon Germany with a violence unknown in
former ages. New conjundtures call for new expedients.
The imperial fceptre muft be committed to feme hand
more powerful than mine or that of any other German
prince. We poffefs neither dominions, nor revenues,
nor authority, which enable us to encounter fuch a for¬
midable enemy. Recourfe muft be had, in this exigen¬
cy, to one of the rival monarchs. Each of them can
bring into the field forces fufficient for our defence.
But as the king of Spain is ot German extradtion, as
he is a member and prince of the empire by the terri¬
tories which defeend to him from his grandfather, and
as his dominions ftretch along that frontier which lies
moft expofed to the enemy, his claim, in my opinion, is
preferable to that of a ftranger to our language, to our
He is e’eft-blood, and to our country.” Charles was elected in
edin corife-confequence of this fpeech in the year 1520.
The two candidates had hitherto condudted their ri-
valfhip with emulation, but without enmity. They had
even mingled in their competition many expreffions of
friendfhip and regard. Francis in particular declared
with his ufual vivacity, that his brother Charles and he
were fairly and openly fuitors to the fame miftrefs :
“ The moft affiduous and fortunate (added he) will win
her ; and the other muft reft contented.” But the pre¬
ference was no fooner given to his rival, than Francis
difeovered all the paffions natural to difappointed ambi¬
tion. He could not fupprefs his chagrin and indigna¬
tion at being baulked in his favourite purfuit, and re-
jefted, in the face of all Europe, for a youth yet un-
« .uutu». known to fame. The fpirit of Charles refented fuch
iiatrcdtakescontempt; and from this jealoufy, as much as from op-
place be- pofjtion of interefts, arofe that emulation between thofe
(Jhad-s andtw0 great monarch3 which involved them in almoft
Francis.an perpetual hoftilities, and kept their whole age in move-
ment.
Charles and Francis had many interfering _ claims m
Italy ; and the latter thought himfelf bound in honour
to reftore the king of Navarre to his dominions, unjuftly
feized by the crown of Spain. I hey immediately be-
Both court gan to negotiate ; and as Henry VIII. of England was
ehe friend- the third prince of the age in power and in dignity, his
JhipofHen* fricndlhip was eagerly courted by each of the rivals.
q He was the natural guardian of the liberties of Europe.
an ’ Senfible of the confequence which his fituation gave
him, and proud of his pre-eminence, Henry knew it to
s
Spain.
69
quence of
this fpccch
7° ,
A mutual
P A
be his intereft to keep the balance even between the
contending powers, and to reftrain both, by not joining
entirely with either ; but he was feldom able to reduce
his ideas to practice. Vanity and refentment were the
great fprings of all his undertakings ; and his neigh¬
bours, by touching thefe, found an eafy way to draw
him into their meafures, and force him upon many raflr
and inconfiderate enterprifes.
AU the impolitic iteps in Henry’s government muft
not, however, be imputed to himfelf; many of them
were occafioned by the ambition and avarice of his
prime minifter and favourite cardinal Wolfey. This
man, who, by his talents and accomplifhments, had rifen
from one of the loweft conditions in life to the higheft
employments both in church and ftate, enjoyed a greater
degree of power and dignity than any Englilh fubje&
ever pofieffed, and governed the haughty, prefumptu-
ous, and untraitable fpirit of Henry, with abfolute au¬
thority. Francis was equally well acquainted with the
character of Henry and of his minifter. He had fuc-
cefafully flattered Wolfey’s pride, by honouring him with
particular marks of his confidence, and bellowing upon
him the appellation of Father, Tutor, and Governor;
and he had obtained the reftitution of Tournay, by ad¬
ding a penfion to thofe refpe&fal titles. He now fo-
licited an interview with the king of England near Ca-
lais; in hopes of being able, by familiar converfation, to An inter-
attach him to his friendlhip and intereft, while he gra- ^w pro-
tified the cardinal’s vanity, by affording him an oppor-
trinity of difplaying his magnificence in the prefence of trancis and
twp courts, and of difeovering to the two nations his in-Henry,
fluence over their monarchs. Charles dreaded the ef-
fetts ot this projected interview between two gallant
princes, whofe hearts were no lefs fufceptible of triend-
fhip than their manners were of infpiring it. Finding
it impoflible, however, to prevent a vifit, in which the
vanity of all parties was fo much concerned, he endea¬
voured to defeat its purpofe, and to pre-occupy the fa¬
vour of the Englifh monarch, and of his minifter, by
an aft of complaifance ftill more flattering and more un- CJ)a^s ^
common. Relying wholly upon Henry’s generofity for
his fafety, he landed at Hover, in his way from Spain ;n England*
to the Low Countries The king of England, who
was on his way to France, charmed with fuch an in-
ftance of confidence, haftened to receive his royal gueft;
and Charles, during his fliort ftay, had the addrefs not
only to give Henry favourable impreffions of his cha-
rafter and intentions, but to detach Wolfey entirely
from the intereft; of Francis. The tiara had attrafted
the eye of that ambitious prelate ; and as the emperor
knew that the papacy was the foie point of elevation,
beyond his prefent greatnefs, at which he could afpire,
he made him an ofl’er of his intereft on the firft va-
n
cancy. 74
The day of Charles’s departure, Henry went over to Henry vifitt
Calais with his whole court, in order to meet Francis, m
Their interview was in an open plain between Guifnes*
and Ardres ; where the two kings and their attendants
difplayed their magnificence with fuch emulation and
profufe expence, as procured it the name of the Field of
the C/oth of Gold. Here Henry erected a fpacious
houfe of wood and canvas, framed in London, on
which, under the figure of an Englilli archer, was the
following motto : “ He prevails whom I favour al¬
luding to his own political lituation, as holding in hia
° hands
SPA
Sjsskin,
hands the balance of p@wer among the potentates of
Europe. Feats of chivalry however, parties of gallan¬
try, and fuch exercifes as were in that age reckoned
manly or elegant, rather than ferious bufinefs, occupied
the two courts during the time that they continued to¬
gether, which was i3 days.
After taking leave of this feene of diffipation, the king
of England paid a vifit to the emperor and Margaret of
Savoy at Gravelines, and engaged them to go along
with him to Calais; where the artful and politic Charles
completed the impteflion which he had begun to make
on Henry and his favourite, and effaced all the friend¬
ship to which the frank and generous-nature of Francis
had given birth. He renewed his affuHnces of aflifting
Wolfey in obtaining the papacy ; and he put him in
prefent poflefiion of the revenues belonging to the fees
of Badajox and Palencia in Spain. He flattered Hen¬
ry’s pride, by convincing him of his own importance,
and of the juftnefs of the motto which lie had chofen ;
offering to fubmit to his foie arbitration any difference
that might arife between him and Francis.
Charles in- This important point being fecured, Charles repaired
veiled wnhto Aix la-Chapelle, where he was folemnly invelled with
S crown the Crown a.nd fcePtre of Charlemagne, in prefence of a
at Aix-la- more lplendid and numerous affembly than had appear-
Chapdle. ed on any former inauguration. About the fame time
Solyman the Magnificent, one of the molt accomplifhed,
enterprifing, and viftorious of the Yurkifh princes, and
a conftant and formidable rival to the emperor, afeended
the Ottoman throne.
I he firft aft of Charles’s adminiftration was to ap¬
point a diet of the empire, to be held at Worms, in or¬
der to concert with the princes proper meafures for
checking the progrefs of “ thofe new and dangerous
opinions which threatened to diifurb the peace of Ger¬
many, and to overturn the religion of their anedfors.”
The opinions propagated by Luther and his followers
were here meant. But all his efforts for that purpofe
were infufficient, as is related under the articles Lu¬
ther and Reformation,
In 1521, the Spaniards, diffatisfied with the depam
1 3
SPA
7S
agaiuil the emperor, and to invade Luxembourg. Charles, Qpaln.
after humbling the duke, attempted to enter France;
but was repelled and worfted before Mezieres by the fa¬
mous chevalier Bayard, diftinguifhed among his cotem¬
poraries by the appellation of 7he Knight 'without fear
and without reproach ; and who united the talents of a
gieat general to the punftihous honour and romantic
gallantry of the heroes of chivalry. Francis broke into
the Low Countries, where, by an excefs of caution, an
error not natural to him, he loll an opportunity of cut¬
ting off the whole imperial army; and, what was of frill
more coni'equerice, he difgufted'the conftable Bourbon,
by giving the command of the van to the duke of AlenI
900.
Luring thefe operations in the field, an unfuccefsfui
congrefs was held at Calais, under the mediation of
Henry VIII. It ferved only to exafpeiate the parties-
which it was intended to reconcile. A league was
foon after concluded, by the intrigues of Wolfey, be¬
tween the pope, Henry, and Charles, againfl France.
Leo had already entered into a feparate league with the
emperor, and the French were fait lofing ground in
Italy.
The infolence and exaftions of Marefhal de Lautrec,>
governor of Milan, had totally alienated the affeftions
of the Milanefe from France. T hey refolved to expel
the troops of that nation, and put themfelves under the
government of Francis Sforza, brother to Maximilian -
their late duke. In this refolution, they were encou¬
raged by the pope, who excommunicated Lautrec, and 77
76
War be „ . t ,    
tween Fran-ture of their fovereign, whofe eleftion to the empire
Sadt, tl'ey ‘rorefaw would interfere with the adminiftration of
his own kingdom, and incenfed at the avarice of the
Flemings, to whom the direftion of public affairs had
been committed fince the death of cardinal Ximenes, fe-
veral grandees, in order to fhake off this oppreffion, en¬
tered into an affociation, to which they gave the name
of the Sand a fund a ; and the fvvord was appealed to
as the means of redrefs. This feemed to Francis a fa¬
vourable junfture for reinftating the family of John
d’Albert in the kingdom of Navarre. Charles was at
a diftanee from that part of his dominions, and the
troops ufually flationed there had been called away to
quell the commotions in Spain. A French army, un¬
der Andrew de Foix, fpeedily conqueied Navarre ; but
that young and inexperienced nobleman, pufhed on by
military ardour, ventured to enter Caftile. The Spa¬
niards, though divided among themfelves, united againfl
a foreign enemy, routed his forces, took him prifoner,
and recovered Navarre in a Ihorter time than he had
fpent in fubduing it.
Hoflilities thus begun in one quarter, between the
rival monarchs, foon fpread to another. The king of
France encouraged the duke of Bouillon to make war
took into his pay a confiderable body of Swifs. VheRapJd foa"
papal army, commanded by Profper Colonna, an expe-chalkf
nenced general, was jp-ined by luppliesTrom Germany
and Naples ; while Lautrec, neglefted by his court, and
deferted by the Swifs in its pay, was unable to make
head againfl the enemy. The city of Milan was be¬
trayed by the inhabitants to the confederates; Parma
and Placentia .were united to the ecclefiaftical Hate ; and '
of their conquefls in Lombardy, only the town of Cre¬
mona, the caflle of Milan, and a few ineenfiderable
forts, remained in the hands of the French.
Leo X. received the accounts of this rapid fucceft
witii fnch tranfports 01 joy, as are faid to have brought
on a fever, which occafioned his death. The fpirit of
the confederacy was broken, and its operations fufpend-
ed by this accident. The Swifs were recalled; fome
other mercenaries dilhanded for want of pay ; and only
the Spaniards, and a few Germans in the emperor’s fer-
vice, remained to defend the duchy of Milan. But
Lautrec, who with the remnant of his army had taken
flicker in the Venetian temtories, deflitute both of men
and money, was unable to improve this favourable op¬
portunity as he wifhed. All his efforts were rendered
meffeftual by the vigilance and ability of Colonna and
his aflbciates.
Meantime much difeord prevailed in the conclave.
Wolfcy’s name, notwithflanding all the emperor’s magi
nificent promifes, was fcarcely mentioned there. Julio
de Medici, Leo’s nephew, thought himfelf fure of the
eleftion ; when, by an unexpefted turn of fortune,
cardinal Adrian of Utrecht, Charles’s preceptor, who
at that time governed Spain in the emperor’s name,
was unam’moufly raifed to the papacy, to the aftonifhl
merit of all Europe and tire great difguft of the Ita¬
lians*
Francis,-
Ppain
7?
Francis in
S 1‘ A [ C3
'Francis, roufed by the rifinpr cov.fequcncc of his rival,
refolved to exert hinrfclf with freih vigour, in order to
. . wreft from him his late conquefts in Lombardy. Lau-
vades haW. tree received a fupply of money, and a reinforcement of
t 0,000 Svvifs. With this reinforcement he was enabled
once more to adl offeniively, and even to advance w ithin
a few miles of the city of Milan ; W'hen money again
failing him, and the Swifs growing mutinous, he was
obliged to attach the imperialifts in their camp at Bi-
cocca, where he was repulfed with great {laughter, ha¬
ving loft his braveft officers and beft troops. Such of
the Sw'ifs as furvived fet out immediately for their own
country; and Lautrec, defpairing of being able to keep
the field, retired into France. Genoa, wffiich fiill re¬
mained fubjeft to Francis, and made it eaty to execute
any fcherae for the recovery of Mflan, was foon after-
taken by Colonna : the authority of the emperor and
his fa&ion was ‘everywhere eitabliffied in Italy. The
citadel of Cremona was the foie fortrefs which remained
•in the hands of the French.
The afflidion of Francis for fuch a fucceffion of miL
fortunes was augmented by the unexpefted arrival of an
Englifh herald, who in the name of his fovereign de¬
clared wrar againft France. The courage of this exce]-
lent prince, however, did not forfake him ; though his
tieafury was exhaufted by expenfive pleafures, no Ids
than by hoftile enterprifes, he affembled a conliderable
army, and put his kingdom in a pofture of defence for
refitting this tiew enemy, without abandoning any of
the fchemes which he was forming againft the empe¬
ror. He was furpvifed, but not alarmed, at fuch a de-
79 nunciation.
Claries vi- Meanwhile Charles, willing to draw as much advan-
fitfEnglandta?.e as poffible from fo powerful an ally, paid a fecond
a fecond tQ tj)e COHrt 0f England in his way to Spain,
where his prefence was become neceflaiy. His fuccefs
exceeded his moft fanguine expectations. Fie not only
gained the entire fricndffiip of Henry, who publicly ra¬
tified the treaty of Bruges; but difarmed the refent-
meut of Wolfey, by a {Turing him of the papacy on A-
drian’s death ; an event feemingly not diftant, by rea-
fon of his age and infirmities. In confequence of thefe
negociations an Englifh army invaded France, under
the command of the earl of Surrey ; who, at the end
of the campaign, was obliged to retire, with his forces
greatly reduced, without being able to make himfelf
matter of one place within fhe French frontier. Charles
was more fortunate in Spain : he foon quelled the tu¬
mults which had there arifen in his abfence.
While t&e Chriftian princes were thus wafting each
other’s ftrength, Solyman the Magnificent entered Hun¬
gary, and made himfelf mailer of Belgrade, reckoned
the chief barrier of that kingdom againft the Turkifh
power. Encouraged by this fuccefs, he turned his
victorious arms againft the illand of Rhodes, at that
8o time the feat of the knights of St John of Jerufalem;
fcWes ta. and though every prince in that age acknowledged
ken by So- Rhodes to be the great bulwark of Chriftendom in the
iyman. eaq.j p0 v!0lent was their animofity againft each other,
that they fuffered Solyman without difturbance to carry
on his operations againft that city and ifland. Lille
Adam, the errandmafter, made a gallant defence ; but,
after incredible efforts of courage, patience, and military
condudl, during a fiege of fix months, he was obliged to
furrender the place, having obtained an honourable ca-
■tinie.
Sr
, againd
tne Frauas.
2 ] SPA
pitulation from the fultan, who admired and refpeTed
his heroic qualities (lee Rhodes and Malta). Charles
and Francis were equally afhamed of having occafioned
fuch a lofs to Chriflendom by their contetts; and the
emperor, by way of reparation, granted to the knights
of St John the fmall illand of Malta, where they fixed
their refidence, and continued long to retain their an-
cient fpirit, though much diminifhed in power and fplen-
dour.
Adrian VI. though the creature of the emperor, and
devoted to his intereft, endeavoured to aflame, the im¬
partiality which became the common father of Chriften-
dom, and laboured to reconcile the contending princes,
that they might unite in a league againft Solyman,
whofe conqueft of Rhodes rendered him more 'formi¬
dable than ever to Europe. The Italian ftates were no
Ids defirous of peace than the pope : and fo much, re*
gard was paid by the hoftile powers to the exhortations
of his holinefs, and to a bull which he iffiied, requiring
all Chriftian princes to confent to a truce for three
years, that the imperial, the French, and the Englifh
ambaffadors at Rome, were empowered to treat of.that
matter ; but while they wafted their time in fruitlefs
neirociations, their matters were continuing their pre¬
parations for war; and other negociations foon took
nlace. The confederacy againft France became more A powc ful
E1 ., . , , J ° confe leracy
formidable than ever.
The Venetians, who had hitherto adhered to
French intereft, formed engagements with the emperor
for fecuring Francis Sforza in the poffeffion of the
duchy of Milan ; and the pope, from a perfuafion that
the ambition of the French monarch was the only ob-
ftacle to peace, acceded to the fame alliance. The
Florentines, the dukes of Ferrara and Mantua, and all
the Italian powers, followed this example. Francis was
left without a fingle ally, to refill the efforts of a mul¬
titude of enemies, whole armies everywhere threatened,
and whofe territories encompaffed his dominions.. 1 he
emoeror in perfon menaced France with an invafion on
the" fide of Guienne ; the forces of England and the
Netherlands hovered over Picardy, and a numerous bo¬
dy of Germans was preparing to ravage Burgundy. .
The dread of fo many and fuch powerful adverfaries,
it was thought, would have obliged Francis to keep
wholly on the defenfive, or at leaft have prevented him
from entertaining any thoughts of marching into Italy.
But before bis enemies were able to ftrike a blow,
Francis had affembled a great army, with which he ho¬
ped to difconcert all the emperor’s fchemes, by march-
in"- it in perfon into Italy ; and this bold meafure, the Francis
more formidable becaufe unexpected, could icarcely have m^irche? tn
failed of the defired effect, had it been immediately c^-^
ried into execution. But the difeovery of a domefti.c ^e(j t0re.
confptracy, which threatened the- deftruaion of his turn by a
kinedom, obliged Francis to flop fhort at Lyons. do™e.ft“
Charles duke of Bourbon, lord high conftable ofconfP cy‘
France, was a prince of the moft finning merit. his
great talents equally fitted him lor the council or the
field, while his eminent fervices to the crown intitled
him’to its firft favour. But unhappily Louifa duchefs
of Angouleme, the king’s mother, had contraaed a
violent averfion againft the houfe of Bourbon, and had
taught her fon, over whom (lie had acquired an abfolute
afeendant, tp view all the conftable’s aaions with a jea¬
lous eye. After repeated affronts he retired from court,
* and
SPA [ 633 ] SPA
$|53in. and began to liften to the advances of the emperor’s the glory of having defended his native kingdom a 5lain(l Spain.
- ^r—~ minifters. Meantime the duchefs of Bourbon died; and one half of Europe, and have bid defiance to all his
as the conftable was no lefs amiable than accomplifiied, enemies; but underfhnding that the king of England,
the duchefs of Angouleme, Hill fufceptible of the tender difcouraged by his former fruitlels enterprifes, and dif- gt
paffions, formed the fcheme of marrying him. But glided with the emperor, was making no oreparations Francis cfe-
Bourbon, who might have expected every thing to for any attempt on Picardy, his ancient ardour feizedferm>ne3
which an ambitious mind can afpire, from the doating him for the conqueft of Milan, and he determined, not-i°fn!:er
fondnefs of a woman who governed her fon and the withilanding the advanced feafon, to march into Italy. ^i lD^er‘i
kingdom, incapable of imitating Louifa in her bidden The French army no fooner appeared in Piedmont,
tranfition from hate to love, or of meanly counterfeit- than the whole Milanefe was thrown into confternation.
ing a pafiion for one who had fo long purfued him with
unprovoked malice, reje&ed the match with difdain, and
turned the propofal into ridicule. At once defpifed and
infulted by the man whom love only could have made
her ceafe to perfecute, Louifa was filled with all the
rage of difappointed woman ; fhe refolved to ruin, fince
t fhe could not marry, Bourbon. For this purpofe fhe
commenced an iniquitous fuit againft him ; and by the
chicanery of chancellor du Prat, the conftable was ftrip-
ped of his whole family-eftate. Driven to defpair by
fo many injuries, he entered into a fecret correfpon-
dence with the emperor and the king of England ; and
he propofed, as foon as Francis fhould have crofted the
Alps, to raife an infurreftion among his numerous vaf-
fals, and introduce foreign enemies into the heart o:
France.
Happily Francis got intimation of this confpiracy
before he left the kingdom ; but not being fufficiently
convinced of the Conftable’s guilt, he fuffered fo dan¬
gerous a foe to efcape ; and Bourbon entering into the
emperor’s fervice, employed all the force of his enter-
prifing genius, and his great talents for war, to the
prejudice of his prince and his native country.
In confequence of the difcovery of this plot, and the
efcape of the powerful confpirator, Francis relinquifhed
his intention of leading his army in perfon into Italy.
He was ignorant how far the infection had fpread
among his fubjedfs, and afraid that his abfence might
encourage them to make fome defperate attempt in fa-
A French vour °f a man f° much beloved. He did not, however,
army enters abandon his defign on the Milanefe, but fent forward
Italy. an army cf 30,000 men, under the command of admi¬
ral Bonnivet. Colonna, who was entrufted with the
defence of that duchy, was in no condition to refift
fuch a force; and the city of Milan, on which the
whole territory depends, muft have fallen into the
hands of the French, had not Bonnivet, who poffeffed
none of the talents of a general, wafted his time in
frivolous enterprifes, till the inhabitants recovered from
their confternation. The imperial army was reinforced.
Colonna died; and I.annoy, viceroy of Naples, fuc-
ceeded him in the command : but the chief direction
of military operations was committed to Bourbon and
the marquis de Pefcara, the greateft generals of their
age. Bonnivet, deftitute of troops to oppofe this new
army, and ftill more ofghe talents which could render
him a match for its leaders, after various movements
84 and encounters, was reduced to the neceftity of attempt-
Befeated at ing a retreat into France. He was followed by theim-
wgralTa. jfcral generals, and routed at Biagraffa, where the fa¬
mous chevalier Bayard was killed.
The emperor and his allies were lefs fuccefsful in
their attempts upon France. They were baffled in
every quarter: and Francis, though ftrippfd of his
Italian dominions, might ftill have enjoyed in fafety
Vol. XVII. Part II.
I he capital opened its gates. The forces of the empe¬
ror and Sforza retired to Lodi: and had Francis been i
fo fortunate as to purfue them, they muft have aban¬
doned that poll, and been totally difperfed ; but his
evil genius led him to befiege Pavia, a town of conll-
derable ftrength, well garrifoned, and defended by An¬
tonio de Leyva, one of the braveft officers in the Spa- (55
niih fervice; before which place he was defeated and fs defeated
taken prifoner on the twenty-fourth day of February an.fl !aker|
jr^A. 1 prifoner at
The captivity of Francis filled all Europe with alarm.
Almoft the whole French army was cut off; Milan was
immediately abandoned ; and in a few weeks not a
Frenchman was left in Italy. The power of the em¬
peror, and ftill more his, ambition, became an objeft of
univerfal terror; and reiolutions were everywhere taken
to fet bounds to it. Meanwhile Francis, deeply itn-
preffed with a fenfe of his misfortune, wrote to his mo¬
ther Louifa, whom he had left regent of the kingdom,
the following (hort but expreffive letter : “ All, Ma¬
dam, is loft but honour.” The fame courier that car- g.
ried this letter, carried alfo difpatches to Charles ; who Hypocriti-
received the news of the fignal and unexpedted fuccefscal condmit
which had crowned his arms with the molt hypocriticalChdrIeil,i
moderation. He would not fuffer any public rejoicings
to be made on account of it ; and faid, he only valued
it, as it would prove the occalion of reftoring peace to
Chriftendom. . Louifa, however, did not trnft to thofe
appearances ; if fhe could not preferve what was yet
left, fhe determined at leaft that nothing fhould be loft
through her negligence or weaknefs. Inftead of giving
herfelf up to fuch lamentations as were natural to a wo¬
man fo remarkable for maternal tendernefs, fhe difeo-
vered all the forefight, and exerted all the activity, of a
confummate politician. She took every poffible’mea-
fure for putting the kingdom in a pofture of defence,
■while fire employed all her addrefs to appeafe the refent-
ment and to gain the friendfhip of England ; and a ray
of comfort from that quarter foon broke in upon the
French affairs.
Though Henry VIII. had not entered into the war
againft France from any concerted political views, he
had always retained fome imperfea idea of that balance
of power which it was necefl'ary to maintain between
Charles and Francis; and the prefervation of which he
boafted to be his peculiar office. By his alliance with
the emperor, he hoped to recover fome part of thofe
territories on the continent which had belonged to his
anceftors ; and therefore willingly contributed to give
him the afcendency above his rival; but having never
dreamt of any event fo decifive and fatal as the vi&ory
at Pavia, which feemed not only to have broken, but to
have annihilated the power of Francis, he now became
fenfible of his own danger, as well as that of all Europe,
from the lols of a proper counterpoife to the power of
4 k Charles,
SPA
r 634 i
SPA
Spain.
Oil arks. In (lead of taking advantage of the dlftrefled
condition of France, Henry therefore determined to
Fiarue af afiift her in her prefent calamities. Some difrufte alio
Medbv ' had taken place between him and Charles, and Hill more
Hei ryV.If.between Charles and Wolfey. The elevation of the
cardinal of Medici to St Peter’s chair, on the death of
Adrian, under the name of Clement VII. had made the
English minifter fallible of the infingerity of the empe¬
ror’s promifes, while it extinguidied all his hopes of the
papacy ; and he refolved on revenge. Charles, too,
had fo ill fupported the appearance ot moderation which
he afiumed, when fir ft informed of his good fortune,
that he had already changed his ufual ftyle to Henry ;
and inftead of writing to him with his own hand, and
fubferibing himfelf “ your affe&ionate fon and coufin,”
he diclated his letters to a fecretary, and limply fub-
feribed himfelf “ Charles.” Influenced by all thefe
motives, together with the glory of raifing a fallen ene¬
my, Henry liftened to the flattering fubmiflions of Loui-
fa ; entered into a defenfive alliance with her as regent
of France, and engaged to ufe his beft offices in order
the deliverance of her fon from a ftate of
Spain.
89
Francis fe-
verely uled
by his con¬
queror,.
to procure
captivity.
Meanwhile Francis was rigoroufly confined ; and fe-
vere conditions being propofed to him as the price of
his liberty, he drew his dagger, and, pointing it at his
bread, cried, “ ’Twere better that a king ffiould die
thus !” His hand was with-held: and flattering him¬
felf, when he grew cool, that fuch propofitions could
not come diredlly from Charles, he delired that he
might be removed to Spain, where the emperor then
refided. His requeft was complied with ; but he lan-
guifhed long before he obtained a fight of his conque¬
ror. At laft he was favoured with a vifit; and the em¬
peror dreading a general combination againft him, or
that Francis, as he threatened, might, in the'obftinacy
of his heart, refign his crown to the dauphin, agreed to
abate fomewhat of his former demands. A treaty was
accordingly concluded at Madrid; in confequence of
which Francis obtained his liberty. The chief article
in this treaty was, that Burgundy fhould be reftored to
Charles as the rightful inheritance of his anceftors, and
that Francis’s two eldeft fons ffiould be immediately de¬
livered up as hoftages for the performance of the con¬
ditions ftipulated.' The exchange of the captive mo¬
narch for his children was made on the borders between
France and Spain. The moment that Francis entered
his own dominions, he mounted a X urkifti horfe, and
putting it to its fpeed, waved his hand, and cried aloud
QI feveral times, “ I am yet a king! I am yet a king!”
Refutes to Francis never meant to execute the treaty or Ma-
cxecute the dnd : he had even left a proteft in the hands of nota-
conditions rjes pefore be figned it, that his confent lliould be con-
fidered as an involuntary deed, and be deemed null and
void. Accordingly, as foon as he arrived in France,
he aflembled the ftates of Burgundy, who protefted
againft the article relative to their province ; and Fran¬
cis coldly replied to the imperial ambafladors, who
urged the immediate execution of the treaty, that he
would religioufly perform the articles relative to him¬
felf, .but in thofe affe&ing the French Ihonarchy, he
mu ft be directed by the fenfe of the nation. He made
the higheft acknowledgments to the king of England
9»
9°„
Is at hit
xeleafed.
<sf his re-
kafe.
that they were over-reached in thofe very arts of nego*
clarion in which they fo much excelled, while the Ita¬
lian ftates obferved with pleafure, that Francis was re¬
folved not to execute a treaty which they confidered as
dangerous to the liberties of Europe. Clement abfol-
ved him from the oath which he had taken at Madrid ;
and the kings of France and England, the Pope, the
Swifs, the Venetians, the Florentines, and the duke of
Milan, entered into an alliance, to which they gave the
name of the Holy League, becaufe his Holinefs was at
the head of it, in order to oblige the emperor to deliver
up Francis’s two fons on the payment of a reafonable
ranfom, and to re-eftabliih Sforza in the quiet poffeffion
of the Milanefe.
In confequence of this league, the confederate army
took the field, and Italy once more became the feene
of war. But Francis, who it was thought would have
infufed fpirit and vigour into the whole body, had gone
through fuch a feene of diftrefs, that he was become,
diffi lent of himfelf, diftruftful of his fortune, and de-
firous of tranquillity. He flattered himfelf, that the
dread alone of fuch a confederacy would induce Charles
to liften to what was equitable, and therefore negledled
to fend due reinforcements to his allies in Italy. Mean¬
time the duke of Bourbon, who commanded the Impe-
rialifts, had made himfelf mailer of the whole Milanefe,
of which the emperor had promifed him the inveftiture;
and his troops beginning to mutiny for want of pay, Rome ta¬
ke led them to Rome, and promifed to enrich them ken by fhe
with the foods of that city. He was as good as hi^imperialifts,
word ; for though he himfelf was flain m planting a
foaling ladder againft the walls, his foldiers, rather en*
raged than difeoutaged by his death, mounted to the
afl'ault with the utmoft ardour, animated by the great-
nefs of the prize, and, entering the city fword in hand,
plundered it for feveral days. 93
Never did Rome in any age fuffer fo many calami- And mod
ties, not even from the Barbarians, by whom fire was Cl|uel;y
often fubdued, the Huns, Vandals, or Goths, as now1’11
from the fubjefts of a Chriftian and Catholic monarch.
Whatever was refpeftable in modefty, or facred in reli¬
gion, feemed only the more to provoke the rage of the
foldiery. Virgins fuffered violation in the arms of their-
parents, and upon thofe altars to which they had fled
for fafety. Venerable prelates, after enduring every in¬
dignity and every torture, were thrown into dungeons,
and menaced with the moft cruel death, in order to
make them reveal their fecret treafures. Clement him¬
felf, who had neglected to make his efcape in time, was
taken prifoner, and found that the facrednefs of his cha¬
racter could neither procure him liberty nor fefpeCt.
He was confined till he ffiould pay an enormous raiifora
impofed by the victorious army, and furrender to the touted,
emperor all the places of ftrength belonging to the
church. _ 9?
Charles received the news of this extraordinary event Shameful
with equal furprife and pleafure; but in order.to con-hypotrif)°f
ceal his joy from his Spanifh fubjeCts, who were filled
with horror at the infult offered to the fovereign pon¬
tiff, and to leffen the indignation of the reft of Europe,
he expreffed the moft profound forrow for the fuccefs
of his arms. He put himfelf and his. court into mourn¬
ing'; flopped the rejoicings for the birth of his fon Phi-
for his& friendly interpoiition, and offered to be entirely lip, and ordered prayers to be put up in all the church-
guided by his counfels. Charles and his minifters faw es of Spain for the recovery, of the pope 5 liberty.
^vvhich
SPA
which he could immediately have procured by a letter
to his generals.
The concern exprefled by Henry and Francis for the
calamity of their ally was more iincere. Alarmed at
the progrefs of the imperial arms, they had, even before
the taking of Rome, entered into a clofer alliance, and
agieed to invade the Low Countries with a powerful
army ; but no fooner did they hear of the Pope’s cap¬
tivity, than they changed, by a new treaty, the feene of
[ 635 ]
SPA
Spain.
the hereditary dominions of the houfe of Auflria, and
vyho had been elefted king of Hungary, had obliged
bolyman to retire with infamy and lofs, his return was
to be feared, and the diforders of religion were daily in*
£realing ; an account of which, and of the emperor’s
traufadfions with the Proteftants, is given under the ar¬
ticle Reformation. ^
Charles having exerted himfelf as much as he could under-
againit the reformers, undertook his firft expedition an
" . ' o j 1.1.^ iv-viiv. d^cnuiL me 1 dormers, unueiiooK ms tnlt expedition .. . *
the projected war from the Netherlands to Italy, and re- againft the piratical hates of Africa. Barbary, or that a'
folved to take the moft r ...... . , • , Ld'y’ PldL^ainft the
96
A French
army enter
Italy, but
is utterly
ruined.
97
Peace con
eluded at
Cambray.
98
Charles
goes into
Germany.
folved to take the moft vigorous meafures for reftoring
him to liberty. Henry, however, contributed only mo¬
ney. A drench army entered Italy, under the com-
smand of Marfhal Lautrec ; Clement obtained his free¬
dom ; and war was for a time carried on by the confede¬
rates with fuccefs ; but the death of Lautrec, and the
revolt of Andrew Doria, a Genoefe admiral in the fer-
vice of France, entirely changed the face of affairs.
The French army was utterly ruined ; and Francis, dif-
couraged and almofl exhaufted by fo many unfuccefsful
enterpi ifes, began to think of peace, and of obtaining
the releafe of his fons by conceflions, not by the terror
of his arms.
At the fame time Charles, notwithftanding the ad¬
vantages he had gained, had many reafons to wifli for
an accommodation. Sultan Solvman having over-run
Hungary, was ready to break in upon the Auftrian ter¬
ritories with the whole force of the Faff; and the pro-
greis of the Reformation in Germany threatened the
tranquillity of the empire. In confequence of this fi-
tuation of affairs, though pride made both parties con¬
ceal or diffemble their real fentiments, two ladies were
permitted to reftore peace to Europe. Margaret of
Auftna, Charles’s aunt, and Louifa, Francis’s mother,
met m 1529 at Cambray, and fettled the terms of ac¬
commodation between the French king and the empe¬
ror. Francis agreed to pay two millions of crowns as
the ranfom of his two fons, to refign the fovereignty of
Flanders and Artois, and to forego all his Italian claims;
and Charles ceafed to demand the reftitution of Bur¬
gundy.
All the fteps of this negociation had been communi¬
cated to the king ot England ; and Henry was, on that
occafion* fo generous to his friend and ally Francis, that
he fent him an acquittal of near fix hundred thoufand
crowns, in order to enable him to fulfil his agreement
with Charles. But Francis’s Italian confederates were
lefs fatisfied with the treaty of Cambray. They were
almoff wholly abandoned to the will of the emperor;
and leemed to have no other means of fecurity left but
his equity and moderation. Of thefe, from his paft con-
dudl, they had not formed the moft advantageous idea.
But Charles’s prefent circumftances, more efpecially in
regard to the Turks, obliged him to behave with a ge-
nerofity inconfiftent with his character. The Floren¬
tines alone, whom he reduced under the dominion of
the family of Medici, had irafon to complain of his fe-
verity. Sforza obtained the inveftiture of Milan and
his pardon ; and every other power experienced the le¬
nity of the conqueror.
Alter having received the imperial crown from the
hands of the Pope at Bologna, Charles proceeded on
his journey to Germany, where his prefence was become
highly neceffary ; for although the conduft and valour
of his brother Ferdinand, on whom he had conferred
part of the African continent lying along the coaft of ftate of
the Mediterranean fea, was then nearly in the fame coir- BarLary.
dition which it is at prefent. Morocco, Algiers, and
Tunis, were its principal ftates ; and the two laft were
n'efts of pirates. Barbaroffa, a famous Corfair, had fuc-
ceeded his brother in the kingdom of Algiers, which
he had formerly affifted him to ufurp. He regulated
with much prudence the interior police of his kingdom,
carried on his piracies with great vigour, and extended
his conquefts on the continent of Africa ; but percei¬
ving that the natives fubmitted to his government with
impatience, and fearing that his continual depredations
would one day drnw upon him a general combination of
the Chriftian powers, he put his dominions under the
prote&ion of the grand feignidr. Solyman, flattered by
fuch an a<ft of fubmiffion, and charmed with the bold-
neis of the man, offered him the command of the Turk-
ifh fleet. Proud of this diftin&ion, Barbaroffa repaired
to Conftantinople, and made tile of his influence with,
the fultan to extend his own dominion. Partly by
force, partly by treachery, he ufurped the kingdom of
Tunis; and being now pofl'effed of greater poweii'he
carried on his depredations againft the Chiiftian ftates
with more deftruttive violence than ever.
Daily complaints of the piracies and ravages com¬
mitted by the galleys of tarbaroffa were brought to
the emperor by his fubjeds, both in Spain and Italy;
and all Chnftendom feemed to look up to him, as its
greateft and moft fortunate prince, for relief from this
new and odious fpecies of oppreffion. At the fame
time Muley-Hafcen, the exiled king of Tunis, finding
none of the African princes able or willing to fupport
him in recovering his throne, applied to Charles for af-
fiftance againft the ufurper. Equally defirous of deli¬
vering his dominions from the dangerous neighbourhood
of Barbaroffa, of appearing as the protc&or of an un¬
fortunate piince, and of acquiring the glory annexed in
that age to every expedition againft the Mahometans,
the emperor readily .concluded a treaty with Muley Haf-
cen, and fet fail for 1 unis with a formidable armament.
1 he Goletta, a fca port town, fortiaed with 300 pieces
of cannon, was taken, together with all Barbaroffa’s
fleet : he was defeated in a pitched battle, and 10,000
Chriftian haves, having knocked off their fetters, and r
made themfelves mafters of the citadel, Tunis was pre- ken” and'
paring to furrender. But while Charles was deliberating the inhabi-
on the conditions, his troops fearing that they would a tscruthy
be deprived of the booty which they had expedtd m' ffiCied'
broke fuddenly into the town, and pillaged and mal-
facred without diftinAion. Thirty thoufand perfons
penfhed by the fwoid, and 10,000 were made prifo-
ners. _ The feeptre was reftored to Muley Hafcen on
condition that he fhould acknowledge himfelf a vaffal of
the crown of Spain, put into the emperor’s hands all
the fortified fca-ports in the kingdom of Tunis, and
4L
pay
$
SPA
C 636 ]
SPA
Spain.
101
'Francis at¬
tempts in
vain to re¬
vive his
pay annually 12,000 crowns for the fuhfiftence of the
Spanifh crarrifon in the Goletta. I hefe points being
fettled, and 20,000 Chriftian flaves Freed From bondage
either by arms or by treaty, Charles returned to Eu¬
rope, where his prefence was become neceffary ; while
Barbaroffa, who had retired to Bona, recovered new
ftrength, and again became the tyrant or the ocean. ^
The king ol France took advantage of the emperoi s
abfence to revive his pretenfions in Italy.. T- he treaty
1 of Cambray had covered ud but not extinguifhed the
r lrenfi.m fiames of *fcord. Francis in^ particular, who waited
to Italy. only for a favourable opportunity ol recovering the ter-
ritorles and reputation which he had loft5 continued to
negotiate againff his rival with difterent courts. But
ali bis negotiations were difconcerted by unforefeen ac¬
cidents. The death of Clement VII. (whom he had
gained by marrying his fon the duke of Orleans, after¬
wards Henry II. to Catharine of Medici, the niece of
that pontiff), deprived him of all the fupport which he
hoped to receive from the court oi Rome. Fhe king
of England, occupied with domeitic cares and piojects,
declined engaging in the affairs oF the continent and
the Protefiant princes, affociated by t^ie league of Smal-
kalde, to whom Francis had alio applied, and who
feemed difpofed at Firil to liften to him, Filled with in¬
dignation and refentment at the cruelty with which
home of their reformed brethren had been treated in
France, refufed to have any connedtion with the enemy
of their religion.
Francis was neither cruel nor bigotted : he was too
indolent to concern himielf about religious diiputes ;
but his principles becoming fufpetted, at a time when
the emperor was gaining immortal glory by his expedi¬
tion againff the Infidels, he found it neceffary to vindi¬
cate himtelf by fome extraordinary demonftration of re-
Spain.
the Milanefe, Francis commenced hoffilities againff the
duke of Savoy, with whom he had caufe to be djffatis-
fied, and on whom he had fome claims ; and befo’re the
end of the campaign, that feeble prince faw himfelf ftrip-
ped of all his dominions, except the province of Pied- I04
mont. To complete his misfortunes, the city of Ge- Geneva
neva, the fovereignty of which he claimed, and where fhtovvs off
the reformed opinions had already got footing, threw ^ ^
Hisbarbari-vereuce for the effabliFhed faith. The indiscreet zeal of
ty to the
Prateffants
fome Proteftant converts furniffied him with the occa-
fion. They had affixed to the gates of the Louvre and
ether public places papers containing indecent reflec¬
tions on the rites of the RomiFh church. Six oF tire
perfons concerned in this taffi aaion were fenced ; and
the king, pretending to be Ftruck with horror at then
blafphemies, appointed a folemn proccfiion, in order to
avert the wrath of heaven. The holy facrament was
carried through the city of Paris in great pomp: Pmu-
cis walked uncovered before it, bearing a torch in his
hand ; the princes of the blood fupported the canopy
over it ; the nobles walked behind. In prefence oF this
numerous affembly, the king declared, that if one of
his hands were' infeAed with herefy, he would cut it
off with the other ; “ and I would facrifice (added he)
even my own children, if found guilty of that crime.
As an awful proof of his fincerity, the fix unhappy per¬
fons who had been feized were publicly burnt, before
the proceffion was finilhed, and in the moft cruel man¬
ner. They were fixed upon a machine which defeend-
ed into the flames, and retired alternately, until they
expired.—No wonder that the Proteftant princes were
incenfed at fuch barbarity !
But Francis, though unfupported by any ally, com¬
manded his army to advance towards the frontiers of
•[tail Itaty’ under pretence of chaitifing the duke of Milan
waiu* jor a pleach of the law of nations, in putting to death
his ambaffador. The operations of war, however, foon
took a new diredion. Inftead of marching dhedly to
103
Caules an
army
march to
off his yoke ; and its revolt drew along with it the loisSavo^5
of the adjacent territory. Geneva was then an impe¬
rial city, and has ever fince remained entirely free.
In this extremity the duke of Savoy faw,no refoutce
but in tire emperor’s protedion ; and as his misfortunes
were chiefly occafioned by his attachment to the impe¬
rial intereft, he had a title to immediate afliftance. But
Charles, who was juft returned from his African expe¬
dition, was not able to lend him the neceffary fupport.
plis treafury was entirely drained, and he was obliged
to dilband his army till he could raife new fupplies.
Mean time the death of SForza duke of Milan entirely
changed the nature of the war, and afforded the empe¬
ror full leifure to prepare for adion. The French mo¬
narch’s pretext for taking up arms was at once cut off;
but as the duke died without iffue, all Francis’s rights
to the duchy of Milan, which he had yielded only to
Sforza and his defeendants, returned to him in full
force. Pie inftantly renewed his claim to it; and if
he had ordered his army immediately to advance, he 105
might have made himfelf mailer of it. But he unior-Charles
tunately wafted his time in fruitlefs negotiations, while
his more politic rival took poffeffion of the duchy as a lVjjian#
vacant fief of the empire ; and though Charles leemed
Hill to admit the equity of Francis’s claim, he delayed
granting the inveftiture under various pretences, and
was fecretly taking every pofiible meaiure to prevent him
from regaining Fqoting in Italy.
During the time gained in this manner Charles had
recruited his finances, and.of .courfe his armies; and
finding himfelf in a condition for war, he at laft threw
off the mailt under which he had fo long concealed his
defigns from the court of France. Entering Rome with
great pomp, he pronounced before the pope and cardi¬
nals, affeihbled in full confiftory, a violent invective
again ft Francis, by way of reply to his propofitions con- I06
cerning the inveiliture of Milan. Yet Francis, by an Weaknefs
unaccountable Fatality, continued to negotiate, as if it of Francis,
had been ftill poffible to terminate their differences in
an amicable manner; and Charles, finding him fo eager
to run into the inare, Favoured the deception, and, by
feeming to liften to his propofals, gained yet more time
for the execution of his ambitious projefts. _ J07
If misfortunes had rendered Francis too diffident,Charles^'
fuccefs had made Charles too fanguine. He prefumed’omptsto
, on nothing lefs than the Fubveiiion of the t rench mo-^^
narchy ; nay, he coniidered it as an intallible event. monarchy>
Having chafed the forces of his rival out of Piedmont
and Savoy, he pulhed forward at the head of 50,000
men, contrary to the advice of his moft experienced
miniilers and generals, to invade the fouthern provinces
of France ; while other two armies were ordered to en¬
ter it, the one on the fide of Picardy, the other on the
fide of Champagne. He thought it impoffible that
Francis could refill fo many unexpedled attacks on fuch
different quarters ; but he found himfelf miiiaken.
The French monarch fixed upon the moil effeclual
•nlail
SPA
[
10S
Jut is dif
appointed
in his de-
tigiis.
109
Violent
animonty
between
him and
Francis.
plan for defeating the invafion of a powerful enemy ;
and he prudently perfevered in following it, though
contrary to his own natural temper and to the genius
of his people. He determined to remain altogether
upon the defenfive, and to deprive the enemy of fub-
fillence by laying wafte the country before them. The
execution of this plan was committed to the marefchal
Montmorency its author, a man happily fitted for fuch
a truft by the inflexible feverity of his difpofition. He
made choice of a ilrong camp, under the walls of Avig¬
non, at the confluence oi the Rhone and Durance,
where he aflembled a confiderable army; while the
king, with another body of troops, encamped at Va¬
lence, higher up the Rhone. Marfeilles and Arles
were the only towns he thought it necefi’ary to defend ;
and each of thefe he furniihed with a numerous garri-
lon of his befl: troops. The inhabitants of the other
towns were compelled to abandon their habitations:
the fortifications of fuch places as might have afforded
flielter to the enemy were thrown down ; corn, forage,
and provilions of every kind, were carried olf or de-
ftroyed; the mills and ovens were ruined, and the wells
filled up or rendered ufelefs.
This devaftation extended from the Alps to Mar¬
feilles, and from the fea to the confines of Dauphiny ;
fo that the emperor, when he arrived with the van of
his army on the confines of Provence, inftead of that
rich and populous country which he expe&ed to enter,
beheld nothing but one vaft and defert folitude. He
did not, however, defpair of fuccefs, though he faw
that he would have many difficulties to encounter; and
as an encouragement to his officers, he made them libe¬
ral promifes of lands and honours in France. But all
the land which any of them obtained was a grave, and
their mafter loft much honour by this rafli and pie-
fumptuous enterprize. After unfuccefsfully invefting
Marltilles and Arles, after attempting in vain to draw
Montmorency from his camp at Avignon, and not da¬
ring to attack it, Charles having fpent two inglorious
months in Provence, and loft one half of his troops by
difeafe or by famine, was under the neceffity of orderinp-
a retreat ; and though he was fome time in motion be¬
fore the enemy fufpe&ed his intention, it was condud-
ed with lo much precipitation and diforder, as to de-
ferve the name of a flight, fince the light troops of
France turned it into a perfed rout. The invafion of Pi¬
cardy was not more fuccefsful: the imperial forces were
obliged to retire without effeding any conqueft of im¬
portance.
Charles had no fooner concluded the flisttered re¬
mains of his army to the frontiers of Milan, than he fet
out for Genoa ; and unwilling to expofe himfclf to the
fcorn of the Italians after fuch a reverie of fortune, he
embarked diredly for Spain.
Meanwhile Francis gave himfelf up to that vain re-
fentment which had formerly difgraced the profperity of
his rival. They had frequently, in the courfe of their
quarrels, given each other the lie, and mutual challenges
had been lent; which, though produdive of no ferious
confequences between the parties, had a powerful ten¬
dency to encourage the pernicious pradice of duelling.
Charles, in his invedive pronounced at Rome, had pub¬
licly accufed I'rancis of perfidy and breach of faith ;
Francis now exceeded Charles in the indecency of his
accufations. The Dauphin dying fuddeniy, his death
637 . ] SPA
was imputed to poifon: Montecuculi his cup-bearer was Spain,
put to the rack; and that unhappy nobleman, in the
agonies of torture, accufed the emperor’s generals Gon-
zaga and de Leyva, of mitigating him to the deteftable
ad. The emperor himfelf was fufpeded; nay, this ex¬
torted confeffion, and fome obfeure hints, were confi-
dered as inconteftable proofs of his guilt ; though it
was evident to all mankind, that neither Charles nor his
generals could have any inducement to perpetrate fuch
a crime, as Francis was ftill in the vigour of life him-
felf, and had two fons beiides the dauphin, grown up
to a good age.
But the incenfed monarch’s refentment did not flop
here. Francis was not fatisfied with endeavouring to
blacken the-charader of his rival by an ambiguous°tef-
timony which led to the moft injurious fufpicions, and
upon which the moft cruel conftmdions had been put;
he was willing to add rebellion to murder. For this
purpofe he went to the parliament of Paris ; where be¬
ing feated with the ufual folemnities, the advocate-ge¬
neral appeared, and accufed Charles of Auftria (fo 'he
affeded to call the emperor) of having violated the trea¬
ty ol Cambray, by which he was freed from the ho¬
mage due to the crown of France for the counties of
Artois arid Handers ; adding, that this treaty being
now vpid, he was ftill to be conlidered as a vaflal i f
France, and confequently had been guilty of rebellion
m taking arms agamft his fovereign. I he charge was rro
fuftained, and Charles was fummoned to appear before
the parliament of Paris at a day fixed. 'I he term ex- tA^ear -
pned; and no perfon appearing in tire emperor’s name, at Paris.
the parliament gave judgment, that Charles of Auftria
had forfeited, by rebellion and contumacy, the counties
of Flanders and Artois, and declared thefe liefs reunited '
to the crown of France.
1 rancis, foon after this vam difplay ol his ammofity,
marched into the Low Countries, as if he had intended
to execute the lentence pronounced by his parliament;
but a fufpeniion of arms took place, through the wner-
pofition of the queens of France and Hungary, before
apy thing of confequence was effefied : and this ceffa-
tion of hoftilities was followed by a truce, concluded at
J\ ice, through the mediation of the reigning pontiff
I aul III. of the family of Farnefe, a man of a venerable
chai adter and pacific difpofition.
Lach of thefe rival princes had ilrong reafons to in¬
cline them to peace. I he finances of both were exhauft-
ed; and the emperor, the moft powerful of the two, Francis
was deeply impreffed with the dread of the Turkifh leagues
arms, which Francis had drawn noon him by a leapue w’t^3
with Solyman. In confequence of this league, Barba- I uiks- .
rofla with a great fleet appeared on the coaft of Naples ;
fifled that kingdom with confternation; landed without
reiiitance near iaranto; obliged Caftro, a place of
fome ftrength, to furrender ; plundered the adjacent
country ; and was taking meaiutes for fecuring .and ex¬
tending his conquefts, when the unexpefted arrival of
Dona, the famous Genoefe admiral, together with the
pope’s galleys and a fquadron of the Venetian fleet,
made it prudent for him to retire. 1 he fultan’s forces
alfo invaded Hungary, where Mahmet the Turkifh ge¬
neral, after gaining feveral inferior advantages, defeated
the Germans in a great battle at Efiek on the Drave.
Happily -or Charles and Europe it was not in Francis’s
power at this juncture either to-join the Turks or af-
femble
SPA
[ 638 ] •
SPA
Spair. "fcmble an army ftron^; enough to penetrate Into the
v—“J Milanefe. The emperor, however, was fenfible that he
could not long refill the efforts of two fuch powerful
confederates, nor expeft that the fame fortunate cir-
cumftances would concur a fecond time in his favour ;
he therefore thought it neceffary, both for his fafety
and reputation, to give his confent to a truce : and
A ‘race Francis chofe rather to run the rifk of difobliging his
•concluded, new ally the fultan, than to draw on his head the indig¬
nation, and perhaps the arms, of all Chriftendom, by
‘obllinately obftru&ing the re-eftablilhment of tranquil¬
lity, and contributing to the aggrandizement of the In¬
fidels.
Thefe confiderations inclined the contending mo-
narchs to Men to the arguments of the holy father ;
but he found it impoffible to bring about a final accom¬
modation between them, each inflexibly perfifting in af-
ferting his own claims. Nor could he prevail on them
Cortes of Callile at Toledo ; and having reprefented to Spain,
their the great expence of his military operations, he 'r~'“
propofed to levy fuch fupplies as the prefent exigency
of affairs demanded, by a general excife on commodi- II(j
ties ; but the Spaniards, who already felt themfelves op- The Spa-
preffed by a load of taxes unknown to their anceftors, niards re-
a.nd who had often complained that their country was
drained of its wealth and inhabitants, in order to profe- m0.
cute quarrels in which they had no intereft, determined ney.
not to add voluntarily to their own burdens. The no¬
bles, in particular, inveighed with great vehemence
againft the impofition propofed, as an encroachment on
the valuable and diftinguifhing privilege of their order,
that of being exempted from the payment of any tax.
After employing arguments and promifes in vain,
Charles difmiffed the affembly with iqdigmation ; and
from that period neither the nobles nor the prelates
have been called to the Cortes, on pretence that fuch
1CI Lilly UWU V-ianu®. AHWI wv/mv* r1     1 V /1_ 1 •
to fee one another, though both came to the place of as pay no part of the public taxes ihould not claim a
• 113
Interview
between
Francis and
Uharies.
the pope
from this
pacifica¬
tion.
rendezvous^ fo great was the remains of diftrufl and
rancour, or fuch the difficulty of adjufting the ceremo¬
nial ! Yet, improbable as it may feem, a tew days after
figning the truce, the emperor, in his paffage to Bar¬
celona, being driven on the coaft of Provence, Francis
invited him to come afhore ; frankly vifited him on
board his galley, and was received and entertained with
the warmeft demonftrations of efteem and affedlion.
Charles, with an equal degree of confidence, paid the
king next day a vifit at Aigues-mortes ; where thefe
two hoftile rivals and vindiftive enemies, who had accu-
fed each other of every kind of bafenefs, converfing to¬
gether with all the cordiality of brothers, feemed to vie
with each other in expreffions of refpe<ft and friend-
114 ^P-
Advantage Befides the glory of having reftored tranquillity to
gained by Europe, the pope gained a point of much confequence
to his family. He obtained for his grandfori, Marga¬
ret of Aultria, the emperor’s natural daughter, former¬
ly wife of Alexander de Medici, whom Charles had
raifed to the fupreme power in Florence. Lorenzo c|e
Medici, the kinfman and intimate companion of Alex¬
ander, had affaflinated him by one of the blackefl trea-
fons recorded in hiftory. Under pretence of having fe-
curcd him an afiignation with a lady of the higheft rank
and great beauty, he drew hun into a fecret apartment
of his houfe, and there ffabbed him as he lay carelefsly
on a couch, expefting the embrace of the lovely fair*
whom he had often fohcited in vain. Lorenzo, how¬
ever, did not reap the fruits of his crime ; for though
fome of his countrymen extolled him as a third Brutus,
and endeavoured to feize this occafion for recovering
their liberties, the government of Florence paffed into
the hands of Cofmo IT. another kinfman of Alexander.
Cofmo was defirous of marrying the widow of his pre-
deceflbr ; but the emperor chofe rather to oblige the
pope, by bellowing his daughter upon Oilavio I* arnele,
fon of the duke of Parma.
Charles had foon farther caufe to be fenfible of his
obligations to the holy father for bringing about the
treaty of Nice. His troops everywhere mutinied for
want of pay, and the ability of his generals only could
have prevented a total revolt. He had depended, as his
chief refource for ditcharging the arrears due to his fol-
diers, upon the fubfidies which he expedled from his
Callilian fubjeds. For this purpofe he alkmbled the
diaries
dittrelTed.
vote in laying them on. Thefe affemblies have fince
confflled merely of the procurators or reprefentatives of
18 cities, two from each ; in all 36 members, who are
abfolutely at the devotion of the crown. try
The citizens of Ghent, Hill more bold, broke out not Inhabitant*
long after into open rebellion againft the emperor’s go- ^b^ent
vernment, on account of a tax which they judged con¬
trary to their ancient privileges, and a deeilion off the
council of Mechlin'in favour of the imperial authority.
Enraged at an unjuft impofition, and rendered defperate
on feeing their rights betrayed by that very court which
was bound to proted them, they flew to arms, feized
feveral of the emperor’s officers, and drove fuch of the
nobility as refided among them out of the city. Sen-
fible, however, of their inability to fupport what their
zeal had prompted them to undertake, and defirous of
fecuring a protedor againft the formidable forces with
which they might exped foon to be attacked, they of¬
fered to acknowledge the king of France as their fove-
reign, to put him into immediate pofleflion of their ci¬
ty, and to aflift him in recovering thole provinces in
the Netherlands which had anciently belonged to his
crown. True policy direded Francis to comply with
this propofal. The counties of Flanders and Artois
were more valuable than the duchy of Milan, for which
he had fo long contended ; and their fituation in regard
to France made it more eafy to conquer or to defend ll8
them. But Fiancis over-rated the Mdanefe. He had Extreme-
lived in friendlhip with the emperor ever fince their in- c^ul'^
terview at Aigues-mortes, and Charles had promifed him 0 lanc ^
the inveftiture of that duchy. Forgetting, therefore,
all his pall injuries, and the deceitful promifes by which
he had been fo often duped, the credulous, generous
Francis, not only rejeded the propolitions of the citi¬
zens of Ghent, but communicated to the emperor his
whole negociation with the malecontents.
Judging of Charles’s heart by his own, Francis hoped
by this feemingly difinterefted proceeding to obtain at
once the inveftiture of Milan; and the emperor, well
acquainted with the weaknefs of his rival, flattered him
in this apprehenfion, for his own felfifh purpofes. His
prefence being neceffary in the Netherlands, he demand- II9
ed a paffage through France. It was immediately grant- He allow*
ed him ; and Charles, to whom every moment was pre- ^^
cious, fet out, notwithftanding the remonftrances ot his domi-
council and the fears of his Spanilh iubjeds, with a dons.
fmall '
Ghent.
SPA [639
Spain, fmall but fplendid train of 100 perfona. He was met
L * on the frontiers of France by the dauphin and the duke
of Orleans, who offered to go into Spain, and remain
there as hoftages, till he fhould reach his own domi¬
nions ; but Charles replied, that the king’s honour was
fufficient for his fafety, and profecuted his journey with¬
out any other fecurity. i’he king entertained him with
the utmoft magnificence at Paris, and the two young
princes did not take leave of him till he entered the
Low Countries ; yet he ftill found rreans to' evade his
no prorrufe, and Francis continued to believe him fincere.
Sevrricy of 1 he citizens of Ghent, alarmed at the approach of
Charle* to the emperor, who was joined by three armies, fent am-
the city of baffadors to implore his mercy, and offered to throw
°PC» their gates. Charles only condefcended to reply,
“ That he would appear among them as a fovereign
and a judge, with the fceptre and the fword.” Pie ac¬
cordingly entered the plaee of his nativity on the anni-
verfary of his birth ; and inflead of that lenity which
might have been expe&ed, exhibited an awful example
of his feverity. Twenty-fix. of the principal citizens
were put to death ; a greater number were baniihed ;
the city was declared to have forfeited its privileges ; a
new fyftem of laws and political adminiftration was pre-
fcribed ; and a large fine was impofed on the inhabi¬
tants, in order to defray the expence of erefting a cita¬
del, together with an annual tax for the fupport of a
garrifon. They were not only defpoiled of their an¬
cient immunities, but made to pay, like conquered peo¬
ple, for thfe means of perpetuating theii1 own flavery.
Having thus re-eftablifhed his authority in the Low
Countries, and being now under no neceflity of conti¬
nuing that fcene of faliehood and diflimulation with
which he had amufed the French monarch, Charles be¬
gan gradually to throw afide the veil under which he
had concealed his intentions with, refped to the Mila-
nefe, and at laft peremptorily refufed to give up a terri¬
tory of fuch value, or voluntarily to make fuch a liberal
addition to the ftrength of an enemy by dimimfhing his
own power. He even denied that he had ever made
any promile which could bind him to an a&ion fo fool-
ifh, and fo contrary to his own intereft.
T. his tranfa&ion expofed the king of France to as
much fcorn as it did the emperor to cenfure. The cre¬
dulous fimpliclty of Francis feemed to merit no other ‘
return, after experiencing fo often the duplicity and ar¬
tifices of his rival. He remonftrated, however, and ex¬
claimed as if this had been the firft circumftanee in
which the emperor had deceived him. The iniult of¬
fered to his undemanding affeaed him even more fen-
fibly than the injury done to his intereft ; and he dif-
covered fuch refentment as made it obvious that he
would feize on the firft opportunity of revenge, and
that a new war would foon defolate the European con¬
tinent.
He is obli- Meanwhile Charles was obliged to turn his attention
ged to make towards the affairs of Germany. The Proteftants ha-
to'the j’ro- Vm? vam demanded a general council, preffed him
teftai i
111
His bate
treatment
of Fiancis.
ua
earneftly to appoint a conference between a feledf num¬
ber of divines of each party, in order to examine the
points in difpute. For this purpofe a diet was affem-
bled at Ratifbon: and fuch a conference, notwithftand-
ing the oppofition of the pope, was h&Jd with great fo-
lemnity in the prefence of the emperor. But the di¬
vines chofen to manage the controverfy, though men of
I SPA
learning and moderation, were only able to fettle a few
fpeculative opinions, all points relative to worfhip and
jurifdiftion ferving to inflame the minds of the difpu-
tants. Charles, therefore, finding his endeavours to
bring about an accommodation inefteftual, and being
impatient to clofe the diet, prevailed on a majority of
the members to approve of the following ediff of recefs;
viz. that the articles concerning which the divines had
agreed, fhould be held as points decided ; that thofe
about which they had differed, fhould be referred to the
determination of a general council, or if that could not
be obtained, to a national fynod ; and fhould it prove
impracticable alfoto affemble a fynod of Germany, that
a general diet of the empire fhould be called within 18
months, in order to give final judgment on the whole
controvei fy; that, in the mean time, no innovations
fhould be attempted, nor any endeavours employed to
gain profelytes.
This diet gave great offence to the pope. The bare
mention of allowing a diet, compofed chiefly of laymen,
to pafs judgment in regard to articles of faith, appeared
to him no lefs criminal and prqfane than the worft of
thofe herefies which the emperor feemed fo zealous to-
fupprefs. i he Proteftants, alfo were diffatisfied with it,
as it confiderably abridged the liberty which they at
that time enjoyed. They murmured loudly againft it 3
and Charles, unwilling to leave any feeds of difeontent
in the empire, granted them a private declaration, ex¬
empting them from whatever they thought injurious or
opprefiive in the recefs, and afeertaining to them the full
poffeffion of all their former privileges.
The fituation of the emperor’s affairs at this juncture,
made thefe extraordinary conceflions neceffary. Pie.
forefaw a rupture with France to be unavoidable, and
he was alarmed at the rapid progrefs of the Turks in
Hungary. A great revolution had happened in that
kingdom. John Zapol Scaspus, by the affiftance of.
Solyman, had wrefted from the king of the Romans a
considerable part of the country. John died, and left
an infant fon. Ferdinand attempted to take advantage
of the minority, in order to repoffefs himfelf of the
whole kingdom ; but his ambition was dif'appointed by
the adivity and addrefs of George Martinuzzi, bifhop
of Waradin, who fhared the regency with the queen..
Stnfible that he was unable to oppofe the king of the-'
Romans in the field, Martinuzzi fatisfied himfelf with
holding out the fortified towns, all of which he provided
with every thing neceffary for defence; and at the fame
time he fent ambaffadors to Solyman, befeeching him to.
extend towards the fon that imperial proteClion which
had fo generoufly maintained the father on his throne..
Ferdinand ufed his utmoft endeavours to thwart this
negotiation, and even meanly offered to hold the Hun¬
garian crown on the fame ignominious condition by
which John had held it, that of paying tribute to the.
Porte. But the fultan faw fuch advantages from ef-
poufing the intereft of the young king, that he inftant*
ly marched into Hungary ; and the Germans, having
formed the fiege of Buda, were defeated with great
flaughter before that city. Solyman, however, inftead
of becoming the proteaor of the infant fovereign whom
he had relieved, made ufe of this fuccefs to extend his
own dominions : he fent the queen and her fon into
i rarffilvama, which province he allotted them, and add.
ed Hungary to the Ottoman empire.
Spain.
Happily
Crain.
SPA [ , 640 ] SPA
Hannilv for the Proteftants, Charles received intelli- troops fell), at laft Francis and Charles, mutually tired
pence of this revolution foon after the diet at Ratifbon; of haraffing each other, concluded at Crefpy a treaty
and by the conceffions which be made them, he obtain- of peace, in which the king of England was no^meri-
ed fueh.liberal fupplies, both of men and money, as left turned
gier3.
124
War be¬
tween
Francis and
Charles.
T,. him under little anxiety about the fecurity of Germany
Undertakes He therefore haftened to join his fleet and army in Ita-
an urfuc- ly? jn order to carry into execution a great and favourite
ccf'ful ex- enterprize which he had concerted againft Algiers :
a^ainft Al- though it would certainly have been more confident
with his dignity to have conducted the whole force of
the empire againfl Solyman, the common enemy of
Chriftendom, who was ready to enter his Auftrian do¬
minions. Eut many reafons induced Charles to prefer
the African expedition : he wanted ftrength, or at lead
money, to combat the Turks in fo didant a count) y as
Hungary; and the glory which he had formerly ac-
qnired m Barbary led him to hope for the like fuccefs,
while the cries of his Spanifh fubje&s roufed him to
take vengeance on their ravagers. But the unfortunate
event of this expedition has already been related under
the article Algiers, n° 14—20.
The lofs which the emperor fuffered in this calami¬
tous expedition encouracred the king of France to begin
hodilities, on which he had been for fome time refolved;
and an aftion difhonourable to civil fociety furnifhed
him with too good a pretext for taking arms. The
marquis del Guado, governor of the Milanefe, having
got intelligence of "ihe motions and dedination of two
ambaffadors, Rincon and Fergofo, whom Francis had
difpatched, the one to the Ottoman Porte, the other to
the republic of Venice ; knowing how much his mader
wifhed to difcovcr the intentions of the French mo¬
narch, and of what confequence it was to retard the ex¬
ecution of his meafures, he employed fome foldiers be¬
longing to the garrifon of Pavia to lie in wait for thefe
ambafladors as they failed down the Po, who murdered
them and mod of their attendants, and feized their pa¬
pers. Francis immediately demanded reparation for
this barbarous outrage ; and as Charles endeavoured to
put him off with an evafive anfwer, he appealed to all
the courts of Europe, letting forth the hetneufnefs^ of
the injury, the iniquity of the emperor in difregarding
his juft requeft, and the necefiity of vengeance. But
Charles, who was a more profound negotiator, defeated
in a great meafure the effe&s of thefe reprefentations :
he fecured the fidelity of the Proteftant princes in Ger¬
many, by granting them new conceffions ; and he en¬
gaged the king of England to efpoufe his caufe, under
pretence of defending Europe againft the. Infidels ;
while Francis was only able to form an alliance with
the kings of Denmark and Sweden (who for the fird
time interefted themfelves in the quarrels of the more
potent monarchs of the fouth), and to renew his treaty
with Solyma'n, which drew on him the indignation of
Chriftendom.
But the aftivity of Francis fupplied all the defefts of
his negotiation. Five armies were foon ready to take
the field, under different generals, and with different
deftinations. Nor was Charles wanting in his prepara¬
tions. He and Henry a fecond time made an ideal di-
vifion of the kingdom of France. But as the hoftilities
which followed terminated in nothing decifive, and were
diftinguidied by no remarkable event, except the battle
of Cerifoles (gained by count d’Enguien over the im-
perialifts, and in which 10,000 of the emperor’s bed
Spnlrt,
115
, r . f Peace con-,
and trom being implacable enemies, became c]uc^e(j al
once more, to appearance, cordial friends, and even al- Crtfpy.
lies by the ties of blood.
The chief articles of this treaty were, that all the
conquefts which either party had made fince the truce of
Nice Ihould be reftored ; that the emperor Ihould give
in marriage to the duke of Orleans, either his own eld¬
ed daughter, with the Low Countries, or the fecond
daughter of his brother Ferdinand, with the invefti-
ture'of the Milanefe ; that Francis diould renounce all
pretenfions to the kingdom of Naples, as well as to the
fovereignty of Flanders and Artois, and Charles give
up his claim to the duchy of Burgundy ; and that
both fhould unite in making war againft the Turks.
The emperor was chiefly induced to grant condi¬
tions fo advantageous to France, by a defire of hum-
blin r the Proteftant princes in Germany. With the
papal jurifdiftion, he forefaw they would endeavour to
throw off the imperial authority ; and he determined
to make his zeal for the former a pretence for enfor¬
cing and extending the latter. However, the death of
the^ duke of Orleans before the confummation of his
marriage, difentangled the emperor from the mod trou-
blefome Stipulation in the treaty of Crefpy ; and the
French monarch, being dill engaged 111 hoftilities with
England, was unable to obtain any reparation for the
lofs°which he fuffered by this unforefeen event. .Thefe
hoftilities, like thofe between Charles and Francis, ter¬
minated in nothing deciiive. Equahy tired of a druggie
attended with no glory or advantage to either, the. con¬
tending princes concluded, at Campe, neai Aidies, a
treaty of peace; in which it was ftipulated, that branee
fhould pay the arrears due by former treaties to Eng¬
land. But thefe arrears did not exceed one-third of
the fums expended by Henry on his. military opera¬
tions ; and Francis being in no condition to difeharge
them, Boulogne (a 'chargeable pledge) was left in the
hands of the Englifh as a fecurity for the debt. ^ n6
In confequence of the emperor’s refolution to humble Charles o-
the Protedant princes, he concluded a difhonourable
peace with the Porte, ftipulating that his brother Fer-djj-acjvanta.
dinand fhould pay tribute for that part of Hungary yeous peace
which he dill poffeffed; while the fultan enjoyed the whh the
imperial and undifturbed poffeffion of all the reft. At p
the fame time he entered into a league with popeants.
Paul III. for the extirpation of hereiy ; but in reality
with a view to opprefs the liberties of Germany. Here,
however, his ambition met with a fevere check ; for
though he was fuccefsful at firft, he was obliged m
iec2 to conclude a peace with the Proteftants on their
own terms ; as has been related under the article Re¬
formation, n0 26—32. r , HZ
By the peace concluded on this occafion the emperor Attempt*
lodMetz, Toul, and Verdun, which had formed the to recover
barrier of the empire on that quarter; and therefore‘
foon after put himfelf at the head of an army, in order ^
to recover thefe three bifhoprics. In order to conceal
the deftination of his army, he gave out, that he in¬
tended to lead it into Hungary, to fecond Maurice in
his operations againft the Infidels ; and as that pretext
failed him, when he began to advance towards the
Rhine, he propagated a report that he was marchmg
SPA
[ 64
fe^e
Metz
Sinin. to cliallife Albert of Brandenburgli, who had re-
fufed to be included in the treaty of Paffau, and whofe
cruel exaftions in that part of Germany called loudly
for redrefs.
The French, however, were not deceived by thefe arts.
Henry immediately guefled the true objeft of Charles’s
I,8 armament, and refolved to defend his conquefts with vi-
T« obliged gour. The defence of Metz, againll which it was fore-
to ra fe the f^en the whole weight of the v/ar would be turned, was
committed to Francis of Lorraine, duke of Guife, who
poflefTed in an eminent degree all the qualities that ren¬
der men great in military command. He repaired with
joy to the dangerous ftation ; and many of the French
nobility, and even princes of the blood, eager to diitin-
guifh themfelves under fuch a leader, entered Metz as
volunteers. The city was of great extent, ill fortified,
and the fuburbs large. For all thefe defeats the duke
endeavoured to provide a remedy. He repaired the old
fortifications with all poflihle expedition, labouring with
his own hands; the officers imitated his example ; and
the foldiers, thus encouraged, cheerfully fubmitted to
the moft fevere toils; he erefted new works, and he le¬
velled the fuburbs with the ground. At the fame time
he filled the mag-azines with provifions and military
ftores, compelled all ufelefs perfons to leave the place,
and laid wiille the neighbouring country; yet fuch were
his popular talents, as well as his arts of acquiring an
afeendant over the minds of men, that the citizens not
©nly refrained from murmuring, but feconded him with
no lefs ardour than the foldiers in all his operations—
in the ruin of their eflates, and in the havoc of their
public and private buildings.
Meanwhile the emperor continued his march towards
Lorraine, at the head of 6c,000 men. On his approach
Albert of Brandenburgh, whofe army did not exceed
20,000, withdrew into that principality, as if he in¬
tended to join the French kin<T ; and Charles, notwith-
ilanding the advanced feafon, it being towards the end
of October, laid fiege to Metz, contrary to the advice
of his moft experienced officers.
The attention of both the befie'jfcrs and the befieped
was turned for fome time towards the motions of Al¬
bert, who ftill hovered in the neighbourhood, undeter¬
mined which fide to take, though refolved to fell his
fervice. ■ Charles at laft came up to his price, and he
joined the imperial army. The emperor now flattered
himfelf that nothing could refill his force; but he found
himfelf deceived. After a fiege of almoft 60 days, du¬
ring which he “had attempted all that was thought pof-
fible for art or valour to effeeft, and had loft upwards of
30,000 men by the inclemency of the weather, difeafes,
or the fword of the enemy, he was obliged to abandon
ijp the enterprife.
afei able When the French fallied out to attack the enemy’s
iHrmy.0 rear’ the ifnPen'aI camP was filled with the fick and
wounded, with the dead and the dying. All the roads
by which the army retired were ftrewed with the fame
miferable obje£ls ; who, having made an effort beyond
their iliength to efcape, and not being able to proceed,
were left to perifh without affiftance. Happily that,
and all the kind offices which their friends had not the
power to perform,-they received from their enemies,
ihe duke of Guife ordered them all to be taken care
V ^ XV T W1H every neceffliry ; hc appointed
t ] SPA
phyficians to attend, and diretft what treatment was Spain,
proper for the lick and wounded, and what refrelhments <r~—J
for the feeble ; and fuch as recovered he fent home, ,
under an efcort of foldiers, and with money to bear
their charges. By thefe a£ts of humanity, lefs common
in that age, the duke of Guile completed that heroic
chara£ter which he had juftly acquired by his brave
and fuccersful defence of Metz.
The emperor’s misfortunes were not confined to Ger- His further
many. During his retidence at Villach, he had beenmi'for‘
obliged to borrow 2co,ooo crowns of Cofmo de Me- turit':”
dici ; and fo low was his credit, that he was obliged to
put Cofmo in poffeffion of the principality of Piombino
as a fecurity for that inconfiderable fum; by which
means he loft the footing he had hitherto maintained in
Tufcany. Much about the fame time he loft Sienna.
The citizens, who had long enjoyed a republican go¬
vernment, rofe againll the Spanilh garrifon, which they
had admitted as a check upon the tyranny of the nobi¬
lity, but which they found was meant to enflave them ;
forgetting their domeftic animofities, they recalled the
exiled nobles ; they demolifhed the citadel, and put
themfelves under the prote£lion of France.
To thefe unfortunate events one ftill more fatal had
almoft fucceeded. The fevere adminiftration of the
viceroy of Naples had filled that kingdom with mur¬
muring and diffatisfaftion. The prince of Salerno, the
head of the malecontents, fled to the court of France.
The French monarch, after the example of his father,
applied to the grand fignior ; and Solyman, at that
time highly incenfed againft the houfe of Auftria on
account of the proceedings in Hungary, fent a power¬
ful fleet into the Mediterranean, under the command of
the corfair Dragut, an officer trained up under Barba-
roffa, and fcarce inferior to his mafter in courage, ta¬
lents, or in good fortune. Dragut appeared on the
coaft of Calabria at the time appointed ; but not being
joined by the French fleet according to concert,'he re¬
turned to Conftantinople, after plundering and burning
ft vend places, and filling Naples with confternation. ^ T?r
Highly mortified by fo many difafters, Charles re-Is fuccefs-
tired into the Low Countries, breathing vengeance ^u^n t^e
againft France : and here the war was carried on withL?w lJoun‘”
confiderable vigour. Impatient to efface the ftain which CneS‘
his military reputation had received before Metz, Charles
laid fiege to Terouane ; and the fortifications being in
difrepair, that important place was carried by affault.
Heidin alfo was invefted, and carried in the fame man¬
ner. The king of France was too late in aflembling
his forces to afford relief to either of thefe places ; and
the emperor afterwards cautioufly avoided an engage-
ment. '
_ The imperial arms were lefs fuccefsful in Italy. The But not fo
viceroy of Naples failed in an attempt to recover Siena;in other
and the French not only eftablifhed themfelves morep!aces*
firmly in Tufcany, but conquered part of the ifland of
Corfica. Nor did the affairs of the houfe of Auftria
go on better in Hungary during the courfe of this year.
Ifabella and her fon appeared once more in Tranfylva-
r.ia, at a time when the people were ready for revolt, in
order to revenge the death of Martinuzzi, whofe lofs
th^y had feverely felt. Some noblemen of eminence
declared in favour of the young king ; and the baffiaw
ot Belgrade, by Solyman 3 order, eipoufing his caufe,
4M ffi
Spai
13.1
Marriage
lietween
Phi ip of
Spain and
Mary of
England.
V34
Charles re
fi^ns his
dominions
to his fon
jPhihp.
SPA [64
in oppofition to Ferdinand, Cstlaldoj tire A-uftitau gene¬
ral, was obliged to abandon 1'ranfylvania to Ifabella and
the Turks.
In order to counterbalance thefe and other lofies, the
emperor, in 1 $54, concerted a marriage between his fon
Philip and Mary of England, in hopes of adding that
kingdom to his other dominions. Meanwhile the war
between Henry and Charles was carried on with various
fuccefs in the Low Countries, and in Italy much to the
difad vantage of France. The Fi'ench, under the com¬
mand of Strozzi, were defeated in the battle of Mar¬
ciano ; Sienna was reduced by Medicino, the Florentine
general, after a liege of ten months ; and the gallant
Sienefe were fubje'ded to the Spanilh yoke. Much
about the fame time a plot was formed by the.Francif-
cans, but happily difcovered before it could be carried
into execution, to betray Metz to the Imperiahfts. The
father-guardian, and twenty other monks, received fen-
tence of death on account of this confpiracy ; but the
guardian, before the time appointed for his execution,
was murdered by his incenfed accomplices, whom he
had feduced j and fix of the youngelt were pardoned.
While war thus raged in Italy and the Low^ Coun¬
tries, Germany enjoyed fuch profound tranquillity, as
afforded the diet full leifure to confirm and perfed the
plan of religious | pacification agreed upon at Paffau,
and referred to the confideration ot the next meeting of
the Germanic body. During the negociation of this
treaty, an event happened which aftonifhed all Europe,
and confounded the reafonings of the wifeft politicians.
The emperor Charles V. though no more than 56, an
a re when objeds of ambition operate with full force on
the mind, and are generally purfued with the great eft
ardour, had for fome time formed the refolution of re-
figning his hereditary dominions,to his fon Philip. He
now determined to put it in execution. Various haye
been the opinions of hiftorians concerning a refolution
£o fingular and unexpeded; but the molt probable ieem
to be, the difappointments which Charles had met with
in his ambitious hopes, and the daily decline of his
health. He had early in life been attacked with the
nout; and the fits were now become fo frequent and
fevere, that not only the vigour of his conftitntion was
broken, but the faculties of his mind were leniibly im¬
paired. He therefore judged it more decent to con¬
ceal his infirmities in fome folitude, than to expofe them
any longer to the public eye ; and as he was unwilling
to forfeit the fame, or lofe the acquifitions of his better
years, by attempting to guide the reins of government
when he was no longer able to hold them with ftea-
dinefs, he determined to feek in the tranquillity o
retirement, that happinefs which he had in yam pur¬
fued amidft the tumults of war and the intrigues ot
In confequence of this refolution, Charles, who had
already ceded to his fon Philip the kingdom of Naples
and the duchy of Milan, afforubled the ftates of the
Low Countries at BrufCels ; and feating h.mfelf for the
laft time in the chair of ftate, he explained to his iub-
Vefts the reafems of his reiignation, and folemnly c.e-
volved his authority upon Philip. Fie recounted wit
dignity, but without oftentation, ah the^ great things
which he had undertaken and performed fince the com-
Hitucement of his admitiiftratioa. “ I have dedicated
2 ] SPA
(obferved he), from the 17th year of my age, all my Spafn.
thoughts and attention to public objefts, referving, no v-W
portion of my time for the indulgence of eafe, and very
little for the enjoyment of private pleafure. Either in
a pacific or hoilile manner, I have vifited Germany nine
times, Spain fix times, France four times, Italy feven
times, the Low Countries ten times, England twice,
Africa as often ; and while my health permitted me to
difeharge'the. duty of a fovereign, and the vigour of my
conftitution was equal in any degree to the arduous of¬
fice of governing fuch extenlive dominions, I never fliurt-
ned labour, nor repined under fatigue ; but now, when
my health is broken, and my vigour exhaufted by the
rage of an incurable diftemper, my growing infirmities
admonifh me to retire ; nor am I fo fond of reigning,
as to retain the feeptre in an impotent hand, which is.
no longer able to protecl my fnbjecfs, Inftead of a
fovereign worn out with difeafes (continued he), and
foarce half alive, I give you one in the prime of life,,
already accuftomed to govern, and who adds to the vi¬
gour of youth all the attention and fagacity of maturer
years.” Then turning towards Philip, who fell on his
knees, and killed his father’s hand, “ It is in your
power (faid Charles), by a wife and virtuous admmi-
ftration, to juftify the extraordinary proof which I give
this day of my paternal affection, and to demonftrate
that you are worthy of the extraordinary confidence
which I repofe in you. Preferve (added he) an in¬
violable regard for religion ; maintain the Catholic faith
in its parity ; let the laws of your country be facied in
your eyes encroach not on the rights of your people;
and if the time fnould ever come when you (hall wifn
to enjoy the tranquillity of private life, may you have
a fon to whom you can refign your iceptre with as
much fatisfa&ion as I give up mine to you.” A few
weeks after, he refigned to Philip the fovereignty ot
Spain and America ; referving nothing to himfelf out
of all thefe vaft poffeffions but an annual penfion off
100,000 crowns. . ..
Charles was now impatient to embark for Spain,
where he had fixed on a place of retreat; but by the
advice of his phytkians, he put off his voyage for fome
months, on account of the feverity of the lea fon ; and,
by yielding to their judgment, he had the fatisfadhon
before he left the Low Countries of taking a yontider-
able ftep towards a peace with France. This he ar¬
dently longed for; not only on his fon’s account, whofe
adminiftration he wilhed to commence in quietnefs, but
that he might have the glory, when quitting the world,
of reftorlng to Europe that tranquillity which his am¬
bition had bafofhed out of it almoft from the time that
he affumed the reins of government.^
The great bar to Jfuch a pacification, on the part ot
France, was the treaty which Henry had concluded
with the Pope ; and the emperor’s claims were too
numerous to hope for adjuftmg them fuddenly. A^rrceof
truce of five years was therefore propofed by Charles ; live yean
during which term, without difeuffing the.r refpedbve ^
pretenfions, each ftould retain what was in his polieh Francc#
iwn • and Henry, through the perfuafion, of the con-
ftable Montmorency, who reprefented the imprudence
of facrificing the true interefts of his kingdom to the ^
rafh en gagements that he had come under with Paul,
authorifed his ambaftadors to fvgn at Vaucellcs a treaty,
which.
4
SpJL'H,
I36
Quarrel be
twixt the
pope and
king Phi¬
lip.
S F A [ 643 ]
which would infurc to him for fo confidcrable a period iary reinforcements,
the important conqueft which he had made on the Ger- ~
man frontier, together with the greater part of the
duke of Savoy’s dominions.
The Pope, when informed of this tranfa£Hon, was no
Ms filled with terror and aflonifhment than rage and in¬
dignation. But he took equal care to conceal his fear
and his anger. He afledted to approve highly of the
truce; and he offered his mediation, as the common fa¬
ther of Chriftendom, in order to bring about a defini¬
tive peace. Under this pretext, he appointed cardinal
Rebibo his nuncio to the court of Bruffels, and his ne¬
phew cardinal Caraffa to that of Paris. The public in-
flrudtions of both -were the fame; but Caraffa, befides
thefe, received a private commiffion, to fpare neither in¬
treaties, pfomifes, nor bribes, in order to induce the
French monarch to renounce the truce and renew his
engagements with the holy fee. He flattered Henry
■with the conqueft of Naples ; he gained by his addrefs
the Guifes, the queen, and even the famous Diana of
Poidtiers, ducheis of Valentinois, the king’s miftrefs ;
and they eafily fwayed the king himfelf, who already
leaned to that fide towards which they wifhed to incline
him. All Montmorency’s prudent remonftrances were
diiregarded ; the nuncio (by powers from Rome) ab-
folved Henry from his oath of truce ; and that weak
prince figried a new treaty with the Pope ; which re¬
kindled with Irefh violence the flames of war, both in
Italy and the Low Countries.
No fooner was Paul made acquainted with the fuc-
cefs of this negotiation than he proceeded to the moil
indecent extremities againft Philip. He ordered the
Spamfh ambaffador to be impnfoned ; he excommuni¬
cated the Colonnas, becaufe of their attachment to the
imperial houfe ; and he confidered Philip as guilty of
high treafon, and to have forfeited his right to the
kingdom of Naples, which he was fuppofed to hold of
the holy fee, for afterward affording, them a retreat xn
his dominions.
Alarmed at a quarrel with the Pope, wdiom he had
been taught to regard with the moft fuperilitious vene¬
ration, as the vicegerent of Chrift and the common fa¬
ther of Chriftendom, Philip tried every gentle method
before be mnde ufe of force. He even coniulted fome
Spanifh divines on the lawfulnefs of taking arms againft
a perfon fo facred. They decided in his favour; and
Paul continuing inexorable, the duke of Alva, to whom
the negotiations as well as the war had been committed,
entered the eccleliaftieal ftate at the head of. 1 c,coo ve¬
terans, and carried terror to the gates of Rome.
The haughty pontiff, though ftill inflexible and un¬
daunted in himfelf, was forced to give way to the fears
of the cardinals, and a truce was concluded for 40 days.
Mean time the duke of Guife arriving with a fupply of
2b,000 French troops, Paul became more arrogant than
ever, and banifhed all thoughts from his mind but thofe
of war and revenge. 1 he duke of Guife, however, who
had precipitated his country into this war, chiefly from
a defire of gaining a field where he might difplay his
own talents, was able to perform nothing in Italy wor¬
thy of his former fame. ‘ He was obliged to abandon
the fiege of Civetella ; he could not bring the duke of
Alva fo a general engagement; his army perifhed by
dfleafes; and the Pope neglefted to furnifh the necef-
S P A
Spain.
He begged to be recalled; and
France flood in need of his abilities. —v  
Philip, though willing to have avoided a rupture,
was no fooner informed that Henry had violated the
truce of Vaucelles, than he determined to ad with fuch
vigour, as fhould convince Europe that his father had
not erred in reiigning to him the reigns of government.
He immediately aflembled in the Low Countries a body
of 50,000 men, and obtained a fupply of , 0,000 from
England, which he had engaged in his quarrel; and as
he was not ambitious of military fame, he gave the
command of his army to Emanuel Philibert duke of
Savoy, one of the greateft generals of that warlike
age.
i he^ duke of Savoy kept the enemy for fome time in
fufpenfe with regard to his deftination ; at laft he feem-
ed to threaten Champagne; towards which the French
drew all their troops ; then turning fuddenly to the
right, he advanced by rapid marches into Picardy, and
laid fiege to St Quintfn. It was deemed in thofe times The French
a town of confiderable flrengtn ; but the fortifications entirely de-
had been much negle&ed, and the garrifon did notfeated at
amount to a fifth part of the number requifite for its St ^uintin.
defence : it muft therefore have furrendered in a few
days, if the admiral de Coligny had ndt taken the gal¬
lant refolution of throwing himfelf into it with fuch a
body of men as could be colkaed on a fudden. This
he effeded in fpite of the enemy, breaking through
their main body. The place, however, was clofely in-
vefted; and the conltable Montmorency, anxious to ex¬
tricate his nephew out of that perilous fituation, in
which his zeal lor the public had engaged him, as well
as to fave a town of fuch importance, ralhly advanced
to its relief with forces one half inferior to thofe of the
enemy. _ His army was cut in pieces, and he himfelf
made prifoner.
The cautious temper of Philip on this occafion faved
I ranee from devaflation, if not ruin. The duke of Sa¬
voy propofed to overlook all inferior objeds, and march
fpeedily to Paris, which, in its prefent confternation, he
could not |iave failed to make himfelf mafter of; but
Philip, afraid of the confequences of fuch a bold enter-'
pnfe, defired him to continue the fiege of St Quintin
in order to fecure a fafe retreat in cafe of any ddaitrous
event. The town, long and gallantly defended by Co-
hgny, was at laft taken by ftorm; but not till France
was in a ftate of defence.
. Pbiil‘P vvas now fenlible that he had loft an opportu¬
nity which could never be recalled, of diflrefling his
enemy, and contented himlelf with reducing Horn and
Catelet; which petty towns, together with St Quintin
were the foie fruits of one of the moft dccilive vidories
gained m the 16th century. The Catholic king, how¬
ever, continued in high exultation on *count ’of his
fuccefs ; and as all his paflions were tingj^ wi$h fuper*
ftition, he vowed to build a church, a monaftery, and a
palace, in honour of St Laurence, on the day faertd to
whofe memory the battle of St Quintin had been fought.
Fie accordingly laid the foundation of an edifice, in
which all thefe were included, and which he continued
to forward at vail expence, for 22 years. The fame
principle which didated the vow direded the buildimr
It was fo formed as to refemble a gridiron-on which
culinary inftrument, according to the legendary tale,
4M z j5t
Spain.
SPA
St Laurence had fuffered martyrdom
' gin of the famous efcurial near Madrid, the royal refi-
dence of the kings of Spafin.
The firft account of that fatal blow which France
had received at St Quintin, was carried to Rome by
the courier whom Henry1' had fent to recal the duke of
Guife. Paul remonftrated warmly againft the depar¬
ture of the French army ; but Guife’s orders were per¬
emptory. The arrogant pontift therefore found it ne-
ceffary to accommodate his conduft to the exigency of
his affairs, and to employ the mediation of the Vene¬
tians, and of Cofmo de Medici, in order to ootam
'peace. The firft overtures of this nature were eagerly
liftened to by the Catholic king, who ftill doubted the
138 juftice of his caufe, and confidered it as his greateft mif-
Ve'ce C0K* fortune to be obliged to contend with the Pope. Paul
CiLCe ’ agreed to renounce his league with France; and Philip
ftipulated on his part, that the duke of Alva fhould re¬
pair in perfon to Rome, and after afking pardon of the
holy father in his own name and in that of his mailer,
for having invaded the patrimony of the church, fhould
receive abfolution from that crime. Thus 1 aul, thro
the fuperftitious timidity of Philip, only finifhed an un-
propitious war not without any detriment, to the apof-
tolic fee, but faw his conqueror humbled at his feet :
and fo exceffive was the veneration of the Spaniards in
that age for the papal charafter, that the duke 01 Alva,
the proudeft man perhaps of his time, and accuftomed
from his infancy to converfe with princes, acknow¬
ledged, that when he approached Paul, he was fo much
overawed, that his voice failed, and his prefence of
mind forfook him.
But though this war, winch at its commencement
[ "644 ] SPA
Such is the ori- the advantages on this quarter were more than balanced
by an event which happened in another part of the L
Low Countries. The marefchal de Tcrmes governor
of Calais, who had penetrated into Flanders and taken
Dunkirk, was totally routed near Gravelines, and taken
prifoner by count Egmont. This difafter obliged the
duke of Guife to relinquifh all his other fchemes, and
haften towards the frontiers of Picardy, that he might
there oppofe the progrefs of the enemy.
The eyes of all France were now turned towards the
duke of Guife, as the only general on whofe arms vic¬
tory always attended, and in whofe conduft as well as
good fortune they could confide in every danger. His
ftrength was nearly equal to the duke of Savoy's, each
commanding about 40,000 men. ft hey encamped at
the diftance of a few leagues from one another; and the
French and Spanifh monarchs having joined their re-
fpedlive armies, it was expedled that, after the viciffi-
tudes of war, a decifive battle would at laft determine
which of the rivals fhould take the afeendant for the fu¬
ture in the affairs of Europe. But both monarchs, as
if by agreement, flood on the defenfive; neither of
them difeovering any inclination, though each had it in
his power, to reft, the decifion of a point of fuch im¬
portance on the iffue of a fingle battle.
Spain.
141
During this ftate of ina&ion, peace began to be men-Peace con-
, • ” ,   eluded be-
139
Confequen-
cesofthe threatened mighty revolutions, was terminated without
war in Ita- occafionincr any alteration in thofe flates which were its
^ • 1 i rr c\ _ £* — D J L. 1
immediate' objea, it produced effe&s of confiderable
confequence in other parts or Italy. In order to de¬
tach Oftavio Farnefe, duke of Parma, from the French
intereft, Philip reftored to him the city of Placentia
and its territory, which had been feized by Charles V.
and he granted to Cofmo de Medici the inveftiture of
Sienna, as an equivalent for the fums due to him. By
thefe treaties, the balance of power among the Italian
ftates was poifed with more equality, and rendered lefs
variable than it had been fince it received the firfl vio¬
lent fhock from the invafion of Charles VIII. and Italy
henceforth ceafed to be the theatre on which the mo¬
narchs of Spain, France, and Germany, contended for
fame and dominion. Their hoftihties, excited by new
obie&s, ftained other regions of Europe with blood,
anff made other ftates fed, in their turn, the mifenes
The FrenchThe duke of Guife, who left Rome the fame day that
anfucccfsful his adverfary the duke of Alva made his humiliating
in the Low fuhniiffiQn to the Pope, was received in France as the
Countries. dian angel of the kingdom. He was appointed
lieutenant-general in chief, with a jurifdiftion almoft
unlimited ; and, eager to juftify the extraordinary con¬
fidence which the king had repofed in him, as well as
to perform fomething fuitable to the high expeftations
of his countrymen, he undertook in winter the fiege o
Calais. Having taken that place, he next invefted Thi-
onville in the duchy of Luxembourg, one of the ftrong-
eft towns on the frontiers of the Netherlands; and for¬
ced it to capitulate after a fiege of three weeks. But
140
tioned in each camp, and both Hemy and Philip twtell
covered an equal difpofition to hften to any overture^. ancj
that tended to re-eftablifti it. The private inclinations Philip,
of both kings concurred with their political interefts
and the wiflies of their people. Philip languifhed to
return to Spain, the place of his nativity ; and peace
only could enable him, either with decency or fafety, to
quit the Low Countries. Henry was now defirous of
being freed from the avocations of war, that he might
have leifure to turn the whole force of his government
towards fuppreffing the opinions of the reformers, which
were fpreading with fuch rapidity in Paris and the
other great towns, that they began to grow formidable
to the eftablifired church. Court-intrigues conipired
with thefe public and avowed motives to haften the ne¬
gotiation, and the abbey of Cercamp was fixed on as
the place of edngrefs.
While Philip and Henry were making thefe advan¬
ces towards a treaty which reftored tranquillity to Eu¬
rope, Charles V. whofe ambition had fo long difturbed
it, but who had been for fome time dead to the world, ^
ended his days in the monaftery of St J.uftus in Eftre-j)cat]j 0f
madura, which he had ch®fen as the place of his retreat, Charlo V.
as is particularly related under the article Charles V.
After the death of Charles, the kingdom of Spain
foon loft great part of its confequence. Though Charles
had ufed all his intereft to get his fon Philip elected
emperor of Germany, he had been totally difappointed;
and thus the grandeur of Philip II- never equalled that
of his father. His dominions were alfo conhderably
abridged by his tyrannical behaviour in the Netherlands. I43
In confequence of this, the United Provinces revolted; Revolt, of
and after a long and bloody war obtained their liberty •
In this quarrel Elizabeth of England took part againft ^St e 'Uniui
Philip, which brought on a war with Spain. The great proviltces.
Ioffes he fuftained in thefe wars exhaufted the kingdom
both of men and money, notwithftanding the great iums
imported from America. Indeed, the difeoyery and
conqueft of that country hath much impoverilhed, m-
* . - iteaa
SPA
144
Expulfion
of tiie^
Kloof-, and
its had coii
fequences
to Spain.
145
Hevolt of
Portugal,
&c.
^ See Por¬
tugal, n0 18,
fteador enriching Spain ; for thus the inhabitants have
been rendered lazy and averfe from every kind of ma-
nufafikure or traffic, which only can be a durable fource
of riches and ftrength to any nation. The ruin of the
d kingdom in this refpea, however, was completed by
_ Philip III. who, at the inftigation ot the inquifition,
and by the advice of his prime minifter the duke of
Ttrma, expelled from the kingdom all the Morclcoesor
Moors, defendants of the ancient "conquerors of Spain.
Phirty days only were allowed them to prepare for
their departure, and it was death to remain beyond
that time. 1 he realon for this barbarous decree was,
that thele people were {fill Mahometans in their hearts,
though they conformed externally to the rites of Chri-
ftianity, and thus might corrupt the true faith. The
Morefcoes, however, chofe themfelves a king, and at¬
tempted to oppofe the royral mandate ; but, being al-
molt entirely unprovided with arms, they were "foon
obliged to lubmit, and all banifhed the kingdom. By.
this violent and impolitic meafure, Spain loft almoft a
million oi induftrious inhabitants ; and as the kingdom
was already depopulated by bloody wars, by repeated
emigrations to America, and enervated by luxury, it
now fank into a ftate of languor from whence it has
never recovered.
In confequence of this languor, and the maladmini-
ftration or the Spaniffi governors, Portugal, which had
been reduced by Philip II. revolted, and has ever fince
been an independent Itingdom J. However, the me-
[ 645 1
SPA
•tJH-
mory of what Spain once was, remained for a conhder-
able time, and the power of that kingdom long conti¬
nued to be feared after it had ceafed to be powerful.
In the time of queen Anne, a Britiih army was. feen for
the ftrft time in Spain, in order to fupport Charles of
Auftria againft Philip the grandfon of Louis XiV.
The ill fuccefs of that attempt is related under the ar¬
ticle Britain, n° 342—359 ; and thus the crown of
Spain fell to a branch of the houfe of Bourbon, in con¬
sequence of which the courts of France and Spain ge¬
nerally afted in the clofeft concert till the revolution,
which at prefent aftonifhes Europe, put an end to mo¬
narchical government in the former country. The wars
of thefe two courts with Britain are related under
that article and America ; and thefc, with an unfuc-
cefsful attempt on Algiers, and the threatened war re-
fpefling Nootka Sound (fee that article), conftitute the
moft important part of the Spanifh hiftory till the de-
pofition and murder of Louis XVI. of France. On
that event Spain joined her forces to thole of the Em¬
pire, Britain, and Pruffia, to chaftife the Convention,
and prevent thofe democratical principles which had
ruined France from being fpread through the other na¬
tions of Europe. We cannot fay that her exertions
added much to the ftrength of the alliance ; and being
unable to defend herfelf againft the furious inroads of
the republican troops, the was glad to make a feparate
peace with the Convention. See Revolution.
___ The air of Spain, during the months of June, July,
climate of and Auguft, is exceffively hot in the day-time; but the
Spam. reft. 0f the year it is pleafant and temperate. Even
during the above months it is very cool in tlie ffiade ;
and fo cold in the night, that it makes a traveller Ihi-
ver ; and in the day time the violent heat continues
only for about four or five, hours. In thefcnorth, on
146
Air and
the mountains, and near the fea-coaft, the air is much Spain.'
lefs fultry in fummer than in the fouth, efpecially in the   v~—■
lower parts of the country, and at a diftance from the
fea. It ieldom rains here, except about the equinoxes :
the frofts are very gentle towards the fouth; but on the
meuntains in the north and north-call the air is very
ffiarp in winter.
Though there are fome fandy barren deferts in thesoifand
fouth, and many barren mountains in the north, yet in produce,
the greater pari of the country, particularly in the val¬
leys and plains, the foil is good, producing a great va¬
riety of rich wines, oil, and fruits; fuch as oranges, le¬
mons, primes, citrons, almonds, raifins, dates, figs, chef-
nuts, pomegranates, capers, pears, and peaches ; but
not a fufficiency of grain, which is chiefly owing to the-
negled of tillage. Wheat and barley are the moft-
common grain ; the former of which is faid by fome to
be the belt in Europe. There is not much flax, hemp,,
oats, or hay, in Spain : but there is plenty of honey,
fait, fine wool, filk, and cotton ; and, in for. e places, of
rice and fugar-canes. Here alfo are abundance of
mules, and, in fome provinces, of horfes, together with
deer, wild-fowl, and other game, chamois and other-
goats, but few horned cattle. Wolves are almoft the-
only wild beafts in the country. The herb kali, which
is ufed in making fait, foap, and glafs, grows in great
plenty on the fea-lhore. The wild bulls, ufed in their
bull-fights, are bred in Andalufia. Thefeas about Spain
are well ftored with filh; among which is the audiovy,
in the Mediterranean. We may guefs at the number of-
flieep here by that of the fhepherds, which is faid to
be about forty thoufand. The ffieep that bear the fine
wool move regularly, every fummer, from fouth to
north, along the mountains, which yield a great varietyr
of fweet herbs and plants, and return again towards
winter. . During this progrefs, large quantities of fait
are dillributed among them, and all poffible care is ta¬
ken both of their health and fleeces.
The chief mountains are the Pyrenees, which ftretch Mouluains
from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean, but notaninerais, *
in a diredft line, for near 200 miles : their breadth is, &c*
in Tome places, not lefs tlxan 80. That called the Pic
de Midi is of a prodigious height. Over thefe moun-
tains there are only about five pafiages out of Spain in¬
to France, and thefe alio narrow; even the valleys be*
tween the mountains are covered with thick and lofty
woods. The other chains in Spain are the Sierra
d’Occa, Sierra Molino, Sierra Moreno, and Sierra Ne¬
vada or the fnowy mountains. Near Gibraltar, oppo*
fite to Mount Abyla in Africa, Hands the celebrated
Mount Calpe : thele were anciently called Hercules’s,
pillars. The mountains yield great quantities of tim¬
ber for ffiipping, which are conveyed by the Ebro and
other rivers to the Mediterranean. Accoyding to the
ancient and modern writers, they abound alfo with gold,
filver, iron, lead, tin, cinnabar, quicklilver, alum, vR
triol, copperas, lapis calaminaiis, &c. befides gems, and
mineral waters both hot and cold. The gold and filver
mines are not worked at prefent, but tfiofe of iron are*
The negleft of the former is owing partly to the indo¬
lence of the Spaniards, and partly to the gold and filver'
imported from America. Befides the rivers Minho,
Douro, Tagus, Monda, Lima, and Guadiana, mention*
ed in Portugal, but which have their fources in Spam*
the
SPA [ 646 ] SPA
Spain, the molt cor.filterable are the Ebro, formerly Iberus,
v   Guadalavier, anciently Turia> Guadalquiver or Bails>
T49 Sefrura, and Xucar.
Religion. Spaniards are zealous Romanifts. Nowhere is
there more pomp, farce, and parade, in what regards
religion ; and nowhere lefs true Chriftranity. Their
zeal and their fuperftition exceed that of any other Ro¬
man Catholic country, unlefs perhaps we (hould except
Portugal. Nowhere did the inquifition reign with great-
er terror; there being no fubjeft who was not liable to
he prosecuted by the holy office, as it is called ; how¬
ever, the powers of that tribunal are now greatly dhr.i-
nifiied even in Spain. There are eight archbiflwps in
Spain, feven in America, and one in Afia at Manilla ;
each of which has his fufhagan bifhops. I he aich-
bifhop of Toledo is primate, chancellor of Caftile, and,
by virtue of his office, privy-counfellor. He is faid to
have a revenue of ioo,oool. Stealing/ter annum, or more.
The king nominates all archbiihops and bifliops; and
fince 1753 all fmall benefices^are alfo in his. girt. He
has alfo lately obtained a power to tax ecclefiallical pof-
feffions, according to his pleafure and the exigency of
affairs. Though the reft of the nation is poor, the
clergy are immenfely rich, and their revenues of all
kinds very great. hfoft of the towns and eftates
belong to them, and ai e exempt from all public bur¬
dens; yet their avaiice is infatiable, efpecially that of
the Mendicant friars, though they profefs poverty.
Their commerce, which is free from all duties and im¬
ports, is alfo a rich fund to them. Though the Spa¬
niards are naturally men of wit and of an elevated genius,
yet little progrefs in the fciences is to be expected from
them, while the clergy ufe their utmoft efforts to keep
them in ignorance, branding all literary refearches with
the name of herefy, and inveighing againrt the feats of
the mufes as the fchools of hell, where the devil teaches
forcery. There are 22 univerfities, and feveral acade¬
mies, in Spain ; but fo conftituted, and under fuch re-
ftriftions, that they can never attain to any meafure of
true learning. There are few printing-houfes in- Spain ;
and moft of the books in that language are publifhed in
other countries.
Trade and In regard to trade and manufa&ures, the Spaniards
jnanufac- are far from making fuch a figure as might be expeft-
tures. gd. Moft of the laborious work in their hufbandry,
manufa&ures, and handicrafts, is performed by the
French, efpecially in the two Oaftiles and the midland
provinces, the natives being either too lazy or too proud
to ftoop to fuch employments. By thefe means, the
French ufually return with large fortunes to their own
country. rl he chief manufactures of Spam are tboie of
filk, wool, iron, copper, and other hardwares; but thefe
fall far fhort of the flourifhing condition to which they
might be brought : hence a great part of tnetreafures of
America go to the foreign merchants, who.fupply them
with goods for that part of the world. However, it is
certain, that Spain, fmee it hath had princes of the
houfe of Bourbon upon the throne, hath. improved its
revenues, increafed its forces by tea and land, and ap¬
plied itfelf more than it did before to manufaiftures and
hufbandry ; having fhaken off, in fome meaiure, that
idle indolent difpolition which rendered it fo contemp¬
tible in the eyes of other nations ; but it will be a long
time before they will be able to fupply the wants of
£heir own country, and thofe of America, in any great
degree. Spain is extremely well fituated for trade: Spate-
but moft of its produce is exported by foreigners, ex-
cept what is carried to the Indies ; and even with re¬
gard to that trade, they are little better than fa&ors to
the Englifh, French, Dutch, and Italians. Smuggling,
which was formerly carried to a great height, is now in
a great meafure fuppreffed. Since the year 1750, the
exoortation of filver hath been allowed on the payment
of 3 per cent. From 1755 almoft to 1756, the flotas
and galleons were difeontinued, and the-trade to Ame¬
rica carried on in regifter-fhips, which any merchant
might fend, on permiffion obtained from the council of
the Indies: but then the flotas and galleons were re-
ftored. The Affogue fhips are two veffels which carry
quickfilver on the king’s account to VeraCruz. There
is a company which has an excluflve grant for trading
to the Caraccas ; and another for trading to Porto Ri¬
co, the Bay of Honduras, the province of Guatimala
and Hifpaniola; but the Spanifli part of the laft, it is
faid, hath been lately ceded to the French. One fhip,
and fometimes two, fails annually from Manilla, in the
ifland of Luconia, one ef the Philippines, for Acapul¬
co in Mexico : her cargo, which belongs to the con¬
vents, confifts of the principal commodities of that part
of the wrorld ; but the return from Acapulco is for the
moft part made in money, and amounts to a vaft fum,
as appeared from the treafure found on board the Aca¬
pulco fhip taken by Lord Anfon. In return for the
manufaftures fent to America, the Spaniards receive
gold, ftlver, cochineal, indigo, the cocoa or chocolate
nut, logwood and other dyeing woods, iugar, tobacco,
fnuff, and other produftions of that part of the world ;
fupplying moft part of Europe and Afia with the filver
which they bring from thence in their galleons. In the
time of the Moors and Goths, this kingdom was ex¬
ceedingly populous. It is faid to have then contained
between twenty and thirty millions ; whereas now it
does not contain above nine : and this, among other
caufes, is owing ta the pride and lazinels of the inhabi¬
tants, want of manufaftures and good regulations, ne-
gle& of the mines and agriculture, the expulfron of the
Moors, the peopling of America, heavy taxes, the great
number of convents, exceffive venery, and the conie-
quent infecundity of both fexes. Their debauchery and
fterility are partly occafioned by their way of living ;
for they make great ufe of fpices, and drink a great
deal of chocolate, and ftrong wine mixed with brandy.
The caufes affigned for the want of people in Spain will
account in fome meafure for its poverty; notwitjrftand-
ing it is computed that it receives one year with an¬
other, fetting afide other fums, above 26 millions of
pieces of eight, in regiftered gold and fdver. As moft
of the manufadlures that are fent to America are^fur-
nifhed by Britain, France, Italy, and Holland, fo a
great part of the treafure brought home by the gal¬
leons is paid -to the merchants of thofe nations. x < r
The conftitution of Spain is at prefent an abfolute Conflitu.
hereditary monarchy, where the females inherit in de-
fault of the males. The king, in his title, enumerates*' r
moft of the provinces and particular parts of the domi¬
nions he has been or is poffeffed of. In fpeaking of
him, he is commonly called his Catholic Majejly, or the
Catholic King. The hereditary prince is commonly
ftyled Prince of J/turips, and the other royal children
Infants. The kings of Spain are never crowned; they
feem
Spvin.
Jjourfro-
Sjiain.
SPA [ 647
feem to have a power to difp^fe of the e'nwn to what
“'branch of the royal family they pleafe. For the admi-
nidration of the (rovernment and of judice, here are fe-
veral councils and tribunals ; as the junto or cabinet-
council, the privy-council, the council of v/ar, the coun¬
cil of Caftile, the council of the inquifition, the council
of finances, the conned of the Indies, the feven courts
of royal audiences, See.
The general hillory of Spain proves how great an
* influence the Cortes had in former times in the moll
important affairs ot government; fuch as war or peace,
and the levying of taxes. Uut during a long courfe of
years they have not been affembled, except for the lake
of form; and the fovereigns, without violence, or for¬
mally rejefling their intervention, have found means to
elude their authority. They promulgate from the throne
certain ordinances under the name of Pragmatics, the
preambles of which give us to underftand, that they
claim the fame authority as if they had been publilhcd
in the alfembly of the Cortes ; who are never convo¬
ked but at the acceffion of a new monarch, to admini-
ller to him an oath in the name of the nation, and to
fwear fidelity to him. As this event happened fo late¬
ly as the month of September 1789, when the prefent
king of Spain received the homage of all his fubjedls in
the church, of St Jerome at Madrid, it may hot be un¬
acceptable to give an account of the ufual mode of al-
fembling them.
“ On this occafion letters of convocation are fent to
all the Grandees ; to all perfons bearing titles of Caf¬
tile ; to all the prelates ; and to every city which has a
right to fend deputies to the Cortrs. The two firll
claffes reprefent the nobility; the priefts fit in the name
df the clergy; and the cities, which depute one of their
magifirates, reprefent the people.” Except on the
above-mentioned occafion, the Cortes of the whole
kingdom have been atfembled but twice during the
prefent century, and only once upon public bufinefs, in
the year 1713, when Philip V. convoked them to give
their approbation to the Pragmatic Sanction, which
changed the brder of fucceffion to the throne. They
are Hill confulted, for the fake of form, in certain eafes;
but then, the members of which they are compofed
correfpond with each other without affemoling. At
their breaking up in r7i3, it was regulated, that they
flrould be reprefented by a permanent committee* whofe
office it fhould be to watch over the ad mini if ration of
that part of the taxes known by the name of Millones,
and which had been granted under Philip II. with the
formal confent of the Cortes, upon certain conditions,
which the monarch fwore to obferve. They retained
the adrniniftration ofthefe impofts until the year 1718,
when ca’/dinal .'Uberoni, whofe ardent and imperious ge¬
nius was irritated at fuch (hackles, transferred it to the
hands of the fovereign. From that time, the affemblies
of the deputies of the kingdom have received no more
of the revenues of the ilate than is neceffary to pay the
falaries and defray the expences of the members. Thefe
are eight in number,, and are chofen in the following
manner : All the provinces of Caftile unite to nominate
fix ; Catalonia and Majorca appoint one ; and the re¬
gencies ofValentia and Araron ele£t the eighth. Thefe
deputies hold their places fix years, at the end of which
a new < leilion takes place in the fame manner. As a
relid of their ancient rights, they Hill retain the privi-
] spa
lege of being, by virtue of their places, members of the
council of finances, by which the fovereign communi-'
cates to the nation the neceffity of levying any new tax;
and the approbation they are fuopofed to give to the
loyal refolution, is a flisdow of the confent of the Cor¬
tes, without which taxes could not formerly be either
levied or augmented. But it is eafy to perceive how
feeble this rampart of liberty mult be, which is only
formed of a f'mall number of citizens, who poffefs but
little real power ; are under the controul of govern¬
ment, from which they expedl favours and preferments;
and who, after all, reprefent the mod numerous indeed,
but leaft refpedted, part of the nation. The provinces
or Bifcay and Navarre, which have affemblies and par¬
ticular privileges, fend alfo, on feme oecafiorrs, deputies
to the throne ; but they do not make a part of the
body of the deputies of the kingdom, and their conlli-
tuents fix at pleafure the object and duration of their
temporary miffion.
1 he ad mini It ration of Spain is divided into fix prin¬
cipal departments. i he minifter for foreign affaiis is
in many refpedts the directing minifter, and receives, as
a mark of diftmdtion, the title of fecretai y of (late. The
minifler of war h:^ but a circumfcribed authority. Me
is prefident of the council of war, which is rdther a tri¬
bunal than a board of adminiftration ; but the infpeo
tois of the infantry, and thofe of the cavalry, dragoons,
and provincial regiments, draw up a ftatement of what¬
ever relates to the corps of which they have the direc¬
tion ; and the miniiter at war has only to prefent the
memorials they give in to the king. The marine mi-
mftev has no affociates. The chiefs of the three de¬
partments of Ferrol, Carthagena, and Cadiz, and ip-
fpedlors of the marine, are named by the king, on the
reprefentation of the minifter ; but the marine ordi¬
nances prepared by him alone, require only the func¬
tion of the king. The minifter of the finances fhould
properly be under the infpedtion of the fuperintendant-
general of that department ; but thefe two offices were
fome time finee united, and will probably be Jo conti¬
nued; for the feparation of them would multiply, with*
out neceffty, the fprings of government; and the in-
terefts of the ftate require that they fhould be fimplified
as much as permanent forms, thofe facred bulwarks of
juftice and property, will admit.
The higher nobility confitt of counts, marquifes,
and dukes. The grandees, who have precedence of all
others, next the king and princes of the blood, are na¬
med out of thele. They have the privilege of being
covered in the king’s j -efence, who ftyles them in his
letters Uluffrious ; and in f peaking to them or of them,
then I’, mrcTices * but there are others befide the gran¬
dees who are covered in the king’s prefence ; as cardi¬
nals, nuncios, archbilhops, the grand prior of Caifile
and the grand prior of Malta, the generals of the orders-
of St Dominic and St Francis, ambaffadors of crowned
heads, the knights of the golden fletee, and of the
three military orders of St James, Calatrava, and Al-
cantai a, wheu the king affifts at their refpeflive chap¬
ters in quality of grandmatter. No grandee can be ap.
prehended for any crime but by the exprefs order of the
king; and they have many other privileges befides.
thefc. The inferior nobility ftyle themfelves Cavalierot
and Hidalgos.
Of the orders in Spain, that of the golden fleece is
the
Spafn.
s r a
[ 648 1
SPA
15a
'Orders of
knight*
hood.
*53
■Revenues.
*54
Language.
Spain, the principal ; which wp.8 inftltuted in M3° Plhlip
J the good Huke of Burgundy, and is common now to
the kings or Spain and the houfe of Auftria. i he or¬
der of St J ago"de Compoftella was inflituted in the year
117? by'Ferdinand II. jj-ing of Leon. The order of
Calatrava was founded by Sancho III. of Cafliie. The
order of Alcantara owes its inftitution to Ferdinand IT.
king of Leon. The three laft orders have large com-
•inanderies or eftates annexed to them. 1 he mailers of
them were once fo powerful, that they dilputed the
king’s authority over them ; whereupon the king pro¬
cured thofe mafterfhips to be conferred on himfell by
the Pope, that they might no longer affume an inde¬
pendency of the ilate. 1 he knights of thele three or¬
ders are efteemed noblemen.
In the laft century, the revenues of Spain amounted
to 32 or 3 3 millions of. livres ; but afterwards they
were fo reduced, that they did not exceed feven or
.eight millions. At prefent, the revenues of the crown
ariftng in Spain are computed at five millions Sterling/ier
annum, befides what arifes from America. The filvermines
there are inexhauftible ; and of the produce of thefe a
fifth belongs to the king. I he taxes in Spain are nu¬
merous and heavy. T he land forces., in time of peace,
are computed at a'oout 80,000 ; and in time of war,
mull be much more numerous, 1 heir nav_y at prefent
cannot be afeertained.
The language of this country, efpecially that fpoken
in Caftile, which is by far the pureft, approaches^ the
neareft to the Latin of any language in Europe, mixed
with Arabic words and terminations introduced by the
Moors. In fome provinces, the vulgar tongue is a dia¬
led of the old French, or r.ather Galcon, which is little
underftood in the others. In Bifcay, the language is
faid to be a dialed of the Gothic or Celtic, and to have
fome analogy with the Welch and Irifh. As to what
regards the charader of the Spaniards, they do not want
either an inclination or capacity for the fciences; but^
have hardly an opportunity of acquiring any true learn-'
ing or knowledge, at leaft in their fchools and univerfi-
ties. They are admired for their fecrecy, conftancy,
ravity, patience in adverfity, and loyalty. They are
alfo faid to be true to their word, great enemies to ly¬
ing, and fo nice and jealous in point -of honour, that
they will ftick at nothing to wipe off any llain that is
call upon it. Among their vices and defeds are reck¬
oned their pride and contempt of foreigners, their indo-
lence, lazinefs, lull, bigotry, and credulity in believing
the feigned miracles and legends of their monks. They
are alio faid to be extremely paftionate, jealous, and vin-
<Iidive ; and are noted, above any ether European na¬
tion, for defpifing and negleding agriculture, arts, and
manufadures.
oulllc u,_ We will here fubjoin fome diredions for travelling in
retfioiis for Spain by Mr Townfend, a late refpedable traveller; as
•travelling. tgey w;u enable the reader to form a more diftind no¬
tion of the ftate of that country than he could obtain
from general defeription.
“ To travel commodioufly in Spain, a man fhould
have a good conftitution, two good fervants, letters of
credit for the principal cities, and a proper introduc¬
tion to the bell families, both of the native inhabitants
and of ftrangers fettled in the country.
“ The language will be eafily acquired.
« Jrlis fervants fhould be a Spaniard and a Swifs; of
*55
Some di¬
in Spai: .
'To’zvrrfoid's
travels,
»oL i.
which one fhould be fufficiently acquainted with the art
of cooking, and with the fuperior art of providing for
the journey ; which implies a perfed knowledge of tne
country though which he is to pafs, that he may fecure
a flock of wine, bread, and meat, in places where thefe
excel, and fuch a flock as may be fufficient to carry him
through the diftrids in which thefe are not to be ob¬
tained. For himfelf, bis fervants, and his baggage, he
fhould purchafe three ftrong mules, able to fupport the
load which is to be put upon them. In his baggage he
fhould have fheets, a matrafs, a blanket, and a quilt, a
table-cloth, knives, forks, and fpoons, with a copper
veffel fufficiently capacious to boil his meat. This fliould
be furnifhed with a cover and lock. Each of the fer¬
vants fhould have a gun flung by the fide of his mule.
“ To travel as an econonuft in Spain, a man muff be
contented to take his chance for conveyance, and either
go by the poft, wherever it is eflablifhed ; or join with
officers, going to their various Rations; to hire a coach,
or quietly reftgn himfelf to a calaffi, a calafine, a horfe,
a mule, or a borrico. This laft is the moil conve¬
nient for the purpofe of rroffing the country, or of wan¬
dering among the mountains. If he is to traverfe any
diftrid infefted by banditti, it will be fafe for him to
go by the common carriers, in which cafe he wall be
mounted on a good mule, and take the place which
would have been occupied by lome bale of goods. Any
one, who is fond of botany, for fhort excurfions, will
make choice of a borrico. 1 his is always to be had
when, as in fome villages, neither horfe nor mule are to
be obtained. I have ufed this honourable appellation
for the moft patient of all animals, becaufe I would not
fhock the delicacy of a young traveller, by telling him,
at his firft fetting out, that he may fometimes find him¬
felf under the neceffity of riding upon an afs. He muft,
however, know, for his confolation, that an afs does not
appear fo contemptible in Spain as in the colder regions
of the north.
« The bdl time for him to begin this expedition is
in autumn, when he may go by Bayonne, Burgos, Val¬
ladolid, and Segovia, battening to the court at St Ilde-
fonfo. Here he is to procure letters for the chief cities
in Spain. On thefe will depend the whole pleafure of
his excuriion. During the winter he may fee all the
fouth of Spam, Toledo, Cordova, Seville, Cadiz, Gib¬
raltar, Malaga, Granada, Carthagena, Murcia, Alicant,
Valencia, and Barcelona. Returning by Zaragoza to
Aranjuez in the fpring, he may follow the Merino flock
to the mountains of the north, whilft the country, on
which he has turned his back, is rendered unfit for tra¬
velling, by the diflblving beats, by want of proviftons,
and by malignant fevers. This.feafon will be beft em¬
ployed in Galicia, the Afturias, and the provinces of
Bifcay, taking Salamanca and Leon in the way.”
New Spain. See Mexico.
SPALATRO, or Spala^to, a rich, populous, and
ftrong town of the republic of Venice, capital of Ve¬
netian Dalmatia, with a good harbour and an archbi-
flrop’s fee. Here are the ruins of the palace of Diocle-
iian, of which the late Mr Robert Adam publiffied in
1764 a fplendid account, enriched with 71 folio plates.
In 1 784, Spalatro was nearly depopulated by the plague.
It is ftrong by fituation, being built on a peninfula, which
is joined to Terra Firma by a neck of land half a mile
over. It is feated on the Gulf of Venice, 35 miles
^ foutk-
Spain,
S] alatto.
SPA [ 649 ]
fouth-eaft of Sebenico, and 102 north-weft of Ragufa. rious forms.
E. Long. 17. 31*. N. Lat. 44. 4.
SPAN, a meafure taken from the fpace between the
thumb and the tip of the little finger when both are
ftretched out. The fpan is eftimated at three hand’s
breadths or nine inches.
SPANDRELL, the folid work on each haunch of
an arch, to keep it from fpreading.
SPANHEIM (Ezekiel), a learned writer in the
17th century, was born at Geneva in 1629; and
in 1642 went to Leyden to ftudy. Here he diftin-
guifhed himfelf to great advantage ; and his reputation
fpreading, Charles Louis tle&or palatine fent for him
to be tutor to his only fon. This talk our author dif-
charged to the entire fatisfa&ion of the ele&or ; by
whom he was alio employed in divers negotiations at
foreign courts. He afterwards entered into the fervice
of the ele&or of Brandenburg, who in 1680 fent him
envoy-extraordinary to the court of Fiance, and foon
after made him a minifter of {late. After the peace of
Ryfwic, he was again feat on an embafly to France,
where he continued from the year 1697 to 1702. The
eledlor of Brandenburg having during that interval af¬
firmed the title of King of Pruflia, conferred on him the
title and dignity of a baronr In 1702 he left France 5
and went ambaflador to England, where he had been
feveral times. Here he died in 1710, aged 81 years.
It is furprifing, that in difcharging the duties of a pub-
lie minifter with fo much exa&nefs, and amidft fo ma¬
ny different journeys, he could find time enough to
write the feveral books publilhed by him. It may be
laid of him, that he acquitted himfelf in his negotiations
like a perfon who had nothing elfe in' his thoughts ;
and that he wrote like a man who had fpent his whole
time in his ftudy. The principal of his works are,
1' Pf pf^Jiantia et ufu numtfmatum antiquorvm; the bell
edition of which is in two volumes folio. 2. Several
letters or diffeirations on fcarce and curious medals. 3.
A preface and notes to the edition of the emperor Ju¬
lian’s works, printed at Leipfic in 1696, folio.
SPANIEL, in zoology. See Can is.
SPAR, in mineralogy, a name given to thofe earths
which break ealily into rhomboidal, cubical, or lamina¬
ted fragments with polifhed furfaces. As the term
fpar is thus applied to ftones of different kinds, without
any regard to tlye ingredients of which they are com-
poied, fome additional term mull be ufed to exprefs the
conftituent parts as well as the figure ; for inftance, cal¬
careous fpar, gypfeous fpar, &c. The fpars found in
Britain and Ireland are of four different fpeciesj opaque,
refracting, diaphanous, and ftahaitical. 1. The opaque
{par is rhomboidal, hexangular, and triangular, of va¬
rious colours, and is found in mines in Wales, Derby¬
shire, &c. and at Ovejis near Cork. 2. The refracting
:par is rhomboidal, {hows objeCts feen through it double,
and fometimes 8, 12, or 16 images at once. It is
frequent in the lead mines of Derbyfhire, Yorkfhire,
<Scc. 3. Diaphanous fpar is rhombeidal, triangular,
hexangular, pyramidal or columnar j and is found in
mines, quarries, and caverns, in many different places.
4. StalaCtitical fpar, icicle or drop-ftone, is formed by
the running or dropping of water, containing a large
proportion of calcareous earth. It is opaque, generally
laminated, but from accidental circumftances ?iumes va-
Vot. XVII. PartIL
SPA
It occurs at Knarefborough in Yorkfbire,
and at Ovens near Cork.
A new fpecies of fpar has lately been found in the ^
Eaft Indies, which, from its extreme hardnefs, approach¬
ing to that of a diamond, is called adamantine fpar. It
was difeovered by Dr Black of Edinburgh to be a di.
ftinCl fpecies. Happening one day to vifit a lapidary,
it was fhown to him among other fpecimens as a ftone
that was ufed in the Eaft Indies for pohfhing gems, and
grinding other hard fubftances. Dr Black immediately
finglcd out a fpecimen which he fent to Mr Greville,
who requefted M. Klaproth to analyze it.
There are two varieties of this fpar; one of them
comes from China, and cryftallizes in hexagonal prifms
without pyramids, the length of the fides vary ing from
fix to twelve lines; their breadth being about nine, of
a grey colour with different {hades. Though the en¬
tire pieces are opaque, the thin lamina; are tranfparent,
and when broken, its furface appears {lightly ftriated.
Its cryftals are covered with a very fine and ftrongly
adhering cruft, compofed of feales of filvery mica, mixed
with particles of red feld-fpar. Sometimes the furface
has martial pyrites or yellow fulphuret of iron adhering
to it. Its hardnefs is fo great, that it not only cut*
glafs as eafily as the diamond, but even ftratches rock-
cryftal and other very hard ftones. Its Ipecific gravity
is to that of water as 3710 to iooo. Sometimes it
contains cryftallized grains of magnetic oxyd of iron,
which may be feparated from the ftone when pulveri¬
zed by means of the loadftone.
The other kind found in Hindoftan is of a whiter co¬
lour, and of a more laminated texture than the formers
the grains of iron contained in it are likewife of a fmal-
ler fize than thofe of the former; they are not diffufed
through its fubftance, but only adhere to its furface.
This fpar is exceedingly difficult to analyze. To d®
fo, M. Klaproth was obliged to melt it no lefs than 12
times with 15 parts of foda or mineral alkali, in a lilver
crucible ; the heat being each time continued for five
hours as ftrong as the crucible could bear. After each
fufron the mafs was foftened by boiling diftilled wa-
ter, filtering and precipitating by acids the (mall quan¬
tity of earth which the alkali had diffolved ; and laftly,
that portion which had not been decompofed was di-
gelted at different times with concentrated and boiling
acids. By this tedious procefs he at length found.
that the fpar confiited of alumirie and another kind of
earth, in the proportion of 2 to 1, the nature of which
is not underftood. It is not filiceous earth, as it does
not combine with fixed alkalis in' a melting heat ; and
for want of opportunities to make a fufficient number
of experiments, our author was unable to determine
whether it be a fixth fimple earth, or a compofition of
two or more earths which he was not able to feparate.
From a letter of M. Morveau to Mr Crell, it ap¬
pears that this ftone is alfo found in France. A fmaft
bit of this was tried by him in prefence of Mr Wedge-
wood, and he found that its fpecific gravity was fuperiof
to the fpar of China, being no lefs than 4.1803, and
the true adamantine fpar of China gave 3.8222.
SPARGANIUM, buk-reed, in botany ; A genu*
of plants belonging to the clals of moncecia, and to the
order of triandria; and in the natural fyftem ranged
under the 3d order- Calamariie. The amentum of the
4 N male.
Spat,
Sparga-
mum.
—V—*
/
SPA [ 656 ] SPA
isrman- j^zlc Sower is roundidi, the calyx Is tnphyllous, and place.—In the time of the Perfian war, Leonidas the Sparfai
®!a there is no corolla. The amentum of the female flower
Sparta, refemblea that of the male. The ftigma is bifid ; the
  L . fru;t is a dry berry containing1 one feed. There are two
fpecies, the ereftum and natans, both of them natives of
Great'Britain and Ireland, r. The i?ra?KOT, great bur-
reed, has a Item two or three feet high, ered, firm and
branched ; the lower leaves are triangular, the upper
ones plain. The male heads are much fmaller than the
female. This fpecies flowers in July, and is frequent
on the banks of rivers and lakes and near ftagnant wa¬
ters. 2. The Natans, floating or little bur-reed, has a
flalk about two feet long. The leaves float, are about
a foot lonpr, one-fourth of an inch wide at the bafe, and
one-eighth in the middle, and end in a point. The male
fphceruies are generally three, and all feffile ; the female
are commonly three, the two lower being fupported on
peduncles, the uppermoft feffile. It flowers in July,
and grows in pools and lakes, but is rare.
SPARMANNIA, in botany; a genus of plantsbe-
Jonging to the clafs of polyandna, and to the order of
nwnogvnia. The corolla confifts of four petals, and is
bent back; the neftaria are numerous, andfwell a little;
the calyx is quadriphyllous ; the capfule is angulated,
quinquelocular and echinated. There is only one fpe*
ties, the Africana*
SPARROW, in ornithology. See Fringilla.
SpAs.v.ow-Ha'wk, in ornithology. See Falco*
SpARROiv-Grafs. See Asparagus.
SPARRY-acid. See and Chemistry-
Index.
SPARTA, or Lacedaemon, the capital of the
country of Laconia in Greece, an ancient and mofl. re¬
nowned ftate, the inhabitants of which have been in all
ages celebrated for the Angularity of their laws and cha-
The hiftory ra&er*—The hiftory of Sparta for many ages is entirely
ef Sparta * fabulous; and the authentic accounts commence only with
moftly fa- the celebrated lawgiver Lycurgus, who flourifhed about
bulous till g-,0 q gee tjie article Lycurgus.
3L ^ After his death, the firfl. important tranfa&ion which
C we find mentioned in the Spartan hiflory is the Meffe-
nian war, which commenced in the year 75 2 B. C. and
ended in the total reduftion of the Meffenian territory,
as related under the article Messenia. During this
period, according to fome authors, a great change took
place in the government of Sparta. This was the crea¬
tion of the ephori, which is afcribed to one of the kings
named Theopompus. This man perceiving that there
was a neceffity for leaving magittrates to execute the
laws, when the kings were obliged to be in the field,
appointed the magiftrates above mentioned, who after¬
wards made fo great a figure in the ftate (fee Ephori).
One great privilege of the ephori was, that they did
not rife up at the prefence of the kings, as all other ma¬
giftrates did : another was, that if the kings offended
againft the laws, the ephori took cognizance of the of¬
fence, and inflifted a fuitable punifhment. From the
firft ele&ion of the ephori, the year was denominated,
as at Athens, from the firft ele&ion of the archons.
The conqneft of Meffenia gave Sparta the fuperiority
ever the reft of the ftates, excepting only that of Athens,
which for a long time continued to be a very trouble-
i'ome rival; but the contefts between thefe two rival
ftates have been fo fully related under the article Ax-
TiwA; that nothing more isrequifite to be addcdjn the
Spartan king diftinguifhed himfelt in fuch a manner, as "J
to become the admiration not only ol that but of every Leonkhs
fucceeding age. It being refolved in a general council undertake!
to defend the ftraits of Thermopyke againft the Per-to defend
fians, 7000$ foot were put under the command of Leo-t'Tj'-ra‘ts
nidas ; of whom, however, only 3-: o were Spartans. ^.]x ^rao* i
Leonidas did not think it practicable to defend the pafs^aiuft the
againft fuch multitudes as the Perfian king commanded; Peifian?.
and therefore privately told Lis friends, that his defign§ See
was to devote himfelf to death for his country. I
Xerxes advancing near the ftraits, was ftrangely fur- voi. * f|
prifed to find that the Greeks were refolved to difputep. 468.
his paffage ; for he had always flattered himfelf, that on
his approach they would betake themfelves to flight,
and not attempt to oppofe his innumerable forces.
However, Xerxes ftill entertaining fome hopes of their
flight, waited four days without undertaking any thing,
on purpofe to give them time to retreat. During this
time, he ufed his utmoft endeavours to gain and corrupt
Leonidas, promifing to make him mafter of all Greece
if he would come over to his intereft. His offers being
reje&ed with contempt and indignation, the king order¬
ed him by an herald to deliver up his arms. Leonidas,
in a ftyle and with a fpirit truly laconical, anfwered,
u Come thyfelf, and take them.:', Xerxes, at this re¬
ply, tranfported with rage, commanded the Medes and
Ciffians to march againft them, take them all alive, and The Per.
bring them to him in fetters. The Medes, not able to fians repul.
ftand the fhock of the Greeks, foon betook themfelves^d W1'k
to flight: and in their room Hydarnes was ordered
advance with that body which was called Immortal, and
confifted of 10,000 chofen men ; but when thefe came
to clofe with the Greeks, they fucceeded no better than
the Medes and Ciffians, being obliged .to retire with
great flaughter. The next day the Perfians, reflefting
on the Imall number of their enemies, and fuppofmg fo
many of them to be wounded that they could not pof-
fibly maintain a fecond fight, refolved to make another
attempt; but could not by any efforts make the Greeks
give way : on the contrary, they were themfelves put
to a lhameful flight. The valour of the Greeks exert¬
ed itfelf on this occafion in a manner fo extraordinary,
that Xerxes is faid to have three times leaped from his
throne, apprehending the entire deftruftion of his army.
Xerxes having loft all hopes of forcing his way
through troops that were determined to conquer or
die, was extremely perplexed and doubtful what mea< 4
fures he Ihould take in this pofture of affairs; when one They are
Epialtes, in expe&ation of a great reward, camejto him, fhow^?
and difeovered a fecret paffage to the top of the hill ^ayh“”w
which overlooked and commanded the Spartan forces, furround
The king immediately ordered Hydarnes thither with the Grtekn
his feleft body of 10,000 Perfians; who marching all
night, arrived at break of day, and poffeffed themfelves
of that advantageous poft. The Phocasans, who defend¬
ed this pafs, being overpowered by the enemy’s num-
bers, retired with precipitation to the veiy top of the
mountain, prepared to die gallantly. But Hydarnes
neglefting to purfue them, marched down the mountain
with all poffible expedition, in order to attack thofe
who defended the ftraits in the rear. Leonidas being
now apprifed that it was impoffible to bear up againft
the enemy, obliged the reft of his allies to retire : but
he ftaid hirafelf, with the Thefpians, Thebans, and 300
I .nGfv
Sparta.
5
Leonidas
SPA [6
LRCcdcwomanSj all refolded to die with their leader $
J who being told by the oracle, that either Sparta fhould
be deftroyed or the king lofe his life, determined with-
out the leaft hefitation to iacrihce himfelf for his coun¬
try. The Thebans indeed remained againft their incli¬
nation, being detained by Leonidas as holhures; for
they were fufpefted to favour the Perfians. The Thef-
pians, wnth their leader Demophilus, could not by any
means be preyaded upon to abandon Leonidas and the
Spartans The augur Megiftias, who had-foretold the
event of this enterprize, being preffed by Leonidas to
retire, lent home his only fon ; but remained himfelf,
and died by Leonidas. Thofe who (laid did not feed
themfelves with any hopes of conquering or efcapino-,
but looked upon Thermopyls as their graves; and when
Leonidas, exhorting them to take fome nourilhment,
laid, that they Ihould all fup together with Pluto, with
one accord they fet up a fhout of joy, as if they had
been invited to a banquet.
Xerxes, after pouring out a libation at the rifing of
the fun, began to move with the whole body of his ar-
vn a • i, my’ 38 ^ hTad been advJfed ^ EPialtes. Upon their
all his men aPproa£h’ Leonidas advanced to the broadeft part of
• the paffage, and fell upon the enemy with fuch undaunt¬
ed courage and refolution, that the Perfian officers were
obliged to Hand behind the divifions they commanded,
in order to prevent the flight of their men. Great num¬
bers of the enemy falling into the fea, were drowned ;
others were trampled under foot by their own men, and
a great many killed by the Greeks; who knowing they
could not avoid death upon the arrival of thofe who
w'ete advancing to fall upon their rear, exerted their
utruoft efforts. In this a£fion fell the brave Leonidas;
which Abrocomes and Hyperauthes, two of the bro¬
thers of Xerxes, obferving, advanced with great refolu-
tyon to feize his body, and carry it in triumph to Xerxes.
Tut the Lacedemonians, more eager to defend it than
their own lives, repulfed the enemy four times, killed
both the brothers of Xerxes, with many other command¬
ers of dillinftion, and refeued the body of their beloved
general out of the enemy’s hands. Bat in the mean
time, the army that was led by the treacherous Epialtes,
advancing to attack their rear, they retired to the nar¬
rowed place of the paflage, and drawing all together
except the I hebans, pofted themfelves ©n a rifing ground,
in this place they made head againft the Perftans, who
poured in upon them on all Tides, till at length, not
vanquifhed, but oppreffed and overwhelmed by numbers,
they all fell, except one who efcaped to Sparta, where
ne was treated as a coward and traitor to his country;
but afterwards made a glorious reparation in the battle
of Platasa, where he diftinguiffied himfelf in an extraor¬
dinary manner. Some time after, a magnificent monu¬
ment was ere&ed at Thermopylae, in honour of thofe
brave defenders of Greece, with two inferiptions; the
one general, and relating to all thofe who died on this
occafion, importing, that the Greeks of Pelopormefus,
to the number only of 4000, made head againft the Per-
ban army, confiding of 3,000,000. The other related
to the Spartans in particular, and was compofed by the
poet Simonides, to this purport.. “ Go, paffenger, and
acquaint the Spartans that we died here in obedience to
their juft commands.” At thofe tombs a funeral ora¬
tion was yearly pronounced in honour of the dead he¬
roes, and public games performed with , great folemnity,
51 J SPA
wherein none but the Lacedemonians and Thefplans Sparta,
had any fhare, to fhow that they alone were concerned 1—~~v*—
in the glorious defence of Thermopylae. 5
At the end of the 77th Olympiad, a mod dreadful A dreadful
earthquake happened at Sparta, in which, according to fart,hcluakc
Diodorus, 20,000 perfons loft their lives ; and Plutarch10 ai>a“a*
tells us, that only five Houfes were left Handing in the
whole city. On this occaiion the Helotes or flaves,
whom the Spartans had all along treated with the ut-
moft cruelty, attempted to revenge themfeives, by ta-
king up arms, and marching directly to the ruins of the
city, m hopes of cutting off at once thofe who had efca-
ped horn the earthquake. But in this they were ore-
vented by the prudence of the Spartan king Archida-
mus ; for he, obferving that the citizens were more de-
lirous of preferving their effe&s than taking care of
their own lives, caufed an alarm to be founded, as if he
had known that an enemy was at hand. On this the
citizens armed themfelves in hafte with fuch weapons
as they could come at; and having marched a little
way from the city, met the Helotes, whom they foon
compefled to retire. The latter, however, knowing War wJtb
that t.iey had now no mercy to exped from thofe who the Helo-
had already treated them with fuch cruelty, rtfolved totes*
defend themfelves to the laft. Having therefore feized
a lea-port town in Meffenia, they from thence made
inch incurfions into the Spartan territories, that they
compelled thofe imperious mafters to afk affiftance from
the Athenians. This was immediately granted ; but
when the Spartans faw that the fkill of the Athenians
m befjeging towns was much greater than their own,
they became jealous, and difmiffed their allies, telling
them, that they had now no farther occafion for their
femces. On this the Athenians left them in difguft s
and as the Helotes and Meffenians did not choofe to
come to an engagement with a Spartan army in the
held, but took flicker in their fortified places, the w^ar
was protra&ed for ten years and upwards. At laft the
Heffites were reduced to their former milery; and the
Meflenians were obliged to leave Pelepormefus, on paint
o jeing* made flaves alfo. I hefe poor people were
then received by the Athenians, who granted them
Naupaftus for their refidence, and afterwards brought
them back to a part of their own country, from whence
in Ine courfe of the Peloponnefian war they had driveo
the Spartans.
In the year 431 B. C. the Peloponnefian war com-With the
menccd ; of which a full account has been given under Athen'aKJ
the article Attica, n° 116—165. It ended mod un and t,er'
fortunately for the Athenians ; their city being taken fUnS‘
and dismantled, as related in the article above-mention¬
ed. ihus were the Spartans railed to the higheft pitch
O' P01L ’ ,and» }a the rejgn of Agefilaus, they feefned
to be on the point of fubverting the Perfian empire, a.
related under the article Persia, n° 34. But here them
good fortune and their views of empire were fuddenly
checked. Agefilaus had carried on the war in Afia
witn the greateft fuccefs ; and as he would hearken to
!P. °- accommodation, a Perfian governor named
liihraujtes, having firft attempted in vain to. bribe the
king, difpatched Timocrates the Rhodian with co ta¬
lents into Greece, in order to try whether he could
there meet with any perfons lefs incorruptible than the
Spartan monarch. ’Phis agent found many who incli¬
ned to accqst his offers; particularly in Thebes, Co-
4 H 3 rinth,
SPA [ 652 1 SPA
Sparta, rintb and Argos. By diftributmjr the money in a pro. of the Spartan army in vain. At fea they were de-
- —J per manner, he inflamed the inhabitants of thefe three feated by Timotheus the fon of Conon ; and by land
Sparti,
^ per manner, ne mnamcu tut ^     ~ j   — — — , , p '. .
9 cities apainft the Spartans ; and of all others the The- the battle of Leudtra put an end to the fupenonty xhe pow<
A get.eral me •oto term8 with the greateft readinefs. which Sparta had held over Greece for near 500 years, of Sparta
coni   . .1 • .  !/i..  a a-v4- T.p ttr*,Tp a entirely
ia
power
tion againft They faw that their antagonifts would not of their own
S^axta
accord break with any of the ilates of Greece, and did
not choofe to begin the war themfelves, becaufe the
chiefs of the Periian faftion were unwilling to be ac¬
countable for the event. For this reafon they perfua-
ded the Locrians to invade a fmall diftrift which lay in
difpute betwixt the Phocians and themfelves. On this
the Phocians invaded Toctis; the Tocrians applied to
the Thebans, and the Phocians to the Spartans. _ The
latter were glad of an opportunity of breaking with the
Thebans; but met with a much warmer reception than
they expeded. Their old general Lyfander, who had
reduced Athens, was defeated and killed, with the lofs
of 1000 men: on which difafterAgefilauswas recalled,
and obliged to relinquifh all hopes of conquering the
Perfians. His return changed the fortune of the war
fo much, that all the ftates began to grow weary of a
conteft from which nobody derived any advantage ex-
f cept the king of Perfia. In a (hurt time a treaty was
Antalcidas. concluded, known in hiftory by the name of thejeace
of ylntalculas. The terms of this treaty were highly
difadvantageous and difhonourable tg the Greeks for
even the Spartans, though fuccefsful in Greece, had
loft a great battle at fea with the Periian fleet under
Conon the Athenian, which entirely broke their power
in Afia. . ^ r
By the peace of Antaleidas, the government of Bce-
otia was taken from the Thebans, which they had for
a long time enjoyed ; and by this they were fo much
provoked, that at tlrft they abfolutely refuted to accede
to the treaty ; but as Ageiilaus made great preparations
Ti to invade them, they thought proper at laft to comply.
Hoftilities However, it was not long before a new war commenced,
recomxnen-wkJch threatened the total fubverfion of the Spartan
Jo
§ See Per
/«»n°37-
ced.
SeeLEUCTRA. entirely
After this dreadful defeat, the Spartans had occafion broken,
to exert all their courage and refolution. The women
and neareft relations of thofe who were killed is battle,
inftead of {pending their time in lamentations, fhook
each other by the hand, while the relations of thofe
who had efcaped from the battle hid themfelves among
the women; or if they were obliged to go abroad, they
appeared in tattered clothes, with their arms folded, and
their eyes fixed on the ground. It was a law among
the Spartans, that fuch as fled from battle fhould be de¬
graded from their honours, ihouid be conftrained to ap¬
pear in garments patched with divers colours, to wear
their beards half-ihaved, and to fuffer any to beat them
who pleafed, without refiftance. At prefent, however,
this law was difpenfed with ; and Agefilaus by his pru¬
dent conduct kept up the fpirits of the people, at the
fame time that by his lie ill in military affairs he checked
the progrefs of the enemy. Yet, during the lifetime of
Epaminondas the Theban general, the war went on
greatly to the difad vantage of the Spartans; but he be¬
ing killed at the battle of Mantinea, all parties became
quickly defirous of peace. Agefilaus did not long fur-
vive ; and with him, we may fay, perifhed the glory of
Sparta. Soon after this all the ftates of Greece fell
under the power of Alexander the Great; and the
Spartans, as well as the reft, having become corrupt,
and loft their martial fpirit, became a prey to domeftic
tyrants, and to foreign invaders. They maintained
their ground, however, with great refolution againft the
celebrated Pyrrhus king of Epirus ; whom they repul-
fed for three days fuccelfively, though not without af-
fiftance from one of the captains of Antigonus. Soon
after this one of the kings of Sparta named -Agis, per¬
flate As by the peace of Antalcidas, the king of ceiving the umverfal degeneracy that had taken place,
Perfia had in a manner guaranteed the fovereignty of made an attempt to reftore the laws and dffaphne of
Greece to Sparta, this republic very foon began to ex- Lycurgus, by which he fuppofed the ftate would be re- ,,
Greece to bpa F ; Mantineans ttored to its former glory. But though at firft he met Ag.s and
K who » the weigh. Of their refen,otent, with fonte appearance of fuecefa he was in a fcor, toe
although they had been their allies and confederates, tried and condemned by the ephon as a traitor to ^vainU)re.
^ nrroinfl' country. Clcomenes* however^who afeended the throne
in 216 B. C. accomplifhed the reformation which Agis
had attempted in vain. He fuppreffed the ephori; can¬
celled all debts; divided the lands equally, as they had
been in the time of Lycurgus ; and put an end to the
luxury which prevailed among the citizens. But at laft
he was overborne by the number of enemies which fur-
rounded him ; and being defeated in battle by Antr-
In order te have a pretence for making war againft
them, they commanded them to quit their city, and to
retire into five old villages which, they laid, had ferved
their forefathers, and where they would live in peace
themfelves, and give n© umbrage to their neighbours.
This being refufed, an army was fent againft them to
befiege their city. The fiege was continued through
the fummer with very little fuccefs on the part of the
Spartam^1,6but having^ during the winter feafon dammed gonus, he fled to Egypt, where he put an end to his own
bpartans , but hav,"ga f Aood the water rofe to life. With him pen fired every hope of retrieving the
up the river on winch the c«y tood the wa e P ^ ^ ^ fent feU ;nt0 the
fuch an height, as either to overflow or throw down
the houfes ; which compelled the Mantineans to lubmit
to the terms preferibed to them, and to retire into the
old villages. The Spartan vengeance fell next on the
Phliafians and Olynthians, whom they forced to come
into fuch meafures as they thought proper. After this
they fell on the Thebans; and, by attempting to feize
on the Piraeum, drew the Athenians alfo into the quar¬
rel. But here their career was flopped : the Thebans
had been taught the art of war by Chabrias the Athe-
»ian j fo that even Agefilaus himfelf took the command
affairs of Sparta : the city for the prefent fell into the
hands of Antigonus; after which a fucceffion of tyrants
took place ; till at laft all difturbances were ended by
the Romans, who reduced Macedon and Greece to
provinces of their empire, as has been related under
thefe articles. r ^ . , ,vT4
It remains now only to fay fomething concerning the fnftitutiora
charafter, manners, and cuftoms ®f the Spartans, which,
as they were founded on the laws of Lycurgus, may
heft be learned from a view of thefe laws.
The infiituUons of Lycurgus were divided into 12
SPA t 653 ] SPA
Spa***- table#. The firft comprehended fuch of the Spartan
’ laws as regarded religion. The ftatues of all the god#
His laws an^ goddefTes were reprefented in armour, even to Ve*
concerning nus herfeU'; the reafon of which was, that the people
religion, might conceive a military life the moft noble and ho¬
nourable, and ftot attribute, as other nations did, floth
and luxury to the gods. As to facrifices, they con-
fifted of things of very fmall value ; for which Lycur-
gus himfelf gave this reafon, That want might never
hinder them from wor(hipping the gods. They were
forbidden to make long or ralh prayers to the heavenly
powers, and were injoined to alk no more than that
they might live honeftly and difeharge their duty.
Graves were permitted to be made within the bounds
©f the city, contrary to the cuftom of moll of the Greek
nations ; nay, they buried clofe by their temples, that
all degrees of people might be made familiar with
death, and not conceive it fuch a dreadful thing as it
was generally efteemed elfewhere: on the fame account,
the touching of dead bodies, or aflifting at funerals,
made none unclean, but were held to be as innocent
and honourable duties as any other. There was nothing
thrown into the grave with the dead body ; magnifi¬
cent fepulchres were forbidden ; neither was there fo
much as an infeription, however plain or modeft, permit¬
ted. Tears, fighs, outcries, were not allowed in public,
becaufe they were thought dilhonourable in Spartans,
whom their lawgiver would have to bear all things with
equanimity. Mourning was limited to x 1 days ; on
the 12th the mourner facrificed to Ceres, and threw
afide his weeds. In favour of fuch as were (lain in
the wars, however, and of women who devoted them*
felves to a religious life, there was an exception allowed
as to the rules before-mentioned j for fuch had a fhort
and decent infeription on their tombs. When a num¬
ber of Spartans fell in battle, at a diftance from their
country, many of them were buried together under one
common tomb ; but if they fell on the frontiers of their
own Hate, then their bodies were carefully carried back
1$ to Sparta, and interred in their family-iepulchres.
Concerning II. Tycurgus divided all the country of Laconia in-
30,000 equal fhares: the city of Sparta he divided
into 9000, as fome fay ; into 6000, as others fay ; and,
as a third party will have it, into 4500. The intent of
the legiflator was, that property Ihould be equally di¬
vided amongft his citizens, fo that none might be power¬
ful enough to opprefs his fellows, or any be in fuch ne-
ceffity, as to be therefrom in danger of corruption.
With the fame view he forbade the buying or felling
thefe pofieffions. If a flranger acquired a right to any
«f thefe lhares, he might quietly enjoy it, provided he
fubmitted to the laws of the republic. The city of
Sparta was unwalled mr Lycurgus trailing it rather to
the virtue of its citizens than to the art ©f mafons. As
to the houfes, they were very plain ; for their ceilings
could only be wrought by the axe, and their gates and
doors only by the law ; and their utenfils were to be
of a Hke ftamp, that luxury might have no inllruments
*7 among them.
aen^chi?' ^he citizens were to be neither more nor lefs
drei)' &c. t^C num^er °f city-lots ; and if at any time there
happened to be more, they were to be led out in co¬
lonies. As to children, their laws were equally harlh
and unreafonable; for a father was duelled to carry his
new-born infant to a certain place^ where the graveft
men of his tribe looked upon the infant; and if they ,
perceived its limbs llraight, and thought it had a whole-
fome look, then they returned it to its parents to be
educated ; otherwife it was thrown into a deep ca¬
vern at the foot of the mountain Taygetus. This law
feems to have had one very good effeft, viz. making
women very careful, when they were with child, of ei¬
ther eating, drinking, or exercifing, t© excefs : it made
them alfo excellent nurfes j for which they were in
mighty requell throughout Greece. Strangers were
not allowed to refide long in the city, that they might
not corrupt the Spartans by teaching them new cuf-
toms. Citizens were alfo forbid to travel, for the fame
reafon, unlefs the good of the Hate required it. Such
as were not bred up in their youth according to the
law, were not allowed the liberty of the city, becaufe
they held it unreafonable, that one who had not fub¬
mitted to the laws in his youth fhould receive the bene¬
fit of them when a man. They never preferred any
ftranger to a public office; but if at any time they had
occalion for a perfon not born a Spartan, they firft made
him a citizen, and then preferred him. jg
IV. Celibacy in men was infamous, and puniffied in Of celibacy
a moll extraordinary manner for the old bachelor wasand mar-
conftrained to walk naked, in the depth of winter, r*a£c*
through the market-place : while he did this, he was
obliged to ling a fong in difparagement of himfelf; and
he had none of the honours paid him which otherwife
belonged to old age, it being held unreafonablt, that
the youth fhould venerate him who was refelved to
leave none of his progeny behind him, to revere them
when they grew old in their turn. The time of mar¬
riage was alfo fixed ; and if a man did not marry when
he was of full age, he was liable to an adlion ; as were
fuch alfo as married above or below themfelves. Such
as had three children had great immunities; fuch as had
four were free from all taxes whatfoever. Virgins were
married without portions; becaufe neither want Ihould
hinder a man, nor riches induce him, to marry contrary
to his inclinations. When a marriage was agreed on,,
the hulband committed a kind of rape upon his bride.
Hulbands went lor a long time, fecretly and by Health,
to the beds of their wives,, that their love might not
be quickly and eafiiy extinguiihed. Hulbands were
allowed to lend their wives; but the kings were
forbid to take this liberty. Some other laws of the
like nature there were, which as they were evidently
againft modefty, fo they were far from producing the
end for which Lycurgus- defigned them ; fince, though
the men of Sparta were generally remarkable for their
virtue, the Spartan women were as generally decried for
their boldnels and contempt of decency.
V. It was the care of Lycurgus, that, from their Education
very birth* the Lacedemonians^ Ihould be inured to°f.their
conquer their appetites : for this reafon he dired* th‘ldrea>
ed, that nurfes Ihould accuftom their children to
Ipare meals, and now-and-then to falling; that they
Aould carry them, when 12 or 13 years old, to thole
who ffiould examine their education, and who Ihould
carefully obferve whether they were able to be in the
dark alone, and whether they had got over all other
follies and weakneffes incident to children. He diredt-
ed, that children of all ranks Ihould be brought up in
the fame way ; and that none Ihould be more favoured
ia food than another, that they might not, even in their
infancy.,.
S P A. [ 654 ] SPA
Spmi- inranc}', perceive any difference between poverty and
' ^ v riches, but confider each other as equals, and even as
brethren, to whom the fame portions were affigned,
and who, through the courfe of their lives, were to fare
.alike : the youths alone were allowed to eat flefh ; older
■ men ate their black broth and pulfe ; the lads llept to¬
gether in chambers, and after a manner fomewhat re¬
sembling that ftill in ufe in Turkey for the Janizaries:
their beds, in the hammer, were very hard, being com-
pofed of the reeds plucked by the hand from the banks
of the Eurotas: in winter their beds were fofter, but
by no means downy, or fit to indulge immoderate deep.
. They ate altogether in public; and in cafe any attain¬
ed from coming to the tables, they were fined. It was
likewife ftridUy forbidden for any to eat or drink at
home before they came to the common meal; even then
each had his proper portion, that eveiy thing might be
done there with gravity and decency. The black broth
was the great rarity of the Spartans, which was coiri-
pofed of fait, vinegar, blood, &c. fo that, in our times,
it would be efteemed a very unfavoury foup. If they
were moderate in their eating, they were fo in their
drinking alfo ; third was the foie meafnre thereof; and
never any Lacedemonian thought of drinking for plea-
fure : as for drunkemefs, it was both infamous and fe-
verely punifhed ; and, that young men might perceive
the reafon, fiaves were compelled to drink to excefs, that
the beadlinefs of the vice might appear. When they
retired from the public meal, they were not allowed any
torches or lights, becaufe it was expe&ed; that men
who were perfettly fober {hould be able to find their
way in the dark : and, befides, it gave them a facility
of marching without light; a thing wonderfully ufeml
to them in time of war.
Of their VI. As the poor ate as well as the rich, fo the rich
diet,cloth - coulg Wear nothing better than the poor: they neither
l«gi changed their fafliion nor the materials of their gar¬
ments ; they were made for warmth and drength, not
for gallantry and fliow: and to this cuftom even their
kings conformed, who wore nothing gaudy in right of
their dignity, but were contented that their virtue
thould didinguifh them rather than their clothes. The
youths wore a tunic till they were twelve years old ; af¬
terwards they had a cloak given them, which was to
ferve them a year: and their clothing was, in general,
fo thin, that a Lacedemonian ved became proverbial.
Boys were always ufed to go without fiioes; but when
they grew up, they were indulged with them, if the man¬
ner of life they led required it ; but they were always
inured to run without them, as alfo to climb up and
flip down deep places with bare feet: nay, the very
fhoe they ufed was of a particular form, plain and
firong. Boys were not permitted to wear tlteir hair;
but when they arrived at the age of twenty, they fuf-
fered their hair and beard to grow. Baths and anoint¬
ing were not much in ufe among the Lacedemonians ;
the river Eurotas'fupplied the former, and exercife the
latter. In the field, however, their fumptuary laws did
not take place xo ftrictly ae in the city; tor when they
we to war, they wore purple habits ; they put on
crowns when Urey were about to engage the enemy ;
they had alfo rings, but they were of iron ; which me-
tal was mod edeemed by this nation. Young women
wore their veds or jerkins only to their knees, or, as
Jiome think, not quite fo low; a cudom which both
Greek and Roman authors cenfure as indecent. Gold, Spam,
precious dones, and other codly ornaments, were per-
mitted only to common women ; which permiflion was
the ftronged prohibition to women of virtue, or who af¬
fected to be thought virtuous. Virgins went abroad
without veils, with which married women, on the con¬
trary, were always covered. In certain public exercifes,
in which girls were admitted as well as boys, they were
both obliged to perform naked. Plutarch apologifes
for this cudom, urging, that there could be no danger
from nakednefs to the morals of youth whofe minds
were fortified and habituated to virtue. One of Ly-
curgus’s principal views in his inditutions, was to era¬
dicate the very feeds of civil diffenfion in his x'epublic*
Hence proc«eded the equal divifion of edates injoined
by him ; hence the contempt of wealth, and the negleCt
of other didinCtions, as particularly birth, he confider-
ing the people of his whole date as one great family j
didinCtions which, in other commonwealths, frequently
produce tumults and confufions that {hake their very
foundation. 4J
VII. Though the Spartans were always free, yet itobedience
was with this redriCtion, that they were fubfervieht tot" theirfu-
their own laws, which bound them as driCtly in the city PeriofSs
as foldiers, in other dates, were bound by the rules of
war in the camp. In the fird place, driCt obedience to
their fuperiors was the great thing required in Sparta.
This they looked upon as the veryhafis of government;
without which neither laws nor magidrates availed much.
Old age was an indubitable title to honour in Sparta :
to the old men the youth roie up whenever they came
into any public place ; they gave way to them when
they met them in the dreets, and were filent whenever
their elders fpoke. n As all children were looked upon
as the children of the date, fo all the old men had the
authority of parents : they reprehended whatever they
faw amifs, not only in their own, but in other people’s
children^; and by this method Lycurgus provided, that
as youth are everywhere apt to offend, they might be
nowhere without a monitor. The laws went dill fur¬
ther : if an old man was prefent where a young one
committed a fault, and did not reprove him, he was
punidied equally with the delinquent. Amongd the
youths there was one of their own body, or at mod
two years older than the red, who was dyled iren : he
had authority to quedion all their actions, to look
ilridtly to their behaviour, and to punilh them if they
did amifs ; neither were their punifirments light, but,
on the contrary, very fevere ; whereby the youth were
made hardy, and accudomed to bear llripes and rough
ufage. Silence was a thing highly commended at Spar¬
ta, where modedy was held to be a mod becoming vir¬
tue in young people; nor was it redrained only to their
words and aftions, but to their very looks and gedures;
Lycurgus having particularly diredted, that they {hould
look forward, or on the ground, and that they fhould
always keep their hands within their robes. A dupxd
inconfiderate perfon, one who would not liden to in-
dru&ion, but was carelefs of whatever the^world might
fay of him, the Lacedemonians treated as a fcandal to
human nature; with fuch an one they would not con-
verfe, but threw him off as a rotten branch and worth-
lefs member of fociety. it
VIII. The plainnefs of their manners, and their be- Lea n.ng
ing fo very much addicted to war, made the Lacede¬
monians
S P A
SParta‘ , womans lefs fond of the fciences than the refl of the
" ' Greeks. A foldier was the only reputable profeffion
ill Spa.ta $ a mechanic or hufbandman was thought a
low fellow. The reafon of this was, that they ima^i.
ned profeffions which required much labour, feme con-
llant pofture, beinq' continually in the houfe, or always
about a fire, weakened the body and deprefled the
mind : whereas a man brought up hardily, was equally
fit to attend the fervice of the republic in time of
pea^e, and to fight its battles when engaged in war.
Such occupations as were neceffary to be followed for
the benefit of the whole, as hufbandry, agriculture,
and the like, were left to their (laves the Helotes ; but
for cuiious arts, and fuch as ferved only to luxury, they
would not fo much as fufifer them to be introduced in
their city ; m confequence of which, rhetoricians, au¬
gurs, bankers, and dealers in money, were fhut out.
The Spartans admitted not any of the theatrical diver-
fions among them ; they would not bear the reprefenta-
t.on of evil even to produce good ; but other kinds of
poetry were admitted, provided the magiftrates had the
perufal of pieces before they were handed to the pub¬
lic. ’ l
Above all things, they affe&ed brevity of fpeech,
and accuftomed their children, from their very infancy,
never to exprefs themfelves in more words than were
flndtly neceflary; whence a conciie and fententious ora-
tory is to this day ftyled Laconic. In writing they ufed
the fame conciienefs; of which we have afignal inftance
m a letter of Archidamus to the Eleans, when he un-
derftood that they had fome thoughts of afiifting the
Arcadians. . It ran thus: “ Archidamus to the Eleans-
is good to be quiet.” And therefore Epaminondas
thougnt that he had reafon to glory in having forced
tne Spartans to abandon their monofyllables, and to
lengthen their difeourfes.
. ^ &reateft part of their education confifted in gi-
ymg their youth tight ideas of men and things : the
iren or matter propofed queftions, and either comrnend-
C( t“e anfwers that were made him, or reproved fuch
as anfwered weakly. In thefe queftions, ail matters,
eitner of a trivial or abftrufe nature, were equally avoid¬
ed ; and they were confined to fuch points as were of
the higheft importance in civil life; fuch as, Who was
the belt man in the city ? Wherein lay the merit of
fuch an action ? and, 'Whether this or that hero’s fame
was well-founded ? Harmlcfs raillery was greatly en¬
couraged ; and this, joined to their fnort"manner of
Jpeaking, rendered laconic replies univerfally admired.
Aiuiic was much encouraged; but in this, as in other
things, they adhered to that which had been in favour
with their anceftors; nay, they were fo ftrieft therein,
that they would not permit their flaves to learn either
the tune or the words of their moft admired odes ; or,
which is aH one, they would not permit them to finig
them if they had learned them. Though the youth of
the male fex were much cherifhed and beloved, as thofe
that were to build up and continue the future glory of
the ftate, yet in Sparta it was a virtuous and modeft af-
fection, untinged with that fenfiiality which was fo
fcandalous at A thens. The good effeds of this part of
i Cl,rfIS s inlt't.utlons were feen in the union that
reigned among his citizens; and which was fo extra¬
ordinary, that even in cafes of competition, it washard-
"y knovva that nvals bore ill-will to each other; but,
f 655 1
SPA
on the contrary, their love to the fame perfoa begat a Spam,
iecondary fnendfhip among themfelves, and united fhem ^v—
fon^belovef WhlCH miSht bC ^ thS benefit of the l3er*
Some authors have accufed this great lawgiver of en¬
couraging theft m his inftitutions ; which, they fay,
was not held fcandalous among the Spartans, if it were
io dexteroutty managed as that the perfon was not de-
teded in it. But this is certain, and feems to be a
Lrong contradidion of the heinous charge, that when a
theft was difeovered, it was punifhed with the utmoft;
leventy a perfon even fufpeded of it would endure
the heavieft punittiments rather than acknowledge it,
and be branded with fo bafe a crime. &
• [’he exercifes inftituted by law fall under the Exercf^
ninth table. In thefe all the Greeks were extremely
caretiil, but the Lacedemonians in a degree beyond
f relt ’ ‘or, l[ a y°uth» by his corpulence, or any
other means, became unfit for thefe exercifes, he under¬
went public contempt at leaft, if not banifhment.—
riuntmg was the utual diverfion of their children ; nay,
it was made a part of their education, becaufe it had
a tendency to ftrengthen their limbs, and to render
thofe who pradifed it fupple and fleet: they likewife
bred up cogs for hunting with gteat care. They had
a kind of public dances, in which they exceedingly de¬
lighted, and which were common'alike to virgins and
young men : mdeed, in all their fports, girls were allow-
that TV mfuVeS-With the yOUths’ bifomuch
ihat, at darting, throwing the quoit, pitching the
bar, and fuch-like robuft diverfions, the women were as
dexterous as the men. For the manifeft oddity of this
proceeding, Lycurgus affigned no other reafon, than
that he fought to render women, as well as men, ftrong
and healthy, that the children they brought forth might
r r ° 00‘ . 10 e.n^ exerciLs, and a laborious kind of
lue, were only enjoined the youth ; for when they were
- grown up to mens eftate, that is, were upwards of 30
years old, they were exempted from ail kinds of labour,
and employed themfelves wholly either in affairs of flat-
or in war. 1 hey had a method of whipping, at a cer-
tam time, young men in the temple of Liana, and about
uer aitar ; which, however palliated, was certainly urn
natural and cruel. It was efteemed a great honour
to fultain thefe flagellations without weeping, groan¬
ing, or fhowmg any fenfe of pain; and the thirfi:
of glory was fo ftrong m thele young minds, that they
very frequently frittered death without (bedding a tear
or breathing a figh. A defire of overcoming all the
ucaknefles of human nature^ and thereby rendering his
opartans not only fupenor to their neighbours, but to
tuen Ipecies, runs through many of the inftitutions of
Lycurgus ; which principle, if well attended to, tho¬
roughly explains them, and without attending to which
it is impoffible to give any account of them at all.
X. Gold and iilver were, by the conttitutions ofMoner v
Lycurgus, made of no value in Sparta. He was fo &V ‘
well apprized of the danger of riches, that he made the
very poffeffion of them venal but as there was no li-
wng wrthout fome fort of money, that is, fome common
meafure or ftandard of the worth of things, he direft-
ed an iron coinage whereby the Spartans were fun- *
phed with the ufeful money, and at the fame time had
no temptation to covetoufnefs afforded them ; for a very
imall fum was fuffiueot to load a couple of hones, and' ,
SPA
[ 656 ]
SPA
Sparta,
15
Courts of
j-aftice.
■16
Military
fervtce.
a ffreat one muft have -been kept in a bam or ware-
' houfe. The coming in of all foreign money was aifo
prohibited, that corruption might not enter under the
name of commerce. The moll ancient method of deal¬
ing, viz. by barter, or exchange of one commodity lor
another, was pveferved by law in Sparta long after it
had been out of date everywhere elfe. Interdl was a
thing forbidden in the Spartan commonwealth ; where
they had alfo a law againft alienation of lands, accepting
preftnts from foreigners, even without the limits of
their own country, and when their authority and cua-
racber might well feem to excufe them.
XI. Such of the laws of Sparta as related to courts of
iuftice may be brought under the nth table. Thirty
years mull have paffed over the head of him who had
a right to concern himfelf in juridical proceedings.
Young men were thought unfit for them ; and it was
even held indecent, and of ill report, for a man to
have any fondnefs for law-fuits, or to be bufying him¬
felf at the tribunals, when he had no affairs there of
his own. By thefe rules Lycurgus thought to fhut
out litigioufnefs, and to prevent that multiplicity of
fuits which is always fcandalous in a ftate. As young
people were not permitted to inquire about the laws
of other countries, and as they were hindered from
hearing judicial proceedings in their courts, fo t ey
were likewiie forbidden to aflc any queftions about, or
to endeavour to difcover, the reafons of the laws by
which themfelves were governed. Obedience was their
duty • and to that alone they would have them kept.
Men of abandoned char afters, or who were notonoufiy
of ill fame, loft all right of giving their v»tes in refpeft
of public affairs, or of fpeaking in public afTembhes ;
for they would not believe that an ill man in private
life could mean his country better than he did his neigh-
b°XIl. Till a man was 30 years old, he was not ca¬
pable of ferving in the army, as the beft authors agree ;
though feme think that the military age « not ^ell
afeertained by ancient writers. They were forbidden
to march at any time before the full-moon ; the rea-
fon of which law is very hard to be difcovered, if in¬
deed it had any reafon at all, or was not rather founded
on fome fnperftitious opinion, that this was a more
lucky conjunfture than any other. They were hke-
wife forbidden to fight often againft the fame enemy ;
which was one of the wifeft maxims in the political
fyftem of Lycurgus: and Agefilaus, by offending a-
Jainft it, deftroyed the power of his country, and loft
her that authority which for many ages fhe maintain¬
ed over the reft of Greece ; for, by continually war¬
ring againft the Thebans, to whom he had an invete¬
rate hatred, he at laft beat them into the knowledge
of the art of war, and enabled them, under the com¬
mand of Epaminondas, to maintain for a time the prin¬
cipality of Greece. Maritime affairs they were forbid¬
den to meddle with, though the neceffity of things com¬
pelled them, in procefs of time, to tranfgrefs this inititu-
tion, and by degrees to transfer to themfelves the donu-
pion of the fea as well as of the land: but, after the Pelo-
ponnefian war, they again neglefted naval affairs, from a
perfuaiion that failors and ftrangers corrupted thofe with
whom they converfed. As they never fortified Sparta,
they were not ready to undertake lieges : fighting in
the fifU was their proper province, and, while they
could overcome their enemies there, they rightly con¬
ceived that nothing could hurt them at home. In
time of war, they relaxed fomewhat of their ftrift man¬
ner of living, in which they were Angular. The true
reafon for this was, in all probability, that war might
be lefs burdenfeme to them; for, as we have more than
once obferved, a ilrong defire to render them bold and
warlike was the reigning paffion of their legiflator. They
were forbidden to remain long encamped in the fame
place, as well to hinder their being furprifed, as that
they might be more troublefome to their enemies, by
wafting every corner of their country. They flept all
night in their armour; but their outguards were not
allowed their (hields, that, being unprovided of de¬
fence, they might not dare to fleep. In all expeditions
they were careful in the performance of religious rites;
and, after their evening-meal was over, the foldiers fung
together hymns to their gods. When they were about
to engage, the king' facnficed to the mufes, that, by
their affiftance, they might be enabled to perform
deeds worthy of being recorded to lateft times. Then
the at my advanced in order to the found of flutes,
which played the hymn of Caftor. The king himfelf
fung the paean, which was the flgnal to charge. I his
was done with all the folemnity imaginable ; and the
foldiers were fure either to die or conquer : indeed they
had no otherjchoice; for if they fled they were infamous,
and in danger of being (lain, even by their own mo¬
thers, for difgracing their families. In this confiftecl
all the excellency of the Spartan women, who, if pof-
fible, exceeded in bravery the men, never lamenting
over hufbands or fons, if they died honourably in the
field; but deploring the fhame brought on their houfe,
if either the one or the other efcaped by flight. The
throwing away a fhield alfo induced infamy; and, with
refpeft to this, mothers, when they embraced their de¬
parting fons, were wont to caution them, that they
fhould cither return armed as they were, or be brought
back fo when they were dead ; for, as we have obfer¬
ved, fuch as were flain in battle were neverthelefs buri¬
ed in their own country. When they made their ene¬
mies fly, they purfued no longer than till viftory was
certain ; becaufe they would feem to fight rather for
the honour of conquering, than of putting their ene¬
mies to death. According to their excellent rules @£
war, they were bound not to fpoil the dead bodies of
their enemies $ but in procefs of time, this, and indeed
many other of their moft excellent regulations, fell into
defuetude. He who overcame by ftratagem, oftered
up an ox to Mars ; whereas he who conquered by
force, offered up only a cock ; the former being efteem-
ed more manly than the latter. After 40 years fer-
vice, a man was, by law, no longer required to go mto
the field ; and confequently, if the military age was 30,
the Spartans were not held invalids till they were 70.
SPARTIANUS (iElius), a Latin hiftonan, who
wrote the lives of Adrian, Caracalla, and four other
Roman emperors. He lived under the reigu ot D10-
clefian, about the year 290.
SPARTIUM, Broom, m botany : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of diadelphia, and order of decan-
dr m ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 32d
order, PapUionacete. The fligma is longitudinal and wool¬
ly above : the filaments adhere to the germen. ihe ca¬
lyx is produced downwards. There are 10 q?ec’e»»
6
Spartium
SPA
'tmrnal Je
\ flyfitpie.
the fcoparium, contaminatum, fepiarlam, junceum, mo-
nofpermum, fphoerocarpon, purgans, aphyllum, fcorpms,
angulatum, patens, fupranulium, complicatum, radiatum,
cytifoides, and fpinofum. AH thefe, except the fcoparium,
are exotics, chiefly from Spain, Portugal, Italy, &c.—
'I he fcopariurr, or common broom, has ternate folitary
leaves; the branches angular, and without prickles.
Ufes. The common broom is ufed for a variety of
purpofes. It has been of great benefit fometimes in
dropfical complaints. The manner in which Dr Cul¬
len adminiltered- it was this : He ordered half an ounce
o frefli broom tops to be boiled in a pound of water
till one halt of the water was evaporated. He then
gave two tabie-fpoonhils of the decodfion every hour till
it opuated both by ftool and urine. By repeating
thefe dofes every day, or every fecond day, he fays fome
drop ties have been cured. Dr Mead relates, that a dropfi¬
cal patient, who had taken the uiual remedies, and been
tapped three times without effeft, was cured by taking
halt a pint of the decodtion of green broom tops, with a
poonfulofwholemuflard feed every morning and evening.
“ An infufion of the feeds drunk freely (lays Mr Wi
thermo) has been known to produce limilar happy ef-
ft'&s ; but whoever expefts thefe effe&s to follow in
every dropfical cafe, will be greatly deceived. I knew
them fucceed in one cafe that was truly deplorable ; but
out of a great number of cafes in which the medicine
had a fair trial, this proved a fingle inttance.”
I he flower buds are in fome countries pickled, and
eaten as capers ; and the feeds have been ufed as a bad
fubftitute lor coffee. I he branches are ufed lor ma¬
king befoms, and tanning leather. They are alfo ufed
inllead of thatch to cover ho ufes. The old wood fur-
niflies the cabinet maker with beautiful materials for
vaneering. The tender branches are in fome places
mixed with hops for brewing, and the macerated bark
may be manufactured! into cloth.
1 junceum, or Spanifh broom, grows naturally in
tne fouthern provinces of France, as well as other parts
of the louth of Europe. It grows in the poorelt foils,
on the fteepeft declivities of the hills, in a llony foil,
where hardly any other plant could vegetate. In a few
years it makes, a vigorous fhrub ; infinuating its roots
between, the interflices of the Hones, it binds the foil,
and retains the frnall portion of vegetable earth fcatter-
ed over thefe hills, which the autumnal rains would o-
therwife walh away. It is molt eafily raifed from feed,
winch is ufually fown in January, after the ground has
received a flight, drelfing.
* his flirub ferves two ufeful purpofes. Its branches
yield a thread of which linen is made, and in winter fup-
port Iheep and goats.
In maruiraftumig thread from broom, the youngelf
plants are cut in the month of Augutt, or after haivefi,
and gathered together in bundles, which at firlt are laid
in the lun to dry : they are then beaten with a piece of
wood, wafted in a river or pond, and left to lleep in
the water for about four hours. The bundles thus
prepaied are taken to a little diftance from the water,
and laid in a hollow place made for them, where they
are covered with fern or ftraw, and remain thus to fteep
tor tight or nine days ; during which time, all that is
neceflary, is to throw a little water once a-day on the
heap without uncovering the broom. After this, the
bunches aie well waflred, the green rind of the plant or
VOL.XVII. Part II. r
f 657 1
S P A
epidermis comes off, and the fibrous part remains; each -S: aiiu-r,
bunule is then beaten with a wooden hammer upon a sPai‘u*-
itone, to detach all the threads, which are at the fame
time carefully drawn to the extremity of the branches.
Iter this operation, the faggots are untied, and fpread
upon ft ones or rocks till they are dry. The twigs muft
not be peeled t,ll they ate perfeftly dry ; they are then
drefied with the comb, and the threads are feparated ac-
cording to their fineneis, and fpun upon a wheel.
. ^ he linen made of this thread ferves vaiious purpofes
in rural economy. The coarfeft is employed in makino-
iacks and other ftrong cloths for carrying grain o”r
feeds. Of the fineft. is made bed, table, and body li~
ntn. 1 he peafants in feveral places life no other, for
they are unacquainted with the culture of hemo or flax,
their foil being too dry and too barren for raifino- them.
I he cloth made with the thread of the broom'is very
uleiul; it is as foft as that made of hemp ; and it would
perhaps look as well as that made of flax if it was
more carefully fpun. It becomes white in proportion
?s .ll fteeped. The price of the fineft thread, when
it is fold, which feldom happens, is generally about a
muling a-pound.
.1 fte. other ufe to which this broom is applied, is to
maintain Iheep and goats during winter. In the mountains
ot Dower Languedoc thefe animals have no other food
from November to April, except the leaves of trees pre-
lerved. I he branches of this broom therefore are a re-
lource the more precious, that it is the only frtfh nou-
11 ment which at that leafon the flocks can procure,
and they prefer it at all times to every other plant. In
fine weather the Iheep. are led out to feed on the broom
where it grows ; but in bad weather the /hepherds cut
the branches, and bring them to the ftieep folds. There
is, however, an inconvenience attending the continued
ufe of this food. It generally produces inflammation in
the urinary paflages. But this inconvenience is eafily
removed by cooling drink, or a change of food, or by
mixing the broom with fomething elfe.
It is perhaps needlefs to add, that it differs much
irom the broom that is common everywhere in the north
of Lurope, though this too, in many places, is ufed for
food to cattle. Both of them produce flowers that
are veiy much reforted to by bees, as they contain a
great quantity of honey juice. And this fhould be
another inducement to the cultivation of the Spanifh
bioom. r
SPARUS, Gilthead, in natural hiflory ; a genus
of animals belonging to the clafs of pifees, and the order
of thoracia. The fore-teeth and dog-teeth are very
ftrong ; the grinders are obtufe and thick -fet ; the lips
are folded over ; there are five rays in the pill mem¬
brane ; and the opercula are fcaly : the body is com-
prelied ; the lateral line is crooked behind ; and the pec-
toral fins are roundifh. 1
Gmelin.enumerates 39 fpecies, of which only three
aie found in the Britifli feas, the pagrus, auratus, and
dentatus. '. The pagrus, or fea-bream, is of a reddifh
colour. The. fkin forms a linus at the roots of the dor-
fal and anal fins. The body is broad ; the back and
belly ridged. There is only one dorfal fin. 2. The
auratus, or gilt-bream. The head and fides of it are
gilt, and there is a golden fpot between the eyes fliaped
like a half-moon ; there is alio a black purple fpot on the
gifts; and it weighs from eight lb. to ten lb. It is one
4 O of
•v-ir
S; aTm
1!'
Speaker^
spe r 658 ] s 1 1
is, r Kr tWai Inilnts deet) waters on as chairman or prefident in putting qtfeftio'ns, rfadib£ speaking-
They feed chiefly on fliell-fifh, briefs, of bills, keeping order, reprimanding the refrae- g ll.f^
bold rocky 1 •, - . , before they tory, adjourning the houle, &c. See I armament.
which they «*.««.»« wtth the.r_t«th>bc»o.«ithey the or aa of expreffin.^ont'S
articulate founds or words. See Gram
fwallow; the teeth of this genus in particular being
adapted for that purpofe : the grinders are flat and
firoitg, like thofe of certain quadrupeds: b'ehdes which
there are certain bones in the lower part of the moat
that afiift in grinding their food. They are but a
coarfe fllh : they were known to the Romans, who cut
Pot elteem them nnlefs^they were led with Lucnne oy-
flers, as Martial informs us,
Non omnh tauclem pretiumque A u rat A meretur,
S'ed aid foms erit concha Lucrina cihus. .
* Lib. xin. Lp. 90.
o; The dent atm, toothed fea-bream, is black above, and
of a fllvery appearance below. The eyes and gills arc
very large. There are nine row's of teeth in the lower
taw, and one in the upper. .
In the account of Captain Cook 3 voyage pubhfhed
bv Mr Forfler, we are informed, that the giltheads are
fometimes poifonous, owing to their feeding on certain
fpecies of the raja, which have an extremely acrid and
rtimulating property. , 0
SPASM, a convulfion. See Medicine, n 270.
STATHA, in botany, a {heath ; a fpecies of ca¬
lyx which bitrils lengthwife, and protrudes a flalk fup-
porting one or more flowers, which commonly have no
perianthium or flower-cup. . .
SPATHACEiE (from fpatha, “ a (heath ), the
name of the r.inth order in Linnams’s Fragments of a
Natural Method confiding of plants whole flowers are
protruded from a fpatka or (heath. See Botany,
P‘ SPATHELIA, in botany ; a genus of plants be-
fonging to the clafs of pentandna, and to the order of
tJ'ynt 't he calyx is pentaphyllons ; the petals are
five ; the capfule is three-edged and tnlocular ; the feeds
folitary. There is only one fpecies, x\xjimpkx, which
is a native of Jamaica, and was introduced into the bo¬
tanic gardens of this country in 1778 by Dr Wright,
late of Jamaica.
SPAW. See Spa.
SPAWN, in natural hiftory, the eggs of rimes 01
frogs. See Ftsh and Ran A.
SPAVENTO. See Sc an to.
SPAVIN, in the manege, a difeate in hories, being
a f,veiling or ftiffnefs, ufually in the ham, occafiomng
a lamenefs. See Farriery, $ 29. .
SPAYING, or Spading, the operation of cattra-
tlftcr the females of feveral kinds of animals, as fows,
bitches, &c. to prevent any further conception, and
promote their fattening. It is performed by cutting
them in the mid flank, on the left fide, with a (harp
knife or lancet, taking out the uterus, and cutting it
off and fo ditching up the wound, anointing the part
with tar, and keeping the animal warm for two or
three days. The ufual way is to make the incihon
all ope, two inches and a half long ; that the fore-finger
may be put in towards the back, to feel for the ovaries,
which arc two kernels as big as acorns on both fides of
the uterus, one of which is drawn to the wound, and
thus both taken out.
SPEAKER of the Houfe of Commons, a member of
the houfe eledted by a majority of votes thereof to a£t
Gravity.
thoughts in ...  ^
mar, Language, Reading* and Oratory, Part iv,
Steaking-T) umpet. See Trumpet.
SPEAR-Mint, in botany. See Mentha.
SpRAR-lVort. See Ranunculus.
SPECIAL, fomething that is particular, or has a
particular delignation ; from the Latin fpecies, in oppo-
lition to the general, from genus.
SPECIES, in logic, a relative term, exprefiing an
idea which is compriied under iome general one called a
genus- See Logic, 11 68.
Species, in commerce, the feveral pieces of gold*
filver, copper, &c. which having pafl'ed their full
preparation and coinage:, are current in public. Set,
Money.
SPECIFIC, in philofophy, that which is peculiar to
any thing, and diflinguiflies it from all others.
Specifics, in medicine. By fpecifics is not meant
fuch as infallibly and in all patients produce falutary
efledts. Such medicines are not to be expefted, be-
caufe the operations and effe&s of remedies are not
formally inherent in them, but depend upon the imu
tual action and rea&ion of the body and medicine upon
each other ; hence the various effects of the fame me¬
dicine in the fame kind of diforders in different pa¬
tients, and in the fame patient at different times. By
fpecitic medicines we underhand fuch medicines as are
more infallible than any other in any particular dif-
order. .
'SrRcrrtc Gravity, is a term much employed in the
difeuflions of modern phyfics. It expreffes the weight
of any particular kind of matter, as compared with the
weight of the fame bulk of fome other body of which
the weight is fuppofed to be familiarly known, and is
therefore taken for the ftandard of companion. The
body generally made ufe of for this purpofe is pure wai¬
ter. See Hydrostatics, Seel. III.
The fpecific gravity of bodies is a very interefting
queftion both to the philofopher and to the man of
bufinefs. The philofopher confiders the weights of bodies
as meafures of the number of material atoms, or the
quantity of matter which they contain. I his he does
on the fuppofition that every atom of matter is of the
fame weight, whatever may be its fenfible form; This
fuppofition, however, is made by him with caution, and-
he has recourfe to fpecific gravity for afcertaming its
truth in various ways. This (hall be eonfidered by and
by. The man of bufinefs entertains no doubt of the
matter, and proceeds on it as a fare guide in his moft
iaterefting tranfa&ions. We meafure commodities o£
various kinds by tons, pounds, and ounces, in the fame
manner as we meafure them by yards, feet, and inches, or.
bv bufhels, gallons, and pints ; nay, we do this with
much greater confidence, and prefer this meafutement
to all others, whenever we are much mterefted to know
the exaft proportions of matter that bodies contain.
The weight o! a quantity of grain is allowed to mlorm-
us much more exaftly ot its real quantity of ufeful mat¬
ter than the molt accurate meafure of its bulk. We lee
many circumftances which can vary the bulk of a quail,
titv of matter, and thefe are frequently fuch as we ean-
; not
f
S P E I 659 ] S P E
nppdU jjot regwkte or prevent; bpt we knovy very fcsy indeed
G-ravjty, tiKit piake any fenlible ciuinje in this \yeight vyith-
out the addition or. al?iira6Lion of other matter. Even
taking it to the fum-mit of a high fountain, or from the
equator to the polar region, will make no change in its
weight as it is afeertained by the balance, becaule there
is the fame real diminution of weiglit■ in the pounds and
ounces ufed in the examination.
Notwithllanding- the unavoidable change which heat
and cold make in the bulk of bodies, and the permanent
’varieties of the fame kind of matter which are cauled
by different circumitances of growth, texture, &c. molt
kinds of matter have a certain conftancy in the denfity
of their particles, and therefore in the weight of a given
bulk. Thus the purity of gold, and its degree of adul¬
teration, may be inferred from its weight, it being purer
in proportion as it is more denie. dhc denfity, there¬
fore, of dufferent kinds of tangible matter becomes cha-
ra&enltic of the kind, and a teif of its purity ; it marks
a particular appearance in which matter exilts, and may
therefore be called, with propriety, Specific.
lint this denfity cannot be diredtly obferved. It is
not by comparing the diltances between the atoms ot
matter in gold and in water that we fay the hril is 19
times denier than the lalt, and that an inch of gold con¬
tains 19 times as many material atoms as an inch of
water ; we reckon on the equal gravitation of every
atom of matter whether ot gold or of water ; therefore
the weight of any body becomes the indication of its
material denfity, and the weight of a given bulk be¬
comes fpecilic of that kind of matter, marking its kind,
and even afeertaining its purity in this form.
It is evident that, in order to make this companion
of ,general ufe, the ttandard mud be familiarly known,
and muft be very uniform in its denhty, and the cam-
par ifon oPbulk and denlity muff be eafy and accurate.
The moft obvious method would be tp form, vviih all
nicety, a piece of the ilandard matter of feme qonveni-
ent bulk, and to weigh it very exactly, and keep a. note
of its weight: then, to make the comparifon of any other
fubitance, it muit be made into a mats of the fame pre-
cife bulk, and weighed with equal care ; and the moft
convenient way of exprefling the fpeciiic gravity would
be to coniider the weight of the ftaudard as unity, and
.then the number exprefling the fpecific gravity is the
number of times that the weight of the ftandard is con¬
tained in that of the other fubfiance. This comparifon
is mofl eafily and accurately made in fluids. We have
only to make a veflel of known dimenfions equal to
that of the ftandard which we employ, and to weigh it
when empty, and then when filled with the fluid. Eay,
the moft difficult part of the procefs, the making a
vefi'cl of the precife dimenfions of the ftandard, may be
avoided, by ufing feme fluid fubftance for a ftandard.
.Any vefiel will then do ; and we may enfure very great
accuracy by uiing a veflel with a flender neck, fuch ap
.a phial o; matrafs ; for when this is filled to a certain
mark in the neck, any error in the eftirnation by the
eye will bear a very {mail proportion to the whole. I he
weight of the flandard fluid which fills it to this mark
.being carefully afeertained, is kept in remembrance. The
fpecific gravity of any other fluid is had by weighing
the contents of this vefiel when filled with it, and divi¬
ding the weight by the weight of the ftandard. The quo-
tent is the fptcilic gravity of the fluid. But in all other
cafes this i_s a very difficult problem: it requires veny nice
hands, and an accurate eye, to make two bodies of the
fame bulk. An error of one hundredth part in. the
linear dimenfions of a folid body makes an error of a
30th part in its bulk ; and bodies of irregular fbapes and
friable fubftance, fuch as the ores of metals, cannot be.
brought into convenient and exafl dimennons for mea-
furement.
Erom all thefe inconveniences and difficulties we are
freed by the celebrated Archimedes, who, from the prin¬
ciples of hydrollatics difeovered or eftabliftied by him,
deduced the accurate and eafy method which is now
univerfally pra&ifed for difeoyering the fpecific gravi¬
ty and denfity of bodies. (See Archimedes and Hy¬
drostatics, iffi 11.) Inftead of meafuring the bulk of
the body by that of the difplaced fluid (which would
have been impofllble for Archimedes to do with any
thing like the neceflary precifion), we have only to qb-
ferve the lots of weight fuflained by the folid. This can
be done with great eafe and exatlnefi;. Whatever may
be the bulk of the body, this lofs of weight is the
.weight of an equal bulk of the fluid; and we obtain the
fpecific gravity of the body by Amply dividing its whole
weight by the weight loft : the quotient is the ipeciflc
gravity when this fluid is taken for the ftandard, even
though we fliould not knovy the ablolute weight of any-
given bulk of this ftandard. It alfo gives us an eaiy
and accurate method of afeertaining even this fundamen¬
tal point. We have only to form any folid body into au
exadt cube, fphere, ox prifm, of known dimenfions, and
oblerye what weight it loies when-immerfed in this
ftandard fluid. This is the weight of the fame bulk of
the ftandard to be kept in remembrance ; and thus we
obtain, by the by, a moil eafy and accurate method
for meafuring the bulk or folid contents of any body,
however irregular its fhape may be. We have only to
fee how much weight it lofes in the ftandard fluid ; we
can compute wlvit quantity or the ftandard fluid will
have this weight. Thus fliould we find that a quantity
of land, or a furze bufh, lotes 250 ounces when immer-
led in pure water, we learn by this that the folid mea-
fure of every grain of the fand, or of every twig and
prickle of the furze, when added into one fum, amounts
to the fourth part of a cubic foot, or to 432 cubic in¬
ches.
To all thefe advantages of the Archimedean method
of afeertaining the fpecific gravity of bodies, derived
from his hydrollatical dodtrines and difcoveries, we may-
add, that the immediate flandard ot companion, namely,
water, is, of all the fubftances that we know, the fitted,
for the purpofe of an univerfal ftandard ot reference.
In its ordinary natural flate it is fufficiently conftant and
uniform in its weight for every examination where the
utmoll mathematical accuracy is not wanted ; all its
variations arife from impurities, from which it may at
all times be leparated by the fimple procefs of diflilla-
tion : and we have every reafon to think that when
pure, its denfity, when of the lame temperature, is in¬
variable.
Water is therefore univerfally taken for the unit of
that fcale on which we meafure the fpecific gravity of
bodies, and its weight is called 1. The ipecific gravity
of any other body is the real weight in pounds and
ounces, when of the bulk of one pound or one ounce of
water. It is therefore of the firft importance, in all
4 O 2 dft-
Sp.eclfie
Gravity.
S P E r 660 1 S P E
Specific Uifcuffions refpe&ing the fpecific gravity of bodies, to
Gravity. jlaye ^ prec;fe weight of fome known bulk of pure
'v water. We have taken fome pains to examine and com¬
pare the experiments on this fubjeft, and {hall endea¬
vour to afcertain this point with the precifion which it
-defervcs. We (hall reduce all to the Engliih cubic foot
and avoirdupois ounce of the Exchequer ftandard, on
account of a very convenient circumitance peculiar to
this unit, viz. that a cubic foot contains almoft precifely
a thoufand ounces of pure water, fo that the fpecific
gravity of bodies exprelfes the number of fuch ounces
contained in a cubic foot.
We begin with a trial made before the houfe of com¬
mons in 1696 by Mr Everard. He weighed 2141;,6
cubic inches of water by a balance, which turned fenfibly
with 6 grains, when there were 30 pounds in each fcale.
The weights employed were the troy weights, in the
depefit of the Court of Exchequer, which are {fill pre¬
ferred, and have been moll fcrupuloufly examined and
compared with each other. The weight was 1x31
ounces 14 pennyweights. This wants juft 1 1 grains of a
thoufand avoirdupois ounces for 1728 cubic inches,
or a cubic foot; and it would have amounted to that
weight had it been a degree or two colder. The tem¬
perature indeed is not mentioned ; but as the trial was
made in a comfortable room, we may prefume the tem¬
perature to have been about 550 ot Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer. The dimenfions of the veffel were as accu¬
rate as the nice hand of Mr Abraham Sharp, Mr
Flamftead’s affiftant at Greenwich, could execute, and
it was made by the Exchequer ftandard of length.
This is confided in by the naturalifts of Europe as a
very accurate ftandard experiment, and it is confirmed
by many others both private and public. The ftand-
ards of weight and capacity employed in the experi¬
ment are ftill in exiftence, and publicly known, by the
report of the Royal Society to parliament in 1742, and
by the report of a committee of the lr - ife of commons
in 17-58. This gives it a fuperiority over all the mea-
fures which have come to our knowledge.
The firft experiment, made with proper attention,
that we meet with, is by the celebrated Snellius, about
the year 1615, and related in his Eratojlhenes Batavus.
He weighed a Rhinland cubic foot of diftilled water,
and found it 62,79 Amfterdam pounds. If this was
the ordinary weight of the {hops, containing 7626 Eng-
lifti troy grains, the Englilh cubic foot muft be 62
pounds 9 ounces, only one ounce more than by Eve-
rard’s experiment. If it was the Mint pound, the weight
was 62 pounds 6 ounces. The only other trials which
can come into competition with Mr Everard’s are fome
made by the Academy of Sciences at Paris. Picart, in
1691, found tile Paris cubic foot of the water of the
fountain d’Arcueil to weigh 69,588 poundspoids de
Paris. DuHamel obtained the very fame refult; but
Mr Monge, in 1783, fays that filtered rain-water of the
temperature 120 (Reaumur) weighs 69,3792. Both
thefe meafures are confiderably below Mr Everard’s,
which is 62,5, the former giving 62,053, and the latter
61,868. M. Lavoifier ftates the Paris cubic foot at
7c pounds, which makes the EngVfh foot 62,47. But
there is an inconfiftency among them which makes the
companion impofiible. Some changes were made
1638, by royal authority, in the national ftandards, both Specific
ot weight and length ; and the academicians are ex- iGrav'ty'
ceedingly puzzled to this day in reconciling the dif-
ferences, and cannot even afcertain with perfect aflu-
rance the lineal meafures which were employed in their
moft boafted geodetical operations.
Such variations in the meafurements made by perfons
of reputation for judgment and accuracy engaged the
writer of this article fome years ago to attempt another.
A veffel was made of a cylindrical form, as being more
eafily executed with accuracy, whofe height and dia¬
meter were 6 inches, taken from a moft a.ccurate copy of
the Exchequer ftandard. It was weighed in diftilled
water ot the temperature 55° feveral times without vary¬
ing 2 grains, and it loft 42895 grains. This gives for
the cubic foot 998,74 ounces, deficient from Mr Eve¬
rard’s an ounce and a quarter; a difference which may be
expefted, fince Mr Everard ufed the New River water
without diilillation.
We hope that thefe obfervations will not be thought
fuperfluous in a matter of Inch continual reference, in
the moft interefting queftions both to the philofopher
and the man of bufinefs; and that the determination
which we have given will be confidered as fufficiently
authenticated.
Let us, therefore, for the future take water for the
ftandard, and fuppofe that, when of the ordinary tempc-
rature offummer, and in its ftate of greateft natural pu¬
rity, viz. in clean rain or fnow, an Englifh cubic foot of
it weighs a thoufand avoirdupois ounces of 437,5 troy
grains each. Divide the weight of any body by the
weight of an equal bulk of water, the quotient is the
fptcific gravity of that body ; and if the three firft
figures of the decimal be accounted integers, the quo¬
tient is the number of avoirdupois ounces in a cubic
foot of the body. Thus the ipecific gravity of the
very fineft gold which the refiner can produce is 19,365,
and a cubic foot of it weighs 19365 ounces.
But an important remark muft be made here. All
bodies of homogeneous or unorganifed texture expand
by heat, and contract by cooling. The expaniion and
contraction by the fame change of temperature is very
different in different bodies. Thus water, when heated
from 6o° to xco0, inereafes its volume nearly of
its bulk, and mercury only T|T, and many fubftances
much lefs. Hence it follows, that an experiment de¬
termines the fpecific gravity only in that very tempera¬
ture in which the bodies are examined. It will there’-
fore be proper always to note this temperature ; and it
will be convenient to adopt fome very ufeful tempera¬
ture for fuch trials in general : perhaps about 6ow of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer is as convenient as any.
It may always be procured in thefe climates without
inconvenience. A temperature near to freezing would
have fome advantages, becaufe water changes its bulk
very little between the temperature 3 2° and 45°* --13*-
this temperature cannot always be obtained. It will
much conduce to the facility of the comparifon to
know the variation which heat produces on pure water.
The following table, taken from the olftervations of
Dr Blagden and Mr Gilpin (PhiL Tranf. 1792) will
ani'wer this purpofe.
Tern-
S P E
Specific
Gravity.
[ 6Ci ]
S P E
lenipera-
Mt e of
Water.
30
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
FOO
Bulk
of
Water.
9991°
99070
999T4
99932
99962
100000
100050
100106
IOOT 7 I
100242'
IC0320
100404
100501
1006 2
Specific
Gravity.
1,00090
1,00094
1,00086
i,coo68
1,00038
i ,coooo
0,99950
0,99894
0,99830
°’99759
0,99681
0,99398
0,99502
0,99402
Thofe gentlemen obferved the expanfion of water to be
very anomalous between 320 and 430. '[’his is diftinft-
ly feen during the gradual cooling of water to the point
of freezing. It contrails for a while, and then fud-
denly expands. JBnt we feldom have occaflon to mea-
fure fpecific gravities in fuch temperature.
The reader is now fufficiently acquainted with the
principles of this hydrollatical method of determining
the fpecifxc gravity of bodies, and can judge of the
propriety of the forms which may be propofed for the
experiment.
_ The fpecific gravity of a fluid may be determined
either by filling with it a veflel with a narrow neck, or
by weighing a foil’d body that is immerfed in it. It is
hard to fay which is the beft way. The lail is not fub-
jeft to any error in filling, becaufe we may fufpend the
folid by a fine wire, wrhich will not difplace anyfenfible
quantity of the fluid ; and if the folid is but a little
heavier than the fluid, the balance being loaded only
vcuh the excefs, will be very fenfible to the fmalleft want
et equilibrium. But this advantage is perhaps compen-
fated by an obftru&ion to the motion of the folid up
or down in the fluid, arifing from vifeidity. When the
weight in the oppofite fcale is yet too fmall, we flowly
add more, and at laif grain by grain, which gradually
brings the beam to the level. When it is exa&ly level,
the weight in the fcale is fomewhat too great; for it
aot only balances the preponderance of the folid, but
alfothis vifeidity of the fluid. But we may get rid of
this error. Add a fmall quantity more ; this will bring
the beam over to the other fide. Now put as much
into the fcale on the fame fide with the iolid 5 this will
not reftore the beam to its level. We mull add more
till this be accomplifhed; and this addition is the mea-
fure of the vifeidity of the fluid, and mull be fubtrafted
from the weight that was in the other fcale when the
beam came JlrJl to a level. This effed of vifeidity is
cot infenfible, with nice apparatus, even in the purelt
water, and in many fluids it is very confiderable—and,
what is worfe, it is very changeable. It is greatly di-
miniflied by heat ; and this is an additional reafon for
making thofe trials in pretty wrarm temperatures. But
for fluids of which the vifcidity is confiderable, this
method is by no means proper $ and we mult take the
other, and weigh them in a veflel with a narrow neck. S; ecifl«
Mercury mull alfo be treated in this way, becaufe we Grav‘t7*
have no folid that will fink in it but gold and platina. v ~
It is not fo eafy as one would imagine to fill a veflel
precifely to the fame degree upon every trial. But if
we do not operate on too fmall quantities, the unavoid¬
able error may be made altogether infignificant, by
having the neck of the veflel very fmall. If the veil'd
hold a pound of water, and the neck do not exceed a
quarter of an inch (and it will not greatly retard the
operation to have it half this fize), the examinator muft:
be very carelefs indeed to err one part in two thoufand;
and this is perhaps as near as we can come with a ba¬
lance. We muft always recoiled; that the capacity of
the veftel changes by heat, and we muft know this va¬
riation, and take it into the account. But it is affeda-
tion to regard (as Mr Homberg would make us believe
that he did) the diftenfion of the veflel by the prefliire
of the fluid. His experiments of this kind have by no
means the confiilency with each other that ftiould con¬
vince us that he did not commit much greater errors
than what arofe from diftenfion.
In examining either folids or fluids, we muft be
careful to free their furface, or that of the veflel in which
the fluid is to be weighed, from air, which frequently
adheres to it in a peculiar manner, and, by forming a
bubble, increafes the apparent bulk of the folid, or di-
minifnes the capacity of the veflel. The greateft part
of what appears on thofe occafions feems to have ex-
filed in the fluid in a itate of chemical union, and to
be fet at liberty by the fuperior attra&ion of the fluid
for the contiguous folid body. Thefe air bubbles muft
be carefully brufned off by hand. All greafy matters
muft be cleared oft' for the fame reafon : they prevent
the fluid from coming into contatft.
We muft be no lefs careful that no water is imbibed
by the folid, which would increafe its weight without
increafing its bulk. In {©me cafes, however, a very
long maceration and imbibition is neceffary. Thus, in
examining the fpecific gravity of the fibrous part of
vegetables, we (hould err exceedingly if we imagined
it as fmall as appears at firft. We believe that in moft
plants it is at leaft as great as water, for after long ma¬
ceration they fink in it.
It is aim oft needlefs to fay that the niceft and moft
fenfible balances are neceffary for this examination. Ba¬
lances are even conftru&ed on purpofe, and fitted with,
Itveral pieces of apparatus, which, make the examina¬
tion ea(y and neat. We have deferibed (fee Balance)
Mr Gravefandehs as one of the moft convenient of any;
His contrivance for obferving the fractions of a grain is
extremely ingenious and expeditious, Specially for de¬
leting the effedt of vifeidity.
The hydrometer, or aecometer, is another inftrument
for afeertaining the fpecific gravity of fluids. This very
Hftty inftrument is the invention of a lady, as eminent
xor intelledlual accompliftiments as ftie was admired for
her beauty. Hypatia, the learned daughter of the cele¬
brated mathematician Tfieon of Alexandria, became fo
eminent for her mathematical knowledge, that Ihe was
made public profeffor of the fcience in the firft fchool
in the world. She wrote a commentary on the works
of Apollonius and of Diophantus, and compofed Af-
tronomical Tables ; all of which are. loft. Thefe rar*
acconv,
Specific
Gravity.
Plate
^CCCCLXXtl
S P E‘
aecomplilhments, however, could not {live
the fury of the fanatics of Alexandria, who cut her
in pieces for having taken an offenfive part in a dif-
pute betvveeu the eovernor and patriarch.-—We have
deferibed feme of the moft approved of thefe inftru-
ments in the article Hydrometer, and fhall in this
place make a few obfervations on the principles of their
conllrutfion, not as they are ufually made, accommodated
to the examination of particular liquors, but as indica¬
tors of pure fpecific gravity. And we mull premife,
that this would, for many reafons, be the beft way of
conilrueding them. The very ingenious contrivances
for accommodating them to particular purpofes are un¬
avoidably attended with many fources of error, both in
their adjuftment by the maker and in their ufe ; and
all that is gained by a very expenlive in it rumen t is the
having the trouble of infpe&ing a table. A iimple
fcale of fpecifre gravity would expofe to no error in
conftnrftion, becaufe all the weights but one, or all the
points of the fcale but one, are to be obtained by cal¬
culation, which is incomparably more exaft than any
manual operation, and the table can always be more
exadf than any complex obfervation. But a itill greater
advantage is, that the inftruments wotrld by this means
be fitted for examining all liquors whatever, whereas at
prefent they are almofl ufelels for any but the one for
which they are conllrufted.
Hydrometers are of two kinds. The moft fimple
and the mod delicate are juft a fubftitute for the hy-
droftatical balance. ■ They confift of a ball (or rather
an egg or pear fhaped vefiel, which moves more eafily
through the fluid) A (fig. I.) having a foot pro-
jefting down from it, terminated by another ball B,
and a (lender flalk or wire above, carrying a little.difh
C. The whole is made fo light as to float in the light-
eft fluid we are acquainted with ; fuch as vitriolic or
muriatic aether, whofe fpecific gravity is only 0,73.
This number fhould be marked on the dilh, indicating
that this is the fpecific gravity of the fluid in which
the inftrument floats, finking to the point D of the.
Hem. The ball B is made heavy, and the foot is of
fome length, that the inftrument may have liability,
and fwim ere£l, even if confidently loaded above ;
and, for the fame reafon, it mull be made , very round,
otherwife it will lean to a fide. When put into a heavier
liquor, its buoyancy will caufe it to float witli a part
of the ball above the furface. Weights are now put
into the fcale C, till the inftrument fink to D. 1 he
weight put into the fcale, added to the weight of the
inilrument, is the weight of the difplaced fluid. This,
compared with the weight of the whole when the in-
flrument is twimming in pure water, gives the fpecific
gravity of the fluid. All trouble of calculation may
be avoided by marking the weights with fuch num¬
bers as fhall indicate tire fpecific gravity at once.
Thus having loaded the intlrument fo as to fink it to
D in pure water, call the whole weight icoo; then
weigh the inflrument itfelf, and fay, “ as the weight
when fwimming in water is to its prefent weight, fo is
tooo to a 4th proportional.” This is the fpecific gra¬
vity of the liquor which would float the unloaded in¬
ftrument. Suppofe this to be 730. The hydrome¬
ter would juft float in muriatic sether, and this fhould
be marked on the fide. Now make a fet of fmall
[ 662 1 S P E
her from weights, and mark them, not by their weights in grains,
but in fuch units that 270 of them fhall be equal to the
weight which fits the inilrument for pure water.
Suppofe that, in order to float thi; inftrument in a
certain brandy, there are required 186 id thefe fmall
weights. This added to 730 gives gi6 for the fpecific
gravity, and fhows it to be precifely excife proof fpi-
rit. Nine weights, viz. 256, 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4,
2, 1, will fuftice for all liquors from tether to the
flrongeft worts. And that the trouble in changing
the weights may be greatly leflened, let a fe v circles
a, b, c, dy e, be marked on the top of the ball. When we
fee it float unloaded at the circle C for inftance, we know
it will require at leafti 28 to fink it to D thaton the Hem.
If the weights to be added above are confiderable,
it raifes the centre of gravity fo much, that a fmall want
of equilibrium, by laying the weights on one fide, will
produce a great inclination of the inilrument, which is
unflghtly. Inftead therefore of making them loofe
weights, it is proper to make them round plates, with a
fmall hole in the middle, to go on a pin in the middle
of the fcale. This will keep the inilrument always up¬
right. But unlefs the hydrometer is of a confiderable
fize, it can hardly be made fo as to extend from the
lightetl to the heavieft fluid which we may have oc-
cafion to examine, even though we except mercury.
Some of the mineral acids are coniiderably more than
twice the weight of aether. When there is fuch a
load at top, the hydrometer is very apt to overfet, and
inclines with the fmalleft want of equilibrium. Great
fize is inconvenient even to the philofopher, becaufe it
is not always in his power to operate on a quantity ot
fluid fufficient to float the inftrument. Therefore two,
or perhaps three, are neceflary for general examina¬
tion. One may reach from asther to water ; another
may ferve for all liquors of a fpecific gravity between
I and 1 £ ; and the third, for the-mineral acids, may reach
from this to 2. If each of thefe be about two folid
inches in capacity, we may eafily and expeditioufly de¬
termine the fpecific gravity' within one ten thoufandth
part of the truth : and this is precifion enough for moll
purpofes of fcience or bufmefs.
The chief queltions are, 1. To afeertain the fpecific
gravity of an unknown fluid. This needs no farther
explanation. 2. To afeertain the proportion of two
fluids which are known to be in a mixture. This is
done by difeovering the fpecific gravity of the mixture
by means of the hydrometer, and then deducing the
proportion from a comparifon of this with the fpe¬
cific gravities of the ingredients.
In this mode of examination the bulk is always the
fame ; for the hydrometer is immerged in the diffe¬
rent fluids to the fame depth. Now if an inch, for
example, of this bulk is made up of the heavieft fluid,
there is an inch wanting of the lighteft; and the
change made in the weight of the mixture is the
difference between the weight of an inch of the hea¬
vieft and of an inch of the lighteft ingredients. The
number of inches therefore of the heavieft fluid is
proportional to the addition made to the weight of
the mixture. Therefore let B and b he the bulks oi
the heavieft and lightell fluids in the bulk 5 of the
mixture; and let D, d, and J be the densities, or the
weights, or the fpecific gravities (for they are in one
ratio)
Ppreiffj
Gravity.
S P E [ 65? ] S P E
Spef’fle ratio) of the heavy fluid, the light fluid, and the mix-
ijravi'y. tuff (their bulk being that of the hydrometer). We
k’'rrJ"V have The addition which would have been
made to the bulk p, if tlie lighted fluid were changed
entirely for the heavieft, would be D—and the
change which is really made is JTherefore
f.: b — Y)—d : ^—d. For fimilar reafons we fhould have
fi : B — D — d: D —; or, in words, “ the difference be¬
tween the fpedjic gravities of the two fluids, is to the differ¬
ence between the fpedfc gravities of the mixture and of the
■hglyef fitid, as the bulk of the whole to the bit 'k of the
heavief contained in the mixture fy and “ the difference of
the fpeiific granit es of the twof aids, is to the difference of
the fpecific gravities of the m ixture and of the heav f fluids,
as the bulk of the whole to that of the lightef contained in
the mixture.” This is the form in which the ordinary
bufmefs of life requires the anfwer to be exprtfied, be-
caufe we generally reckon the quantity ot liquors by
bulk, in gallons, pints, quarts. But it would have
been equally ealy to have obtained the anfwer in pounds
and ounces; or it may be had f rom their bulks, ftnee we
know their fpeciflc gravities.
The hydrometer more commonly ufed is the ancient
one of Hypatia, confiding of a ball, A (fig. 2.),
made fleady by an addition B, below it like the former,
knit having a long ftem CF above. It is fo loaded
that it finks to the top F of the item in the lighted
5of all the fluids which we ptocofe to mcafere with it,
and to fink only to C in the nftrvfd't. In a fluid of
intermediate fpecific gravity it will fink to fome point
between C and F.
In this form of the hydrometer the weight is al¬
ways the fame, and the immediate information given
by the inftrument is that of different bulks with equal
weight. Becaufe the inftrument finks till the bulk of
the difplaced fluid equals it in weight, and the addi¬
tions to the difplaced fluid are all made by the ftem,
it is evident that equal bulks of the ftem indicate equal
additions ol volume. Thus the item becomes a leak
of bulks to the fame weight.
The only form in which the ftem can be made with
fufficient accuracy is cylindrical or prifmatical. Such
a ftem may be made in the moft accurate manner by
wire-drawing,‘that is, palling it through a hole made in
a hardened fteel plate. II fuch a ftem be divided into
equal parts, it becomes a fcale of bulks in arithmetical
progieffion. This is the eafieft and moft natural div'i-
• fion of the fcale ; but ic will not indicate denfities,
fpecinc gravities, or weights of the fame bulk in arith¬
metical progreffion. The fpecific gravity is as the weight
divided by the bulk. Now a feries of divifors (the
bulks), in arithmetical progreffion, applied to the fame
dividend (the bulk and weight of the hydrometer as it
floats in water), will not give a feries of quotients (the
jpecific gravities) in arithmetical prngreflion : they
will be in what is called harmonic p> ogreffon, their
differences continually diminifhing. This will appear
even when phyfically confidered. When the hydro¬
meter finks a tenth of an inch near the top of the fiem,
It dilplaces one tenth of an inch of a light fluid, com¬
pared with that difplaced by it when it is floating with
all the. ftem above the furface. In order therefore that
the divifions of the ftem may indicate equal changes of
fpecific gravity, they mull; be in a feries of harmonic
progrefEonals increafing. The point at which the in-
7
ftrumeAt floats In pure water fliould be mailed idoo, $;>eei/!ic
and thofe above it 999, 998, 997, &c. ; and thofe be- Gravity.
low the water mark muff; he numbered 1001, 1002, ' v—’
1033, &c. Such a Icale will be a very appofite piclure
of the denfities of fluids, for the denfity or vicinity of
the divifions will be precifely limilar to the denlitv of
the fluids. Each interval is a bulk of fluid of\he
feme weight, li the whole inftrument were drawn
out into wire of the fixe of the ftem, the length from
the water mark would be icoo.
Such are the rules by which the fcale mnft be divi¬
ded. But there mull be fomc points of it determined
by experiment, and it will be proper to take them as
remote from each other as poflible. For this purpofe
let the inftrument be accurately marked at the point
where it Hands, in two fluids, differing as much in fpe¬
cific gravity as tire inftrument will admit. Let it alfo
be marked where it Hands in water. Then determine
with the ut mo ft precifion the fpecific gravities of thefe
funds, and put their values at the correfponding points
the fcale. Then the intermediate points of the fcale
muft be computed for tha different intervening fpecific
gravities, or it muft be divided from a pattern fcale of
harmonic progreflionals in a way well known to the
mathematical inftrument-makers. If the fpecific gra¬
vities have been accurately determined, the value loop
will be found to fall precifely in the water mark. If
we attempt the divifion entirely by experiment, by-
making a number of fluids of different fpecific gravi¬
ties, and marking the ftem as it Hands in them, we
fhall find the divifions turn out very anomalous. This
is however the way ufually pradliled ; and there are few
hydrometers, even from the bell maker, that hold true
to a fingle divifion or two. Yet the method by compu¬
tation is not more troublefome; and one fcale of harmo¬
nic progreflionals will ferve to divide every Arm that
offers. We may make ufe of a fcale of equal parts
for the ftem, with the afiiftar.ee of two little- tables.
One of thefe contains the fpecific gravities in harmonic
progreflion, correfponding to the arithmetical fcale of
bulks on the ftem of the hydrometer; the other con¬
tains the divifions and fradlions of a divifion of the fcale
of bulks, which correfpond to an arithmetical fcale of
fpecific gravities. We believe this to be the heft me-
thod-of all. The fcale of equal parts on the ftem is fo
eafily made, and the little table is fo eafily infpe&ed,
that it has every advantage of accuracy and dilpatch^
and it gives, by the way, an amuhng view of the rela¬
tion of the bulks and denfities.
We have hitherto fuppofed a fcale extending from
the lighteft to the heavieft fluid. But unlefs it be of
a very inconvenient length, the divifions muft be very
minute. Moreover, when the bulk of the ftem bears a
great proportion to that of the body, the inftrument
does not fwim fteady ; it is therefore proper to limit
the range of the inftmment in the fame manner as thofe
of the fir ft kind. A range from the denfity of tether
to that of water may be very well executed in an in¬
ftrument of very moderate fize, and two others will do
for all the heavier liquors ; or an equal range in any
other, denfities as may fuit the ufual occupations of thtr
experimenter.
To avoid the inconveniences of a hydrometer with
a very long and flender ftem, or the neceffity of having
afcrie& of them, a third fort has been contrived, iS-
which
Specific
Gravity.
v v—
S P E [
which the principle of both are combined. Suppofe
a hydrometer with a ftem, whofe bulk is °f ^at
of the ball, and that it finks in aether to the top of the
flem ; it is evident that in a fluid which is TVh heavier,
the whole ftem will emerge ; for the bulk of the dif-
placed fluid is now -i-'^th of the whole lefs, and the weight
is the fame as before, and therefore the fpeciflc gravity
is Ath greater.
Thus we have obtained a hydrometer which will indi¬
cate, by means of divifions marked on the flem, all
foecific gravities from 0,73 to 0,803 ; for 0,803 is
.■jJLth greater than 0,7 3- Thefe divifions mufi oe made in
harmonic progreffion, as before directed for an entiie
icale, placing 0,7 i at the top of the ftem anu 0,803
at the bottom.
When it floats at the loweft divifion, a weight may
be put on the top of the ftem, which will again fink it
to the top. This weight muff evidently be 0,073, 01
Ath of the weight of the fluid difplaced by the unloaded
inftrument. The hydrometer, thus loaded, indicates
the fame fpeciflc gravity, by the top of the ftem, that
the unloaded inftrument indicates by the loweft divi¬
fion. Therefore, when loaded, it will indicate another
feries of fpecific gravities, from 0,803 to 0,8833
( = 0,803 -f- 0,0803), and will float in a liquor of the
ipecific gravity 0,8833 with the whole ftem above the
furface.
In like manner, if we take off this weight, and
put on 1 = 0,080,3, it will fink the hydrometer to the
top of the ftem; and with this new weight it will
indicate another feries of fpecific gravities from 0,8833
to 0,97x63 (= 0,88334-0,08833). A«d, in the
fame manner, a third weight = 088 33 will again link
it to the top of the ftem, and fit it for another feries
of fpecific gravities up to 1,068793. And thus, with
three weights, we have procured a hydrometer lilted
for all liquors from asther to a wort for a ma’t liquor of
two barrels per quarter. Another weight, in the fame
progreffion, will extend the inftrument to the ftrongeft
wort that is brewed.
This is a very commodious form of the inftrument,
and is now in very general ufe for examining fpmtuous
liquors, worts, ales, brines, and many inch articles of
commerce. But the divifions of the fcale are general¬
ly adapted to the queftions which na urahy occur in the
bufinef?. Thus, in the commerce of ftrong liquors,
it is ufual to eftimate the article by the quantity of fpi-
rit of a certain ftrength which the liquor contains.
This we have been accuftomed to call pi oof ipint, and
it is fuch that a wine gallon weighs 7 pounds 12 ounces;
and it is by this ftrength that th excife duties are levied.
Therefore the divifions on the fcale, and the weights
which connedt the fucceffive repetitions of the fcalc, are
made to exprefs at once the number of gallons or parts
of a gallon of proof (pints contained in a gallon of the
liquor. Such inftruments fave all trouble of calcula¬
tion to the excifeman or dealer ; but they limit tne
ufe of a very delicate and expenfrve inftrument to a
very narrow employment. It would be much better to
adhere to the expreffion either O' fpecific gravity or of
bulk ; and then a very fmall table, which could be
comprifed in the fmalleft cafe for the inftrument, might
x'endeer ti applicable to eveiy kind of fluid.
The reader cannot but have obferved that the fuc-
cefiive weights, by which the fhort fcale of the inftru-
664 ] s P E
ment is extended to a great range of fpecific gravities,
do not increafe by equal quantities. Each difference is
the weight of the liquor dilplaced by the graduated "
ftem of the inftrument when it is funk to the top of
the fcale. It is a determined aliquot part of the whole
W'eight of the inftrument fo loaded, (in our example it
is always Thth of it). It increafes therefore in the fame
proportion with the preceding weight of the loaded
inftrument. In fhort, both the fucceffive additions, and
the whole weights of the loaded inftrument, are quan¬
tities in geometrical progreffion ; and, in like manner,
the divifions on the fcale, if they correfpond to equal
differences of fpecific gravity, muft alfo be unequal.—
This is not fufficiently attended to by themakers ; and
they commit an error here, which is very confiderable
when the whole range of the inftrument is great. For
the value of one divifion of the fcale, when the largeft
weiiJ-ht is on, is as much greater than its value,
when the inftrument is not loaded at all, as the full
loaded inftrument is heavier than the inftrument unload¬
ed. No manner whatever of dividing the fcale wall
correfpond to equal differences of fpecific gravity through
the whole range with different weights ; but if the
divifions are made to indicate equal proportions of gra¬
vity when the inftrument is ufed without a weight, they
will indicate equal proportions throughout. This is evi¬
dent from what we have been juft now faying ; for (he
proportion of the fpecific gravities correfponding to
any two immediately fucceeding weights is always the
fame.
The beft way, therefore, of conftrufting the inftru-
ment, fo that the fame divifions of the fcale may be ac¬
curate in all its fucceffive repetitions with the diffe ent
weights, is to make thefe divifions in geometrical pro-
greflion. The correfponding fpecific gravities will al-
fo be in geometric proportion. 1 hefe being all inferted
in a table, we obtain them with no more tiouble than
by infpe&ing the fcale which ufually accompanies the
hydrometer. This table is of the moil eafy conftruc-
tion ; for the ratio of the fucceffive bulks and fpecific
gravities being all equal, the differences of the logarithms
are equal.
This will be illuftrated by applying it to the exam¬
ple already given of a hydrometer extending from 0,73
to 1,068793 with three weights. This gives four re¬
petitions of the fcale on the ftem. Suppofe this fcaie
divided into 10 parts, we have 40 fpecific gravities.—
Let thefe be indicated by the numbers o, 1, ^ 3» &c. ta
40. The mark o is affixed to the top of the ftem, and the
divifions downwards are marked 1, 2, 3, &c. the loweft
being 10. Thefe divifions are eafrly determined. The
ftem, which we may iuppofe 5 inches long, was fuppofed
to be Ath of the capacity of the ball. It may there¬
fore be confidered as the extremity of a rod of 11 times
its length, or 35 inches ; and we muit find nine mean
proportionals between 50 and 5 5 inches, bubtiatf
each of thefe from 55 inches, and the remainders are
the diftances of the points of diviiion from o, the top
of the fcale. The imalleft weight is marked 10, the
next 20, and the third 30. If the inftrument loaded
with the weight 20 finks in fome liquor to the mark
7, it indicates the fpeci ic gravity 27, that is, the 27th
of 40 mean proportionals between 0,73 and 1,068793,
944242. To obtain all thefe intermediate fpecific
Specific
Gravity.
or
.'Gravities, we have only' to lubtraft ^
^ 8 " garithm
tpedfls
Orav'ty.
S P E [ 6%
prftrlthm Qfo,7^, from that of i 068793,712,0,0288937,
( and take 0,0041393, the 40th part of the difference.
Multiply this by r, 2, 3, &c, and add the logarithm of
C,73 to each of the produfts. The fums are the lo¬
garithms of the fpecific gravities required. Thefe will
be found to proceed fo equably, that they may be in¬
terpolated ten times by a Ample table of proportional
parts w'ithout the fmallelt fallible error. Therefore
the ftem may be divided into a hundred parts very fen-
fible to the eye (each being nearly the 20th of an inch),
and 400 degrees of fpecific gravity obtained within the
range, which is as near as wre can examine this matter
by any hydrometer. Thus the fpecific gravities corre-
fponding to n° 26, 27, 28, 29, are as follow :
ill Diff. 2d Diff.
a
9°4 £
9*3 *
Nay, the trouble of infpeAing a table may be avoid¬
ed, by forming on a fcale the logarithms of the num¬
bers between 7300 and 1068,793, and placing along
fide of rt a fcale of the fame length divided into 400
equal parts, numbered from o to 400, Then, looking
for the mark fhown by the hydrometer on this fcale of
equal parts, we fee oppofite to it the fpecific gravity.
1
S P E
26
27
28
29
0,93529
0,94424
0,95328
0,96241
We have been thus particular in the illuftration of
this mode of conftrudion, becaufe it is really a beauti¬
ful and commodious inftrument, which may be of great
ufe both to the naturalill and to the man of bufinefs. 
A table may be comprifed in 20 o&avo pages, which
will contain the fpecific gravities of every fluid which
can intereft either, and anfwer every queftion relative
to their admixture with as much precifion as the ob-
fervations can be made. We therefore recommend it
to our readers, and we recommend the very example
which we have given as one of the mod convenient.
The inftrument need not exceed eight inches in length,
and may be contained in a pocket cafe of 2 inches broad
and as many deep, which will alfo contain the fcale, a
thermometer, and even the table for applying it to all
fluids which have been examined.
It is unfortunate that no graduated hydrometer can
be made fo eafily for the examination of the corrofive
mineral acids (a). Thefe muft be made ofglafs, and we
cannot depend on the accurate cylindric form of any glafs
Item.. But if any fuch can be procured, the conftruc-
tion is the fame. The divided fcale may either be on
thin paper pafted on the infide of the ftem, or it may be
printed on the ftem itfelf from a plate, with ink made of that of the fluid • and^th?^ ^ 7 f Iefs than’
a metallic calx, which will attach itfelf to the riafa whl, wlj 1.1 "" d’c a,nd t^.deSr« °f.the thermometer.
a metallic calx, which will attach itfelf to the glafs with
a very moderate heat. . We would recommend common
white enamel, or arfenical glafs, as the fitteft material
for the whole inftrument; and the ink ufed, in taking
the impreflion of the fcale, may be the fame that is ufed
for the low-priced printing on Delft ware pottery 
Fir ft form the fcale on the ftem. Then, having mea-
fured the folid contents of the graduated part as exact¬
ly as poffible, and determined on the general ftiape of
the ball and conn ter poife below, calculate its fize, fo
that it may be a little lefs than ten times that of the
Voi. XVII. Part II.
fttm. I he glafs blower can copy this very nearly, and Specific
join it to the ftem. Then make two brines or other li- Grav»ty-
quors, which fhall have fpecific gravities in the ratio of
10 to i t Load the inftrument fo that it may fink to
o in the hghteft. When put into the heavieft, it Ihould
nie to io if it does not rife fohigh, the immerfed part
IS too fmall. .Let the glafs blower enlarge the bail of
tlie counterpoiie a little. Repeat this trial till it be ex-
att Nothing now remains but to form the weights :
And here we obferve, that when the inftrument "is to
have a very great range, as for examining all ftates of
the vitriolic acid, it has a chance of beinfr very
tottering when loaded with the greateft weight on
the top of fo long a fcale. To avoid this, Mr Quin
and others have added fome of their weights belowX-
But this will not fuit the prefent conUrudipn, becaufe
it will alter the proportion between the bulks of the
Item and immeried part. Therefore let thefe weights
conhft of cylinders of metal fmall enough to go into
the ftem and let them be foldered to the end of long-
wires which will let them go to the bottom, and leavl
a fmall hook or ring at top. Thefe can lie alongfide
of the inftrument in its cafe. This is indeed the bell
comiruction lor every hydrometer, becaufe it makes it
incomparably more iteady. The inftrument is poifed
by fmall fhot or mercury. But it will be much better to
do it with Newton’s fufible metal (three parts of tin,
ve parts of lead, and eight parts of bifmuth) in coarfe
filings. When the exaft quantity has been put in, the
inftrument may be let in a veffd of oil, and this kept
on the hie till all is completely melted. It foon freezes
again, and remains faft. If this metal is not to be had,
let a few bits of fealing-wax be added to the mercuiy
or fhot to make up the counterpoife. When heated,
it will float a-top, and when it freezes again it will
che%t£L JhU5 WC ‘haU makc a and
I here is yet another method of examining the fue-
cific gravities of fluids, firft propofed by Dr Wilfon,
late, profeffor qf aftronomy in the univerfity of Glafg-ow
I his is by a feries of fmall glafs bubbles, differing equally!
or according to fome rule, from each ocher in foecific
gravity, and each marked with, its proper number.
hen thefe are thrown into a fluid which is to be exa¬
mined, all thofe which are heavier than the fluid will fall
to the bottom. Then holding the veffel in the hand,
l7Jmtk’.the fluid expands, and one of
the floating bubbles begins to fink. Its fpecific gravi-
“• 0.'' a ^ than.
when it began to link, will inform us how much it was
fWK Vhe law °f CXPanfion of the liquor,
gets ot thefe bubbles fitted for the examination of fpi-
ntuous liquors, with a little treatife ihowing the man¬
ner of ufing them, and calculating by the thermometer,
aie made by Mr Brown, an ingenious artift of Glaf-
gow and are often ufed by the dealers in fpirits, being-
found both accurate and expeditious. ^
Alfo, though a bubble or two Ihould be broken, the
ftrength of fpirits may eafily be had by means of the
remainder, unlefs two or three in immediate fucceflion
4P be
(a) It would be worth while to try copper enamelled.
Srerific
Gravity.
S P E [666
be wanting: for a liquor which anfwers to N° 4 will
fink N° 2 by heating it a :ew degrees, and t ererore
’ N ' 3 may be fpared. This is a great advantage m or¬
dinary buiuiefs. A nice hydrometer is not only an ex-
penfive inftrument. but exceedingly delicate, being lo
very thin. If broken or even bruifed, it is uieleis, and
can hardly be reoaired except by the very maxer.
As the only queftion here is, to determine how many
gallons of excife proof fpirits is contained in a quantity
of liquor, the artift has conllru&ed this (tries of bubbles
in the fimpleft manner poffible, by previoufly makimr
40 or co mixtures of fpirits and water, and then adjult-
iup the bubbles to theie mixtures. In (ome lets the
number on each bubble is the number of gallons of
proof fpirits contained in too gallons of the liquor. In
other lets the number on each bubble exprefles the gal¬
lons of water which will make a liquor of this ftrength,
if added to 14 gallons of alcohol. Thus, it a liquor an¬
fwers to N J, then 4 gallons of water added to .4
gallons of alcohol will make a liquor ot this ilrength.
The firft is the bell method ; for we fhould be mikaxen
in fuppofinn- that 18 gallons, which anfwer to N° 4, con¬
tains exaftly 14 gallons of alcohol: it contains more
than id, for a reafon to be given by and by.
Bv examining the fpecific gravity of bodies, the phi-
lofopher has made fome very curious difcovenes. be
moft remarkable of thefe is the change which the denh-
tv of bodies fuffers by mixture. It is a moil reafonable
expedt ition, that when a cubic foot of one fuDlfance is
mixed ny how with a cubic foot of another, the bulk
of the mixture will be two cubic feet; and that ' 8 gal¬
lons of water joined to 18 gallons ot oil will fill a veffel
a  j: Ur xxroc -never doubted.:
of 36 oallons. Accordingly this was never doubted;
and even Archimedes, the moll fcrupulous of mathema¬
ticians, proceeded on this fuppofition in the folutmn ot
his famous problem, the difcovery of the proportion of
filver and gold in a mixture of both. He does rot even
mention it as a poftulate that may be granted h.m, fo
much did he Conceive it to be an axiom Yet a (it e
refleftion feems fufficient to make it doubtful and o
require examination. A box filled with mulket-baUs
will receive a confiderable quantity of (mall (hot, and al¬
ter this a confiderable quantity of fine fan 1, and after
this a confiderable quantity of water. Something like
this might happen in the admixture of bodies of porou,
texture. But fuch fubftances as metals, glab, aiul fluids,
■where no difcontinuity of parts can be perceived, or was
fufpeaed, feem free from every chance of this kind oi in-
trofufception. Lord Bacon, however, without being a
paturalift or mathematician exprofejfo, im erred from the
mobility of fluids that they confifted of difcrete parti¬
cles, which mutt have pores mterpofed, whatever be
their figu'-e And if we afcribe the different denhties or
other fcnfible qualities, to difference m fize or figure of
thofe particles, it mutt frequently happen that the inw-
kr particles will be lodged in the mterfiices between the
larger, and thus contribute to the weight of the fenii
mafs without increafing its bulk. He therejOre lu-
fpefts that mixtures will be in general kls bulky G a
the fum of their ingredients. . a.
Accordingly, the examination of this queftion was
one of the firll employments of the Royal Society of
I ondon, and long before its inftitution had occupied
the attention of the gentlemen who afterwards compo¬
sed iu The r eg liter of the Society’s early meetings
j.
] S P E
contains many experiments on this fubjedt, with mix¬
tures of gold and" filver, of other metals, and of various
fluids, examined by the hydroftatical balance of Mr
Boyle. Dr Hooke made a prodigious number, chief¬
ly on articles ot commerce, which were unfortunately
loft in the fire of London.
It was foon found, however, that Lord Bacon’s con-
jefture had been well founded, and that bodies changed
their denlity very fenfibly in many cafes. In general,
it was found that bodies which had a ftrong chemical
affinity increafed in denfity, and that their admixture
was accompanied with heat.
By this dilcovery it is manifeft that Archimedes had
not folved the problem of dete&ing the quantity of fil¬
ver mixed with the gold in King Hiero’s crown, and
that the phyfical folution of it requires experiments made
on all the kinds of matter that are mixed_together.
We do not find that this has been done to this day, al¬
though we may affirm that there are few queftions of
more importance. It is a very cuiious fa£I in chemi-
ftry, and it would be moft deiirable to be able to re¬
duce it to fome general laws : For inftance, to ascertain
what is the proportion of two ingredients which pro¬
duces the greatell change of denhty. This is impor¬
tant in the fcience of phyfics, becaufe it gives us confi¬
derable information as to the mode of a&ion of thofe
natural powers or forces by which the particles of tan¬
gible matter are united. If this introfufception, con¬
centration, compenetration, or by whatever name it
be called, were a mere reception of the particles of
one fubftance into the interftices of thofe of another,
it is evident that the greateit concentration would be
Specific
Gravity.
obferved when a fmall quantity of the recipiend is mix¬
ed with, or diffeminated through, a great quantity of
the other. It is thus that a fmall quantity of fine fand
will be received into the interftices^ of a quantity of
fmall (hot, and will increafe the weight ot the bagful
without mcreafing its bulk. The cafe is nowife diffe¬
rent when a piece of freeftone has grown heavier
by imbibing or abforbing a quantity ot water. If
more than a certain quantity of fand has been added
to the fmall (hot, it is no longer concealed. In like
manner, various quantities of water may combine with,
a mafs of clay, and increafe its fize and weight ah*e.
All this is very conceivable, occafioning no difficulty.
But this is not the cafe iu any of the mixtures we
are now confidering. In all thete, the firft additions ot
either of the two fubftances produce but an inconiider-
able change of general denlity ; and it is in general
moft remarkable,' whether it be condenfation or rare-
faftion, when the two ingredients are nearly ot equa-
bulks. We can illuftrate even this difference, by rel
fkaing on the imbibition of water by vegetable fohds*.
fuch as timber. Some kinds of wood have their weight
much more increafed than their bulks ; other kinds of
wood are more enlarged in bulk than in weight. _ I he
like happens in grains. This is curious, and (hows m the
molt unqueftionable manner that tire particles of bodies
are not in con tad, but are kept together by forces
which aft at a diftanec. For this diftance between
the centres of the particles is moft evidently (ufceptible
of variation ; and this variation is occahoned by the in-
troduftion of another fubftance, which) by a&mg on
the particles by attraction or repullion, dmumlhes or
iucreales tfieir mutual actions,, and makes new distances
meed*
S P E [667
Specific fiecefiVy for bnnomg all things again into equilibrium.
Gravity. W'e refer the curious reader to the ingenious theory of
i Bofcovich for an excellent illullration of
this fubjeft (Tbeor. Phil. Nat. § de Solutione Chemica).
This queftion is no lefs important to the man of bu-
iinefs. Till we know the condenfation of thofe metals
by mixture, we cannot tell the quantity of alloy in gold
and filver by means of their fpecifie gravity ; nor can
we tell the quantity of pure alcohol in any fpirituous li¬
quor, or that of the valuable fait in any folution of it.
For want of this knowledge, the dealers in gold and
filver are obliged to have recourfe to the tedious and
difficult teft of the affay, which cannot be made in all
places or by all men. It is therefore much to be
wifhed, that fame perfons would inftitute a feries of ex¬
periments in the moft interefting cafes: for it mult be
obferved, that this change of denfity is not always a
fmall matter ; it is fometimes very confiderable and pa¬
radoxical. A remarkable inttance may be given of it in
the mixture of brais and tin for bells, great guns, optical
ipeculums, &c. The fpecific gravity of call brafs is
nearly 8,oc6, and that of tin is nearly 7,363. If two
parts of brafs be mixed with one of tin, the fpecific gra¬
vity is 8,917 ; whereas, if each had retained its former
bulk, the Ipecific gravity would have been only 7,793
/ 2X8,0^6+7,363
3
A mixture of equal parts
ffiould have the fpecific gravity 7,684 ; but it is 8,441.
A mixture of two parts tin with one part brafs, inftead
of being 7,577, is 8,027.
In all thefe cafes there is a great increafe of fpecific
gravity, and confequently a great condenfation of parts
or contra&ion of bulk. The firft mixture of eight cu¬
bic inches of brafs, for inftance, with four cubic inches
of tin, does not produce 1 2 cubic inches of bell-metal,
but only io4- nearly, having fhrunk i. It would ap¬
pear that the diftances of the brafs particles are moft af-
fefted, or perhaps it is the brafs that receives the tin
into its pores ; for we find tliat the condenfations in
thefe mixtures are nearly proportional to the quantities
of the brafs in the mixtures. It is remarkable that this
mixture with the lighteft of all metals has made a com-
pofition more heavy and denfe than brafs can be made
by any hammering.
The moft remarkable inftance occurs in mixing iron
with platina. If 10 cubic inches of iron are mixed with
of platina, the balk of the compound is only 9^
Inches. The iron therefore has not limply received the
prlatina into its pores : its own particles are brought
nearer together. There are fimilar refults in the folu¬
tion of turbith mineral, and of fome other falls, in wa¬
ter. The water, inftead of rifing in the neck of the vef-
fel, when a fmall quantity of the fait has been added to
it, finks confiderably, and the two ingredients occupy
lefs room than the water did alone.
The lame thing happens in the mixture of water
with other fluids and different fluids with each other .;
But we are not able to trace any general rule that is ob¬
ferved with abfolute precifion. In moft cafes ol fluids
fhe greateft condenfation happens when the bulks of
the ingredients are nearly equal. Thus, in the mix¬
ture of alcohol and water, we have the greateft conden¬
fation when 164- ounces of alcohol are mixed with 20
ounces of water, and the conoenfation is about of
tlie whole bulk of the ingredients. It is extremely va-
T S P E
nous in different fubft&nces, and no claffification of them
can be made in this refpeft.
A differtation has been publiffied on this fubje& by
Dr Hahn of Vienna, intitled Be Efficacia Mixtionis in.
mutandis Corporum Voluminibus, in which all the remark¬
able inftances of the variation of denlity have been col¬
lected. All that we can do (as we have no directing
principle) is to record fuch inftances as are of chief im¬
portance, being articles of commerce.
The frrft that occurs to us is the mixtures of alcohol
and water in the compofition of fpirituous liquors. This
has been confidered by many with great care. The molt
fcrupulous examination of this, or perhaps of any mix¬
ture, has been lately made by Dr Blagden (now Sir
Charles Blagden) of the Royal Society, on the requi-
fition of the Board of Excife. He has publiffied an ac-
count of the examination in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions of London in 1791 and 1792. We ffiall give an
account of it under the article Spirituous Liquors ; and
at prefent only feledt one column, in order to ffiow the
condenfation. The alcohol was almoit the ftrongeft
that can be produced, and its fpecific gravity, when
of the temperature 6o0, was 0,825. The whole mix¬
tures were of the fame temperature.
Column 1. contains the pounds, ounces, or other
meafures by weight, of alcohol in ".he mixture. Co¬
lumn 2. contains the pounds or ounces of water. Co¬
lumn 3. is the fum of the bulks of the ingredients, the
bulk of a pound or ounce of water being accounted 1.
Column 4. is the obferved fpecific gravity of the mix¬
ture, taken from Dr Blagden’s diftertation. Column 5.
is the fpecific gravity which would have been obferved
if the ingredients had each retained its own fpecific gra¬
vity. This we calculated by dividing the fum of the
two numbers of the firft and fecond columns by the cor-
refponding number of the third. Column 6. is the dif¬
ference of column 4. and column 5. and exhibits the
condenfation.
TABLE.
A.
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
2®
20
20
20
19
W.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
]o
I X
12
13
>4
*5
16
*7
18
*9
20
Volume.
24.2424
25.2424
26.2424
27.2424
28.2424
29.2424
30.2424
31.2424
32.2424
33>2424
34>2424
35>2424
36.2424
37.2424
38.2424
39.2424
40.2424
41.2424
42.2424
43»2424
44.2424
43>03°3
Sp. Grav^ Sp. Gravy Condeu
obferved. al culated.
0,8250
0,8360
0,8457
0,8543
0,8621
0,8692
0,8757
c,8817
0,8872
0,8923
0,8971
0,9014
0,9055
0,9093
0,9129
0,9162
0,9193
0,9223
0,9250
0,9276
0,9300
o,9325
1 P 2
fation.
0,8250
0,8320
0,8383
0,8443
0,8498
0,8549
0,8597
0,8642
0,8684
0,8724
0,8761
0,8796
0,8829
0,8860
0,8891
0,8919
0,8946
0,8971
0,8996
0,9019
0,9041
0,9063
00
40
74
100
I23
‘43
160
J75
188
199
216
218
226
233
238
243
247
252
254
257
259
262
Specific
Gavity,
A-
S P E
Specific
Gravity.
A. ' W. ! Volume.
4,81182
40,6061
39>3939
38,1818
36,9697
35>7576
34*5455
33*3333
32,1212
3°,9091
29,6970
28,4849
27,2727
26,0606
24,8485
23,6364
22,4242
21,2121
20,0000
Sp. Gravy
obierved.
0,9349
o,9375
0,9402
0,9430
0,9458
0,9488
0,9518
0,9549
0,9580
0,961 2
0,9644
0,9675
o>97°7
0,974!
0,9777
0,9818
0,9865
0,9924
1,0000
Sp. Gravy Conden*
calculated, fation.
0,9087
0,911 2
o*9I39
0,9167
0,9197
0,9229
0,9263
0,9306
0,9340
0,9382
0,9429
0,9479
0,9533
o,9593
0,9659
0,973 1
0,9811
0,9900
1,0000
262
263
263
263
261
259
255
249
240
230
215
196
174
148
118
87
54
24
It is to be remarked, that the condenfation is great-
eft. when i64 ounces of alcohol have been added to 20
of water, and the condenfation is pWtt* 0.r nearly <TVth
of the computed denfity. Since the fpecific gravity o
alcohol is 0,825, it is evident that 164 ounces of alco¬
hol and 20 ounces of water have equal bulks. So that
the condenfation is greateft when the iubftances are mix¬
ed in equal volumes; and 18 gallons of alcohol mixed
with 18 gallons of water will produce not 36 gallons
of fpirits, but 35 only.
We may alfo obferve, that this is the mixture to
which our revenue-laws refer, declaring it to be one to
Jtx or one in feven under proof, and to weigh 7 pounds
13 ounce per gallon. This proportion was probably fe-
le&ed as the moll eafily compofed, viz. by mixing
equal meafures of water ano. of the llrongeft fpmt
which the known proceffes of diftillation could produce.
Its fpecific gravity is 0,939 very nearly.
We muft confider this elaborate examination of the
mixture of water and alcohol as a ftandard fenes of ex¬
periments, to which appeal may always be made, whe¬
ther for the purpofes ot fcicnce or oi trade. I he re¬
gularity of the progreffien is fo great, that in the column
which we have examined, viz. that for temperature 60®,
the greateft anomaly does not amount to one pait in
fix thoufand. The form of the feries is alfo very judi-
eioufly chofen for the purpofes of fcience.. It would
perhaps have been more direftly ftereometrical had the
proportions of the ingredients been Hated in bulks,
which are more immediately conne&ed with denfity.
But the author has alfigned a very cogent reafon for his
choice, viz. that the proportion of bulks varies by a
change of temperature, becaufe the water and fpirits fol¬
low different laws in their expanfion by heat.
This is a proper opportunity for taking notice of a
miftake which is very generally made in the conclufions
drawn from experiments of this kind. Equal addi¬
tions of the fpirit or water produce a feries of fpecific
gravities, which decreafe or increafe by differences con¬
tinually diminifhing. Hence it is inferred that there is
a coutrafition of bulk. Even Dr Lewis, one of our
[ 668 ] S P E
moft accomplifhed naturalifts, advances this pefition, in
a differtation on the pot-afh of America ; and it confi- ,
derably affe&s his method for eftimating the ftrength of
the pot-a(h leys^v But that it is a miftake, appears
plainly from this, that although we add for ever equal
quantities of the fpirits, we ftiall never produce a mix-
ture which has as fmall a fpecific gravity as alcohol.
Therefore the feries of fucceffive gravities muft appro¬
ximate to this without end, like the ordinates of a hy¬
perbolic curve referred to its affymptote.
That this may appear in the moft general terms, let
•w reprefent the weight of the conftant quantity of wa¬
ter in the mixture, and let a be the weight of the fmall
addition of fpirits. Alfo let *v reprefent the bulk of
this quantity of water, and b the bulk of the fmall ad¬
dition of alcohol. The weight of the mixture is w-j-a,
• • • •
and its bulk is w-t-b, and its fpecific gravity is
If we now add a fecond equal quantity of fpirits, the
weight will be rw-\-la, and if the fpirit retains its den¬
fity unchanged, the bulk will be w-j-2^, and the fpeci-
w-f"2 ei
fic gravity is —: and after any number m of nich
equal additions of fpirits, the fpecific gravity will be
——7. Divide the numerator of this fraction by its
denominator, and the quotient or fpecific gravity will
mX a—b
be 14 1 t- This confifts of the conftant part 1.
rw m b 1
m (a — 3)
and the variable part : r. We need attend only
r ii! -\-m b 1
to this part. If its denominator were conftant, it is
plain that the fucceffive fpecific gravities would have
• a— b . .
equal differences, each being — ; r became w m-
n ^ <w in 01
creafes by the continual addition of an unit, and a—b
is a conftant quantity. But the denominator b
continually increafes, and therefore the value of the frac-
a—b
Specific
Gravity,
tion ; 7 continually diminifhes.
w m o '
Therefore the gradual diminution of the increments
or decrements of fpecific gravity, by equal additions of
one ingredient to a conftant mealure of the other, is not
of itfelf an indication of a change of denfity of either
of the ingredients ; nor proves that in very diluted mix¬
tures a greater proportion of one ingredient is abforbed
or lodged in the interftices of the other, as is generally
imagined. This muft be afeertained by comparing
each fpecific gravity with the gravity expreffed by 1 -f*
w-f m (a—b)
nv mb
This feries of fpecific gravities refembles fuch a nu¬
merical feries as the following, 1;   ; I*l56;
1,163 ; 1,4-69 ; &c. the terms of which alfo confift of
the conftant integer 1, and the decimal fiaftions 0,156;
tn {ci'm' b\
0,163 ; 0,169 ; &c. The fraction expreffes
m [a—b
this decimal part. Call this dr or make d = w + ^
m a—^'w d . . .
This will give us £ = • Now a is the weight
of the added ingredient, and d is the variable part of
the fpecific gravity obferved j and thus we learn whe-
2 ther
Specific
Gravity.
S P E [ 669 ] S P E
ther b, the bulk of the added ingredient, fuffers any fucceffive equal additions to one of the ingredients is a
change. We fhall have occafion by and by to refume fucceflive equal abftra&ion of the other. 'The change
the coniideration of this queftion, which is of the firft produced, therefore, in the weight of the whole, is the
moment in the theory of fpecific gravities, and has great difference between the weight of the ingredient which
is taken out and the weight of the equal meafure of
influence in many tranfaftions of commerce.
This feries of fpecific gravities is not fo well fitted
for commercial tranfaftions. In thefe the ufual quef¬
tion is, how many gallons of alcohol is there in a caflc,
or fome number of gallons of fpirit ? and it is more
directly anfwered by means of a table, formed by mix¬
ing the ingredients in aliquant parts of one conflant
bulk. T. he following table, conflrufited from the ex¬
periments pf Mr BrifTon of the academy of Paris, and
publifhed in
ferted.
the Memoirs for 1769, is therefore
W.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*4
*5
16
A.
Deiifity
obfeived.
0,837!
0,8527
0,8674
0,8815
0,8947
0,9075
0,9199
°,93i7
0,9427
0,9519
0,9598
0,9674
c>9733
0,9791
0,9852
0,9919
1,0000
Denfity
computed.
0,8371
0,8473
0,8575
0,8677
0,8778
c,8fc8o
0,8982
0,9084
0,91 86
0,9287
0,9389
0,9491
o,9593
0,9695
0,9796
0,9898
1,0000
Con4en-
*ati >n.
6.3
1 *5
i57
18y
2 I 4
23S
251
256
2 43
217
189
144
99
57
21
Bulk of
10,000
grains.
1,0000
0,9937
0,9885
0,9844
0,981 z
0,9786
0,9765
o>9749
o,9744
o,9757
0,9783
0,9811
0,9856
0,9901
0,994.3
0,9979
I,OCOO
In this table the whole quantity of fpirituous liquor is
always the fame. The firft column is the number of
mcafures (gallons, pints, inches, 8cc.) of water in the
mixture ; and column 2d gives the meafures of alcohol.
Column 3d is the fpecific gravity which was obferved
by Mr BrifTon. Column 4th is the fpecific gravity
which would have been obferved if the fpirits, or wa¬
ter, or both, had retained their fpecific denfity un¬
changed. And the 5th column marks the augmenta¬
tion of fpecific gravity or denfity in parts of 10,000.
A 6th column is added, ftiowing the bulk of the 16
cubic meafures of the two ingredients. Each meafure
may be conceived as the 16th part of ic,oco, or 62 5 ;
and we may fuppofe them cubic inches, pints, gallons^
or any folid meafure.
This table fcarcely dlifers from Sir Charles Blag-
den’s ; and the very fmall difference that may be ob¬
ferved, arifes from Air Briffon’s having ufed an alcohol
not fo completely rectified. Its fpecific gravity is
0,8371, whereas the other was only 0,8250.
Keie it appears mote diitindtly that the condenfa-
tion is greateil when the two ingredients are of equal
bulk.
. I>erbaps this feries of fpecific gravities is as declara¬
tive as the other, whether or not there is a chano-e of
deiifity induced on either of the ingredients. &The
whole bulk being always the fame, it is plain that the
Specific
Gravity,
the other which fupplies its place. Therefore, if nei¬
ther ingredient changes its denfity by mixture, the
weights of the mixtures will be in arithmetical progref-
fion. If they are not, there is a variation of denfity in
one or both the ingredients.
We fee this very clearly in the mixtures of water and
alcohol. The firil fpecific gravity differs from the fe-
cond by 156, and the laft differs from the preceding by
. no more than 81. Had neither of the denfities chan¬
ged, the common difference would have been 102.
We obferve alfo, that the augmentation of fpecific gra¬
vity, by the fucceffive addition of a meafure of water,
grows lefs and lefs till 12 meafures of water is mixed
with 4 of alcohol, when the augmentation is only 58,
and then it increafes again to 81.
It alfo appears, that the addition of one meafure ®f
water to a quantity of alcohol produces a greater change
of denfity than the mixture of one meafure of alcohol
to a quantity of water. Hence fome conclude, that the
water difappears by being lodged in the interftices of
the fpirit. But it is more agreeable to the juftefl no¬
tions which we can form of the internal conftitution of
tangible bodies to fuppofe that the particles of w^ater
diminifh the diftances between the particles of alcohol
by their ftrong attra&ions, and that this diminution
(exceedingly minute in itfelf) becomes fenfible on ac¬
count of the great number or particles whofe didances
are thus diminiflied. This is merely a probability
founded on this, that it would require a much greater
diminution of diftances if it w'as the particles of water
which had their diftances thus diminifhed. But the
greater probability is, that the condenfation takes place
in both.
We have been fo particular in our confideration of
this mixture, becaufe the law of variation of deiifity has,
in this inftance, been afcertained with fuch precifion by
the elaborate examination of Sir Charles Blagden, fo
that it may ferve as an example of wffiat happens in ai¬
med: every mixture of bodies. It merits a ftill farther
difeuffion, becaufe it is intimately conne&ed with the
a&ion of the corpufcular forces; and an exaft knowledge
of the variations of diftance between the particles will
go far to afeertain the law of a&ion of thefe forces.
But the limits of a Work like this will not permit us
to dwell longer on this fubjeft. We proceed therefore
to give another ufeful table.
The vitriolic or fulphuric acid is of extenfive ufe in
manufa&ures under the name of oil of vitriol Its va¬
lue depends entirely on the faline ingredient, and the
water is merely a vehicle for the acid. This, being
much denfer than w'ater, affefts its fpecific gravity, and
thus gives us a method of afeertaining its ftrength.
The ftrongeft oil of vitriol that can be eafily manu¬
factured contains 612^0- grains of dry acid, united
with 387— grains of water, which cannot be ieparated
from it by diftillation, making 1000 grains of on. of
vitriol. Its fpecific gravity in this ftate is 1,877.
The following table flows its fpecific gravity at the
temperature 550, when diluted by the fucceffive addi¬
tion of parts of water by weight.
Specific
Specific
Gravity,
V E
Specific Gravity*
[ 670 ] S P E
ns it contains more of the latter in^re*
01 Vit,
10
Water.
O
4
8
I 2
l6
20
24
28
32
36
40
5°
60
Obferved.
1,877
1,644
J >474
i*381
1,320.
1,274
1,211
I>,95
1,183
1,172
1,148
1,128
Calculated.
1,877
i.,5°x
i>35°
1,269
1,219
1,184
1 >159
1,140
1,125
1,103
1,084
1,069
Co-nd.
.OO
,'43
,124
,112
,ior
,090
,084
,071
,070
,070
,070
,064
,059
Here is obferved a much greater condenfation than
in the mixture of alcohol and water. But we cannot
affign the proportion of ingredients which produces the
greateft condenEation ; becaufe we cannot, in any cafe,
fay what is the proportion of the faline and watery in¬
gredients. The ftrongeft oil of vitriol is already a wa¬
tery folution; and it is by a confiderable and uncertain
detour that Mr Kirwan has affigned the proportion of
612 and 388 nearly. If this be tire true ratio, it is un¬
like every other folution that we are acquainted with ;
for in all folutions of falls, the fait occupies lefs room
in its liquid form than it did when folid ; and here it
would be greatly the reverie.
This folution is remarkable alfo for the copious emer¬
gence of heat in its dilutions with more water. This
has been afcribed to the great fuperiority of water in
its capacity for heat; but there are faffs which render
this very doubtful. A veflel of water, and another of
oil of vitriol, being brought from a cold room into a
warm one, they both imbibe heat, and rife in their tem¬
perature ; and the water employs nearly the fame time
to attain the temperature of the room.
Aquafortis or nitrous acid is another fluid very much
■employed in commerce ; fo that it is of importance to
afeertam the relation between its faline ftrength and its
fpecific gravity. We owe alfo to Mr Kirwan a table
for this purpofe.
The moll concentrated ftate into which it can eafrly
be brought is fuch, that 1000 grains of it confifts of
563 grains of water and 437 of dry acid. In this ftate
its fpecific gravity is 1,557. Let this be called ?iitrous
/ic'id.
^Nitr. Ac. Water.
10 X o 1,557 i,557
1 1,474 1,474
6 1,350 1,273 °»077
it 1,269 1,191 0,078
16 1,214 1»I47 0,067
21 1,175 1,120 0,055
26 1,151 1,101 0,05®
31 1,127 1,087 0,040
36 1,106 1,077 0,029
41 1,086 1,068 0,018
There is not the fame uniformity in the denfities of
$his acid in its different ftates of dilution. This feems
.©wing to the variable proportion of the deleterious and
sital air which compofe this acid. It is more denfe in
pronortion ns it contains more of the latter ingre* Specific
dient. , Gravity-
The proportions of the aeriform ingredients of the ' v J
muriatic acid are £0 very variable, and fo little under our
command, that we cannot frame tables of its fpecific
gravity which would enable us to judge of its ftrength.
It is a general property of thefe acids, that they are
more expanfible by heat as they are more concentrated.
There is another clafs of fluids which it would be of
great confequence to reduce to fome rules with refpefl
to fpecific gravity, namely, the folutions of falls, gums,
and refins. It is interefting to the philofopher to know
in what manner falls are contained in thefe watery fo¬
lutions, and to difeover the relation between their
ftrength and denfity ; and to the man of bufinefs it
would be a moll defirable thing to have a ciiterion of
the quantity of fait in any brine, or of extra&ible mat¬
ter in a decoftion. It would be equally' defirable to
thole who are to purchafe them as to thofe who mami-
fafture or employ them. Perhaps we might afeer-
tain in this way the value of fugar, depending on the
quantity of fweetening matter which it contains ; a
thing which at prefent refts on the vague determina¬
tion of the eye or palate. It would therefore be doing
a great fervice to the public, if fome intelligent perfon
would undertake a train of experiments with this view.
Accuracy alone is required ; and it may be left to the
philofophers to compare the fa£ts, and draw the confe-
quences refpe&ing the internal arrangement of the par¬
ticles.
One circumftance in the folution of falls is very ge¬
neral ; and we are inclined, for ferious reafons, to think
it univerfal: this is a diminution of bulk. This indeed
in fome falls is inconfiderable. Sedative fait, for in-
ftance, hardly fhows any diminution, and might be con-
fidered as an exception, were it not the fingle inftance.
This circumftance, and fome confiderations conne&ed
with our notions of this kind of folution, difpofe us to
think that this fait differs in contraftion from others
only in degree, and that there is fome, though it was
not fenfible, in the experiments hitherto made.
Thefe experiments, indeed* have not been numerous-
Thofe of Mr Achard of Berlin, and of Dr Richard
Watfon of Cambridge, are perhaps the only ones of
which we have a deferiptive narration, by which we can
judge of the validity of the inferences drawn from them.
The fubjedl is not fufceptible of much accuracy ; for
falls in their folid form are feldom free from cavities
and fluvery interilices, which do not admit the water
on their firft immerfion, and thereby appear of greater
bulk when we attempt to meafure their fpecific gravity
by weighing them in fluids which do not diffolve them,
fuch as fpirits of turpentine. They alfo attach to them-
felves, with confiderable tenacity, a quantity of atmo-
fpheric air, which merely adheres, but makes no part of
their compofition. This efcapes in the adl of folution,
being fet at liberty by the ftronger affinity of the wa¬
ter. Sal gem, however, and a few others, may be
very accurately meafured; and in thefe inftances the de¬
gree of contradlion is very conftant.
The following experiments of Dr Watfon appear to
us the moft inftruftive as to this circumftance. A glafs
veffel was ufed, having a flender cylindrical neck, and
holding 67 ounces of pure water when filled to a cer¬
tain!
S P E
fpec.fic tain mark. The neck above this mark had a fcale of
L ravity- , equal parts palled on it. It was filled to the mark with
water. Twenty-four pennyweights of fait were thrown
into it as fpeedily as poffible, and the bulk of the fait
was meafured by the elevation of the water. Every
thing was attended to which could retard the imm'ediate
folution, that the error arifing from the folution of the
firft particles, before the reft could be put in, might
be as fmall as poffible; and in order Tat both the ab-
folute bulk and its variations mi ht be obtained by fome
known fcale, 24- pennyweights of water were put in.
This railed the fur'ace 5 8 parts of the fcale. Now we
know exadlly the bulk of 24 pennyweights of pure wa¬
ter. It is 2,275 cubic inches; and thus we obtain
every thing in abfolute meafures : And by comparing
the bulk of each fait, both at its firft immerfion and af¬
ter its complete folution, we obtain its fpecific gravity,
and the change made on it in palling from a folkl to a
fluid form. The following table is an abftraft of thefe
experiments. The firft column of numbers is the eleva¬
tion of the furface immediately after immerlion ; the
fecond gives the elevation when the fait is completely
diffblved ; and the third and fourth columns are the fpe¬
cific gravities of the falts in thefe two Hates.
[ 671 l
S P E
Twenty-four Pennyweigh's.
Water
Glauber’s fait
Mild volatile alkali
Sal ammoniac
Refined white fugar
Courfe brown fugar
White fugarcandy
Lymington Glauber’s fait
Terra foliata tartari
Rochelle fait
Alum not quite dilfolved
Borax not one-haft dilfolved
in two days
Green vitriol
White vitriol
Nitre
Sal gem-from Northwich
Blue vitriol
Pearl afhes
Tart, vitriolatus
Green vitriol calcined to
white
Dry fait of tartar
Balket fea fait
Corrofive lublimate
Turbith mineral
r.
58
42
40
40
39
39
37
35
37
33
33
n.
36
33
3s>
36
36
3 6
29
3°
28
28
nr.
31
26
24
21
17
20
10
11
11
I3
*5
10
o
1,380
1,450
1,450
1,487
1,487
t’567
'>657
G567
I>7?7
I»757
IV.
^757
I;8l 2
J>933
I>933
2,143
2,230
2,320
2,636
2,636
2,761
3>°52
4,142
6*444
1,611
*>7*7
1,487
1,611
1^611
1,611
2,000
>933
2,071
2,c6l
degree of the one to the fixed degree of the other, its Specfc
we oblerve m the freezing of iron, the fetting of ftucco, GraviT
and lome other inltances ? 0 * y—«
. Thc other interefting ftate is that of extreme dilu¬
tion, when the differences between the lucceffive denli-
ties bear a great proportion to the denfities themfelves,
and thus enable the mathematician to afcertain with
iome prec.lron the variations of corpufcular force, in
confequence of a variation of diftance between the par.
tides. The /ketch of an inveftigation of this important
queilion given by Bofcovich, in his Theory of Natural
Phdofophy, is very promifing, and ffiould incite the
philofophical chemift to the ftudy. T he firft thing to
be done is to compare the law ol fpeciric gravity ; that
is, the relation between the fpecific gravity and quan¬
tity of fait held in folution.
Wifhing to make this work as ufeful as poffible, wc
have fearched lor experiments, and trains of exoen-
ments, on the denfity of the many brines which make
important articles of commerce; but we were morti¬
fied by the fcantinefs of the information, and difappoint-
ed in our hopes of being able to combine the detached
oblervations, kilted to the immediate views of their au¬
thors, in fuch a manner as to deduce from them fealeg
(as they may be called) of their ftrength. We rarely
found thefe detached obfervations attended with cir-
cumilances which would conned them with others -
and there was frequently fuch a difcrepancy, nay op"
p . _ . a y j j nety on
PolltJ^’. in [enefes ol experiments made for afeertaining
2,230
2,416
2,766
3*4‘i
2,900
5,800
5*272
5*272
4,461
3*866
ico
the relation between the denfity and the ftreno-th, that
we could not obtain general principles which enable us
to conftrud tables of ftrength a priori.
Mr Lambert, one of the firft mathematicians and phi-
lofophers of Europe, in a diflertation in the Berlin Me¬
moirs (1762), gives a narration of experiments on the
bnnes of common fait, from which he deduces a very
great condenlation, which he attributes to an abforntion
in the weak brines of the fait, or a lodgement of its par-
ic es in tie inteillices of the particles ol water. Mr
A chard of the fame academy, in 1785, gives a very
great hft of experiments on the bulks of various brines,
made in a different way, which fhow no fuch introfuf.
ception; and Dr Watfon,. formerly regius profeffor
of chemrftry at Cambridge, and now bilhop of Lan¬
dau, thinks this confirmed by experiments which h-
narrates m his Chemical Effays. We fee great rea-
fon for hefitatmg our affent to either fide, and do
not think the experiments deciiive. We incline to Mr
Lamberts opinion ; for this reafon, that in the fuc-
ceffive dilutions of oil of vitriol and aquafortis there is
a mofl evident and remarkable condenfation. Now
w at are thefe but brines,, of which we have not been
able to get the faline ingredient in a feparate form
1 he experiments of Mr Achard and Dr Watfon were
made ,n fuch a way that a fmgle grain in the meafure-
rf.he cafeT particularly intercftin^oTc ^Ifop e Ure LTa “ “ ‘'—afurc
fludyins thc theoi-y of folutlon. The Hate la wheu 7£S£ Zll Af T 1°" “ the whole chan8e
the lixivium approaches to faturatiou. I„ the very poi™ WaSt aiTLA .•AL:?”!.""':
the lixivium approaches to faturation. In the very point
of faturation any addition of fait retains its bulk un¬
changed. In diluted brines, we fhall fee that the den¬
sity of the fluid fait is greater, and gradually dimindhes
as we add more fait.. It is an important queffion,
Whether this diminution goes on continually, till the
Buid denfity or the fait is the fame with its folid den¬
fity > or. Whether there is an abrupt paffage from iome
WatfoTs are fo iimple in their nature that it is very
difficult to with hold the aflent.
In this ftate of uncertainty, in a fubieft which'
feems to us to be of public importance, we thought
i our uty to undertake a train of experiments to'
which recourfe may always be had. Works like this-
are fddom confidered as fources of original informa¬
tion; and rt is thought efficient when the know¬
ledge-;
6;
But
8) 1256,7
i57>'
S P E [
»r«’(lc 1e,w already difl'ufed is judicloully romplled.
Gr viry, a refped for the public, and gratitude ^or the very
V   honourable reception hitherto given to our labours,
induce us to exert ourfelves with honed zeal to mewt
the continuance of public favour. Vv e allure our readers
that the experiments were made with care,, and on
quantities fufficjently large to make the unavoidable ir¬
regularities in fuch cafes quite iniigmficant. i ne law
of'denlity was afeertained in each fubltance in two
ways. We diffolved different portions of fait in the
fame quantity of water, and examined the fpecihc gra¬
vity of the brine by weighing it in a veffel with a nar¬
row neck. The portions of fait were each o; them one-
eighth of what would make a neatly faturated dilution
ofthe temperature 55. We did not make the. brine
ffronaer, that there might be no rifle of a precipitation
in form of cryftals. We conlidered the Ipecihc gravi¬
ties as the ordinates of a curve, of which the ab.uine
were the numbers of ounces of dry fait contained in a
cubic foot of the brine. Having thus obtained eight
ordinates correfponding to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and «
portions of fait, the ordinates or fpecihc gravities for
every other proportion of fait were had by the ufual
methods of interpofition. ' .
The other method was, by firft making a brine neai-
lv faturated, in which the proportion of fait and water
was exa&ly determined. We then took out one-eight 1
of the brine, and filled up the veffel with water, taking
care that the mixture fhould be complete ; for which
purpofe, befides agitation, the diluted brine was allow¬
ed to remain 24 hours before weighing. Baking out
one-eighth of the brine alfo takes out one eighth of the
fait ; fo that the proportion of fait and water in t ic
diluted brine was known. It was now weighed, an
thus we determined the fpecific gravity for a new pro¬
portion of fait and water. r , , . r*- ia
1 We then took out one-feventh of the brine. . It is
evident that this takes out one-eighth of the original
quantity of fait ; an abftraaion equal to the former.
We filled the veffel with water with the fame precau¬
tions ; and in the fame manner we proceeded till theie
remained only one-eighth of the original quantity of
^The fpecific gravities by thefe two methods agreed
extremely well. In the very dehquefce.nt falts the fiift
method exhibited feme fmall irregularities, anhng from
the unequal quantities of water which they had im-
bibed from the atmofphere. We therefore, confided
moft in the experiments made with diluted brines.
That the reader may judge of the authority of the
tables which we (hall infert, wefubmit to his infpedt.on
one feries of experiments.
Two thoufand one hundred and eighty-eight grains
of very pure and dry (but not decreP!;rat.ed)
fait, prepared in large ciyftals, were diffolved in 6562
grains of diftilkd water of the temperature 5 5 . A
fmall matrafs with a narrow neck, which held 4200
grains of diftilled water, was filled with this brine. Its
contents weighed 5027 grams. Now 6562 + 2188
: 2188 = 5027 : 1256,75- fu
brine contained 1256,75 grains of fait diffolved in
3770,25 grains of water. Its fpecific gravity is =
or 1,196905 ; and a cubic foot of brine weighs
4200 ,  
*196,9 ounces avoirdupois. AHb 5027 : i256j75*“"
2 ] S P E
1196,9 ! 299,28. Therefore a cubic foot of this brine SpseWe
contains 299,28 ounces of perfectly dry fait. !"8i‘iyUS',|
The lubfequent tteps ot the prcceis are reprefented as
follows.
Salt.
8)5027
628,4
7)1099,6
157,1
942,5
157,1
785,4
157,1
628,3
157,1
IS. ii.e.
4398,6
527,4
7)4926,0
703,7
4222,3
6oq,7
6)4827,0
804,5
5)4729,0
946
471,2
I57*1
4022,5
706,5
3783
847
4)4630
''SI’S
3M,1
157,1
3472,5
i°54,5
3)4527
1509
3018
1405
2)4423
2212
'57,°
2211
2X02
43*3
Water,
3 77°, 25
= ^ of brine.
Remains.
Water to fill it
again.
2d Brine.
4 taken out.
Water added.
3d Brine.
Taken out.
Remains.
Water added.
4th Brine.
Taken out.
Remains.
Water added.
5th Brine.
Taken out.
Remains.
Water added.
6th Brine.
Taken out.
Remains.
Water added.
7th Brine.
Taken out.
Remains.
Water added.
8th Brine.
Wt. of 1 Salt in
Cub. Ft.I Cub. Ft.
I I 96,9 299,28
' 37,d1-?
1172,7
261,87
37,4l
H9,3
1125,9
224,46
187,05
1102,3
1077,9
io53,3
149,64
112,23
74,82
1027,9
Thus, by repeated abftraftion of brine, fo as always
to take out -^th of the fait contained in one conftant bulk,
we have obtained a brine confiftingo/157 grams of fait
united with 4313 —157, °r 4156 grams of water.
Its fpecific gravity is ^, = 1,0279, and a cubic foot
of it weighs 1028 ounces, and contains 37A ounces
of dry fait. In like manner may the fpecific gravity,
the weight of a cubic foot, and the fait it contains, be
eftimated for the intermediate brines. _
When thefe eight quantities of fait contained in a
cubic foot are made the abfciffse, and the weights of the
cubic foot of brine are the correfponding ordinates, the
curve
S P E
Specific
Gravin'.
curve will be found to be extremely regular, vefemblmcr
a hyperbolic arch whofe aflymptote makes an an;rle of
30° with the axis. Ordinates were then interpolated
analytically for every 1 o ounces of contained fait, and
thus the table was conftru&ed. We did not, however,
reft it on one feries alone ; but made others, in which
ath of the fait was repeatedly abftra&ed. They agreed,
in the cafe of common fait, with great exaftnefs, and
in fome others there were fome very inconliderable irre¬
gularities.
To (how the authority of the tables of ftrength was
by rio means our only motive for giving an example of
the procefs. It may be of ufe as a pattern for fimilar
experiments. But, befides, it is very inftruftive. We
fee, in the firft place, that there is a very fenfible change
of denlity in one or both of the ingredients. For the
feries is of that nature (as we have formerly explained),
that if the ingredients retained their denfities in every
proportion of commixture, the fpecific gravities would
have been in arithmetical progreffion ; whereas we fee
that their differences continually diminiih as the brines
grow more denfe. We can form fome notion of this
bycomparing the different brines. Thus in the firft brine,
weighing 5027 grains, there are 3770 grains of water
in a veffel holding 4200. If the denfity of the water
remains the fame, there is left for the fait only as much
fpace as would hold 430 grains of water. In this
fpace are lodged 1257 grains of fait, and its fpecific
.... ... . 1257
gravity, in its liquid form, is , = 2,8007 very near-
430 '
ly. But in the 8th brine the quantity of water is
4156, the fpace left for 157 grains of fait is only the
bulk of 44 grains of water, and the denfity of the fait is
[ 673 ]
S P E
This
157
-— = 3,568, confiderably greater than before.
induced us to continue the dilution of the brine as fol¬
lows, beginning with the 8th brine.
2)43 13 8th brine
157
78>5
73,5
39>7
39>7
19,8
2156,5
2156.5
2105.5
2)4262,0 9th brine
2131
2131
2102
loth brine
4218 lithbrine.
1 his laft brine contains 4198,2 grains of water, lea¬
ving only the bulk of i,8 grains of water to contain
19,8 of fait, fo that the fait is ten times denfer than
water. T-his will make the ftrength 243 inftead of
2to indicated by the fpeeific gravity. But we do not
pretend to meafure the denfities with accuracy in thefe
diluted brines. It is evident from the procefs that a
fmgle grain of excefs or defeat in taking out the brine
Vo l. XVII. Fart II.
and replacing it with water has a fenfible proportion to
the whole variation. But we fee with fufficient evi¬
dence, that from the ftrong to the weak brines the
fpace left for the portion of fait is continually diminifh-
ing. In the firft dilution 5274. grains of water were
added to fill up the veffel ; but ^th of its contents of
pure water is only 525 : fo that here is a diminution of
2^ grains in the fpace occupied by the' remaining fait.
The fubfequent additions are 604,7 5 706,5 ; 847 ;
io54>5 > 1405 5 2102 ; 2105,5 » 2102; 2102; inftead
of 600; 700; 840; 1050; 1400; 2100; 2100;
2100; 2100. Nothing can more plainly (how the
condenfation in general, though we do not learn whe¬
ther it happens in one or both of the ingredients ;
nor do the experiments fliovv with fufficient accuracy
the progreffion of this diminution. The exceffes of the
added water being only fix 01 feven grains, we cannot
expedl a nice repartition. When the brine is taken
out, the upper part of the ve.Tel remains lined with a
briny film containing a portion of fait and water,
perhaps equal or fuperior to the differences. Had our
time permitted, we fhould have examined this matter
with fcrupulous attention, ufing a veffel with a ftill nar¬
rower neck, and in each dilution abftradling one half of
the brine. The curve, whofe abfciffse and ordinates
reprefent the weight of the contained fait and the
weight of a conftant bulk of the brine, exhibits the heft
and moft fynoptical view of the law of condenfation,
becaufe the pofition of the tangent in any point, or the
value of the fymbol --, always fhows the rate at which
y
the fpecific gravity increafes or diminiffies. We are
inclined to think that the curve in all cafes is of the hy¬
perbolic kind, and complete ; that is, having the tan¬
gent perpendicular to the axis at the beginning of the
curve. The mathematical reader will eafily guefs the
phyfical notions which incline us to this opinion ; and
will alfo fee that it is hardly poffible to difeover this ex¬
perimentally, becaufe the miitake of a fingle grain in
the very fmall ordinates will change the pofition of the
tangent many degrees. It was for this reafon that we
thought it ufelefs to profecute the dilution any far¬
ther. But we think that it may be profecuted much
farther in Dr Watfon’s or Mr Achard’s method,
viz. by diffolving equal weights of fait in two veffels,
of very different capacities, having tubular necks, in
which the change of bulk may be very accurately ob-
ferved. We can only conclude, that the condenfation
is greateft in the ftrongeft brines, and probably at¬
tains its maximum when the quantities of true faline
matter and water are nearly equal, as in the cafe of vi¬
triolic acid, &c.
We confider thefe experiments as abundantly fuffici-
ent for deciding the queftion “ Whether the fait can be
received into the pores of the water, or the water into
the pores of the fait, fo as to inertafe its weight without
increafing its bulk?” and we mull grant that it may.
We do not mean that it is fimply lodged in the pores as
fand is lodged in the interftices of fmall foot; but the two
together occupy lefs room than when feparate. The ex¬
periments of Mr Achard were infufficient fora decilion,
becaufe made on fo fmall a quantity as 6co grains of
water. Dr Watfon’s experiments have, for the moft
part, the fame deleft. Some of them, however, are of
great value iu this queftion, and are very fit for afeer-
4Q_ taming
Specific
Gravity.
S P E
Specific taining the fpecinc gravity of diflblved falls.
^Gravity. 0f t^em (not particularly narrated) he found that a
quantity of difTolved fait occupied the fame bulk in two
very different Hates of dilution. We cannot pretend
to reconcile this with our experiments. We have gi¬
ven thefe as they flood ; and we think them conclufive,
becaufe they were fo numerous and fo perfeftly con-
fiilent with each other ; and their refult is fo general,
that we have not found an exception. Common fait is
by no means the moll remarkable inllance of condenfa-
tion. Vegetable alkali, fal ammoniac, and fome others,
exhibit much greater condenfation.
We thought this a proper opportunity of confider-
ino- this queftion, which is intimately connefted with
the principles of chemical folution, and was not per¬
haps cpnfidered in fufficient detail under the article Che-
mjstky. We learn from it in general, that the quan¬
tities of fait in brines increafe at fomew'hat a greater
rate than their fpecific gravities. This difference is in
many cafes of fenfible importance in a commercial view.
Thus an alkaline lixivium for the purpofes of bleach¬
ing or foap-making, whofe fpecific gravity is 1,234,
or exceeds that of water by 234, contains 361 ounces
of fait in a cubic foot; a ley, which exceeds the weight
of water twice as much, or 468 ounces per cubic foot,
contains 777 ounces of fait, which exceeds the double
of 361 by 55 ounces more than 7 per cent. Hence
we learn, that hydrometers for difeovering the ftrength
of brines, having equal divifions on a cylindrical Hem,
are very erroneous ; for even if the increments of fpe
[ 674 ] S P E
In one experiments above narrated*; and thefe were but a few
of many which ail correiponded within an hundredth
part. The caufe of the difference feems to be, that
moft kinds of common fait contain magnefian falts, which
contain a very great proportion of water neceffary for*
their cryftallization. The fait which we ufed was of
the pureft kind, but fuch as may be had from every fait
work, by Lord Dundonald’s very eafy procefs, viz. by
palling through it a faturated folution boiling hot,
which carries off with it about ^ths of all the bitter falts.
Our aim being to afeertain the quantities of pure fea-
falt, and to learn by the by its relation to water ia
refpedff of denlity, we thought it neceffary to ufe the
puteff fait. We alfo dried it for feveral days in a (love,
fo that it contained no water not abfolutely neceffary
for its cryffallization. An ounce of fuch fait will com¬
municate a greater fpecific gravity to water than an-
ounce of a fait that is lefs pure, or that contains extra¬
neous water.
The fpecrftc gravity 1,090 is that of ordinary pickles,
which are effimated as to ftrength by floating an egg.
We cannot raife the fpecific gravity higher than
1,206 by Amply diffolving fait in cold water. But it
will become much denfer, and will even attain, the fpe¬
cific gravity 1,240 by boiling, then holding about 366-
ounces in the cubic foot of hot brine. But it will de«
poiit by cooling, and when of the temperature 550 or 6o°^
hardly exceeds 1,206. We obtained a brine by boiling
till the fait grained very rapidly. When it cooled to
6o°, its fpecific gravity was 1,2063 •» for a veffel which
Speelffs
Gravity,
eific gravity were proportional to the quantities of fait held 3506 grains of dillilled water held'4229 of this
in a gallon of brine, the divifious at the bottom of the 1 ’ ’
ftem ought to be fmaller than thofe above.
The conftru£lion of the following table of ftrengths
from the above narrated feries of brines is fufficiently
obvious. Column ill is the fpecific gravity as difeover-
ed by the balance or hydometer, and alfo is the number
of ounces in a cubic foot of the brine. Col. 2d is the
ounces of the dry fait contained in it.
Table of Brines of Common Salt.
W eij;ht
Cub. Ft.
Brine.
Salt
Cut>.F.
1,000
1,008
1,015
1,022
1,029
1,036
1,043
1,050
L057
1,064
7,07°
I,°77
1,083
1,090
1,096
LIO3
1,109
o
10
20
3Q
40
5o
60
70
80
90
100
1 70
120
I3O
I4O
150
l6o
Weight
Cub. Ft.
Brine.
Salt
in
Cub. F.
1,115
1,122
1,128
1»1 3 +
1,140
M47
Li 53
H59
1,165
1,172
1,178
1,184
1,190
L197
1,203
1,206
1,208
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
316
320
The table differs confiderahly from Mr Lambert’s.
The quantities of fait correfponding to any fpecific
gravity are about T-gth lefs than in his table. But the
reader will fee that they correfpond with the feries of
brine. This was evaporated to drynefs, and there were
obtained 1344 grains of fait. By this was computed
the number interpofed between 31 o and 3 20 in the table.
We have however raifed the fpecific gravity to 1,217,
by putting in no more fait than was neceffary for thi3
denfity, and ufing heat. It then cooled down to 6oJ
without quitting any fait ; hut if a few grains of fait
be thrown into this brine, it will quickly depoiit a great
deal more, and its denfity will decreafe to 1,206. We
find this to hold in all falts ; and it is a very inftruftive
fat't in the theory of cryllallization ; it refembles the ef-
fedl which a magnet produces upon iron filings in its
neighbourhood. It makes them temporary magnets,
and caufes them to arrange themfelves as if they had
been really made permanent magnet?. JuH foa cryftal
already formed difpofes the reft to cryftallize. We im&'
gine that this analogy is complete, and that the forces
are limilar in both cafes.
The above table is computed for the temperature
35° ; but in other temperatures the ftrength will he
different on two accounts, viz. the expanfion of the
brine and the diffolving power of the water. Water
expands about 40 parts in loco when heated from
6o° to 2 1 2°. Saturated brine expands about 48 parts,
or 4‘-h more than water; and this excefs of expanfion is
nearly proportional to the quantity of fait in the brine.
If therefore any circumllance ihould oblige us to exa¬
mine a brine in a temperature much above 6o°, allow¬
ance fhould be made for this. Thus, fhould the fpeci¬
fic gravity of brine of the temperature 130 (which is
nearly half way between 60 and 212) be 1,140, we mull
increafe it by 20 (half of 40) ; and having found the
ftrength 240 correfpondiqg to this corrected fpecific
gravity, we muft correft it again by adding 1 to the
Ipecific gravity for every 45 ounces of fait.
4 But
S P E
Specific But a much greater and more uncertain correction is
t Gravit?r. neceffary on account of the variation of the diffolving
1 T power of water by heat. This indeed is very fmall in
the cafe of fea-falt in comparifon with other falls. We
prefume that our readers are apprifed of this peculiarity
of fea-falt, that it dilfolves nearly in equal quantities in
hot or in cold water. But although water of the tem¬
perature 60 will not dilfolve more than 320 or 325
ounces of the purell and dryeft fea fait, it will take up
above 20 ounces more by boiling on it. When thus
faturatt 1 to the utmoft, and allowed to cool, it does
not quit any of it till it is far cooled, viz. near to 6o°.
It then depofits this redundant fait, and holds the rclt
till it is juft going to freeze, when it lets it go in the
inftant of freezing. If evaporated in the ftate in which
it continues to hold the fait, it will yield above 400
ounces per cubic foot of brine, in good cryftals, but ra¬
ther overcharged with water. And fince in this ftate
the cubic foot of brine weighs about 1220 ounces, it
follows, that 820 ounces of water will, by boiling, dif-
folve 4C0 of cryftallized fait.
The table (hows how much any brine muft be boiled
down in order to grain. Havingobferved its fpecific gra¬
vity, find in the table the quantity of fait correfponding.
Call this x. 1 hen, lince a boiling hot graining or fatu-
rated folution contains 340 ounces in the cubic foot of
brine, fay 340 : 1000 = * : .v. This is the bulk
• 1 • , • 34°
to which every cubic foot (valued at 1000) muft be
boiled dov/n. Thus fuppofe the brine has the fpecific
gravity 1109. It holds 160 ounces/>er foot, and we
a ... . . 1000 X 160
mult boil it down to  7— or 471; that is, we
C 675 ]
S P E
529
34°
muft: boil off of every cubic foot or gallon.
1 hefe remarks arc.of importance in the manufacture
of common fait; they 'enable us to appretiate the va¬
lue of fait fprings, and to know how far it may be pru¬
dent to engage in the manufacture. For the do&rine
of latent heat affures us, that in order to boil off a cer¬
tain quantity of water, a certain quantity of heat is in-
dnpenfably neceffary. After the moft judicious appli¬
cation of this heat, the confumption of fuel may ,be too
ex'penlive.
The fpecific gravity of fea-water in thefe climates does
not exceed 1,03, or the cubic foot weighs 1030 ounces,
and it contains about 41 ounces of fait. The brine-
pits in England are vaftly richer; but in many parts of
the world brines are boiled for fait which do not con¬
tain above 10 or 20 ounces in the cubic foot.
In buying fait by weight, it is of importance to
know the degree of humidity. A fait will appear
pretty dry (if free from magnefia falts) though moift-
ened with 1 per cent, of water; and it is found that
incipient humidity expofes it much to farther deliquef-
cence. A much fmaller degree of humidity may be dif-
covered by the fpecific gravity of a brine made with a
few ounces of the fait. And the infoeftion of the table
informs us that the brine fiiould be‘weak ; for the dif¬
ferences of fpecific gravity go on diminifTiing in the
ftror.ger brines: 300 ounces of dry fait diffoJved in
897 ounces of water fliould give the fpecific gravity
1197. Suppofe it be but 1x90, the quantity of fait
correfponding is only 290; but when mixed with 897
©unces of water, the weight is 1197 .>hough the
weight of the cubic foot is only 1190. There is there- Specific
fore more than a cubic foot of the brine, and there is as G u’itv-
much fait as will make more than a cubic foot of the
weight 190. There is 290 X , or 291 f ounces,
and there is 8-f ounces of water attached to the fait.
The various informations which we have pointed out
as deducible from a knowledge of the fpecific gravity of
the brines of common fait, will ferve to fuggeft feveral
advantages of the knowledge of this circumftance in
other lixivia. We ftiall not therefore refume them, but
fimply give another table or two of fuch as are moft in-
terefting. Of thofe alkaline leys are the chief, being of
extenfive ufe in bleaching, foap-making, glafs-making,
<Scc.
We therefore made a very ftrong loy of the pureft
vegetable alkali that is ever ufed in the manufadtories,
not thinking it neceffary, or even proper, to take it in
its ftate of utmoft purity, as obtained from cubic nitre
and the like. We took fait of tartar from the apothecary,
perfeaiy dry, of which 3983 grains were diffolved in 3540
grains of diftilled water ; and after agitation for feveral
days, and then Handing to depofit fediment, the clear ley
was decanted. It was again agitated ; becaufe, when of
this ftrength, it becomes, in a very fhort time, rarer
above and denfer at the bottom. A flaftc containing
4200 grains of water held 6165 of this ley when of the
temperature 550. Its fpeciric gravity was therefore
1,4678, and the 6165 grains of ley contained 3264
grain of fait. We examined its fpecific gravity in diffe¬
rent ftates of dilution, till we carne to a brine containing
51 grains ot fait, and 4189 grains of water, and the con¬
tents of the flafk weighed 4240 grains : its fpecific
gravity was therefore 1,0095. In this train of expe¬
riments the progreffion was moft tegular and fatisftic-
tory ; fo that when we conftruefted the curve of fpecific
gravities geometrically, none of the points deviated from
a moft regular curve. It was Confiderably more incur-
yated near its commencement than the curve for fea-falt,
indicating a much greater condenfation in the diluted
brines. We think that the following table, conftru&ed
in the fame manner as that for common fait, may be de¬
pended on as very exatt.
Wught
of
Cub.Foot
IOOO
IOl6
102 1
io45
1071
1084
1098
1112
1125
1138
1150
1162
1174
1187
1200
1212
Salt
cont
oz.
O
20
40
60
80
IOO
1 20
I40
160
l80
200
220
240
260
280
300
32°i
Weight
of
Cub. Foot
ez.
1224
1236
1248
1259
1270
I28l
I293
I329
I34°
I351
1362
1372
*384
»395
1406
Salt
cont.
oz.
34°
360
380
400
420
440
460
480
500
520
540
560
580
6co
620
640
660
| Weight
of
Cub. Foot
1417
1428
1449
1460
1471
1482
‘493
1504
J5l5
1C26
*537
I547
I557
1567
*577
1586
Salt
cont.
oz.
6S0
700
720
740
760
780
800
820
840
860
880
900
920
940
960
980
1000
4Qj5
We
S P E [6
Specific We fee the fame augmentation of the denfity of the
Gravity. ^jt jn tjie diluted brines here as in the cafe of common
U“"~v ^ falt. Thus a brine, of which the cubic foot weighs
1482 ounces, or which has the fpecific gravity 1,482,
contains 800 ounces of dry alkali and 682 of water.
Therefore, if we fuppofe the denfity of the water un¬
changed, there remains the bulk of 318 ounces of water
8°°,
to receive 840 ounces of fait: its denfity is therefore —yg
— 2,512 nearly. But in the brine whofe weight per
foot is only 1016 there are 20 ounces of fait, and there¬
fore 996 of water ; and there is only four ounce-mea-
fures of water, that is, the bulk of four ounces of water,
to receive 20 ounces of fait. Its fpecific gravity there¬
fore is —, = 5, almoft twice as great as in the ftrong
75 1
S P E
brine. Accordingly Mr Achard is difpofed to admit the
abforption (as it is carelefsly termed) in the cafe of fal
tart. But it is a general (we think an univerfal) fad
in the folution of falls. It mull be carefully diftin-
guilhed from the firll contradion of bulk which falls
undergo in palling from a lohd to a fluid foim. I he
contradion now under confideration is analogous to the
contradion of oil of virtriol when diluted with v. ater ,
for oil of vitriol muft be confidered as a very ftrong
brine which we cannot dephlegmate by diftillation, and
therefore cannot obtain the dry faline ingredient in a
feparate form, fo as to obferve its folid denfity, and lay
how much it contrads in firft becoming fluid. The way
of conceiving the firft contradion in the ad of folution
as a lodging of the particles of the one ingredient on the
interftices of the other, “ on Us fe nichent, en augmentant
h poidsfans affeSer le volume, de la faumure,” as Eller and
Lambert exprefs themfelves, is impoflible here, when
both are fluids. Indeed it is but a flovenly way of
thinking in either cafe, and fhould be avoided, becaufe
inadvertent perfons are apt to ufeas a phyheal piinciple
what is merely a mode of fpeech.
We learn from the table, that a hydrometer with equi-
diftant divifions on a cylindrical or prifmatical 1km is
ftill more erroneous than in the brines of common fait..
We learn from the experiments of Kirwan, Lavoh
her, and others, that dry fait of tartar contains'about
ith of its weight of fixed air. In many applications of
this fait to the purpofesof manufaduic, this ingredient
is of no ufe. In fome it is hurtful, and muft be abftrad-
ed by lime. Soap-maker’s ley eonfifts of the pure alka¬
line fait diffolved in water. It is therefore of impor¬
tance to afeertain its quantity by means of the fpeeific
gravity of the brine. For this purpofe, we took a ley
of fal tail, whofe fpecific gravity was 1,20417, con¬
taining 314 oz* of mild alkali in a cubic foot of ley, and
we rendered it nearly cauftic by lime. I he fpecific gra¬
vity was then 1,1897. This is a very unexpeded re-
fult. Nothing is employed with more fuccels than quick¬
lime for dephlegmating any watery fluid. We fhould
rather have expeded an increafe of ipecific gravity by
the abftradion of forfie of the water ot the menftruum,
and perhaps the water of the cryftallization, and the
aerial part of the fait. But we muft aferibe this to.
the great denfity in which the fixed air exifts in the
mild alkali. _ r.
It is unneceflary to give fimilar tables for ad the ialts,
unlefs we were writing a diflertation on the theory of
their folution. We {hall only obferve, that we examined
with particular attention fal ammoniac, becaufe Mr
Achard, who denies what is called the abforption of
falls, finds himfelf obliged to allow fomething like it in Specific
this fait. It does not, however, differ from thofe of C?1 a^ity'
which we have given an account in detail in any other
refped than this, that the changes of fluid denfity are
much lefs than in others (inftead of being greater, as
Achard’s experiments feem to indicate) in all brines of
moderate ftrength. But in the very weak brines there is
indeed a remarkable difference ; and if we have not
committed an error in our examination, the addition of
one part of fal ammoniac to 64 of water occupies lefs
room than the water alone. We think that we have met
with this as an accidental remark by fome author, whofe
work we do not recolleft. But we do not choofe to
reft fo much on our form of the experiment in fuch weak
brines. The following mixtures will abundantly ferve for
conftru&ing the table of its ftrength : Sal ammoniac
~ 960 grains was diffolved in 35°^ grains °f water,
making a brine of 4466 grains. A phial which held
1600 grains water held 1698 of this brine. It contained
1698 X 960 ^ or ^5^ grains of fait. The fpecific gra-
4466
vity was = 1,061, and the cubic foot weighed
7 1600
1061 ounces. It alfo contained
1061 X 56c
1698
A, or 228
ounces of fait. By repeated abftra&ion of brine, and
replacing with water, we had the following feries :
Strief.
Brine. Sp. Gr.
Oz. Salt
Weight of brine,
After taking out
After taking out y,
After taking out
After taking out
Cub. F.
\Jl, 1698 1,061 228
2d, 1676 1,048 171
3^, ‘653 1,033 I 14
4^,1630 1,019 57
5tk, 1616 1,010 28£
6th, i6[o 1,0063 144
4, ith, 1605 1,0038 7-I
This feries is extremely regular, and the progrefs of
denfity may be confidently deduced from it.
From the whole of this difquifition on the relation be¬
tween the fpecific gravities of brines and the quantities of
fait contained, we fee in general that it may be gueffed at,
with a ufeful degree of precilion, from the denfity or fpe¬
cific gravity of faturated folutions. We therefore con¬
clude Vith a lift of the fpecific gravities of i'everal fatu¬
rated folutions, made with great care by the bifhop of
Landaff.—Thetemperaturewas42°. The firft numerical
column is the denlity ot faturated brine, and the next is
the denfity of a brine confifting of 12 parts (by weight)
of water and one of fait. From this may be inferred
the quantity in the faturated iolution, and hom tins
again may be inferred the quantity correfponding to in¬
ferior denfities.
Borax,
Cor. Sublim.
Alum,
Glaub. Salt,
Common Salt,
Sal. cath. amar.
Sal ammon.
Vol. alk. mite,
Nitre,
Rochelle fait,
Blue vitriol,
Green vitriol,
White vitriol,
Pearl afh,
1,010
1.037
1.033
1,054
1,198
1,232
1,012
1,0.87
1,095
1,1x4
1,150
i,i57
1,386
I>534
1,0291
1,059.
1,039.
1,026
1,050
1,052
x,°43
LP45
SPEC.
S P E
[
Spectre.
Phil.
'Tr.inf.
Spectacles SPECTACI.ES, in dioptrics, a maclime confifting
" of two lenfes fet in filver, horn, &c. to affiit the
defefts of the organ of light. Old people, and others
who have flat eyes, ufe convex fpe&aclcs, which caufe
the rays of light converge fo as to meet upon the retina:
whereas myopes, or fhort lighted people, ufe concave
lenles for fpedtacles, which caufes the rays to diverge,
and prevent their meeting ere they reach the retina.
See Optics, n° 73.
Ocular SPECTRA, images prefented to the
eye after lemoving them from a bright object, or doling
them. . When any one has long and attentively looked
1786. a bn'ght °bje6t, as at the fetting fun, on doling his
eyces, or removing them, an image, which refembles in
form the objedt he was attending to, continues fome
time to be vilible. This appearance in the eye we fliall
call the ocular fpe&rum of that objed.
Thefe ocular fpedtra are of four kinds : ill, Such as
are owing to a lefs fenhbility of a defined part of the
retina or fpedra from defed of fenfibihty. 2d, Such
as are owing to a greater fenfibility of a defined part of
the retina, or fpedra from excefs of fenlibility. 3d, Such
as relemble their objed in its colour as well as form ;
which may be termed dired ocular fpedra. 4th, Such
as are of a colour contrary to that of their objed, which
may be termed reverfe ocular fpedra.
SPECTRE, an apparition, iomething made preter-
naturally vilible to human light, whether the gholts of
dead men or beings fuperior to man.
A belief that fupernatural beings fometimes make
themtelves vitible, and that the dead fometimes revilit
the living, has prevailed among moft nations, efpeci-
ally in the rudeit ftages of lociety. It was common
among the Jews, among the Greeks, and among the
Romans, as we find from the Scriptures, and from the
poems, of Homer and V irgil. Celeftial appearances
were indeed fo often exhibited to the Jews, that the
origin of their belief is not difficult to be explained.—
The Divine Being manifelled himfelf to each of the Pa-
iriarchs by lome ienfible lign, generally by a flame of
fire, as he did to Mofes. Under this femblance alfo did
he appear to the Ifraelites during their abode in the de-
iert, and after they obtained a fettlement in the land of
Canaan. Nor did they believe that heavenly beings alone
alfumed a lenfible appearance : They believed that de-
ceafed men alio fometimes revifited this world. When
Saul went to confult the witch at Endor, he allied her
to bring up the perfon whom he fhould name unto her;
a proof that he coniidered his demand as eafy to be per¬
formed, and therefore that he probably afted under the
influence of popular opinion. The fame opinions had
been generally entertained at a much earlier period ; for
necromancy and witchcraft, the arts by which the dead
were fuppofed to be raifed, had been prohibited while
the liraelites were in the wildernefs, and yet untainted
with the vices of the Canaamtes. They mufh therefore
have derived them from Egypt, the crkdle of fuperfti-
tion, as web as of the arts and fciences.
Among the Greeks and Romans the apparition of
fpedlres was generally believed. On innumerable occa-
fions the gods are faid to have difeovered themfelves to
the eyes ol mortals, to have held conferences, and to
have interpofed their aid. The ghofts of the dead, too,
are laid to have appeared. When ^neas, amidil the
ciitrafticm and confulion of his mind in flying from the
S P E
677 ]
deftrudtion of Troy, had loft his wife by the way, he
returned in ftarch of her. Her {hade appeared to lu'm
(toi (lie herfell had been flam) with the lame afpedt as
before, but her figure was larger. She endeavoured to
afluage the grief ot her unhappy huffiand, by aferibing
her death to the.appointment of the gods, and by fore¬
telling the illuftrious honours which yet awaited him
But when Hineas attempted to clafp her in his arms, the
phantom immediately vanilhed into air. From thisftory
we may obferve, that the ancients believed that the um¬
brae or /hades, retained nearly the fame appearance after
death as before; that they had fo lar the refemblance of a
body as to be vifible ; that they could think and fpeak as
formerly, but could not be touched. This deferiptio-t
applies equally well to thofe {hades which had paffed the
river Styx, and taken up their feiidence in the infernal
regions. Such were the {hades of Dido, of Deiphobus*
and all thofe which iEneas met with in his journey-
through the fubterraneous world.
It appeals rom the writings of modern travellers who
have vifited rude and favage nations, that the belief of
fpedtres is no lefs common among them. Mr Bruce
tells us, that the prieft of the Nile affirmed, that he had
more than once feen the fpirit of the river in the form
o{ an old man with a white beard. Among the Maho¬
metans the do&rine ot fpe&res feems to be reduced to
a regular fyftem, by the accounts which they give of
genii. Whoever has read the Arabian Nights Enter¬
tainments muit have furniflied his memory with a thou-
is kind* Their opinions concernincr
fand in fiances of this Kind* Their opinions concerning
genu fetm to be a corrupted mixture of the do&rines of
the Jews and ancient Perfians. In Chriftian countries,
too, notwichftanding the additional light which their re¬
ligion has fpread, and the great improvement in the
fciences to which it has been fubfervient, the belief of
ghofts and apparitions is very general, efpecially among
the lower ranks* They believe that evil fpirits fom<?-
times make their appearance in order to terrify wicked
men, elpecially thofe who have committed murder.  
They fuppofe that the fpirits of dead men affiime a-,
corporeal appearance, hover about church yards and.
the houfes ot the deceafed, or haunt the places where
murders have been committed. (See Ghost.) In fome
places it is believed that beings have been feen bearing a
perftdt refemblance to men alive. In the Highlands of
Scotland, what is called the fecond fie lit is ftill believed
by many (lee Second Sight) ; viz. that future events-
are foretold by certain individuals by means of ipedfral
reprefentation. r
. So general has the belief of fpe&res been, that this
cireumftanee alone may be thought by fome fufficient to
prove that it mull have its foundation in.human nature
or muft reft upon rational evidence. When any doc¬
trine has been univerfally received by all nations, by ge¬
nerations living feveral thoufand years from one an*
other, and by people in all the different ftages of focie*-
ty, there is certainly the ftrongeft preiumptioa to con*
elude that luch a do&rine has its foundation, in reafon
and in truth. In this way we argue in favour of the
exiftence of a God, concerning moral diftin&ion, and
the do&nne of a future ftate : and certainly lb far we
argue well. But if the fame argument bs applied to
idolatry, to facrifices, or to apparitions, we lhall find
that it is applied improperly. Idolatry was very general
among ancient, nations; fo was the offering of facrifices*
3 £0
Spe&re.
S P E [6/
Spf6lve. f0 V:as polytheifra: but they were by no means uni-
> ' uerfal. Should we allow', for the fake of Ihortening
the argument, that all ancient nations were polytheifts
and idolaters, and prefented oblations to their imaginary
deities, all that could be concluded from this conceffion
is, that they fell into thefe miftakes from their igno¬
rance and from the rude date pf fociety, from which their
imperfect knowledge of theology and moral philofophy
was never &ble to refcue them. Thefe erroneous notions
fled before the brightnefs of the Chriftian fyilem; while
the doctrines of the exiftence of God, of moral diftinc-
tion, and of a future date, have been more thoroughly
confirmed and afcertained. The fame thing may be faid
of the belief of fpeares. However generally it has been
adopted in the fird ftages of fociety, or by civilized na¬
tions who had made but little progrefs in the dudy of
divine things, it has been reje&ed, we may fay invari¬
ably, wherever theology and philofophy have gone
hand in hand.
As all popular and long eftabliflied opinions are ob-
je&B of curiofity and refearch for the philofopher, we
think the belief of fpedres worthy of feme attention
even in this light. It will therefore, we hope, give
fome fatisfa&ion to the philofophical reader to fee a
fhort account of the fources or principles from which this
belief is derived. But as the belief of fpe&res is.con-
nefted with other opinions which appear to us highly
injurious to religion ; opinions which have been fupport-
ed by many learned men, and which are {fill believed by
fome men of literary education—it will alfo be proper,
in the fird place, to confider the evidence on which this
belief reds, in which we mud coniider both their proba¬
bility and-credibility.
In the prefent invedigation we mean to fet adde al¬
together the celedial appearances recorded in Scripture,
as being founded on unefucdionablc evidence, and per¬
fectly agreeable to thofe rules by which the Deity acts
in the ufual courfe of his Providence. I lie Ifraehtes,
during the exidence of their date, were immediately
unde Abe authority of God, not only as the moral go¬
vernor of the world, but as the king of Ifrael. In the
infancy of the world, while men were rude and unen¬
lightened, and entirely under the influence of idolatry,
many revelations were necedary to preferve in their
minds pure ideas of the nature of God, and of the wor-
fhip due to I-Iim. They were necedary alfo to pave the
■way for that illudrious difpenCation which the Lord Je-
fus came from Heaven to diffufe over the world. Every
celedial appearance recorded in Scripture was exhibited
for fome wile and important purpofe, which mud be ap¬
parent to every perfon who confiders thefe appearances
with attention. But when the Scriptures were written
and publifhed, and the Chridian religion fully edablilh-
ed, revelation ceafed, and miracles and heavenly mef-
fa res were no longer requidte. What credit then ought
we to give to thofe marvellous dories related in ancient
authors concerning prodigies in the heavens, and the
apparition of angels both good and bad ?
^ It is not pretended that any of thofe prodigies and
appearances were exhibited for purpofes et|iially great
and important with thofe which ate deferibed in Scrip¬
ture : And can we fuppofe that the all-wife Governor of
the World would permit his angels to render themfelves
vifible to the eye of man for no purpofe at all, or for a pur-
pofe which might have been equally well accomplifhed
5 ] S P E
without their interpofition ? Would this be confident
with perfect wifdom, or would it be confident even with
the excellence and fuperiority of underdanding which we
are taught to aferibe to thefe elevated beings ? The
whole will of God is revealed to us in the Scriptures ;
what further ufe for the vifible interpofition of angels ?
It may be objefted, Are they not all minidering fpirits
lent forth to minider for them who fhall be heirs of
falvation § ? We anfwer, That angels may animate and $ Hebi.
fupport good men by an invifible interpofition. But1^
the Apoftle is not fpeaking of celedial fpirits. The
word avy«xof fignifies “ a meffenger and in Scripture
often refers to men. In the pad’age which we are now
reviewing it certainly is applied with much more pro¬
priety to men than to angels : for the Apodle is dating
a comparifon between the Prophets, by whom God, at
fundry times and in divers manners, fpake in time pafl
to the fathers, and the Son, by whom he hath fpoken
in thefe lad days.
And if God has given nocommiffion to his angels to
deliver to men fince the publication of the Chridian
religion, is there any probability that he would give any
commiffion or any licence to evil fpirits ? It will be
faid, that this do&rine is clearly taught in the New Tef-
tament, in thefe words, “ The devil goeth about as a
roaring lion feeking whom he may devour,” We will
not avail ourfelves of the interpretation of fome, who
fay that the word Jevi/, which in the Greek language
fignifies an adverfary, m jlanderer, re(ers here to fome
human being, who was a violent enemy of the Chridians.
All that can be deduced from thefe words, upon the
fuppodtion that they refer to a malignant fpirit, is mere¬
ly that he goeth about feducing men to vice. But it
is not by affumitig a hideous form, and prefenting him-
felf to the midnight traveller, that fuch a purpofe is to
be accompliflied. A fpirit may probably have direct ac-
cefs to our minds without the intervention of anything
corporeal; and by exciting our padions may plan re us
into vice, which is the only object fuch a being is fup-
pofed to have in view. None o! the marvellous dories
which we have heard concerning the apparition of evil
fpirits lead us to conclude that they appear to entice
men to commit crimes. We never heard of any evil
ipirits that required men to deal, to perpetrate robbery
or murder. They only appeared to terrify fome crazy
timorous individuals, who have whims and fancies enow
of their own to agitate their minds, though no pre¬
ternatural vilion ihould ever appear to them. It is
not confident, therefore, with the character of God,
and what he has revealed to us of his will, to believe
that he would commiffion good angels, or permit evil
angels, to appear to men dnee the propagation of the
gofpel, or indeed at any former period of the world,
unlefs fome great and mighty purpofe was to be fulfilled.
It is not confident with what we know of the nature of
good or bad angels to fuppofe, that though permiflion
were granted them occalionally to fhow rhemfelves to
men, that they would appear in that way which dory-
tellers deferibe.
It is equally improbable that the fpirits of the dead
who have removed from this world (hould again be per¬
mitted to vifit it. At death men undergo as great,
perhaps a greater change, than when they came fird in¬
to the light of the fun. Is it not therefore as impro¬
bable that a man ihould return in a vifible corporeal
form
s P E [6
RrciS'e- form after death, as that, after having arrived at man-
I , hood, he (hoald return to the date in which he was be¬
fore his birth ? Such changes as thefe are evidently
made permanent by the invariable laws of nature. But
fuppofe it were poffible, for what purpofe ihould they
return ? T o defenbe to us what is palling in the other
world, to animate us to virtue, by informing us of the
rewards which there await the good; or to alarm us,
by deferibing the punishment of the wicked. MThefe
kern important reafons. But Divine Providence has
wdely thrown a veil over futurity. We know every
thing ot the other world from the feripture which it is
proper ioi us at prefent to know. And as to incen¬
tives to virtue, we are already bleffed with a num-
ufiiviently great and powerful for moral beings,
. wh° are to a& from rational motives, and not from com-
,ukexvi. pulfion. “ He that will not hear Mofes and the pro¬
phets, will not be perfuaded though one rofe from the
uead”
There is one ftrong objeaion againft the probability
o. fpedtres, which is fufficient to- prove that they are
not intelligent creatures ; or at leaft that they pofiefs
jo imall a degree of intelligence^ that they are unquali¬
fied to aft with prudence, to propofe any end to them-
felves, or ufe the proper means to accomplifh that end.
Crholls often appear in order to difeover fome crime
that^ has been committed : but they never appear to a
magiftrate, or perfon in authority, but to fome illiterate
clown, who happens to live near the place where the
crime was perpetrated ; to fame perfon who lias no
conneftion with the affair at all, and who in general
is the moll improper in the world for making the
diicovery. For inftance, in GlanviUe’s Saduclfmus tri.
umphatus (a book written in the laft centuiy by a chap¬
lain of Charles II. in fupport of the common opinions
reipeftmg witchcraft and apparitions), we have the fol¬
lowing itory : James Haddock, a farmer, was married
to Ivlenor Welih, by whom he had a fon. After
the death of Haddock, his wife married one Davis; and
both agreed to defraud the fon by the former maniage
of a leafe bequeathed to him by his father. Upon tins
the ghoft of Haddock appeared to one Francis Ta¬
verner the^ fervant of lord Chichefter, and delired him
to go to Elenor Welfh, and to inform her that it was
the will of her former hulband that their fon Ihould enjoy
the leafe. Taverner did not at firft execute this com-
mifiion ; but he was continually haunted by the appari¬
tion in the mod: hideous fhapes, which even-threatened
to tear him in pieces, till at laft he delivered the mef-
fage. ^ Now, had this fptftre had the leaft common
fenfe, it would have appeared firft to Elenor Welfh and
her hulband Davis, and frightened them into compli¬
ance at once, and not have kept poor Taverner in fuch
con ft ant diiquietude, who had no concern in the matter.
.. Another very odd circumftance refpefting apparitions
rn general-muft pot be omitted, which is, that they have
no power to fpeak till they are addreffed. In the 27th
of Granville s Kelations we read of an old woman that
appeared often to David Hunter, a neat-herd, at the
houfe of the Bifiiop of Down and Conners. When¬
ever fhe appeared, he found himfelf obliged to follow
hei ; and ter three quarters of a year poor DaviJ fpent
the whole of almoft every night in fcampeiing up and
oown through the woods after this old woman. How
long this extraordinary employment might have contL
79 1 s P E
nued, it is impoflible to guefs, had not David’s violent
fatigue made him one night exclaim, “ Lord blefs me !
would I were dead!—fnall I never be delivered from this
mifery!” On which the phantom replied, “ Lord
bkfs me too ! It was happy you fpoke firft, for till then
I had no power to fpeak, though I have followed you
fo long.” Then ftie gave him a meflage to her two
fons, though David told her lie remembered nothin''1
about her. David, it feems, neglefted to deliver the
-meffage; at which the old beldam was fo much provoked,
that ihe returned and hit him a hearty blow on the
Ihoulder, which made him cry out, and then fpeak
to her. Now if Ihe could not fpeak till David ad-
dre.Ted her, why might Ihe not have applied this orato-
rial medicine the firft time Ihe appeared*to him? It.
would have faveS both herfelf and him many a weary
journey ; and certainly David would much rather have
had even half a dozen of blows from, her choppy lifts
than have wanted fo many nights deep. To complete*
the ftory, we muft add, that when David's wife found
it impoffible to keep him from following the troublefome
vifitor, fine trudged after him, but never was gratified
with a fight of the enchantrefs. David’s little dog too,
was a dutiful attendant on his mafter during his piLri-
mage. 0
It is remarked by Glanville, that ghofts are generally
very eager to be gone. Indeed they are often fo much,
fo, that they dq not ftay to tell their errand. One
would be induced from this, as well as the circumftan-
ces already mentioned, to think that they are the ftupid-
eft and dulleft of the dead that aftunie the appearance1
of ghofts ; unlefs we adopt the ingenious folution of
Glanville, “ that it is a very hard and painful thing for
them to force their thin and tenuious bodies into a vifi-
confidence ; that their bodies muft needs be exceed¬
ingly compreffed ; and that therefore they muft be in
hafte to be delivered from the unnatural preTure.” *
With refpeft to the evidence in favour of fpeftres^
if examined ever fo fiightly, it will be found very de-
fcftive. They only appear to one perfon at a time j,
they are feen only in the night; they are vifible only
to ignorant, illiterate, and credulous perfons, and never
prefent themfelves before men of education and learn-
irig.
That fpeftres only appear to one perfon at a time,
even though.there are more in company, is an objeftion
againif the credibility of their appearance quite infur-
mountable. How is it poftible that two men of eye-
fight equally good, directing their eyes to the fame
fpot, mould not fee fo large an objeft as that of a man
or woman at a fmall diftance equally well ? ‘Some will
tell us that a mitt is caft over the eyes of the one, while
the view of the other is free from obftruftion. But
how is this to be proved? and befides what purpofe
would it feive ? Ghofts have feldom a iy fecrets to dif-
clofe ; they might be proclaimed to a multitude with as
much propriety as confined to one perfon. Shall we
be toia, that the fpeftre lias the power of becoming vi¬
fible to fome, and of remaining invifible to others ?
ft his cannot be allowed without adopting opinions de-
ftruftive to revealed religion ; for it would be a miracle :
and we cannot be perfuaded, without evidence, that God
would empower any inferior being to controul at plea-
fme the wife laws which he has ordained for governm,^
the world. To him who is of a different opinion, ws
would.
5 p E [
would recommend Farmer on Miracles ; a book In which
this queltion is fully examined.
Speftres appear only in the night. But why mould
they fhun the light of the fun ? Thole mifchievous
ghofts that Glanville mentions might indeed have iome
realon to choofe midnight for the execution oi their
pranks, as they would be more ealily dete&ed in open
Bay. Such was the roguilh drummer that haunted
680 1 S P E
may be turned into a monflrous phantom, and tne 1 e t
fleftion of the beams of the moon from a little water
be converted into a gholt with a winding-lheet J But
why fliould apparitions Ihun men of underitanding and
learning ? Why fhould learning be formidable to them
(a) ? It was not fo with the celeltial melfengers men-
tioned in the Scriptures : they appeared to the patri¬
archs and prophets : and the miracles there recoidcd
day. Such was the roguilh drummer mar a r ^ i in the moft public places, before the
Mr Mompeflbn’s houfe, who beat his drum al mg , 1 Rabbies, of Scribes, and Pharifees. I-ndeed
threw the old. gentlewoman-, ctehe, “e^room, ^^^'^Uclen. 'to deftroy the evidence of
hid her Bible m the allies, plucked , fDeAres They have never been feen by any but men
wlrituU 'a grave'ferious ghoit of weak or ditoperel minds, or by men who have pre-
appear at midnight > Might it ''"I'lIvinV confidered the evidence on which the
•with as much cafe and more fucctfs m t : , i- r lDe(^re3 refts, we will endeavour to gi,ve fome
In the day-time it would not excite much fear ; 1 u accQunt ^ foundation of it. To trace an opinion
be liftened to therefore with more attention; and did it prcva;ied fo generally in the world to its
choofe to exhibit itfelf before a number of witneffes, its that has preyauea 10 g ^ _ ,.r
grievances would be more fpeedily redreffed, becaufe
more perions would intereft themfelves in ieeing juitice
done to the injured ghoft.
Spedires not only choofe the moft improper time,
but the moft improper perfons. To render the tefti-
Srv
fource, is a labour not unworthy of the philofopher,
even tho’ the opinion be falfe. It is always gratifying
to detedf the caufes of error : it is no lef- ufeful; for in
order to refute error, it is often fufficient to point out
the fources from which it has fprung. I o reach the
——a     r , fd "as noffeflinsr life and intelligence. The child beats
not on the evidence of an ignorant illiterate perfon, who P overSwllich he ha3 fallen with the fame paffion
has more fancy and fear than judgment, that we are to ^ he wQuld treat h;s companion : The young girl
reft our belief of what is fupenaafural. It is alfo wor- dop a5 -f it underftood her : The favages
thy of remark, that we have never heard of a ghoft ap- e change which they obferve on the face of
pearing to any perfon who did not previoufly believe ^ [he a£gon 0f f0ine animated being. As
their exiftence. A man muftbe prejudiced in .avour ot _ . . , . <mh- tVwvit. Kpincts which
this opinion, or be will never fee a ghoft. But fentible
men know, that he who has been accuftomed to hear
frightful ftories of ghofts and apparitions gliding thro
a church-yard, or haunting fome particular place, can
fcarcely pafs through a church-yard or haunted fpou
without conjuring up in his imagination tne hideous
phantoms which he has been accuftomed to aftbciate
with fuch places. Is it ftrange, then, that an ignorant
man, with a mind uncultivated and uninformed, with al
knowledge advances, they lingle out thoie beings which
feem to produce the molt linking effects, arrange them
into fome kind of order, and d. Ide the government of
the world among them. Unable, at the fame time, to
conceive any notion of a pure fpint, they imagine thoie
divinities are corporeal beings. This is the foundation
of idolatry. The belief of fpeftr es_ is but another itep.
That thcfe animated corporeal beings, to whom they
.•addrefs their prayers, and who pretide over the world,
fhould on particular occahons difplay themlelyes to the
the prejudices of the nurfery about him, fhould ima- ^ what they muft be" previoufly difpofed to
igine he fees ghofts in thofe places where he believes ^ Hence the numberlefs appearances of the hea-
they hover, efpecially in the dead hour of midmgh , P * the Perfian and Mahometan genii. The
*vhen, with the flighteft aid of the imagination, a cow then gods, ot the 1 belief
U) The celebrate! biftorian De Thou had a very Angular "t l^nTep ttltTv^yex^!
.-.ght! having retired to reft very much him. At firft he
nary weight upon his feet, which, having made him tu _ ..J’ -r • hjs cbamber, he drew afide the cur-
imagined that ic had been only a dream, but hearing foon a ter , . a ^ wh;te f1gare walking up and
tains, and faw, by help of the moon, which at that time one y g ’ & belonged" to thieves who had
down, and at the fame time obferved upon achair fome rags ft what it was. “ I am
come to rob him. I he figure then approaching ns , credulous ignorant man in the dead oi
(faid it) the Queen of Heaven.” Had fuch a fagure aPFar - and have frl|htened the whole neighbour-
night, mid made fuch a fpeech, would he not have tremWed 1 ^ imderfa®ding to be fo impofed upon,
hood with a marvellous defcnption of it but De I irvam^diatelv concluded that it was fome mad wo-
Upon hearing the words which drooped from the gure» 0f doors ; after which he returned to bed and
man, got up, called his fervants, and ordered them to un ^ hjg conjeaure, and that having forgot to
fell atleep. Next morning he found that he had b and entered his apartment. The brave bchom-
fthut his door, this female figure had efcaped from her P . » confeffed that in fuch a cafe he would not have
berg, to whom De Thou related his adventure lome day , Schomber" made the fame acknowledge.
ftown fo much courage. The king alfo, who was informed of it by bcltombei., mane
tnent.
S P E ' [ 68 r 1 S P E
Spectre, belief of ghofts may bq eafily deduced from the opi-
 nions entertained refpefting a future Hate. Thefe opi¬
nions are founded on that eflential doftrine of natural
religion, that there is another world in which men flrall
exiit when death has removed them hence. This doc¬
trine has been univerfally received both by favage and
civilized nations; but, as might be expected, men have
formed very different fentiments concerning the nature
of a future Ihte, of the fituation and employments of
departed fpirits, according to the degree of knowledge
which they poffeffed. But thfe general opinion in an¬
cient and rude nations was, that departed fpirits retain¬
ed the fame external appearance, the fame paffions and
principles as before. Nothing therefore was more na¬
tural than the opinion, that they might occafionally re-
vifit this world, from an anxious delire to alleviate
the fufferings of thofe beloved friends and relations
wdiom they had left behind them, or to communicate
from the unfeen world what might be important to
their welfare. Upon fuch an errand did Creiifa appear
to ^Encas. The apparition of the gholls'of murder¬
ers is eaiily explained upon the fame general principles.
The remorfe and horror of mind which the murderer
feels are fuppofed to haunt him in the other world, and
to render his lituation there intolerable (efpecially if the
murder was never dete&ed and punifhed), till he re¬
turn and give information againft himfelf. In this way,
then, we think it highly probable the belief of fpeftres
has originated. But many other caufes concur to con¬
firm and propagate this belief. Thefe are, imperfed
vilion united with fear, dreams, opium, difeafes, drunk-
ennefs, and artifice.
i. Tndiffinft vifion is one fource of apparitions, efpe¬
cially when the mind is under the influence of fear, "it
is well known, that the fenfe of feeing conveys no idea
of diftance till improved by experience and obferva-
tion ; and how we come at length to diffinguifh ob-
jedfs at a diilance from thofe that are near, has been
explained in another place (fee Metaphysics, n° 50).
In the day-time we feldom commit miftakes, becaufe
we know the obje& at which we look ; but at night,
when we fee objefts obfcurely, and know not what they
are, we have no diffindl idea either of their diflances or
of their magnitude. We may miftake a bufh that is
near us for a tree at a diftance ; or if the imagination be
under the influence of fear, it will eafily convert it into
Mon's a gigantic figure. “ It is generally afferted (fays Buffon)
[ at“ral that thefe figures exift only in the imagination ; yet
[ ( jT’ they may have a real exiftence in the eye ; for whenever
j3. ‘ we have no other mode of judging of an unknown ob¬
ject but by the angle it forms in the eye, its magnitude
will uniformly increafe in proportion to its propinquity.
11 it appears, when at the diftance of 20 or 30 paces,
to be only a few feet high, its height, when within two
or three feet of the eye, will be many fathoms. An ob-
jeft of this kind muft naturally excite terror and afto-
nifhment in the fpedtator, till he approaches and recog-
nifes it by aftual feeling ; for the moment a man knows
Vol. XVII. Part II.
the gigantic appearance it affumed in the eye Spaftre,
inltantly diminflhes, and its apparent magnitude is re-
duced to its real dimenfions. But if, inftead of aD-
proaching fuch an objed, the fpeftator flies from it, he
can have no other idea of it but from the image which
it formed in his eye ; and, in this cafe, he may affirm
with truth that he faw an objeft terrible in its afpeft,
and enormous in its fize. I bus the notions concerning^
fpeclres is founded in nature, and depend not, as fom?T
philofophers affirm, upon the imagination alone.”
In addition to thefe obfervations of Buffon, we may
take notice, that objefts are always magnified in a fo«-;
fo that when a fog happens in the night-time, obje&s
may be magnified to an enormous fize. But, at any
rate, whether there be fog in the night or not, there is
inch a great analogy between darknefs and a fog, that
if the latter deceive us with refpeft to the lize°of ob-
je6Is, the-former will alfo deceive tis. The writer of
this article was paffing the Frith of Forth at Queensfer-
r7> near Edinburgh, one morning which was extremely
foggy.. Though the water be only two miles broad, the
boat did not get within fight of the fouthern fhore till
it approached very near it. He then faw to his great
furprife a large perpendicular rock, where he knew the
fliore was low and almoft flat. As tiie boat advanced
a little nearer, the rock feemed to fplit perpendicularly
into portions, which {Separated at a little diftance from
one another. He next faw theft; perpendicular divi-
fions move ; and upon approaching a little nearer, found
it was a number of people Handing on the beach, wait-
ing the arrival of the ferry-boat.
2. Dreams are another fertile fourcer of apparitions.
It is well known to every perfon, that while the mind
is under the influence of a dream it coniiders it as
much a reality, as it does any particular aeftion while
awske. Now if a petfon of a weak fuperftitious mind
fliould have a very lively dream, which interefts his paf-
fions, particularly the paffion of fear, it may make fo deep
an impreffion, that he may be firmly convinced that he
has actually feen with his eyes what has only pafled be¬
fore his imagination (See Apparition) (b). Wd
fliall here tell a ftory, by way of illuftration, which we
have received on unqueilionable authority. An Fail;
Indian captain had an honeft faithful fervant named
John, for whom he had a great regard. John died, if
we recolleft right, on a voyage from England to the
Eaft Indies during a French war. As the ffiip ap¬
proached the place of its deftination the captain had a
dream, in which John appeared to him, and earneftly
beforight him not to fail to the port for which he was
bound, as it was in the hands of the French. The cap¬
tain, though not addicted to fuperftition, thought it
prudent to follow this admonition ; and after landing at
a difterent port, he was informed that the place to
which he had intended to fleer was, according to the
information of the dream, captured by the French.
On the voyage home, the captain had a fecond dream,
in which John again appeared to him, and gave him no-
4 K tics
(b) W hen the thoughts are much troubled, and when a perfon fleeps without the cireumftances of going- to
bed or putting oft his clothes, as when he- nods in his chair, it is very difficult, as Hobbes remarks, fo dfftin!
guiffi a dream from a reality. -On the contrary, he that compofes himfelf to fleeo, in cafe of any n^u h 0
abfurd fancy, eafily fufpefts it to have been a dream.—par. i. c. j. 7
S P E [68
SpeSre. tice that he fhould foon die. and that the (hip fhmdd be
—-V ' taken in the month of the Channel by the French.
Next morning the captain called his firil mate, told him
his dream, which he believed was prophetic, and deli¬
vered his papers, that he might take proper care of
them after his deceafe. Every thing happened exaftly
as the dream had foretold ; the captain died, and the
vfffid was taken by a French man of war in the mouth
of the Channel. This dream, wonderful as it appears,
is eafily explained. In the voyage out to India, no¬
thing was more natural than that the captain fhould
fometimes he thinking, that amidfl the various chances
of war, the port to which he was bound might be ta¬
ken ; perhaps it was a place of confequence, which the
French might be eager to pofiefs. The captain bein r
accuftomed to revolve thefe thoughts in the day-time,
they would naturally return at night ; the regret which
• he felt for the lofs of a faithful fervant might mingle
with his apprehenfions, and thus produce the dream.
Perhaps the advice was fuch as John would have given
had he been alive. It is equally eafy to explain the
caufe of the dream in the paffage home. The captain,
we are told, was very ill, and thought himfelf dying,
at the very time he had the fecond dream, and there¬
fore did not expeft to r«ach England. This part of
the dream, then, was only his own thoughts, delivered
by his fervant. As to the other part, that his fhip
fhould be taken in the mouth of the Channel, it
may be thought unaccountable how the very place
fhould be forefeen. But we muft rccolka:, that the
mouth of the Channel, being over againft the coaft of
France, was by far the mofl dangerous place Jn the >
whole paffage ; and that, therefore,_ the captain had
more reafon to be afraid of lofmg his fhip there than
in any other place. The ufe which we mean to make
of this {lory is this : Had the captain been a man of a
weak mind, he would certainly have confidered the
dream as a reality, and believed, that inftead of having
dreamed of the things on which his imagination had
dwelled, he had adually feen his fervaht return from the
dead, and heard him deliver the meffage. But, on the
other hand, the captain, though he believed the dream
was prophetic, mentioned it without any figns of fear;
and no man of courage and reflexion ever fees an appa¬
rition. This fight is referred for the weak, the ti¬
mid, and fuperftitious. Of this many inftances might
be mentioned.
3. Spe&res are fometimes alfo occafioned by opium.
Gaffendi the philofopher found a number of people
going to put a man to death for having intercourfe
with the devil ; a crime which the poor wretch readily
acknowledged. Gaflendi begged of the people that
they would permit him firft to examine the wizard be¬
fore putting him to death. They did fo ; and Gaflendi,
upon examination, found that the man firmly believed
himfelf guilty of this impoffible crime. He even offered
to Gaffendi to introduce him to the devil. The philo¬
fopher agreed; and when midnight came, the man gave
him a pill, which he faid it was neceffary to fwallow be¬
fore ft.'ingofl. Gaffendi took the pill, but gave it to his
dog. The man having fwallowedjris, fell into a pro¬
found fleep ; during which he feemed much agitated
by dreams. The dog was affefted in a fimilar man-
tier. When the msn awoke, he congratulated Gai-
2 ] S ' P E
fcndi on the favourable reception he had met with from Spearc.
his fable highnefs. It was with difficulty Gaffendi "
convinced him that the whole was a dream, the effect
of foporinc medicines, and that he had never fibred
from one fpot during tire whole night.
4. That difeafes, efpecially the night mare, the hy¬
pochondria, hyfteric paffion, and madnefs, are another
fource of fpfteres, we have tire firongefl reafon to altirm,
Perfons fubieft to the night mare often imagine that
they fee fpeftres. This is ftill more the,cafe with hy¬
pochondriac and hyfteric perfons, and thofe who are in
any degree deranged in their intellefts. A faft which fell
within the obfervation of the writer of this article, will
both prove and illuftrate this affertion. In a village in
one of the midland counties of Scotland, lived a widow
diftinguifhed among her neighbours for decency of man¬
ners, integrity, and refpeft tor religion. She affirmed,
that for feveral nights together fire had heard a fuper-
natural voice exclaiming aloud, Fi'Turclt’r ! murder! i lus
was immediately reported through tire neighbourhood ;
all were alarmed, and looked around them with folici-
tude for the dete&ion of the murder which they flip-
pofed to have been committed ; and it was not long
till a difcovery feemed actually to be made. It was
reported, that a gentleman, who had relations at no great
diftance, and had been refiding in the Well Indies, had
lately arrived with a corifidevable fortune ; that he had
lodged in an inn about three miles off; and that he had
afterwards been feen entering a houfe in the village
where the widow lived, from which he had never re¬
turned. It was next affirmed, that a tradefman paffing
the church-yard about twelve at midnight had feen four
men carry a dead corpfe into that cemetery. Ihtfe
three fads being joined together feemed perfedly to
agree and to confirm one another, and all believed fome
horrible murder had been committed. The relations
of the gentleman thought they were called upon to
make inouiry into the truth of thefe allegaLious: they
accordingly came firft to the church-yard, where, in
company' with the fexton, they examined all the
graves with great care, in order to difcover whether
any of them had been lately dug, or had the ap¬
pearance of containing more than one coffin. But
this fearch w'as to no purpofe, for no alteration
had been made upon the graves. It was next le-
ported that the murdered man had been buried in a
plantation about a mile diftant from the village. . As
the alarm was now very general, a number of the inha¬
bitants propofed of their own accord to expioie u.
They accordingly fpread themfelves over the wood, and
fearched it with care, but no grave nor new dug earth
was Found. The writer of this article, wh<^ was then
a boy at fchool, was along with them. I he matter
did not reft here 1 The perfon who was fasd to nave
feen four men carry a dead corpfe into the chuich-yard
at midnight was fummoned to appear before a meeting
of the juftices of the peace. Upon examination he de¬
nied any knowledge of the affair, but referred , the
court to another perfon from whom he had received
his information. This perfon was examined, and the
refult was the fame as the former. In fhort, one per-
fon had heard it from another, who had received it from
a third, who had heard it from a fourth ; but it had
received a little erabellifhment from every perfon who
repeated
S P E [ 683
Spedre. repeated it. It turned out to be the fame with Smol-
let’s ftory of the three black crows, which feme body
was laid to have vomited.
Upon inquiry at the inn where the Weft Indian gen¬
tleman had lodged, no Inch gentleman had been ieen
there. It was found afterwards he had never left the
Weft Indies. Still, however, the veracity of the wi¬
dow was not ddputed ; and fome dark and fecret tranf-
adtion was fufpedted. But the whole affair was at
length explained by dhoovering that the was fomewhat
deranged by melancholy. And the cries which fhe
had at firft imagined ftie had heard were afterwards
imitated by fome roguifh perfon, who was highly amufed
with ipreading terror among the credulous.
5. Drunkennefs alio has the power of creating fpedftres.
Ite natural effedt in moll cafes is to derange the under-
ftanding. to throw it off its guard, and to give full feope
to that paflion which has a natural difpolition to gain
an afcendancy ; and fometimes it excites paftions which
fcarcely feem to exift at any other time. It makes
fome men licentious, fome furious, iome all benevolence
and kindnefs, fome from being cowards it renders un¬
daunted heroes. It feldom, if ever, excites fear ; and
therefore it may be thought ftrange that men Ihould
imagine they fee ghofts when intoxicated. But it mull
be remarked, that the ghofts which the drunkard fees,
he fees not with the fame alarm and terror as men who
are lober. He is not afraid of them. He has the cou¬
rage to converfe with them, and even to fight with
them, if they give him provocation. A man returning
home intoxicated, affirmed that he had met with the devil;
and that after a fevere encounter he had vanquilhed him
and brought him to the grojund, to which he had nailed
him fall by driving his ftaff through his body. Next
morning the ftaff was found ftuck with great violence
into a heap of turfs !
6. Many apparitions pf fpeftres have no other origin
than the artifices of the waggifh or felf-interefted. Dr
Plot, in his Natural Hiftory of Oxfordfiiire, relates a
marvellous ftory, which will illuftrate this affertion.
Soon after the murder of King Charles I. a commiffion
was appointed to furvey the king’s houfe at Wood-
ftock, with the manor, park, woods, and other de-
mefnes to that manor belonging ; and one Collins, under
a feigned name, hired himfelf as fecretary to the com-
miffioners, who, upon the 1 3th of October 1649, met,
and took.up their refidence in the King's own rooms.
His majefty’s bed-chamber they made their kitchen, the
council hall their pantry, and the prefence chamber was
the place where they fat for the difpatch of bufinefs.
His majefty’s dining-room they made their wood yard,
and fiored it with the wood of the famous royal-oak
from the High Paik, which, that nothing might be
left with the name of king about it, they had dug up
by the roots, and fplit and bundled up into faggots for
their firing. Things being thus prepared, they fat on
the ]6th of the fame month for the difpatch of bufinefs1;
and in the midft of their firlt debate there entered a
large black dog (as they thought), which made a dread¬
ful howling, overturned two or threp of their chairs,
and then crept under a bed and vanifhed. This gave
them the greater furprife, as the doors were kept con-
ilantly locked, fo that no real dog could get in or out.
The next day their furprife was increafed, when fitting
•at dinner in a lower room, they heard plainly the noife
1 S P E
of perfons walking over their heads, though they well Speftre.
knew the doors were all locked, and there could be no
body there. Prefently after they heard alfo all the wood
of the king’s oak brought by parcels from the dining¬
room, and thrown with great violence into the prefence
chamber; as alio all the chairs, (tools, tables, and other
furniture, forcibly hurled about the room ; their papers,
containing the minutes of their tranfa&icns, were
torn, and the ink-glafs broken. When all this noife
had ceafed, Giles Sharp, their fecretary, propofed to
enter firft; into thefe rooms ; and in prefence of the com-
miffioners, from whom he received the key, he opened
the doors, and found the wood fpread about the room,
the chairs toffed about and broken, the papers torn, the
ink-glafs broken (as. has been laid), but not the leaft
trail of any human creature, nor the leaft reafon to
fuipeil one, as the doors were all fall, and the keys in
the cuftody of the commiffioners. It was therefore una-
nimoufly agreed, that the power who did this mifehief
mull have entered the room at the key-hole. The
night following, Sharp the fecretary, with two of the
commiffioners fervants, as'they were in bed in the fame
room, which room was contiguous to that where the
commiffioners lay, had their bed’s feet lifted up fo much
higher than their heads, that they expected to have
their necks broken, and then they were let fall at once
with fq much violence as (hook the whole houfe, and
more than ever • terrified the commiffioners. On the
night of the 19th, as all were in bed in the fame room
for greater fafety, and lights burning by them, the can¬
dles in an inflant went out with a fulphureous fmell,
and that moment many trenchers of w ood were hurled
about the room,which next morning were found to be the
fame their honours had etiten 011 the day before, which -
were all removed from the pantry, though not a lock
was found opened in the whole houfe. The next night
they flill fared worfe ; 'the candles went out as before,
the curtains of their honours beds were rattled to and
fro with great violence; their honours received many
cruel blows and bruifes, by eight great pewter-difhes
and a number of wmoden trenchers being thrown 011
their beds, wdiich being heaved off, were heard rolling
about the room, though in the morning none of thefe
were to be feen. This night likewife they "were alarm¬
ed with the tumbling down of oaken billets about their
beds, and other frightful noifes; but all was clear in the
morning, as if no fuch thing happened. The next
night the keeper of the king’s houfe and his dog lay iu
the commiffioners room, and then they had no diftur-
bance. But on the night of the 22d, though the dog-
lay in the room as before, yet the candles w ent out, a
number of brick-bats fell from the chimney into the
room, the dog howled piteoufly, their bed clothes w-ere
all ftripped off, and their terror increafed. On £the
24th they thought all the wmod of the kin oak was
violently thrown down by their bed-fides ; they counted
64 billets that fell, and ibme hit and ihook the beds in
which they lay ; but in the morning none were found
there, nor had the door been opened where the billet
wood was kept. The next night the candles were put
out, the curtains rattled, and a dreadful crack like thun¬
der was heard ; and one of the fervants running in hafte,
thinking his mailer was killed, found three dozen of
trenchers laid frnoothly under the quilt by him. But all
this was nothing to what fucceeded afterwards: The
.t K 2
29th,
S P E r 684 1 S P E
Spe&re. 29th, about midnight, the candles went out, fomething
  walked majeftically through the room, and opened and
fhut the windows ; great ftones were thrown violently
into the room, fome of which fell on the beds, others
on the flooi ; and at about a quarter after one a noife
was heard as of forty cannon difcharged together,
and again repeated at about eight minutes diftance.
This alarmed and raifed all the neighbourhood, who
coming into their honours room, gathered up the great
ftones, fourfcore in number, and laid them by in the
corner of a field, where, in Dr Plot’s time, who reports
this ftory, they were to be feen. I his noife, like the
difcharge of cannon, was heard through all the country
for 16 miles round. During thefe nodes, which were
heard in both rooms together, the commiffioncrs and
their fervants gave one another over for loft, and cried
out for help; and Giles Sharp, fnatching up a fword,
had well nigh killed one of their honours, miflaking
him for the fpirit, as he came in His ftiirt from his own
room to theirs. While they were together, the noife
was continued, and part of the tiling ol the houfe was
ft riot off, and all the windows of an upper room were
taken away with it.- On the 3cth at midnight fome¬
thing walked into the chamber treading like a bear; it
walked many times about, then threw the warming-pan
violently on the floor ; at the fame time a large quantity
of broken glafs, accompanied with great ftones and
horfes bones, came pouring into the room with uncom¬
mon force. Thefe were all found in the morning to the
aftonifhment and terror of the commiflioners, who were
vet determined to go on with their bufinefs. But on
the fir It of November the moft dreadful feene of all en-
fued : Candles in every part of the room were lighted
up, and a great fire made ; at midnight, the candles
all yet burning, a noife like the buriling of a cannon
was heard in the room, and the burning billets were
toffed about by it even into their honours beds j who
called Giles and his companions to their relief, other-
wife the houfe had been burnt to the ground ; about
an hour after the candles went out as ul'ual, the crack
as if many cannon was heard, and many pailfuls of
green {linking water were thrown upon their honours
beds ; great ftones rvere alfo thrown in as before, the
bed curtains and bedfteads torn and broken, the win¬
dows {battered, and the whole neighbourhood alarmed
with the moft dreadful noifes; nay, the very rabbit-
ftealers that were abroad that night in the warren were
fo terrified, that they fled for fear and left their ferrets
behind them. One of their honours this night fpoke,
and, in the name of God, ajhed ivhat it 'was, and. why it
difturbed them fo? No anfwer was given to this ; but
the noife ceafed for a while, when the fpirit came again;
and, as they all agreed, brought with it feven devils worfe
than itfelf One of the fervants now lighted a large
candle, and fet it in the door-way between the two
chambers, to fee what paffed; and as he watched it,
be plainly law a hoof ftriking the candle and candle-
flick into the middle of the room, and afterwards ma-
king three ferapes over the fnuff, feraped it out. Up¬
on this the fame perfon was fo bold as to draw a fword ;
but he had fcarce got it out when he felt another in-
vifible hand holding it too, and pulling it from him ;
and at length prevailing, {truck him fo violently on
the head with the pummel,that he fell down for dead with
the blow. At this inftant was heard another barft like
the difcharge o" the broadfide of a mip of war, and at Spe&re
about a minute or two’s diftance each no lefs than 19 II
more fuch : thefe {hook the houfe fo violently, that they sPeculunt.
expedted every moment it would fall upon their heads. ”
The neighbours, on this, as has been faid, being all
alarmed, flocked to the houfe in great numbers, and all
joined in prayer and pfalm-finging ; during which the
noife ftill continued in the other rooms, and the dif¬
charge of cannons was heard as from without, though
no vifible agent was feen to difcharge them. But
what was the moft alarming of all, and put an end to
their proceedings effedlually, happened the next day as
they were all at dinner, when a paper, in which they
had figned a mutual agreement to reierve a part of the
premifes out of the general furvey, and afterwards to {hare
it equally amongft thcmfelves, (which paper they had hid
for the prefent under the earth in a pot in one corner
of the room, and in which an orange-tree grew), was
confumed in a wonderful manner, by the earth’s taking
fire with which the pot was filled, and burning violent¬
ly with a blue fume, and an intolerable ftench ; fo that
they were all driven out of the houfe, to which they
could never be again prevailed upon to return.
This wonderful contrivance was all the invention of
the memorable Jofeph Collins of Oxford, otherwife
called Funny foe, who having hired himfelf as fecreta-
ry, under the name of Giles Sharp, by knowing the pri¬
vate traps belonging to the houfe, and the help of
pulvis fu/minans and other chemical preparations, and
letting his fellow-fervants into the fcheme, carried on the
deceit without difeovery to the very laft; infomuch that
the late Dr Plot, in his Natural Hiftory, relates the
whole for fa£t, and concludes in this grave manner,.
“ That though tricks have been often played in affairs of
this kind, many of the things above related are not re-
concileable with joggling ; fuch as the loud noifes, be¬
yond the power of man to make without fuch inftru-
ments as were not there ; the tearing and breaking the
beds ; the throwing about the fire ; the hoof treading
out the candle ; and the ftriving for the fword, and the
blow the man received from the pummel of it.”
SPECULARIS lapis, in natural hiftory, a genus
of talcs, compofed of large plates viflbly feparate,
and of extreme thinnefs ; and each ftffile again fepa-
rated into a number of plates ftill finer. (See Talc.)
Of this genus there are three fpccies: 1. The white
fhining fpecularis, with large and broad leaves, com¬
monly called ijing/afs and Mufcovy glafs ; its lamellae,
or leaves, are extremely, thin, elaftic, and tranfparent ;
it makes not the leall effervefcence with aquafortis,
and is not eafily calcined in the fire. It is imported
in great quantities; the miniature-painters cover their
pictures with it; the lantern-makers fometimes ufe it
inftead of horn ; and minute objeefts are ufually pre-
ferved between two plates of it, for examination by
the microfcope. 2. The bright brown-fpecularis, with
broad leaves ; a very valuable fpecies, though inferior
to the former. 3. The purple bright fpecularis, with
broad leaves, which is the moft elegant of all the talcs,
and not lefs beautifully tranfparent than the firft kind.
SPECULATIVE, fomething relating to the the¬
ory of fome art or fcience, in contradiftindtion to prac¬
tical.
SPECULUM for refledling telefcopes, is made
of a kind of white copper confifting of 32 parts fine
6 red
Speed.
S p E [
Speculum red copper, l of brafs, 15 of grain-tin, and 3 of
white arCenic. The procefs given by the late J. Ed¬
wards, who was rewarded by the Board of Longitude
for difclofing it to the public, was publifhed in the
Nautical Almanack for 1787? and is as follows : Melt
the copper in a large crucible, employing feme black
€ronH it's ^ux’ comP°^c^ two parts of tartar and one of nitre ;
Afr/w,7/m',when melted, add to it the brafs and the filver. Let
?ol. u'. the pure tin be melted in another crucible, alfo with
feme black flux. Take them both from the fire, and
pour the melted tin into the fufed mafs in the large
crucible. Stir the whole well with a dry fpatula
of birch, and pour off the fufed metal immediately in¬
to a large quantity of cold water. The fudden chill of
the water will caufe the fluid metal to divide into an in¬
finite number of fmall particles,, which will cool in-
ftantly.
2. If the copper be completely faturated, the frac¬
ture of one piece of this mixed metal will appear bright,,
and of a gloffy look, refembling the face ot pure quick-
filver. But if it is of a brown reddifh colour, it wants
a little more tin. To afeertain the required proportion,
melt a fmall quantity, known by weight, oi the mixed
metal, with a known very fmall part of tin ; and, if
necefi’ary, repeat the trial with different dozes, till the
fradfure of the new mixture looks as already deferibed.
Having now afeertained the neceffary addition of tin
that is required, proceed to the lalt melting of the
whole metal, together with the additional proportional
dofe of tin ; fufe the whole, obierving the fame cau¬
tions as before ; and you will find that the mixture will
melt with a much lefs heat than that for the firft fufion.
Have ready as many ounces of white arfenic in coarfe
powder as there are pounds in the weight of the metal;
wrap up the arfenic in a fmall paper, and put it,
with a pair of tongs, into the crucible; ftir it well
with the fpatula, retaining the breath, to avoid .the ar-
fenical fi mes or vapours (which however are not found
to be hurtful to the lungs) till they difappear ; take the
crucible off the fire, clear away the drols from the top
of the metal, pour in about one ounce of powdered ro -
fin, with as much nitre, in order to give the metal a
clean furface, and pour out the metal into the moulded
flalks.
3. The fpeculum fhould be moulded with the concave
furface downwards, and many Imall holes fhould be
made through the fand upwards, to difeharge the air.
The moulding land from Highgate near London, uled
by the founders, is as good as any for calling thefe
metallic mirrors. The call metal Ihould be taken out
from the fand of the. flalks whilft it is hot, orelfe.it may.
happen to crack.it left to cool within. See Telescope.
Speculum, a looking glafs or mirror, capable of re¬
flecting the rays of the. fun-
Speculum, in furgery* an inftrument for dilating a
wound, or the like, in order to examine it attentively.
See Surgery.
SPEECH, in general, the art or aft of expreffing
a perfon’s thoughts by means of articulate founds,
■which we call words. See Language, Grammar,
Reading, and Oratory, part iv.
SPEED (John), an eminent Englifh hillorian, was
born at Farington, in Chefhire, in 1542, He was by
profeffion a taylor, and freeman of the company of mer¬
chant taylors in the city of London. In 16^6, he pub-
68.; ] S P E
lifhed hrs Theatre of Great Britain, which was after- Speedwell
wards reprinted in folio, under the title of the II
f of Great Brit awe. His Genealogies of, sPelling-
Scripture were firft bound upwith the Bible in 1611, when
the firft edition of the prefent tranflation was printed.
In 1614 appeared his Hi/lory of Great Brlt'aine, which
has been tranflated into Latin ; and in i6i6he publifh¬
ed his Cloud of Witnejfes, in oftavo. He lived in marri¬
age 57 years with his wife, by whom he had twelve fons
and fix daughters ; and died in 1 629. He was interred
m the church of St Giles’s, Crippleeate, London,
where a monument was erefted to his memory. '
SPEEDWELL, in botany. See Veronica.
SI LLL, a charm confifting of fome words of oc¬
cult power, generally attended with fome ceremony.—
In order to explain it, we will produce a few examples.
On St Agnes’s night, 21ft of January, take a row of
pins, and pull out every one, one after another, faying
a Pater-nofter on flicking a pin in your fleeve, and you
will dream of him or her you fhali marry.
A nother method to fee a future fpoule in a dream. i-Vj.
The party inquiring, muft lie in a different county from GUf*
that m which he commonly refides, and on going tt/"7'
bed muft knit the left gaiter about the right-legged
Hocking, letting the other garter and flocking alone ;
and as he rehearfes the following verlcs, at every com¬
ma knit a knot :
This knot I knit,
To know the thing I know not yet;
That ! may fee
The man (woman) that fhali my hufband (wife) be ;
How he goes, and what he wears,
And what he does all days and years.
Accordingly, in a dream, he will appear with- the in'
ftgnia of his trade or profeffion.
Another, performed by charming the-moon, thus:
At the fiifl appearance of the new moon,' immediately
after the new year s-day, (though fome fay any other-
new moon is as good), go out in the evening, and hand¬
over the fpars of a gate or ftile, and, looking on the
moon, repeat the following lines :
All hail to the moon ! all hail to thee !
I prithee, good moon, reveal to me.'
This night who my huffiand (wife) muft be.
Immediately after you muft go to bed, when you wilL
dream of the perfon deftined- for your future hufband
or wife.
SPELLING, in grammar, that part of orthogra¬
phy which teaches the true manner of refolving ■;
words into their fyllables.
All words are either fimple or compound, as ufey
dfufe; done, undone; and the rales for dividing each
muft be lucli as are derived from the analogy of lan~
guage in general, or from the eftablifhed cuftom off ’
fpeaking ; which, for the Englifh language, are re¬
duced to the following rules : i. A confonant between
two vowels muft be joined with the latter in fpelling,
as na-ture, ve-ri-ly', ge-ne-rout ; except, however, the
letter x, which is joined to the ftrft, as in f .ix-eu, ox¬
en, See. and compound words, as in up-on, un-ufed, Sec.'
2. A double confonant muft be divided, as in let-ter,
man-ner, &c. 3. Thofe confonants which can begin
a word muft not be parted in fpelling, as in defraud,
rf~.
s p e   r
Spclman re-prove, Ji-Jlinft ; however, this^ule is found feme'
i! times to fail; for though gn begins a word, as gnaw,
Spence. ^ &c- yet it mult be divided in fpclling, as in cog-
ni-Kcince, ma tig-n'rty, &c. 4. Thofe confonants which
cannot begin a word mult be divided, as Id infildom, It
in mul-tl-tude, mp in te'm-per, rd in ar-dent ; but in final
fyllables there are exceptions, as tl in tl-tle, dl in han¬
dle, See. 5. When two vowels come together, and are
both of them diftin&ly founded, they mult be feparated
in foelling, as in co-e-val, mu-tu-ai. See. 6. 1 ne gram¬
matical terminations or endings mult be leparated
in fpelling, as ed in nving-ed, edjl in de-li-ver-edj}, ing
in hear-ing, ance in ctedi-ver-ance. See. 7. Compound
words mult be'refolved into their fimple or component
words, as up-on, in-to, ne-ver-the-lefs, not-withjland-
ing, Sec.
SPELMAN (Sir Henry'), an eminent EngliHt an¬
tiquarian, was defeended from an ancient family, and
born at Cengham, near Lynn in Norfolk, about' the
« year 1561. °He was knighted by king James 1. who
had a particular elteem for him on account of his known
capacity for bufinefs ; and he employed him leveral
times in Ireland on public affairs. When he was
about 50 years of age, he went to refide in London ;
where falling into a Itudy to which his own genius had
always inclined him, he collected all fnch books and
MSS. as concerned the fubjeft of antiquities, either fo¬
reign or domelhc. In 1626, he publilhed the hr it pari,
of his well-known Glolfary, which he never carried be¬
yond the letter L ; becaufe, as fome have fuggelted, lie
had faid things under “ Magna charta,” and “ Maxi¬
mum confiHum,” that could not then have appeared
without giving offence. Upon his death all his papers
came into the hands of his fon Sir John Spiel in an, a gen¬
tleman who had abilities to have completed his lather’s
defign, if death had not prevented him. The iecond
■ part was afterwards publilhed by Sir William Dugdale ;
but with all the marks of a fcanty unfiniihed perform¬
ance. The next work he entered upon was an edition
of the Englilh Councils, of which he publilhed the firll
volume about two years before his death, leaving the
fecond volume, as well of this as ot his Crlolfaiy, to be
publilhed by Sir William Dugdale. Sir Henry wrote
feveral other things, ail relating to ancient laws and
cuftoms, and died in 1641. His Polthumous Works
were publilhed in folio, 1698, under the infpeftion of
Mr Gib fon, afterwards b.lhop of London.
SPELTER, in metallurgy, the fame with Zme.
SPENCE (Jofeph), was follow of New College,
Oxford, where he took the degree of A. M. in 1727.
About that time he became firlt known as an author,
by an Etfay on Pope's Odyjfey, in which fame particular
beauties and llemifhes of that work are confidcred; a work
of great merit, and which for found criticifm and can¬
did difquifition is almoit without a parallel. Pie was
elefted profeiTor of poetry by the umverfity in 1728,
and held that office ten years, which is as long as the
ftatutes will allow. His Hrflory ol Stephen Duck was
firft publilhed in 1731 ; but it was afterwards much al¬
tered, and prefixed to an edition of Duck’s poems.
About this time he travelled into Italy as tutor to
the earl ef Lincoln, afterwards duke of Newcallle.—
In 1736 he republifhed Gorboduc, at Mr Pope’s de-
fore, v ith a preface giving an account oi the author, the
earl of Dorfot. He quitted his followfhip in 1742, up-
686 ] S P E
on being prefented by the Society of New College to ^Spence,
the reftory of Great Harwood in Buckinghamlhire.-— , °iKI cer-
He never reffoled in his living; but paid it an annual vi-
fot, diltributing lar^e fums of money among the poor,
and providing for'many of their children. The fame
year lie was made profofibr of modern hiftory at Oxford.
In 1747 he publilhed Polymetis\ oran inquiry concerning
the agreement between the worksof the Roman poets and
the remains of ancient artills, being an attempt to illul-
trate them mutually from each other. This work was
treated by Grayr with a contempt which it did not de-
ferve. He raifes objeftions becaufe the author did not
illultrate his fubjedt from Greek writers ; that is, becaufe
he failed to execute what he never undertook. He was
info ailed prebendary of the feventh ftall at Durham the
24th May 1754. He publilhed the lame year, An
Account of the Life, Character, and Poems, of Mr
Blacklock, ftudent of philofophy at Edinburgh
which was aftei wards prefixed to his Poems. The profe
pieces which he printed in the Mufeum he collected and
publilhed, together with fome others, in a pamphlet call¬
ed Moralities, by Sir Harry Beaumont. Under tlie fame
name he publilhed “ Crito, or a dialogue on beauty,”
and “ A particular Account of the Emperor oi China’s
Gardens near Pekin, in a letter from F. Attiret, a.French
miffionary now employed by that Emperor to paint the
apartments in thofe gardens, to his friend at Paris.” Both
thefe treatifes are printed in Dodfley’s fugitive pieces, as
is alfo “ A Letter from a Swifs Officer to his friend at
Rome which Mr Spence firll publilhed in the Mu-
foum. In 1758 he publilhed “ A Parallel, in the Man¬
ner of Plutarch, between a moft celebrated man of Flo¬
rence and one fcarce ever heard of in England.” This
was alfo inferted in the fugitive pieces. The fame
year he made a journey into Scotland, which he de-
feribed in an affedlionate letter to Mr Shentlone, pub¬
lilhed in Plall’s Colleftion of Letters, 1778. In 1764
he was very well deferibed by Mr James Ridley, in his
admirable Tales of the Genii, under the name of Phefoi
Ecneps (his name read backwards), dervife of the groves.
A letter from Mr Spence to that ingenious men alift, un¬
der the fame iignature, is preferved in the 3d volume of
“ Letters of Eminent Perfons.” In 1768 he publilh¬
ed “ Remarks and Dilfertations on Virgil, with fome
other claffical obfervations, by the late Mr Holdlworth.”
On the 2cth of Augull the lame year he was unfortu¬
nately drowned in a canal in his garden -at Byfieet in
Surrey. He was found flat upon his face at the edge
of the canal, where the water was fo (hallow as not
even to cover his head. The accident, it was luppofod,
for he was quite alone, was owing to a fit.
The duke ot Newcaflle policffes fome manufeript vo¬
lumes of anecdotes collected by Mr Spence, from which
Dr Johnfon was permitted to infert many extracts in his
Lives of the Poets.
SPENCER (Dr John), an eminent divine, was born
in Kent in 1630, and educated at Cambridge. He was
chofen fellow of his college, and took a do&or’s degree in
1663. In 1667 he was chofen mailer of Corpus Chrifli
College, and preferred to the deanery of Ely in 1677. He
died on the 2cth of May 1695. His works are, j. The
Righteous Ruler ; a fermon 011 Proverbs xxix. 2. preach¬
ed June 28. 1660. 2. A Dilcourfe concerning Prodi¬
gies, wherein the vanity ot prefaces by them is repre¬
hended, and their true and proper cmds afferted and
vindicated
S P E [ 68/
Spenfer. vindicated. To this excellent work was afterwards add-
e(t) ;\ Dit'courfe concerning vulgar prophecies, wherein
the vanity of receiving them as the certain indications
of any future event is expofed ; and fome marks of
didinftion between true and pretended prophets are laid
down. 3. A Latin Differtation concerning Urim and
Thummim. 4. His famous treatife Dc legibus Hebrto-
rum ritu ilibus et earum rationlbus. The intention of this
book, as he informs us himfelf, was to vindicate the
Deity from the imputation of ailing from arbitrary and
fantaftical motives. It has been highly and juftly ef-
teemed both for the elegance of ftile and the uncom¬
mon erudition and found lenfe which it difplays. It
W, however, (that part of it particularly which endea¬
vours to deduce fome of the Jewifh ceremonies from the
pra&ices of their heathen neighbours), alarmed many
perfons, as if Inch a dodlnne, if it could be proved,
would derogate from the Divine wifdom, and under¬
mine revelation. But this is fo far from being the cafe,
that Dr Spencer’s attempt, whether fuccefsful or not,
deferves the gratitude of Chriftians, becaufe it has a
tendency to throw light on an important and difficult
fubjedf.
SPENSER (Edmund), the poet,was born in London
in the year 1553, and defeended from an ancient family
of the Spcnfers in Northamptonfhire. All we know
concerning his education is, that he was admitted a
fizer of Pembroke-hall in Cambridge, and matriculated
1 ^69. At this time began his intimacy with Mr
in
Gabriel Harvey, a man of genius and a poet. In 1^76,
having completed his degrees in arts, he left the univer-
lity, as it is coujeftured, for want of fybfiftence, and
retired to the north of England. Here he had the
misfortune to become enamoured of his Rofalihd, who,
a^ter flattering his paffion for a time, at length prefer¬
red his happier rival. Spenfer continued in the country
till the year 1578, when at the perfualion of his friend
Mr Harvey he removed to London, where that gentle¬
man introduced him to Mr Sidney (afterwards Sir Philip
Sidney). Concerning his firlt introduftion to Sir Phi¬
lip, there is indeed a different ftory, which was fir ft
told by the writer of his life, prefixed to his works in
1679, and tranferibed by Hughes, Cibber, and feveral
others ; which, neverthelefs, is certainly not true. The
purport of it is, that Spenfer, being unknown to this
Mecsenas of the age, went to Leicefter-houfe, and lent
in the 9th canto of the firft hook o1^ the Fairy Q^iecn ;
that, on reading part of it. Sir Philip ordered his ftew-
r.rd to give the bearer 50 1. ; on reading a little farther
50 1. more ; then 2001. bidding him to make hafte and
pay the money, left he fliould give the poet his whole
eilate. The itory tells prettily enough; but it is very
certain, that the Fairy Queen was begun long after his
acquaintance with Sir Philip. By this univerial patron
of genius, however, he was prefented to queen Eliza¬
beth, who honoured him with the place of poet-laureat.
About this time he finifhed his Shepherd’s Calendar,
which was firft printed in 1579 ; and in the following
year, being recommended by his patron to the earl of
] S p E
Leicefter, he went to Ireland as fecretary to the lord
Grey of Wilton, then appointed lord-lieutenant of
that kingdom. Lord Grey was recalled in 1382, and
with him Spenfer returned to London, where he conti¬
nued till after the death of Sir Philip Sidney in 1586 ;
a lofs which he bewailed to the end of his life. The
following year, our poet, having obtained a royal grant
of 3000 acres of forfeited lands in the county of Cork
m Ireland, fet out for that kingdom, took pofleffion of
his eftate, and fixed his refidence in the caftle of Kil-
colman, which had belonged to the earl of Defmond.
In this retirement he refumed his great work of the
hairy Queen ; and continued in Ireland till, being vi-
iited by his old friend Sir Walter Raleigh in 1 589’ he
came over with him to England, but returned to Ire¬
land the } ear following, wht're he fell in love with a
country girl, and married her. Soon after his marri-
age, he paid another vifit to his native country, where
we alfo find him in 1396. In the following year he re¬
turned once more to Kilcolman ; but on 'the rebellion
of Lord Tyrone, who ravaged the whole county of
Cork, he was obliged to fly for fafety with his family
to England, where, in the year 1599, he died in ex¬
treme poverty (a). He was buried in Weftminfter
Abbey, according to his requeft, near Chaucer. A
monument was ereSted to his memory by Ann countefs
Oi Dorfet. \\ e know but little of his character as a
as a poet, confidering the age in which he lived.
Spenfer,
Speryula,
he deferves our utmoft veneration. He wrote various
pieces befides thofe above-mentioned. His whole works,
with his life by Hughes, were publifhed in fix volumes
i2mo, in 1715 and 1750.
SPERGULA, Sp urre y, in botany: Agenus of plants
belonging to the clafs of decandrla, and the order of pen.
tagynia; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
22d order, caryophyllaf. I he calyx is pentaphyllous ;
the petals five, and undivided ; the capfule oval, unilocu¬
lar, and containing five valves. There are five fpecies,
the arvenhs, nodofa, pentandra, laricina, and faginoides ;
all of which are Britifh : 1. The arvenfis, corn-fpuney,’
has linear furrowed leaves, from eight to twenty in a
whirl. The flowers are final], white, and terminal. It
is frequent in corn-fields. In Holland it is cultivated
as food for cattle, and has the advantage ©f growing on
the very poorefl foils; but does not afford a great deal
of food. Poultry are fond of the feeds ; and the inha¬
bitants of I inland and Norway make bread of them
\vhen their crops of corn fail. Elorfes, flieep, goats, and
fwine, cat it. Cows refufe it.
2. The nodofa, knotted fpurrey. Several ftalks
anfe from one root, fometimes reclining and fometimes
ereft, and from three to five inches high. The leaves
are finooth, of a fine gieen, narrow,, pointed, and op-
pofite. The flowers are white, terminal, with yellow
antherae.
3. Pentandra, fmall fpurrey. The leaves are very
narrow, and grow in whirls at the joints. The feeds
are black with a white circle.. It flowers in July.
4. Larkina, larch-leaved fpurrey. Several ftalks
at ife
(a) Ibises Caniuen s account, and it has been generally believed; but Mr Malone, the laft editor of
Shakefpeare s works, by examining the patent roll, 33 Eliz. p. 3. has difeovered, that in February 1700-1:
1^220 a" m'-fa't ^ EllZabeth an annuiD or penfion of L/50 during his life; a fum equivalent to
i v~ * 5
S P E [ 688 ]
arife from one root, from an inch to an inch and a half luftre
high ; the leaves are linear, Tubulate, and acuminated,
fomewhat hairy on the edges, and their points turned to
one fide of the ftalk. The petals are white and about
the length of the calyx. Lightfoot found this fpecies
S P E
on a hill in the ifie of Bute. He is doubtful whether
t\\t fug'na procumbensy var./3 of Linnaeus, be not the fame
plant with this. It flowers in July.
5. Saginoidcs, pearlwort fpurrey, has fmooth, linear,
oppofite leaves: the peduncles are folitary and very long.
Aiton fays it is a native of England, and flowers from
June to Auguft.
SPERM, the feed whereof an animal is formed. See
Physiology.
SPERMACETI,awhitilh, unftuous, flaky fubftance,
prepared from oil, but chiefly from the brains of a fpe¬
cies of whale calledphyfeter macrocephalusi
The method of preparing fpermaceti is kept a fecret^
but the procefs is faid to be this : The brains being
taken out of the animal, are then, as fome fay, melted
over a gentle fire, poured into moulds, and when cold
melted again ; and this procefs is continued till they are
purified. Others fay, that after being prefled and drain¬
ed they are more thoroughly purified by tleeping them
in a ley of alkaline fait and quicklime. The brains are
•then wafhed, and cut into thin flakes or flices with
wooden knives. One fifh is faid to afford fome tons of
brains. Good fpermaceti is gloffy and femitranfparent,
in fine white flakes ; foft and unftuous to the touch, yet
dry and friable ; in tatle, fomewhat like butter, and of
a faint fmell like that of tallow. Some adulterate it
with wax ; but the deceit is difcovered, either by the
imell of the wax or by the dulnefs of the colour. Some
alfo fell a preparation of oil taken from the tail of the
whale inftead of that from the brain ; but this kind
turns yellow as foon as expofed to the air. Indeed it is
apt in general to grow yellowilh, and to contradl a ran¬
cid filhy fmell if not carefully fecured from the air.
The more perfe&ly it has been purified at firft, the
lefs fufceptible it is of thefe alterations ; and after it
has been changed, it may be rendered white and fweet
again by fteeping it afrefh in a ley of alkaline fait and
and, when genuine, leave no fpot or {lain on the Spermacece
fineft filk, cloth, or linen. ti
A method has been lately propofed by Mr Smith
Gibbes of Magdalen college, Oxford, to convert animal
mufcle into a fubitance much refembling fpermaceti.
fmall degree of heat, and
quicklime. It melts in a
congeals again as it cools.
Spermaceti is of ufe in medicine. Quincy fays it is
a noble remedy in the afthma, &c. though chiefly ufed
in bruifes, inward hurts, and after delivery. For inter¬
nal ufe, it may be diffolved in aqueous liquors into the
form of an emulfion, by trituration with almonds, the
yolk or white of an egg, and more elegantly by muci-
lao-es ; or made into a lohoch, by mixing two drams of
it°with a fuitable quantity of yolk of egg, then adding
half an ounce of frefh drawn oil of almonds, and an
ounce of balfamic fyrup. Spermaceti is not capable of
being diffolved by cauftrc alkalis, and of forming foaps,
like other pily matters: but it is altogether foluble in
oils, and unites by liquefaction with wax and refins ;
and in thefe forms is applied externally. But it is cer¬
tain, its greateft property, and that which makes it
fo much in vogue in many places, is its foftening the
flcin. Whence it comes to be ufed by the ladies in pailes,
waffles, &c.
Spermaceti candles are ®f modern manufacture : they
are made fmooth, with a fine glofs, free from rings and
fears, fuperior to the findt wax-candles in colour and
The procefs is remarkably fimple : Nothing more is pbU. Tranf,
neceflary than to take a dead carcafe and expofe it to a 1794.
ffream of running water : it will in a ffiort time be chan¬
ged to a mafs of fatty matter. To remove the offenfive
fmell, a quantity of nitrous acid may then be poured
upon it, which uniting with the fetid matter, the fat is
feparated in a pure Hate. This acid indeed turns it
yellow, but it may be rendered white and pure by the
adion of the oxygenated muriatic acid. Mr Gibbes
brought about the fame change in a much ihorter time.
He took three lean pieces of mutton and poured on
them the three mineral acids, and he perceived that at
the end of three days each was much altered ; that in
the nitrous acid was much foftened, and on feparating
the acid from it, he found it to be exaftly the fame
with that which he had before got from the water ;
that in the muriatic acid was not in that time fo much
altered ; the vitriolic acid had turned the other black.
SPERMACOCE, button-wood, in botany: A
genus of plants belonging to the clafs of tetrandna,
and order of monogynia ; and in the natural fyllem ar¬
ranged under the 47th The corolla is
monopetalous and funnel-fhaped, and there are two
bidentate feeds. The fpecies are eight, tenuior, verti-
cillata, hirta, articularis, ilrifta, hifpida, procumbens,
and fpinofa.
SPERMATIC, in anatomy, fomething belonging
to the fperm or feed.
SPEUSIPPUS, an Athenian philofopher, the ne¬
phew and fucceffor of Plato. Contrary to the pradlice of
Plato, Speufippus required from his pupils a llated gra¬
tuity.' He placed llatues of the graces in the fchool
which Plato had built. On account of his infirm ftate
of health, he was commonly carried to and from the aca¬
demy in a vehicle. On his way thither he one day met
Diogenes, and faluted him ; the furly philofopher re¬
filled to return the falute, and told him, that fuch a fee¬
ble wretch ought to be afhamed to live ; to which
Speufippus replied, that he lived not in his limbs, but
in his mind. At length, being wholly incapacitated,
by a paralytic ftroke, for the duties of the chair,, he re-
figned it to Xenocrates. He is faid to have been of a
violent temper, fond of pleafure, and exceedingly avari¬
cious. Speufippus wrote many philofophical works,
which are now loft, but which Ariftotle thought fuffi-
ciently valuable to purchafe at the expence of three
talents. From the few fragments which remain of his
philofophy, it appears that he adhered very ftri&ly to
the doftrine of his mafter.
SPEY, a river of Scotland, rifing from a lake of the
fame name in Badenoch, and, after a ferpentine courfe
of 76 miles, paffes by Rothes caftle, and falls into the
German fea at Garnoch near Elgin. Mr Pennant tells
us, that the Spey is a dangerous neighbour to Caftle
Gordon, overflowing frequently in a dreadful manner,
as appears by its ravages far beyond its banks. The
bed of the river is wide and full of gravel, and the chan¬
nel very ftrifting. In 1746 the duke of Cumberland
paffed this river at Belly church, near Caftle Gordon,
when the channel was fo deep as to take an officer, from
S P H
whom Mr Pennant had the acc6unt, and who was fix
feet four inches high, up to the breaft. The banks are
here very high and fteep ; fo that had not the rebels
been infatuated in fuch a manner as to negleft oppofi-
tion, the pafiage muft have been attended with confi-
derable lofs. On this river there is a great falmon-
fifhery ; about barrels full are caught in the fea-
fon, and the fhore is rented for about 1200I. annum.
SPHACELUS, in furgery and medicine, an abfolute
and perfect corruption or death of the parts.
SPELERANI HUS, in botany: A genus of plants
I/''k n n'i n ns* f-y-i 1/A. ^ C /* t ' 1
[ ^89 ]
S P
H
See Geography ;
. —uuLdny; -n. genus or plants tne hgure ot a inhere. It s aeneraieA
belonging to the clafs offyngmefa, and the order of re.ouftlon of a femi-ellfpfis abouf its aS
poygamta fegregaia ; and m the natural fyftem arranged revolution is made rrmnH tl,,* U^n-
po/ygamia fegregata ; and in the natural fyftem arranged
under the 49th order, Compo/ita. Each partial calyx
contains eight florets ; the florets are tubulated, the fe¬
male being fcarcely diftinguifhable. The receptacle is
ca y ; and there is no pappus. The fpecies are three,
the indicus, africanus, and chinenfis.
circles, as the tropics, parallels, &c
and A.stronomy, pajjim.
/Irmillary Sphf.ks. See Geography.
Sphers of Aaivity of a Body, is that determinate fpace
or extent to which, and no farther, the effluvia conti¬
nually emitted from that body reach ; and where they
operate according to their nature. 7
SPHERES, in optics, the fame with metalline mir¬
rors, for telefcopes pr other purpofes. See Mirror.
SPHEROID, in geometry, a folid approaching to
the hgure of a fphere. It is generated by the entire
_   r“” ——^ “-a When the
revolution is made round the largeft axis, the fpheroid
if called prolate; and when round the fiiorteft* oblate.
I his laft is the figure of the earth, and probably of all
the planets.
SPHEX, Ichneumon Wasp, or Savage; a ge-
nus of infefts belonging to the order of hymenoptera*
plants bdongmg to the clafs of cryptogamia and order
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ globofe ; the mouth entire
and clofed by an operculum; the calyptra is wanting.
1 here are three fpecies, the paluftre, alpinum, and ar-
boreum, 1. The palujlre, common bog-mofs, grows on
our bogs in wide patches, fo as frequently to cover
a large portion of their furface. The ftalks are from
two inches to two feet long, irregularly furrounded with
numerous, conical, pendant branches, and terminated
with a rofaceous clutter of ereft fhort ones. It is gene¬
rally believed, that the roots and decayed ftalks of this
mols conftitute a principal part of that ufeful bituminous
iubitance called peat, which is the chief fuel of the
northern regions..—The Lapland matrons are well ac¬
quainted with this mofs. They dry and lay it in their
cradle, to fupply the place of bed, bolfter, and every
covering ; .and, being changed night and morning, it
keeps the infant remarkably clean, dry, and warm. It
is uffieiently foft of itfelf; but the tender mother, not
iatisfied with this, frequently covers the mofs with the
downy hairs of the rein-deer ; and by that means makes
a molt delicate neft for the young babe. 2. The alpi-
green bog-mofs. Its branches are fubulate and
qpa y.xTr ta/t • ! :1Ub 01 Inlects belonging to the order o{ hvmenobter,p
mts bdorarioo’ ti th^daft5 of>lwa’ b.-1 .“"tains no
rium
ereftthe anthera: are oval. It grows in mountain
bogs in South Britain. 3. The arboreum, creeping bog-
mofs, is branched ; the anthers are numerous, feffile,
hairy, and grow along the branches chiefly on one fide.
It is found on the trunks of trees.
Os SPHENOTDES, the feventh bone of the crani¬
um or fkull. See Anatomy, n° 11.
a contained under one uniform
round furface, every point of which is equally diftant
trom a certain point in the middle called its centre; and
is formed by the revolution of a femicircle about its
diameter. See Geometry.
Projedion of the Sphere. See Projection.
Sphere, in aftronomy, that concave orb or expanfe
which invefts our globe, and in which the heavenly bo¬
dies appear to be fixed, and at an equal diftance from
the eye.
The better to determine the places of the heavenly
bod,es m the fphere, feversd circles are fuppofed to be
defcnbed on the furfaee thereof, hence called the circles
Iff Sphere: of thefe feme are called „W/«, as
PrffitTn'raeridia"’&c' a”d oth™
. .  —jcwo, muc t-uiiiaius no
tongue ; the mandibles are horny, crooked, dentated -
the hp horny, the apex membranaceous. The palpi
or feelers are four. The antennae have from 10 to 16
joints. The wings of both fexes are extended without
tolds, and laid horizontally on the back. The fling is
lharp, and concealed within the abdomen. There ^are
97 fpecies, of which two only are natives of Britain and
Ireland, the viatica and cribraria. 1. The viatica is
black : the antennae are fhort and thick : the three fiift
fegments of the abdomen red brown: the pedicle is
ftcre: the length half an inch. 2. The eLlrla i
black, with yellow ringlets on the abdomen : the anten¬
nae are fhort, and turned backwards: the fore-lei-rs are
broad, with an appendix like a fhield. °
. x *ie manber of living is different in the various fpe¬
cies, and fo is the general form of the body and their
haunts; but though the method of life be utterly diffe¬
rent, yet the fame manners appear innate and inherent
in all. 1 hey agree in being the fierceft of all flies •
they will attack infedls much larger than themfelves'
and this, whether they be defencelefs or armed, as they
are provided with a fling. The ftrength in aft this fa
yage kindrs great ; their jaws are hard and fharp, and
in their fling lies a poifon fuddenly fatal to the ere'-
tures with whom they engage. The favage feizes har¬
dily on the animal he attacks, and gives a ftioke o^
amazing force ; after which he falls down as if himfelf
were killed, but it is to reft from his fati - ue, and en
joy Ins viftory. Ke keeps a fteady Cye on the cre i
ture he has llruck till it dies, which happens in a few
minutes, and then drags it to the neft to feed the
young. ihe number of other infe&s they deftrov is
carce to be conceived; the mouth of their cave is like
that of a giant in the days of yore, ftrewed with the
remains of prey. I he eyes, the filament that ferves as
a brain, and a fmall part of the contents of the body
^ SPH •’ and WU1 kil1 50 f°r a
u- 7 r1- , R’ ,n anatom7> a term applied to a
kind of circular mufdes, or mufcles in form of riim
v.meh ferve to clofe and draw up feveral orifices ot the
b *eAXCreti°n °f thc co^ents.
anrf iHJNXf('fab' hift',a menfter wh,'ch had the head
and breafts of a woman, the body of a dog, the tail of
a ferpent, the wings of a bird, the paws ot a hon, and
an human voice. It fprang from the union of Orthos
4 ^ with
S P H
[ 690 ] S P H
., ... nr nf Tvnhnn wkh Echidna. The world, and as foon as he is born will prey on an ek-
c V Wn fent into the neighbourhood of phant: he is therefore figured feizing an elephant rn his
Ti 'bi by Tuno who wifhed to punifh the family of claws ; and the elephant is made imalhto flrow that the
Cadmus which fhc perfecuted with immortal hatred, Jingh, even a moment after his birth, will be very large in
^d it laid this p ut < Boeot a under continual alarms, proportion to it. But in oppolition to this account
and devouring the inhabitants if given by Murati Pandit, the late bir William Jones,
7
S; hinjr,.
7.e’vpr'iere'.
Bibliotheca
H/ajfica.
** Ancient
Mythology,
vol. hi-
P-53*-
^ Vol. ii
P-334-
unable to explain them. In the midft o! their conftet-
nation the Thebans were told by the oracle, that the
fphinx would deftrdy herfelf as foon as ope of the en-
igmas (he propofed was explained. In this enigma me
wifhed to know what animal walked on four legs m the
morning, two'at noon, and three in the evening. Upon
this Creon king of Thebes promifed his crown and his
filter Jocafta in marriage to him who could deliver Ins
country from the monfter by a fuccefsful explanation
of the enigma. It was at laft happily explained by
CEdipus, who obferved, that man walked on his bands
and feet when young, or in the morning of life, at the
noon of life he walked ere&, and in the evening of his
days he fupported his infirmities upon a flick. (Vtd.
Oedipus). The fphinx no fooner heard this explana¬
tion than fhe daihed her head againfl a rock, and imme¬
diately expired. Some mythologifts vvifh to unriddle
the fabulous traditions about the fphinx by the fuppo-
fition that one of the daughters of Cadmus, or Lams,
Jnfefted the country of Thebes by her continual depie-
d*ations, becaufe fhe had been refufed a part of her f a¬
ther’s poflefilons. The lion’s paw expreffed, as they
obferve, her cruelty, the body of the dog her lafcivi-
oufnels, her enigmas the fnares ftp laid tor ftrangers
and travellers, and her wings the difpatch fte med in
her expeditions. , „ , . , u 1
Among the Egyptians the fphinx was the fymbol
of religion, by reafon of the obfcurity of its myfleries ;
and on the lame account the Romans placed a fphinx
in the pronaos or porch of their temples. Sphinxes
were uied by the Egyptians to fhow the beginning of
the water’s rifing in the Nile : with this view, as it had
the head of a woman and body of a lion, it figmfiec
that the Nile began to fwell in the months of July and
Auguft, when the fun pafies through the figns of Leo
and Virgo. There are feveral of thefe flill to be feen ;
one in particular, near the pyramids, much fpoken of
by the ancients; being of a prodigious fize, and cut out
of the rock; the head and neck appear only at prefent,
the reft of the body being hid in the fand. 1 his, accord¬
ing to Thevenot, is 26 feet high, and 15 feet from the
ear to the chin : but Pliny affures us, the head was no
lefs than io? feet in circumference, and 62 feet high
from the belly, and that the body was 143 feet long,
and was thought to be the iepulchre of king Amafis.
The learned Mr Bryant * obferves, that the fphisx
feems to have been originally a vaft rock of different
ftrata ; which, from a ftapelefs mafs, the Egyptians a-
ftioned into an objeft of beauty and veneration. I he
Egyptians ufed this figure in their budding; from them
the Greeks derived it, and afterwards improved it into
an elegant ornament. It is alfo frequently ufed in mo¬
dern archite&ure. c 1 w
It is proper to obferve, that the fplunx of the i-gyp*
tians is raid in the Afiatic Refearches} to have been
found in India. Colonel Pearfe was told by Murap
Pandit, a man of learning among the Hindoos, that the
fphinx there called fingh is to appear at the end of the
the learned and illuftrious prefident of the Ahatic So¬
ciety, was affured by feveral Brahmans, that the figure
taken for a fphinx was a reprefentation of a lion fei¬
zing a young elephant. 1 his point therefore requires
farther inveftigatiou.
Sphinx, //.wa'-in natural hiftory ; a genus
of infedts belonging to the order of lepidoptera. The
antennae are ftaped fomewhat like a prilm, and are more
flender at each end than at the middle. The tongue is
generally thruft out: the two palpi are bent back, and
the wings deflexed. 1 here are about 165 fpecies al¬
ready difeovered, of which IO are found in Great Bri¬
tain and Ireland. . r„,
* The ocellata, eyed willow hawk-moth. 1 here
is no trunk ; the wings are indented. Above, .ft wings
dark and light-brown, marbled ; 2d, red, with a large
yellow-black eye. Beneath, a large red triangle from
the bafe of the ift wings. The breadth one mch and
an half. Caterpillar fmooth, green, with oblique white
lines on the fides, and a pofterior horn. The eggs are
green. It lives on willows. 2. Popuhy poplar hawk-
moth. The wings are fcalloped, hluift grey, and wa¬
ved with dark lines. On the ift wings a long white
fpot, and the bafe of the 2d red brown. Wings revei-
fed. Length one inch. A long fpiral trunk catei-
pillar green, fmooth, with oblique white fpots, and a
pofterior horn. It lives on poplars and willows. 3.
Tiha, lime hawk-moth. No trunk : the wings are fcal¬
loped : the antenme are white on the upper fide,, yellow
on the under. Above, ift wings grey-brown, with two
irregular large green fpots ; zd, wings orange. Be¬
neath green ift grey. Caterpillar green, ftagreened, with
a pofterior horn. 4. Convolvuli, unicorn, or bindweed
hawk-moth. The antennae are long and thick: the
trunk very long and fpiral. Above, body marked with
black and red belts ; wings entire, brown-grey, with-
black zig-zag tranfverfe lines. The breadth three inches,
Caterpillar fmooth, green, with a poftenpr horn. 5.
Livutln, privet hawk-moth. The antenna are long,
thick, and brown. Trunk long, fpiraL ift wings two
inches long, narrow, entire, brown; 2d, ftort, red, with
black bars. The abdomen is red, with black nngs.
Caterpillar fmooth, yellow-green, with a pofterior horn,
6. Atropos, jeffamine hawk-moth. 1 he wings are en¬
tire : the trunk long, fpiral. Above, 1 ft wings brown,
clouded with grey and yellow, and a yelbwift fpot
the centre; 2d, yellow, with two waved tranfverfe ftnp .
The abdomen is yellow, with ftven black-brown belts.
The thorax marked like a Death’s-head. Leagt 1
inches. Caterpillar very large, ye low, with hx green
and orange oblique belts, and a poitenor horn. 7.
pernr, elephant moth.. The wings are angidar,enti^
Above, ift wings ftnped tranfverfely with red and
Pi-een • zd, black at the bafe, and red outwards, i he
body red and green. Caterpillar fmooth, hrown an
vellow with a pofterior horn, and a fnout like a 1 g*
It lives on vines, convolvulus, &c. 8. ^Marurn, large
bee moth. The antenna are thick towards trends,
7
I
-4■
, *//}'//\'Ar’"W'A
]’I«U* V(H’CLXXI\'
<jS //wr
/ //i’/'' r<
rr,/
Z/4r/.
r,/.
s p i r 69! i s p i
trown. The trunk Is fpiral: the wings are fhort
and entire : the body is thick, brown, and hairy, Firft
wings are brown, waved ; 2d, red brown. It refembles
a large bee. Caterpillar fmooth, with a pollerior blue
horn, tipt with red. It lives on gallium. 9. Tipuh-
fortnis, fmall bee moth. The thorax Is yellow beneath:
the wings are fhort, with black veins. The abdomen
black, bearded, yellow at the extremity. Caterpillar on
the lonicera. io. F>lipendul#, burnet moth. The an¬
tenna;, legs, and body, are black. Second wings red,
with a gretnif/: border. Firft wings bluifti green, with
fix red fpots, in pairs. Length eight lines. Caterpil¬
lar yellow, with black fpots. It lives on grafs.
The name fphwx is given to this genus on account
of the lingular attitudes of their caterpillars, who apply
the hinder part of their body to a branch of a tree,
holding the reft of it ereft, like the fabulous fphinx.
Moft of them fpin their cod under ground, making
them up with fmali parcels of earth and grains of corn
interwoven with threads. The fphinges fly either ear¬
ly in the morning, or after funfet in the evening. They
fly heavily and fluggifhiy, often emitting a kind of
found.
SPIGELIA, Wo rm-grass, in botany : A genus
of plants belonging to the clafs 0$pentanclria, and order
of monogynia ; and in the natural fyftem arranged un¬
der the 47th order, Ste//ata. The corolla is funnel-fha-
ped; the capfule is didymous, bilocular, and polyfper-
mous. There are two fpecies, the anthelmia and mari-
landica.
The anthelmia has a herbaceous ftem, and its highef^
leaves are fourfold.
“ The effects of this medicine (fays Dr Browne) are
thefe: It firft procure* fleep, almoft as certainly, and in an
equal degree, with opium; the ey<sfeem to bediftended,
and fparkle as it were before the eruption of the fmall-pox
or meafles, which may be eafily obferved after the fleep is
over ; the pulfe grows regular and riles, the fever cools,
the fymptoms appear more favourable, and the worms
are generally discharged by the ui'e of the fubfequent
purgatives (if not before) in great quantities, often
above j 00 at a time ; but when a few only come away,
which is feldom, and thefe alive, the fame dofes are again
repeated, wTich feldom or never fail. I never faw this
medicine fail when there was the leaft probability of
fuccefs ; nay, often prove fuccefsful when there was not
the leaft reafon to expert it. I have been, however,
cautious in ordering it for children ; for though I never
knew it at all hurtful, its effeft upon the eyes has of¬
ten deterred me from ordering it to children, whofe
fibres are weak and relaxed, and in whom the fevers
from this fource are feldom fo vehement as to hinder the
adminiftration of other medicines, likely as effecftual in
other cafes of this nature. This plant is generally had
in low dry lands, after they have been turned up fome
months, and after great rains ; its tafte is herbaceous,
and fomewhat clammy, its growth is foft and hidden,
its ftalk hollow, fmooth, and rounddh. Its herbaceous
tafte and hidden growth would alone make me think it
capable of little or no a<ftion,had not hundreds of care¬
ful obfervation-s fatisfied me to the contrary.”
d he manlandicci) perennial worm-grafs, or Indian
pink. The belt defcription of this plant which we have
feen is given by Dr Woodville, in his Medical Botany;
a work which exhibits a complete fyHematic view of
the medicinal effects of vegetables. Its ftem is four-
cornered ; all the leaves oppoiite.
Dr Garden, in a letter to the late Dr Hope, profef-
for^of botany in the _ univerfity of Edinburgh, dated
f763, gives the following account of the vrtues of this
plant. ^ “ About 40 years ago, the anthelmintic vir¬
tues ot the root of this plant were difeovered by the In¬
dians ; fince wh'ch time it has been much ufed here by
phyfician?, pra&itioners, and planters ; yet its true dofe
is not generally afeertained. I have given it in hun¬
dreds of caies, and have been very attentive to its ef-
lefts. I never found it do much fervice, except when
it proved gently purgative. Its purgative quality na¬
turally led me to give it in febrile dileafes, which feem-
ed to anfe from vifcidity in the prima ’ma; and, in
thefe cafes, it fucceeded to admiration, even when the
lick did not void worms.
“ I have of late, previous to the ufe of the Indian
pink, given a vomit, when the circumftances of the cafe
permitted it ; and I have found this method anfwer fo
well, that I think a vomit ftiould never be omitted. I
have known half a dram of this root purge as brilldy
as the fame quantity of rhubarb ; at other times I have
known it, though given in large quantities, produce no
effedi upon the belly : in fuch cafes, >t becomes necefla-
ry to add a grain or two of fweet mercury, or fome
grains of rhubarb; but it is to be obferved, th?.t the
lame happy effefts did not follow its ufe in this way, as
when it was purgative without addition. The addition,
however, of the purgative renders its ufe fafe, and re¬
moves all danger of convulfions of the eyes, although
neither oi ruta, fabime, or any other nervous fubftance,
is given along with it. It is, in general, fafer to give it
in large dofes than in fmali; lor, from the latter, more
frequently the giddinefs, dimnefs of the fight, and con-
vuliions, &c. follow; whereas, from large dofes, I have
not known any other effect than its proving emetic or
violently cathartic. I o a child of two years of age,
who had been taking 10 grains of the root twice a-day,
without having any other effedt than making her dull
and giddy, I preferibed 22 grains morning and even¬
ing, which purged her brifldy, and brought away five
large worms. After fome months an increafed dofe
had the fame good effeds. I prefer the root to the
other parts of the plant; of which, when properly dried,
} favc ft?™ ' 2 to 60 or 70 grains in fubftance; In
infufion, it may be given to the quantity of two, three,
or four drams, twice a-day. I have found that, by
keeping, the plant lofes its virtue in part ; for 40 grains
of the root which has not been gathered above two
months, will operate as ftrongly as 60 which has been
kept for 15 months.”
In Dr Garden’s fubfequent letters, addreffed to Dr
Hope, in the years 17Strand 1766, the efficacy of this
root in worm cafes is fuither confirmed; and he obferves,
that the root keeps better than he at firft thought (ha¬
ving lately ufed it feveral years old with great fuccefs).
in what he calls continued or remitting low worm fe¬
vers, he found its efficacy promoted by the addition of
rad. jet entar virg.
SPICE, any kind of aromatic drug that has hot and
pungent qualities: Inch ate pepper, nutmeg, ginger,
cinnamon, cloves, &c. b s »
4 S 2
Spics-
S P I
f 692
See Banda, Mo*
Spice-{[lands, in the Eaft Indies.
lucca-I (lands, and Ceylon
SPIDER, in zoology. See Aranea.
SPIDERWORT, in botany. See Phalangium.
SPIGNhL, in botany. See Athamanta.
SPIKE, or Oil of Spike, a name given to an ellentml
oil diallied from lavender, and much ufed by the varmih-
makers and the painters in, enamel^
SPIKENARD, in botany. See Nardus.
SPILANTHUS, in botany ; a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs oi fyngenejia, and to the order o
polygamia squalls. The common calyx is ereft; the k.a *
kts numerous, fub-equal, and oblong, the two extenor
beina loncrer than the reR. The compound corolla is
uniform and tubular ; the florets are hermaphrodite and
equal; the proper corolla is funnel-fliaped. The fila¬
ments are five in number, and fhort. The anthers cy¬
lindrical and tubular. The feeds are vertical, oblong,
flat, and covered with chaff. The receptacle is palea¬
ceous and conical. There are feven fpecies, the urens,
pfeudo-acmella, acmella, falivana, atnpltcifolia, inlipida,
and oleracea. ,
SPINA cervina, the fame as the rhamnus cathai-
ticus. See Rhamnus. r . ,
Spin a Ventofa, in furgery, that fpecies of corruption
of the bones which takes its rife in the internal parts,
and by degrees enlarges the bone, and raiies it into a
tumor. See Surgery. _ . r
SP1NACIA, spinage, in botany: A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of diacw, anu to the order
of pentandria; and in the natural iyltem arranged un¬
der the 12th order, Hobrace*. The male calyx is
] S P I
SPINALIS, in anatomy, the name of feveral muf-
cles, &c. of the fpine.
SPINDLE-tree, in botany. See Euonymus.
SPINE, spina dorsi. See Anatomy, n° 30.
Spine, in botany. See Spin;e.
SITNELLO, a Tufcan painter, of great repute in
his time. He painted a picture of the fallen angels, in
which he drew fo horrid a picture of Lucifer, tiiat it
frightened him fo much as to affeft his fenfes ever after.
He flourifhed about the year 1 380.
SPINET, or Spinnet, a mufical inftrument ranked
in the fecond or third place among harmonious inflru-
ments. It confifts of a cheft or belly made of the moft
porous and refinous wood to be found, and a table of
fir glued on flips of wood called[untncns, which bear on
the fides. On the table is raifed two little prominences
or bridges, wherein are placed fo many pins as there are
chords or firings to the inftrument. It is played on by
two ranges of continued keys, the former range being
the order of the diatonic fcale, and that behind the or¬
der of the artificial notes or femitones. The keys are
fo many flat pieces of wood, which, touched and pref-
fed down at the end, make the other raife a jack which
ftrike and found the firings by means of the end of a
crow’s quill, wherewith it is armed. The 30 firll firings
are of brafs, the other more delicate ones ot fled or
iron-wire ; they are all Aretched over the two bridges
already mentioned. The figure of the fpinet is a long
fqua re or parallelogram ; fome call it an harp couched,
and the harp an inverted jpinel. See the article Hap.p.
This inftrument is generally tuned by the ear, which
method of the pradlical muficians is founded on a fup-
r.- ^ ^ inrhre of an o£lave anc
der the I 2th order, pofttion that the ear is a perfedl judge of an oaave and
quinquepartJte ; there .s ™k. Jle a fifth. The general rule is to besm at a eertarn note
is quadrifid ; no corolla; there are four ftylcs, and one
feed within the indurated calyx. There are only two
fpecies, the oleracea and fera. r. The oleracea, com¬
mon fpinage, has feffile fruits and fagittated leaves. It
has been cultivated in Britain fince 1568, but it is
not known from what country it was originally brought.
When intended for winter ufe, it ihould be fown on an
open fpot of ground in the latter end of July ; obfer-
vL to do it if poffible when the weather is rainy.
When the young plants are come up, the weeds nun
be deltroyed, and the plants le;t at about five inches
afunder. The ground being kept clear of weeds, the
fpinage will be fit for ufe in O&ober. The way ot ga-
thering it to advantage is only to take off the longeft
leaves, leaving thofe in the centre to grow bigger; and
at this rate a bed of fpinage will iurmfh the table for a
whole winter, till the fpinage fown in fpnng is become
fit for ufe, which is common in April. 2. 1 he jera,
wild fpinage, produces its fruit on footftalks.
SPIN 'GE, or Spinach. See Spinacia. #
SPlNiE, in botany, thorns, rigid prickles: a fpecies
of „rma. growing on various parts oi certam plants for
their defence ; [pin* ramorum arccnt pecora. On
branches we find examples m the pyrus, prunus, citrus,
bippophaes, gmelina, rhamnus, jycium, &c. ; on the
leaves in the aloe, agave, yucca, ilex, hippomaue, theo-
phrafta, carlina. See. ; on the calyx, in the carduus,
cnicus, centauria, moluccella, galeopfis, &c.; on the
fruit, in the trapa, tribulus, murex, fpinacia, agremo-
pia, datura, &c. 0
SPINAL marrow. See Anatomy, I art V. n i32.
IdL Lilt cai iO a J ——
a fifth. The general rule is to begin at a certain note,
as C, taken towards the middle of the inftrument, and
tuning all the odtaves up and down, and alfo the fifths,
reckoning feven femitones to each fifth, by which means
the whole is tuned. Sometimes to the common or fun¬
damental play of the fpinet is added another fimilar one
in unifon, and a third in odave to the firft, to make the
harmony the fuller ; they .are either played feparately
or together by means of a flop : thefe are called double
or tnp/e fpinets; fometimes a play of violins is added, by
means of a bow, or a few wheels parallel to the keys,
which prefs the firings and make the found lafl as long
as the mufician pleaies, and heighten and foften them
more or lefs, as they are more or lefs preffed. i he
harpfichord is a kind of fpinet, only with another cil-
pofition of the keys (fee the article Harpsichord).
The inftrument takes its name from the fmall quill ends
which touch the firings, refembhngor thorns.
SPINIFEX, in botany ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the glafs of polygamia and order ofmonoecui. J. he
hermaphrodite flowers have a calyx with bivalved bi-
florous glumes, the valvelets being parallel to the rachis;
the corolla is bivalved and awnlefs ; there are three fta-
mina and two ftyles. In the male flowers the calyx is
common with the hermaphrodite ; tne corolla and fta-
mina are fimilar. There is only one fpecies, the iquar-
SPINNING, in commerce, the ad or art of redu¬
cing fifk, flax, hemp, wool, hair, or other matter s, into
thread. Spinning is either performed on the wheel,
or with a diftaff and fpindle, or with other maenmes
Spinning
. II
Spinoza.
S P I
proper for the feveral kinds of working, ^crnp, nax,
nettle-thread, and other like vegetable matters/are to
-be wetted in fpinning: lilks, wools, &c. are fpun dry,
and do not need water; yet there is a way of fpinning
or reeling fdk as it comes off the cafes or balls, where
hot and even boiling water is to be ufed (fee Silk)
The vaft variety, and the importance of thofe branches
’Tranf. of
the Society
for the en¬
couragement
of Arts, &c
wool, and flax, fpim into yarn, together with the cheap-
nefs of provifions, and the low price of labour in many
foreign countries, which are our rivals in trade, have oc-
cafioned many attempts at home to render fpinning
more eafy,. cheap, and expeditious. For which fee
Cotton Spinning and Cotton Mills.
Thefe contrivances have in fome parts of Scotland
been applied to the fpinning of flax ; but a very con-
ndcrable improvement has lately been made by Mr An-
.tis of Fulneck near Leeds of the common fpinninp-
wheel, ft is well known, that hitherto much time has
been loft by flopping the wheel in order to fhift the
thread from one ftaple on the flyer to another ; but in
Mr Antis’s wheel the bobbin is made to move back¬
wards and forwards, fo as to prevent the neceflity of
r 693 ] s p 1
Hemp, flax, tugal, by profeffion a merchant. After being taught Spinoza.
Latin by a phyfiaan, he applied himfelf for many years ~v—
to the ftudy of theology, and afterwards devoted him-
felf entirely to philofophy. He began very early to be
diflatisfied with the Jewdh religion ; and as his temper
was open, he did not conceal his doubts from the fyna-
gogue. Fhe Jews, it is laid, offered to tolerate his in-
of our manufactures, whichlre p oduc d ^ \h€ ^ 11 f? ^ offered to tolerate his in-
wop, and nax, fpun’ into yar„, Att' wiil”t en r ^ “f f-onfan.!
1,1 '' l.c . ; ui a tnouiana
aoUars per annum, if he would remain in their fociety
and continue outwardly to pracftife their ceremonies.’
lint it this ofter was really made, he rejected it, per¬
haps from his averfion to hypocrify, or rather becaufe
he could not endure the reftraint which it would have
impofed- He alfo refufed the legacy of a very con-
iKierable fortune, to the prejudice of the natural
heirs; and he learned the art of polifhing glafs for
pectacles, that he might fublift independently of every
He would probably have continued in the fyna-ro^ue
for lome tune longer, if it had not been for an accident
As he was returning home one evening from the the¬
atre, he was ftabbed by a Jew : the wound was fliVht •
but the attempt naturally ltd Spinoza to conclude that
the lews naH hlt-rnc.^  rr cr-
Plate
cecctxxiv,
this perpetual interruption, as wefl as to obviate the the f natuJ% ^ Spinoza to conclude that
danger of breaking the thread and lofing the end. This AfJr Teavimr thTf ^ °u afI'affi,latlI1g h'm*
is effeded by the axis of the great wheel beinTexten - anH f" he became a Chriftian,
ed through the pillar next the fpinner, and formed into vinifts^He'n ^ u'e IjUtherans and Cal-
a pinion of one leaf A, which takes into a wheel B, favourite philofophS fpecdSons^ani"? 7" ^
th' ^ wHeel is ^ a %%
wire err; which, being fupported on fix legs, ftands
obliquely to the wheel itfelf, touching it at "one part,
and projeding nearly three quarters of an inch at the
oppoiitc one : near the fide of this wheel is an upright
lever C, about 15 inches long, moving on a centre,
three inches from its lower extremity, and conneded at
the top to a Aiding bar I); from which rifes an upright
piece of brafs E, which working in the notch of a pul¬
ley drives the bobbin F backward and forward, accord¬
ing as the oblique wire forces a pin G in or out, as the
wheel moves round. To regulate and affift the alter¬
nate motion, a weight H hangs by a line to the Aiding
bar, and pafling over a pulley I riles and falls as the
bobbin advances or recedes, and tends conftantly to
keep the pin in contad with the wire. It is evident,
from this defeription, that one ftaple only is wanted to
the flyer; which, being placed near the extremity K,
the thread pafling through it is by the motion of the
bobbin laid regularly thereon. For this invention the
ftimng from his lodging. During his refidence fn that
city, his hoflefs, who was a Lutheran, aiked him one
ay if Ihe could be faved while fhe continued in her re¬
ligion ? “ Yes (replied Spinoza), provided you join to
your religion a peaceable and virtuous life.” From this
anfwer it has been concluded that he was a Chriftian
in appearance only, while in reality he regarded all re¬
ligions as indifferent. But this conclulion would be
too fevere, even it the woman had been a Mahometan.
Mis Traftntus Thcologico-po/iticus, which was -publifhed
about that time, is a better proof of his infmeerity than
a taoufand fuch conclulions ; tor this book contains all
thole uqci nnes in embryo which were afterwards unfold¬
ed in Ins Opera Pojlhuma, and which are generally con-
iidered as a fyftem of atheifm.
His fame, which had now fpread far and wide, obli¬
ged him fometimes to interrupt his philofophical reve¬
ries. Learned men vifited him from all quarters. While
the prince of Conde commanded the French army in
MiS aAoX'L the Encouragement of ^ £
A„, *<, gave the authet a ptetniutn of twe„ty J. S
SPINOSUS caulis, in botany; a ftem covered
with ftrong woody prickles, whofe roots are not fuper-
ficial, but proceeding from the body of the ftem. When
applied to a leaf, fpinofum folium, it indicates the mar¬
gin running out into rigid points or prickles, quod mar.
gine exit in acumina duriora, rigida, pungentia.
SPINOUS, in botany. See Spinosus.
Spinous Ftjnes, fuch as have fome of the rays of the
back-fins running out into thorns or prickles, as the
perch, &c.
SPINOZA (Benedict), was born at Amfterdam the
24th November 1632. His father was a Jew of Por-
- , "***>- “ini; ana tnougii
he was ablent when the philofopher arrived, he return¬
ed immediately, and fpent a confiderable time with him
in converfation. The eleftor Palatine offered to make
Spinoza profeffor of philofophy at Heidelberg ; which,
however, he declined.
He died of a confumption at the Hague on the 21ft
February 1 677, at the age of 45. His life was a per¬
petual contradiction to his opinions. He was tempe¬
rate, liberal, and remarkably difinterefted ; he was fo-
ciable, affable, and friendly. His converfation was
agreeable and inftrudtive, and never deviated from the
ftrifteft propriety.
i he only edition of the works of Spinoza that we
have feen is in two volumes fmall qto; the former of
8 which
S P I t
•Spin «. -wKich was printed at Hamburg in the year 1670, and
the latter we know not where, in 1677* ^ ftvv months
after his death. In the TraSatus ‘Jhtologico-pohttcus,
already mentioned, he treats of prophecy ami prophets ;
and of the call of the Hebrew, whom he affirms to have
been diftingttUhed from other nations only by the ad¬
mirable form of their government, and the htnels ol
their laws for long preferving their political date. He
is likewife of opinion, or at lead pretends to be fo, that
God may, in what we call a fupernatural -may, have gi¬
ven political inftitutes to other nations as well as to the
Hebrews, who were, he fays, at no time a peculiar peo¬
ple to the Supreme Lord of heaven and earth ; tor,
Lordin* to him, all hiftoty. (acted and profane,
teftifies that every nation was bleffed with the light of
prophecy. That light indeed, if his notions ot it be
69+ 1 . S P I
two apocryphal treatiles intitled the ifdom of Solo* Spinoza,
mon and Ecclefiallicns. y—.
Thefe fenfelefs cavils, worthy only of one of thofe
modern freethinkers whole learning, in the opinion of
Bilhop Warburtoa, is not fufficient to carry them even
to the confines of rational doubt, w'e have fnfficiently
obviated in another place (fee Scripture, n 8—31)
Spinoza urges them againil the dther books of the Old
Teftament. The prophecies of Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Eze¬
kiel, Daniel, Hofea, and Jonah, are, as we have them,
only fragments, he fays, of the writings of thole men
compiled by the Ehariiees under the fecond temple from
ancient and voluminous records.
In the midft of this dogmatical fcepticifm, if we may
ufe fuch a phrafe, he bears fuch a teftimony to the lail
chapters of the book of Daniel, as we ftiould not have
prophecy. ^ ^ ‘f hLv j^/^e labours to piove, that looked for in the writings either of a Jew or of a Deitl.
juft, was ot very utt ' frQm otherPmen only After detailing the various hypothefes which m his time
the prophets weie g , their revelations de- were held re-fpefting the author and the intention of the
by ,h«r p.ay 'dlipofi. book of jf in which, he fay8, Momu, is called Sa-
pended wholly thS L'tE" were o”en orofsly ig- T*», he proceeds in thefe words; “ Tranfeo ad Da.
tions of them mu ’ . >that the fpeculative opi- nielis librutn ; hie fine dubio ex cap. 8. ipfius Damehs
norant and highly p J ’ if p kh thofe Qf fcripta continet. Undenam autem priora feptem capi-
“tT- iue to us on- ta lefcri„ta fuerint, nefeio V> thus admitting the fa-
iv for the excellent rules which he acknowledges they
contain refpeAing the praft-ice of piety and virtue. He
then proceeds to treat of the divine law and of mi¬
racles; and endeavours to prove that no miracle, m
the proper fenfe of the word, can have been at any
time performed ; becaufe every thing happens by a ne-
ta deferipta fuerint, nefcio*;” thus admitting the fa-* Am¬
mons prophecy of the feventy weeks. The canon
the Old Teftament, he fays, was finally fettled by rab-?’ J"‘
bins of the Pharifaical feft, who wifhed to exclude from
it the books of Proverbs, Ecc/tjiaftes, and Ezekiel, as
they had aftually excluded others of equal value ; but
the three books in queftion were inferted by the influ.
S?" rSr^STd^lch euce of two of the obbis of greater wifdo. a„d lute
are (L. all e,entity neceifary thentfelves meacknow gr,,y t ao the reft ^ ^
Wge^ ,te m the ly a Jew, and was now almoft a Deift, (ho,rid have
mit as true hi Lory, mnac , events which the treated the New Teftament with as little ceremony as
he fays that^ they were ^ ^nS)^ar ^ents w mch^me tre^^^ not furprife the intdUgent reader. He
facred hiftonans imagine o ^ interpreting the begins his remarks, however, with affirming, that no
eIoL TAhe^Tand New Teftaments where they man can perufe the Chriftian Scriptures^ and not ac
treat of miracles, or appear to foretel future events.
See our articles Miracle and Prophecy. .
Having thus divefted the Scriptures of every thing
charafteriftic of a revelation from heaven, he next calls
in queftion their authenticity. He affirms, in contra-
diftion to the cleareft internal evidence, that the i enta-
teuch and all the other hiitorical books muft have been
knowledge the apoftles to have been prophets ; but he
thinks that their mode of prophefying was altogether
different from that which prevailed under the Mofaic
difpenfation ; and that the gift, whatever it was, for-
fook them the inftant that they left off preaching, as
their writings have to him every appearance of human
compofitions. This diftinftion between Chriftian and
tench and all the ot er 1 °rica h th; ks couid jewiih prophecy is the more wonderful, that he founds
written by one man ; and that ^ .;n(J ^ the diffimilarity of Jlyle vifible in the
not have ftourilhed at a period the Old and New Teftaments ; though, in
The grounds of t is opin talents^s incontro- his fecond chapter, which treats of the works of the
vertible ^^HiTprincIpal objeflion t° the authenticity of Jewlfh prophets, he fays cxprefsly, “Stylus deinde
IheiS'tateuch (s, thrt Moles Is made to fpeak of him- prophet;* P™ eloquent,a oujuf^prophet* ^nabat.
felf in the third perfon, and to talk of the^ Canaamtes
bein<r then in the land ; and becaufe he finds m h:s
writmgs, as well as in the books of Jofhua, Judges,
Ruth, Samuel, &c. places defigned by names which he
fupnofes they had not in the early ages of which thele
books contain the hiftoty', he concludes that thele wri¬
tings muft be one compilation from ancient recoids
made at a very late period ; more efpecially as the au¬
thor often fpeaks of things of great antiquity remaining
prophetise enim Ezekielis et Arnofis non funt, ut illie
Efais, Nachumi eleganti, fed rudiore ftylo feriptae.”
That the tlebrew feholar may be convinced of the
truth of this remark, he recommends to him to ftudy
diligently the writings of thefe prophets, and to confi-
der the occafions on which their prophecies were utter¬
ed; “ Quse li omnia refte perpendentur (fays he) fa¬
cile oftendant, Deum nullum habere ilylum peculiarem
dicendi, fed tantum pro eruditione, et capacitate pro-
Ahor often fpeaks 'j—» ^ ratenus effe ckg-ten,, eompendiofum, fever,un,
to this day. Lhe books » • 1 a rudem nrolixurn, et obteurum.” Another objeftion
rnir^Mlccabees; aud he'leemX clnfider as 6f brought by Spinoza againft the prophecies of the New
Iqud vdue wi* Stem (lory of Tobit, and the other Teftament a,ales from the authors o, them havmg been
at
S P I
Spinoza, at,all times mafters of themfelves
^ " peculiarly the cafe of St Paul, who often confirms his
doftrine by reafoning, which the Jewilh prophets never
conueicen.»cd to do, as it would have fubmitted their
dogmas to the examination of private judgment. Yet,
v/ith Angular inconfiftency, he affirms, that the Jewifh
prophets could not know that the imprefiions made on
their imaginations proceeded from God, but by a fign
given them, which by their own reafon or judgment fhey
knew would never be vouchfafed to an impious or a
wicked man.
After thefe very free remarks on the Scriptures of
the Old and New Teftaments, he naturally enough ex-
pieffcs a fufpicion, that by thofe whoconlider the Bible
as the epiftle of God lent from heaven to men, he will
be thought to have finned againft the Holy Ghoft by
%i dying his dictates. Phis leads him to inquire in what
fenfe the Scriptures are the word of God ; and he
gravely determines them to be fo only as they aUuaUy
contribute to make men more virtuous and holy. It is
‘ not enough that they are calculated to improve virtue
and hohnefs : for ftould the words of the languages in
which they are written acquire in procefs of time"a fig.
nification different fiom what they had originally; Ihoukl
mankind lofe all knowledge of thefe languages; or even
ffiould they agree to neglect the books, whether from
ignorance or from wilfulnefs- thofe books would ceafe
to be the word of God, and become nothing better than
wa.fte paper and ink ; juft as the twe tables, which Mo-
Its broke on obferving the idolatry of his countrymen,
were not the covenant between Jehovah and the Ifrae-
htes, but merely two pieces of ftone ! The Scriptures
however, are the word of God, bccaufe they teach the
true religion of which God is the author ; and they
have taught it in Arch a manner, he fays, that it can,
never be loft or corrupted whatever become of the books
of the Old and New Teftaments, or of the languages in
vyh.ch they are written. The whole of religion, as
the Scriptures themfejves teffify, coniifts in the love of
God above all things, and of our neighbours as our-
ielves: whence it follows, that we muff believe that
God exifts, and watcheth over all things by his provi-
tlence; that he is omnipotent, and has decreed the
pious to be ultimately happy, and the impious mifer-
abic ; and that our final falvation depends folely on His
grace or favour. Thefe truths, with their neceffary
eonfequences, are the word of God : they are clearly
taught in the Scriptures, and can never be corrupted •
but every thing ehe in thefe volumes is vain, he fa vs!
and of no greater importance to us than fa&s related in
any other ancient and authentic hiftory.
Such aie the opinions which were entertained of re¬
velation by a man whom a critic, writing in a Chriftian
country, and profefiing to be a zealous Chriftian him-
ieJf, has lately pronounced to have been a clo/en ve/Tel.
Por what purpofe he was chofen it is not eafy to con-
cewe. his religion, as it appears in the Tratlatus, is
the worft kind of Deifm; and his politics are fuch as
our montfily critics are net wont to teach, and fuch as
we truil fhall never be ferioufiy taught by any Brkifh
fubjea. By the law of nature, he fays, every man be-
foie the formation of civil government has an unquef-
tionable right to whatever appears eligible either to his
reafon or to his appetites ; and may get pofftfTion of it
by entreaty, by violence, by fraud, ox by any other means
[ 695 ] S P I
This, fays he, wa,s attended with lefs trouble to himfelf (Jive vi. Jve dole, SgiArt,
Jtve precibusy Jive quocunque demum mo do jacilius potent) ; -W
and may treat as an enemy every peifon who fhall at¬
tempt to obftruift his purpofe. But when men a^ree
to devolve this right upon others, and to conftitute a
political ft ate, which both reaion andaopetite mi) ft per-
fuade them to do, then are they in dut^y bound to obey
every mandate of the government, however abfard it
may be (amnia mandata tametf ab/urdifima), as lono- as
that government can enforce its editfts, and no longer ;
for, according to him, right and power are fo infepa-
rably united, that when a government lores its power, it
has no longer the fmalleft claim to obedience. This
dfc'ttrine, he fays, is moft obviaujfly juft when taught of
democratical governments; but it is in fadt equally true
of monarchies and ariflocracies; “ Nam quiiquis ium-
mam habet poteftatem, five units fit, five pauci, five de-
mque omnes, certum eft ei fummum jus quicquid vela
imperandy competere : ct prseterea quifquis poteftatem A
defendendi, five fponte, iiyevi coact us, in alium tranf-
tuht, eum fuo jure naturali plane cefliffe, et confequen.
ter eidtm ad omnia abfolute parere decreviff^uod om-
nia pile flare tenetur, quamdiu rex, five nobiles, five po-
puJus fummam, quam acceperunt, poteftatem, qure juris
transferendi fundamentum fuit, coniervant; nec his plu-
ra addere opus eft*.” We heartily agree with him, * Trad.
tuat to this precious conclufion it is needlefs to add ar'aP* xv,j
Angle word. p. 181.
. Taking our leave therefore of his Tradatus Theolo-
gico-politicus, we ftrall now give our readers a ftrort ac¬
count of his Opera Pojlhuma. Thefe confift of, 1. E-
TH1CA, more geometneo demonjlrata; 2. Politica ■
3.De Emendatione Intellectus ; 4, Epistol^!
et ad eas Responsiones; 5. Compendium Gramma!
tices Linguae Hebrje^e.
. The Ethica are divided into five parts, which treat
in order, de Deo ; tie naturaet orpine mentis ; de ori-
gine et natura affectuum ; tie servitute humana, ftu
de affectuum viribus; de potentia intellectus
feu de libertate humana. As the author profeffes to
tread in the footfteps of the geometers, and to deduce
all his conclufions by rigid demonftration from a few
felf evident truths,: he introduces his work, after the
manner of Euclid, with a colledion of definitions and
axioms. Thefe are couched in terms generally ambi¬
guous ; and therefore the reader will do well to con-
fider attentively in what fenfe, if in any, they can be
admitted ; for it will not be found eafy to grant his
premifes, and at the fame time refufe his conclufions.
His definition of fubflance, for inftance, is fo gxpreffed
as to admit of two fenfes; in one of which it is juft
whilft in the other it is the parent of the moft impious
abfurdity. We lhall give it in his own words ; “ Per
fubftantiam intelligo id, quod in fe eft, et per fe conci-
pitur: hoc eft id, cujus conceptus non indiget concep-
tu alterius rei, a quo formari debeat.” If by this be
meant, that a fubftance is that which we can conceive
by itfelf without attending to any thing elfe, or thinking
ot its formation, the definition, we believe, will be ad¬
mitted by every nefle&ing mind as fufficiently diftin!
guiftnng the thing defined from an attribute, which, he
lays, is that which we perceive of a fubftance, and
which we certainly cannot conceive as exifting by it¬
felf. Thus the writer of this article can ftiut his eyes
and contemplate in idea the fmall 410 volume now be¬
fore
S P I
[ 696 ]
S P I
Spinoza, fore him, without attending to any thing 01* think-
* inq- of its paradoxical author, or even of the Great Being
who created the matter both of him and of it ; but he
cannot for an inftant contemplate the yellow colour ot
its vellum boards without thinking of triple extenfipn,
or, in other words, of body. I he book therefore is a
fubjiance, becaufe conceivable by itfelf ; the colour is an
attribute or quality, becauie it cannot be conceived by
itfelf, but neceffarily leads to the conception of fome-
thing elfe. But if Spinoza’s meaning be, that nothing
is a fubftance but what is conceived as exiihng from
eternity, independent of every thing as a caute, his de¬
finition cannot be admitted: for every man conceives
that which in himfelf thinks, and wills, and is con-
feious, as a fubftance ; at the fame time that he has the
belt evidence poffible that he exifted not as a confcious,
thinking, and adtive being, from eternity.
His fourth axiom is thus expreffed : “ Effeftus cog-
nitio a cognitione caufse dependet, eteandem involvit;”
and his fifth, “ Quae nihil commune cum fe mvicem
habent, etiam per fe invicem intelligi non P0^U»J> r^e
conceptus unius alterius conceptum non involvit.” 1 he
former of thefe propofitions, fo far from being fell-evi¬
dent, is not even true ; and the latter is capable of two
fenfes very different from each other. That every ef¬
fect proceeds from a caufe, is indeed an axiom ; but
furely we may know the effedt accurately, though we
be ignorant of the particular caufe from which it pro¬
ceeds (fee Philosophy, n° 36; and Physics, n°9i,
&c.): nor does the knowledge of the one by any means
involve the knowledge of the other. It different things
have nothing in common, it is indeed true that the
knowledge of one of them will not give us an adequate
conception of the other ; but it will in many cafes com¬
pel us to believe, that the other exifts or has exifted.
A parcel of gunoowder lying at reft has nothing m
common with the' ve'ocity of a cannon-ball; yet wnen
we know that a ball has been driven with velocity
from a cannon, we infer with certainty that there has
been a parcel of powder at reft in the chamber of that
cannon. . , .
It is upon fuch ambiguous definitions and axioms as
thefe that Spinoza has Vaifed his pretended demonftra-
tions, that one fubftance cannot produce another ; that
every fubftance muft neceffarily be infinite ; that no
. fubftance exifts or can be conceived beiides God ; and
that extended fubftance or body is one of the infinite
attributes of God. We fhall not wafte our own time
or the reader’s with a formal confutation of thefe im¬
pious abfurdities. We truft they are fufficiently con¬
futed in other articles of this work (fee Metaphysics,
Part III Providence, and Theology, Part 1.); and
whoever wifhes for a more particular examination of the
author’s principles, may find it in Dr Clarke’s Demon-
ftration of the Being and Attributes of God. The
truth, however, is, that no man will need the affiftance
of that eminent metaphyfician to difeover the fallacy of
the reafoning by which they are attempted to be pro¬
ved, if he affix any one precife meaning to the definitions
and axioms, and adhere to that meaning fteudily .thro
the whole procefs of the pretended demonftrations.
By way of apology for this jargon, it has been late*
ly faid, that “ Spinoza takes the word JvbJianct in its
mofl fimple and perfect fenfe; which is neceffary, as he t opfe' zg. ^
writes mathematically, and propofes a firnple idea as the fjerder>s
foundation of his theory. What is the proper fignifi- jjjai0gUe,
cation of a fubftance? Is it not that which ftands alone,concerning
which has the caufe of its exiftence within itfelf ? IGoiL
wifh that this fimple meaning of the word could be uni-
verfally admitted in philofophy. Strictly fpeaking, no
worldly thing is a fubftance ; fince all mutually depend
on each other, and finally on God, who, in this exalted
fenfe, is the fuljlance. The word modification founds
harfh and improper, and therefore it cannot be expeft-
ed to gain a place in philoiophy ; but if the fchool of
Leibnitz may term matter the appearance of fubjiances,
why may not Spinoza be allowed a bolder term? Wbrld-
ly iubftances are kept in union by divine power, as it
was by divine power that they had exiftence. They
reprefent alfo, if you pleafe, modified appearances of di¬
vine power 1 each according to the ftation, the time,
and the organs, in and with which it appears. The
phrafe ufed by Spinoza is concife, and it gives an unity
and fimplicity to his whole fyftem, however ftrange it
may found in our ears.”
From this account of Spinozifm, one who had never
looked into the works of the author would be led to
fuppofe that his fyftem is the fame with that of Berke¬
ley ; which, denying the exiftence of material fubftance,
attributes all our perceptions of what we call the qua¬
lities of body to the immediate agency of the Deity on
our minds (fee Metaphysics, Part II. Chap. 3.) But
Spinoza’s doctrine is very different. _ According to him,
bodies are either attributes or affe£tions of God; and as
he fays there is but one extended fubffance, he affirms
that fubftance to be indivifible, and employs a long
fcholiumj- to prove that thofe are miftaken who fup-f See hb
pofe it finite and not ejentia/ to the Deity. That we do Prop. xv.
not mifreprefent his fentiments, the learned reader willxc*
be convinced by the two following definitions, with
which he introduces that part of his ethics which treats
of the nature and origin of mind. 1. “ Per corpus m-
tellffio modum, qui Dei effentiam, quatenus, ut res ex-
tenfa confideratur, certo et determinate modo expn-
mit.” 2. “ Ad effentiam alicujus rei id pertinere dico,
quo dato res neceffario ponitur, et quo fublato ics necel-
fario tollitur ; vel id, line quo res, et vice verfa quod
fine re nec effe nec concipi poteft.” In conformity
with thefe definitions, he attempts to prove that Godprop. ii.
is an extended as well as a thinking fubftanee ; that asvn.x-.
a thinking fubftance he is the cauie of the idea, ot a
circle, and as an extended fubftance of the circle itielf ;
and that the minds of men are not fubftances, but cer-
modifications of the divine attributes; or, as he
fometimes expreffes it, “ Quod humame mentis a&uale
conftituit, eft idea rei fingularis a&u exiftentis. Hence,
he fays, it follows that the human mind is a part of the
intellea of the infinite God ; fo that when we fpeak of
the human mind perceiving this or that, we can only
mean that God, not as he is infinite, but as he appears
in the human mind or conftitutes its effence, has this or
that idea ; and when we fpeak of God’s having this or
that idea, we muft conceive of Him not only as confti-
tuting the human mind, but as, together with it, having
the idea of fomething elfe (a). In another place he
tells us, that the human mind is nothing but the idea
which
(a) Hinc fequitur mentem hunmuam partem effe infiniti intelleftus Dei; ac pioinde cum dicimus^mentem
XM, XXI
Part a.
Prop.
S P I [ 697
Splnnes. which God has of the human body as a&ually cxiftingj
~"r» r that this tdea of the body, and the body itfelf, are one
and the fame thing ; and that thinking and extended
fubftances are in reality but one and the fame fubllance,
which is fometimes comprehended under one attribute
' Prop. vii. of the Deity, and fometimes under another*.
vr. jf (.{^g impious jargon be not Atheifm, or as it has
been fometimes called Pantheifm, we know not what it
is (fee Pantheism). According to Spinoza, there is
but one fubllance, which is extended, infinite, and in*
diviiible. That fubftance indeed he calls God ; but he
labours to prove that it is corporeal; that there is no
difference between mind and matter ; that both are at¬
tributes ot the Deity varioufly confidered; that the hu¬
man foul is a part of the intdledl of God ; that the
fame foul is nothing but the idea of the human body;
that this idea of the body, and the body itfelf, are one
and the fame thing; that God could not exift, or be
conceived, were the vifible univerfe annihilated ; and
therefore that the vifible univerfe is either the one fub¬
llance, or at leall an eflential attribute or modification
of that fubfiance. He fometimes indeed fpeaks of the
power of this fubftance; but when he comes to explain
himfelf, we find that by power he means nothing but
blind neceflity ^ ; and though he frequently talks of
xxiii. Part the wifdom of God, he feems to make uie ol the word
without meaning. 1 his we think evident from the
long appendix to his 36th propofition ; in which he
labours to prove that the notion of final caufes is an idle
figment of the imagination, fince, according to him,
nothing but the prejudices of education could have led
men to fancy that there is any real diilinftion between
good and m/7, merit and demerit, praife and reproach, or¬
der and confufton ; that eyes were given them that they
might be enabled to fee ; teeth for the purpofe of chew¬
ing their food; herbs and animals for the matter of that
food ; that the fun was formed to give light, or the ocean
to nourifti fjhes. If this be true, it is impofixble to dif-
cover wifdom in the operations of his one Jubjlance; lince,
in common apprehenfion, it is the very charadleriftic of
folly to a£t without any end in view.
Such are the reveries of that writer, whofc works a
German philofopher of fome name has lately recom¬
mended to the public, as calculated to convey to the
mind more jull and fublime conceptions of God than
are to be found in moll other fyftems. The recommen¬
dation has had its effedl. A literary journalift of our
own, reviewing the volume in which it is given, feels a
peculiar fatisfadlion from the difeovery that Spinoza,
inftead of a formidable enemy to the caufe of virtue and
religion, was indeed their warmeft friend; and pioufly
hopes that we lhall become more cautious not to fuffer
ourfelves to be deceived by empty names, which thofe
who cannot reafon (Sir Ifaac Newton and Dr Clarke
perhaps) give to thofe who can (Hobbes, we fuppofe,
and Spinoza). But though we have the honour to
think on this quellion with our illullrious countrymen,
we have no defire to depict Spinoza as a reprobate, which.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
] S P I
the critic fays has often been done by iynoracce and Spineza
enthulrafm. We admit that his coududt in adlive life jl
was irreproachable ; and for his fpeculative opinions, he ,
mull Hand or fall to his own Mailer. His Ethics ap. *
pear to us indeed a fyllem Ihockingly impious ; and in
the tradl intitled Politica, power and right are con¬
founded as in the former volume ; but in the treatife
De Intellect's Emendatione, are fcattered many
precepts of pradlical wifdom, as well as fome judicious
rules for conduding philofophical invelligation; and we
only regret, that the reader mull wade to them through,
pages ol fatalifm, fcepticifm, and palpable contradic¬
tions. His Compendium Grammatices Lingua; Hebrace,
though left imperfed, appears to have fo much merit,
that it is to be wilhed he had fulfilled his intention of
writing a philofophical grammar of that language, in¬
ftead oi waiting his time on abllrufe fpeculations, which,
though they feem not to have been injurious to his own
virtue, are certainly not calculated to promote the vir¬
tue ol others, or to increale the fum of human happi-
oefs. rr
. SPIRAEA, in botany; A genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clals of icofandria, and to the order of penia-
gyma; and in the natural fyltem arranged under the
26th order, Pomace#. T. he calyx is quinquefid ; there
are hve petals; and the capiule is polylpernious. There
are 18 fpecies ; of which two only are Britilh, the fili-
pendula and ulmaria. 1. f he flipendula, dropwort, haj
pinnated leaves; the leaflets are ferrated ; the llalk ia
heibaceous, about a foot and a halt high, terminated
with a loofe umbel of white flowers, often tinged with
red. The petals are generally fix, and the fegments of
the calyx are icflexed: the llamina are 33 or more;
the geimina 1 2 or upwards. It grows in mountainous
pallures. 2. The ulmaria, meadow-fweet. The leaves
have only two or three pair ot pinme, with a few i'mal-
ler ones intermixed ; the extreme one being larger than
the reft, and divided into three lobes. The calyx is
reddilh ; the petals white, and the number of capfules
from fix to ten twilled in a fpiral. The tuberous pea,
like roots of the filipendula dried and reduced to pow¬
der, have been uled inftead of bread in times of fcar-
city. Hogs are very fond of thefe roots. Cows, goats,
Iheep, and Iwine, eat the plant; but horfes refufe it.
The flowers oi the ulmaria have a fragrant feent, which
rifes in diftillation. The whole plant indeed is extreme¬
ly fragrant, fo that the common people of Sweden
ftrew their floors with it on holidays. It has alio an
allringent quality, and has been found ufeful in dyfen-
teries, ruptures, and in tanning of leather.
. SPIRAL, in geometry, a curve line of the circular
kind, which in its progrefs recedes from its centre.
SI IR.^j, in architecture, was ufed by the ancients
for the bafe of a column, and fometimes for the aitragal
or tore ; but among the moderns it denotes a fteeple
that continually diminiihes as it afeends, whether coni¬
cally or pyramidally.
SPIRIT, in metaphyfics, an incorporeal being or
4 ^ intelligence;
humanam hoc vel illud percipere, nihil aliud dicimus quam quod Deus, non quatenus infinitus eft, fed quateaus
per naturam human* mentis explicate, five quatenus human* mentis effentiam conftituit, hanc vel iliam habet
ideam : et cum dicimus Deum hanc vel illam ideam habere, non tantum, quatenus naturam human* mentis con-
aituit; led quatenus limul cum mente humana alterius rei etiam habet ideam. Carol, prop. xi. part 2.
Spirit
S P I t 698 ] S P I
intel’u.'rence ; In which fenfe God is faid to be a fpirit, portion of the diminution of its denfity,
M as a^e an eels and the human foul. See Metaphysics>
Spirituous jjp
Liquors. * S?IRI^} {n chemiftry and pharmacy, a name applied
to every volatile liquid which is not inlipid like phlegm
and hence the diltindtion into acid, alkaline,
or water,
and vinous fpirits. See Pharmacy-/««^.
1 Spirit cf Wine. See Chemistry-Zwi/w, Distil*
LATIon, and PhARMAcy-Index.
SPIRITS, or Animal Spirits. See Anatomy,
Part V. n° 136, and Physiology, n3 185.
SPIRITU AL, in general, fomething belonging to
or partaking of the nature of fpirit. See Spirit.
SPIRITUOUS nquoRs have in all nations been
confidered as a proper fubjed of heavy taxation for the
fupport of the Hate. This has naturally occafioned a
nice examination of their {Length. It having been at
lalt found that this was intimately con netted with the
fpecific gravity, this has been examined with the molt
fcrupulous attention to every circumltance which could
affett it, fo that the duties might be exa&ly proportion¬
ed to the quantity ot fpirit in any ftrong liquor, inde¬
pendent on every othe'r ciicumltance of flavour ot taite,
or other valued quality. I he chemill at lalt found
that the bafis of all tlrong liquors is the fame, produced
by the vinous fermentation of pure facchanne matter
diflblved in water. He alfo found, that whether this
vegetable fait be taken as it is fpontaneoufly formed in
the juices ot plants and fruits, or as it may be formed
or extricated from, farinaceous fruits and roots by a cer¬
tain part of the procefs of vegetation, it produces the
fame ardent fpirit, which has always the lame denlity
in every mixture with water. Fhe minute portions of
aromatic oils, which are in feme degree infeparable from
it, and give it a different flavour according to the fub-
ftance from which it was obtained, are not^ found, to
have any fenlible effe£fc ort. its denfity or fpeciflc gravity.
This feems very completely eftabhfhed in conlequence
of the unwearied attempts of the manufacturers to leflen
the duties payable on their goods by mixtures of other
fubftances, which would increafe their denlity without
making them lefs palatable. The vigilance ot the re¬
venue officers was no lefs employed to detett every fuch
contrivance. In Ihort, it is now an acknowledged point,
that the fpecific gravity is an accurate telt of the
{Length. .
But though this, is true in general, we cannot derive
much benefit from it, unlefs we know the preeife rela¬
tion between the (Length and the denfity ol a fpiritu-
ous liquor.’ Do they increafe pari pajfu, or by what
law are they connefted ? It was natural to expett that
equal additions of ardent fpirits or alcohol to. a given
ouantity of water would produce equal diminutions of
denfity. Areometers were accordingly made on this
principle above 200 years ago, as may be feen in the
works of Gafpar Schottus, Sturmius, Agricola, and
other old authors. But when mathematical'phyiics be-
came more generally known, this was eaflly-difeovered
to be erroneous ; and it was Ihown (we thiuK firff by
Mr Boyle) that equal" additions to the fpecific gravity
would be produced' by fuccefiively taking out ot any
veffel a certain meafure of alcohol and replacing it with
an equal meafure of-water. This was the mole conve¬
nient difeovery for all parties, becaufe then the duties:
payable on a calk of fpirits would.be in., the exadt pro-
r„,     ... But it was SpWtuoui
foon found by thofe who were appointed guardians of J~4[lUor*'
the revenue that this conclufion was erroneous, and
that a mixture which appeared by this rule to contain
35 gallons of alcohol, did really contain 354-. This they
found by attually making fuch a mixture: 18 gallons
of alcohol mixed with 18 of water produced only 35
gallons of fpirits. The revenue officers, finding that
this condenfation was mod remarkable in mixtures of
equal parts of water and the ftrongeft fpirits which could
then be procured, determined to levy the duties by this
mixture ; becaufe, whether the fpirituous liquor was
ftronger or weaker than this, it would appear, by its.
fpecific gravity^, rather ftronger than it really was. This
fugacious obfervation, and the fimplicity of the compo-
lition, which could at all times be made for comparifon,
feem to be the reafons for our excife offices lele&ing
this mode of eftimating the (Length and levying the
duties. A mixture of nearly equal meafures of water
and alcohol is called proof spirit, and pays a certain
duty per gallon; and the (Length of a fpirituous liquor
is eftimated by the gallons, not of alcohol, but of proof
fpirit which the calk contains. But becaufe it might
be difficult to procure at all times this proof fpirit for.
eomparifon, fuch a mixture was made by order of the
board of excife : and it was fo^ind, that when iix gallons
of it was mixed with one gallon of water, a wine gal¬
lon of the mixture weighed 7 pounds 13 ounces avoir¬
dupois. The board therefore declared, that the fpirituous
liquor of which the gallon weighed 7 pounds 13 ounces
fliould be reckoned 1 to 6 or 1 in 7 under proof. This
is but an aukward and complex formula ; it was in
order to fuit matteis to a mode of examination which
had by time obtained the fanttion of the board. Mr
Clarke, an ingenious artift of that time, had made a
hydrometer incomparably more exa& than any other,
and conftrufted on mathematical principles, fit for com¬
putation. This had a fet of weights correfponding to
the additions ot water or proof fpirit, and the mixture
1 to 6 or 1 in 7 was the only one which weighed an
exaft number of ounces per gallon without a fraction.
Thus Hands the excife law; and Clarke’s hydrometer
is ftill the inftrument of authority, although others have
been lince conftrutted by Dicas, Qjjin, and otheis,
which are much more ingenious and convenient. The
mathematician who examines Dicas’s hydrometer, with
its Hiding fcale, by which it is adjufted to the different
temperatures, and points out the condenfations, will
perceive a beautiful andlagacious combination of quan¬
tities, which he will find it difficult to bring under
any analytical formula. Perhaps Quin’s may have fome
preference in refpeft of conveniency ; but facile invent is
addere. Mr Dicas’s was original.
As naturalifts became more accufiomed to exa& ob¬
fervation in every topic of inquiry, the condenfation
which obtains in the mixture of different fubftances be¬
came more familiarly known. This evidently affetta
the prefent queftion; and both the excife and the diftillers
are interefted in. its accurate decifion. Phis occafioned
an application to the Royal Society ; and a moft fcru¬
pulous examination of the {Length of fpintuous liquors
was made by Sir Charles Blagden and Mr Gilpin, ot:
which they have given a very particular account in the*
Phil.qsofhicalTransagt 1 ons for 1790 and.1792.
We.have.taken notice of this in the article Specific
GRAVITY*
I
S P I
J5piritf!0lU
Liquors,
Gravity, mentioninq; fuch circumilances of the refults
as fuited our purpofes of phyfical diicuflion. At pre-
fent we give the general refult in the table of fpecific
gravity, as peculiarly belonging to fpirituous liquors,
affording the moil exadt account of their deniity in
every hate of dilution of alcohol with water. And
as the relation between the proportion of ingredients
and the denfity is peculiar to every fubftance, fo that
fcarcely any inferepce can be made from one to another,
the reader will confider the tables here given as charac-
teriftic with refped to alcohol. In all folutions of falts
we found that the condenfation increafes continually with
the dilution, whereas it is greatefl when equal bulks of
water and alcohol are mixed: yet we do not confider
this as an exception ; for it is certain, that in the ftrong-
eft brine the faline ingredient bears but a fmall pro¬
portion to the water—and when we mix two folutions,
the condenfation is g‘. eateft when they are nearly equal
in bulk. But we think ourfelves entitled to infer, that
alcohol is not a dilution of a fubllance in a quantity of
water; but that water, in a certain proportion, not very
diftant from what we can produce by flow diflillation,
is an ingredient of alcohol, or is one of its component
parts, and not merely a vehicle or menflruum. We
therefore imagine that proof fpirit contains nearly equal
bulks of water and ardent fpirits.
The great difficulty in this examination arofe from
the very diffimilar expanfions of water and alcohol by
heat. This determined Sir Charles Blagden to eftimate
the proportions of ingredients by weight, and made it
abfolutely neceffary to give a fcale of fpecific gravity and
ftrength for every temperature. For it mull be remark¬
ed, that the queftion (whether in commerce or philofo.
phy) always is, “ How many gallons of alcohol and of
water, taken juft now and mixed together, will pro¬
duce a hundred gallons of the fpirit we are exami¬
ning V* The proportion of thefe two will be different
according to the temperature of both. As many mix¬
tures therefore muft have been made in each proportion
as there were temperatures coniidered ; but by taking
the ingredients by weight, and examining the denfity
of the compound in one temperature, it is then heated
-and cooled, and its change of denfity obferved. Calcu¬
lation then can tell us the change in the proportion of
the bulks or numbers of gallons in the mixture, by
means of a previous table fhowing the expanfions of
water and of alcohol.
The alcohol felected for this examination had the
fpecific gravity 0,825. This is not the pureft that can
be procured; fome was produced of 0,816, of 0,814,
and 0,813, both obtained from mm, from brandy, and
from malt fpirit. We are informed that Dr Black has
obtained it of the fpecific gravity 0,8 by digefting al¬
cohol with fixed ammoniac (muriatic acid united with
lime) made very dry. It dephlegmates alcohol very
powerfully without decompofmg it, which always hap¬
pens when we ufe cauilic alkali. Alcohol of 0,825 was
chofen becaufe expreffed by a number of eafy manage¬
ment in computation.
\ 1 he examination commenced by afeertaining the ex-
'panfions of water and alcohol. The temperature 6o°
of Fahrenheit’s fcale was fekfled for the general tem¬
perature of comparifon, being eafily attainable even in
'told weather, and allowing the examinator to operate
a: eafc. The firft and laft copartments of the tables
1 1
p 1
contain the weights and fpecjHc gravities of alcohol and Spirltuou*
water for every fifth degree of heat from 300 to ico°. Liquors.
From thefe wc have conftrudled the two following little
tables of expanfion. The bulk of 1000 ounces, pounds,
or other weight of water and of alcohol of the tempera¬
ture 6o°, occupies the bulks expreffed in the tables for
evegy other temperature. Water could not be eafily or
ufefully examined when of the temperature 30°, becaufe
It is with great difficulty kept fluid in that temperature.
It is very remarkable, that when it can be fo kept, it
expands inftead of contrafting ; while cooling down
from 3f° or thereabouts, and as it approaches to 320,
it expands rapidly. We obferve the fame thing in the
cryllalluation of Glauber fait, martial vitriol, and fome
others, which contain much water in their cryftals. We
obferve, on the other hand, a remarkable contraction
in the zeolite juft before its beginning to fwell into
bubbles by a red heat.
Heat
Bulk of to*),coo ounces.
Of Water.
30
55
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
99910
99906
99914
1 99932
99962
IOOOOO
100050
100106
100170
100241
100320
I00404
100500
100608
Diff.
4
+ 8
18
3°
38
5°
56
64
7i
79
84
96
108
Of Alcohol.
11 9195
119514
II9839
I20172
120514
120868
I 2 I 2 I 2
121565
I21919
I22279
I22645
123017
*23393
I23773
*24157
Diff.
3«9
325
332
342
348
35°
353
354
360
366
372
376
380
384
This being premifed, the examination wascondu&cd
in the following manner. It was determined to mix
100 parts by weigh: of pure alcohol with five, ten, fif¬
teen, twenty, parts of diftilled water, till they were
compounded in equal quantities, and then to mix too
parts of diftilled water with 95, 90,85, 8c, See. parts
of alcohol, till they were mixed in the proportion of 100
to 5. Thus a feries of mixtures would be obtained, ex¬
tending from pure alcohol to pure water. This feries
would be fuch, that the examinations would be moft
frequent in the cafes moll ufual in the commerce of
ftrong liquors. A fet of phials, fitted with ground
Hoppers, were provided, of fixes fit to hold the intended
mixtures. Thefe mixtures were made by fufpending
the phial to the arm of a very nice balance, in the op-
pofite fcale of which (befides the counterpoife of the
phial) there was placed the weight roo. Spirit was
then poured into the phial till it exa&ly balanced the
weight 100. The weight for the water to be added
was then put into the oppofite fcale, and water was
poured into the phial by means of a flender glafs funnel,
by fmall quantities at a time, and the phial frequently-
agitated to promote the mixture. When the additional
weight was exadlly balanced, the phial was taken off, its
Hopper put in, and leather tied over it, and it was fet by,
for at leaft a month, that the mixture and the whole
4 T 2 procefs
S P I [ 700 ] S P I
Sp! rlmotw pvocefs of condenfatlon might be completed. The fame
^Liquor?. mcth0d was followed in the mixtures where the water
^ was predominant.
When the ingredients of thefe mixtures were judged
to have completely incorporated, their fpecific gravity
was examined by weighing with the mofl fcrupulous pre-
cifion the contents of a veflel which held 2925 troy
grains of water, of the temperature 6o°. The balance
was fo exceedingly fenfible, that the 50th part of a grain
greatly deranged its pofition when loaded with the
fcales and their contents. It was conftru&ed by Mr
Ramfden, and fome account of its exquifite fenfibility
may be feen in the 'Journal de Phy/ique^ vol. xxxui.
This quantity of materials was therefore thought abun¬
dantly fufficient for afcertaining the denfity of the li¬
quor. It is needlefs to detail the precautions which
were taken for having the contents of the weighing
bottle brought to the precife temperature proper for
the experiment. They were fuch as every perfon con-
verfant with fuch things is accuftomed to take—The
bottle had a flender neck, and being put on a lathe,
a mark was made round it with a diamond. The bot¬
tle was filled till the bottom of the hollow furface of
the fluid was in the plane of this mark ; and to judge
of the accuracy attainable in filling the bottle, the ope¬
ration was feveral times repeated and the contents weigh¬
ed, without the difference of -jVh of a grain in 2925.
The only fource of error which was to be guarded
again ft was air-bubbles adhering to the infide of the
bo tele, or moifture condenfing (in the experiments with
low temperatures) on the outfide, both of thefe were
attended to as much as poffible.
This method of determining the fpecific gravity was
preferred to the ufual method, obferving the weight loft
by a lump of glais when fufpended in water ; for Mr
Gilpin had been enabled, by means of this nice ba¬
lance, to difeover, even in pure water and in alcohol,
want of perfect fluidity. Something like vifcidity
rendered the motion of a lump of glafs through the Spirltuoui
liquor fenfibly fluggifh, fo that when the balance was ^‘T10r8^
brought to a level, there was not a perfeft equilibrium
of weights: (See what we have faid of this matter
in Specific Gravity). Mr Gilpin alfo tried the
ingenious fnftrument propofed for fuch experiments
by Mr Ramfden, and deferibed by him in a pamphlet
on this very fubjeft; and he found the anomalies
of experiment much greater than in this method by
weighing.—Indeed the regular progreflion of weights
to be feen in the annexed tables is an unqueftionable
proof of the fufficiency of the method ; and it has the
evident advantage of all other methods in point of fim-
plicity and practicability without any uncommon ap¬
paratus. Any perfon poffefled of a good ordinary ba¬
lance and a fet of exaft weights may examine all quef-
tions of this kind, by weighing pure water and the li¬
quor which he may have occafion to examine in a com¬
mon 6 or 8 ounce phial. For this reafon, it is recom¬
mended (in preference to all hydrometers) to the board
of excife to provide this Ample apparatus in every prin¬
cipal office.
Every experiment was made at leaft three times; and:
the mean refult (which never differed one grain from the
extreme) was taken.
From thefe experiments the annexed tables were
conftru&ed. The firft is the fimple abftraft of the ex¬
periments, containing the weights of the contents of
the bottle of every mixture. The fecond contains the
fpecific gravities deduced from them.
We have faid that the experiments appear furprifing-
ly accurate. This we fay on the authority of the re¬
gular progreffion of the fpecifie gravity in any of the
horizontal rows. In the feries, for inftance, for the
temperature 6o«, the greateft anomaly is in the mixture
of 50 parts of fpirit with 100 of water. The fpecific
gravity is 95804, wanting 3 or 4 of the regular pro-
greffion. This does not amount to 1 in 18000.
'I
TABES
S P I [ 701 ] S P I
TABLE l.—Weights at the different Degrees of Temperature.
Heat
The pure
Spirit.
deg
3°
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
ICO
Heat
deg,
3°
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Heat
deg.
30
35
40
45
50
55
. 60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
00
Grains.
2487,35
2480,87
2474,3°
2467,62
2460,75
2453,80
2447,00
2440,1 2
H33>23
2426,23
2419,02
2411,92
2404,90
2397,^8
2390,6°
roograins
of fpirit to
5 grains
of wa er.
Grains.
2519,92
25,3>43
2506.75
2500,14
2493.33
2486,37
2479,56
2472.75
2465,88
2458,78
2451,67
2444,63
2437,62
243°>33
2423,22
ioo grains
if fj irit to
10 grains
of water.
100 grains
of fpiritto
1 t gi ains
of water.
00 grain
iffpiric to
70 grains
of wste •.
Grains
2744,20
2738.13
273 2.24
2726,09
2719.93
2713,60
2707,40
2701,05
2694.76
2688.14
2681,50
2674,95
2668,29
2661,5 1
2654.76
60 grain
of fpiri' to
100 grain
f water
CO grail
>t fpirit to
75 grains
of water.
Grains
2753,75
2747,74
Grains.
2548,42
254i,84
2535,4'
2528,75
2521,96
2515,03
2508,27
250x,53
2494,56
2487,62
2480,45
2473,33
2466,32
2459,'3
2452,13
Grains.
2573,80
2567,26
2560.74
2554,09
2547,47
2540,60
2533,83
2526.99
2520,03
2513,08
2506,08
2499,01
2491.99
2484.74
2477,64
. cograins
>f fpirit t(
grain-
of water
Grains.
2762,72
. . . 275^,91
2741,86 2750,96
Grains.
2852,03
2847,45
842,62
2837.64
2832,76
827,68
2822.65
2817,49
2812,16
806,75
801,25
2795,69
2790,13
2784,36
2778,64
2735,77
2729.64
2723,5'
2717,30
27 10,96
2704.64
2698,07
2691,50
2684,98
2678*49
67 1,82
2664,99 2^74,6
2744,82
2738,74
2732,64
2726.52
2720,25
2713,87
2707,49
2700,94
2694.53
2687,99
2681,34
00 grains
of fpirit to
20 grains
of water.
toograins loograinsjico grain
of Ipirit to of fpirit to of fpirit to
a.S trains 30 grains
of water, of water.
35grains
of wa'er
Grains, j Grains. Grains. I Grains.
2596,66j26l7,30 2636,23 2653,73
2590,16^610,87 2629,92 2647,47
2583,6612604,502623,5612641,08
2577, 1°|2597,9^i26i7,03 2634,64
2570,422591,38.2610,542628,21
2563>642584,65i?6o3,8oj2621,50
100 grain1
f fpirit to
35 grains
01 wate ,
55 4ra>!is
if fpirit ti
.Oograins
of water.
Grains
2859,7'
855,3 2
2850,88
846,16
2841,52
2836,69
2831.90
2826.90
2821,78
2816,63
2811,23
;o grains
if fpirit t<
too grains
pf wa: e
Grain1-'. Grains.
2867,12 2874,43
Grains
2771,08
2765.32
2759,50
2753,36
2747,27
2741,24
2735,'7
2728,98
2722.75
2716,35
2709.76
2703,331
2696,91!
2690.33
2683,63
2556,90^2577,95 2597,22
2550,22,2571,242590,55
2543,32,2564,472583,88
2536,39,2557,61 2576,93
2529,24:2550,502569,86
25 2 2,.2^2543,542563,01
2515,282536,63 2556,11
2508,1012529,462549,13
2500,91 2522,302541,92
too grali s
f fpirit to
90 grains
f wa'er.
roograini
of fpirit to
95grains
of water.
too grains
■f fpirit t
100 grains
>f water,
Grains. Grains
2778,99 2786,36
2773,222780,59
2615,03
2608,37
2601,67
2594,8
2587.93
2580.93
2574,02
2567,03
2559,96
2644,43
2637,86
2631,37
2624,75
>5 grains
pirit to
100 grains
of water
o of fp
Grains. ^ Gra:ns.
2793,22
2787,54
2781,84
2775,94
'2770,14
45 grains
)f fpirit to
t-.o grains
of water.
2863,16
2859,06
2854,67
2850,29
2847,72
2841,1c
2836,3c
2831,61
2826,56
2821,38
2870,87
2867,08
2863,04
2858.96
2854,75
2850,50
2845.97
2767,482774,90
2761,42 2768,85
2755,37 2762,95,
2749,27 2756,8312764,09
2743,28,2750,932758,17
2737,09 2744,86'2752,21
730,942738,732746,06
2724,642732,392739,89
27x8,12,2726,062733,53
2711,8612719,742727,25
2705,3 7j 2713,3 2 272i,oi
2698,86'27o6,88!2714,61
2799,85
2794.19
2788,69
2782,99
2777.19
2771,29
2765,40
2,,59,47
53,4'
2747.23
2740,93
2734,80
2728,59
2722.23
: 00 grains
of fpirit to
40grains
of water.
1 oograins. 100 grains
of fpirit to1
4S grains
c f water.
oflpintto
jc grains
of water.
Grains. Grains. Grains.
669,832684,742698,51
2663,64'2678,6012692,43
2657,2312672,302686,32
2650,87 2666,04*2679,99
too grains 100 grains
of fpirit tojof fpirit to
55 grains 60 grains
of water, of water.
too grains
of ipirit to
65 grains
of water.
Grains. Grains. Grains.
27ii,'4'2722,89!2733,87
2659,55
2653,04
2646,53
2640,01
2617,962633,32
2611,19
2604,29
2597,45
2590,60
2583,65
2576,56
jo grain,
•f fpii it to
30 grains
of w ater.
2692,252700,332708,042715,73
40 grains 35 grains
if fpirit to of ipirit to
100grains too grain
f water, of w ater.
30 grain
>f fpirit to
too grains
if water.
2805,85:2816,32
800,40281.1,05
2794,91:2805,79
2789,32:2800,2 5
Grains. Grains Grans.
2881,34,2887,7712894*22
2878,2112885,06 2892,07
2874,81 2882,3012889,78
287f,222879,22L887,33j2895;67!2904,98
2867,52j2875,98 2884,5712893,58 2903,39
2863,7 5(28 72,67288t,69 28;., II
Grains
2806,61
2801,14
2795,70
2789,99
2784,30
2778554
2772,7c
2766.73
2760,75
2754.73
2748,42
2742,3'
2736,23
2729,89
2723,33
2626,55
2619,72
2613,02
2606,16
2599,24
2592,14
8 j grain
>f fjiirtt tr
00 graim
2673,64
2667,14
2660,62
2654,04
2647.52
2640,81
2633,99
2627,39
2620.52
6|3,57
2606,5c
Sograim.
if fpirit to
go grains
2705,142716,92
of water, of water.
2698.94
2692,77
2686.54
2679.98
2673.55
2667,07
2660,63
2653.99
2647,12
2640,60
2633.74
2626.94
2619.75
2710,8 I
27°4»57
2727,87
2721,83
2715,62
7 j grains
if fpirit to
1C0 grains
f water.
2698,422709,48
2691,832702,98
2685,5212696,7
2679,152690,3
2672,74'2684,o2
2666,06 2677,34
2659,36
2652,78
2646,002637,4
2639,25
2632,17
70 grains
of fpiiit to
1 oo grain;
of w ater.
Grans. Grains
2836,392844,
Z5 grains 20 grains
of fpirit to .if fpirit ti
roogra m|' 00 grains
of wrater. of water
Grains.
2900,8 5
2899,31
2897,61
Grains.
2908,21
*9°7,45
2906,39
2841,42
2836,80
831,92
2827,12
2822,15
2817,08
28 I I,8o
2878,72 2888,62
2875,49 2885,85
2859,872869,15
2855,652865,45
2851,53 2861,6312872,06 2882,90
2847,142857,7012868,4912879,67
2842,562853,38^864,542876,22
2838,0712849,282860,862872,88
2833,38i2844,8i|2856,'8o!2869,i6
2828,46 2840,26 2852,47 2865,15
2823,55 2835,3012848,1812861,12
2901,42
2899,35
2897,09
2894,56
2891,79
15 grains
>f fpirit to
roograin
of water.
Grains.
2917,19
29! 6,95
2916.41
29r5>55
2914.42
2913,02
29x1,32
2909.43
2907.35
2905,04
10 grains 5 grains
of Ipirit toof fpirit to
100 grains roogram-
of water,! of water.
Grains. Grains. Grains.
2813,85 2821,35 2828.90
2808,52 2816,07 2823,68 283 1,36
2803,172810,732818,362826,31
2797,45 2805,08 2812,93 2821,00
2791,72 2799,582807,562815,71
2 785,96 2 793,52'28oi,89 2810,23
2780,26^788,25 2796,45 2804,85
2774.432782.622790,81 2799,38
27^8>45 2776,72 2785,06 2793,80
2762,58 2770,93 2779,26 2788,00
275^.43:27^4>87 2773,33 2782,14
2750,2212758,802767,44 2776,33
2744.242752,762761,51 2770,59
2737.982746,57 2755,34 2764,57
2731’55 2740,43 2749,28 2758,48
2670,69
2664,1
2650,63
2643.75
6j grains
of fpirit
roograin
of water
2839.2
2834,40
2829,28
2824.1
2818,80
2813,6
2808.3
2802,88
2797.2
279l»5
*785,8
2780,1
2774,25
2768,43
2888,73,2902,35
2885,562899,55
2882,2 5
2878,7 I
2896,58
2898,44
2875,07 2890,04
Grains, j Grains.
2928,80^2944,53
2928,992945,02
2928,932945,25
2928,492945,20
2927,812944,73
2926,73'2943’98
2925,5012942,98
^923,90 2941,69
Water.
Grain8.
2922,2 4
2920,1 7
2917.83
29x5,46
2912.84
2910,02
2940,13
2967,14
2967,45
2067,40
2967,05
2966,34
2965,39
2964,11
2962,66
293H,33 296^,97
2936,31 2959,07
2934,142956,94
293i,77
2929,15
2906,974926,28
2954,70
2952,08
2949,34
TABLE-
S P I
S P I t 70S 1
TABLE IL—Real fpecific Gravities at the different Temperatures,
Heat.
100 irrainslioo grains 100 grain?
of fpirit tojof fpirit to of fpirit to
' 5 grains io grains 15 grains
of water, of water, of water.
rhe pure
fpirit.
deg.
3°
35
40
45
5°
,85896
,83672
>83445
,83214
,82977
55 | >82736
60 ,82500
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
TOO
{Heat.
,82262
,82023
,81780
>81530
,8 1283
,81039
,80788
>80543
>84995
,84769
>84539
,84310
,84076
>83834
>83599
,83362
>83124
,82878
,8263 1
,82386
,82142
,81888
,81643
100 grams
of fpirit to
70 grains
of water,
100 gram
>f fpirit to
75 grains
of water,
deg.
3°
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
>92563
>92355
>92i5l
>91937
>9l723
,9i5°2
^287
,91066
,90847
,90617
,90385
>90,57
,89925
,89688
100 ,89453
>85957 !
,85729j
>85507
,85277
,85042
,84802
,84568
>84334
,84092
>838 51
>83603
>83355
,83111
,82860
,82618
,86825
>86587
,86361
,86131
,85902
,85664
>85430
>85193
,84951
,847'i©
,84467
,84221
,83977
>83724
>83478
s 100 grains
of fpirit to
80 grains
of water.
{Heat.
60 grains
of fpiric to
too grains
of water.
deg.
30
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
,92889
,92680
,92476
,92264
>92050
>9l837
,91622
,91400
,91181
,90952
,90723
,90496
,90270
,90037
,89798
>93I9I
,92986
>92783
92570
>92358
,92145
>9*933
>9I7I5
>9*493
,91270
,91042
,90818
,90590
>90358
,90123
00 grains
f fpirit to
20 grains
of water.
100 grams
if fpirit U
25 grains
of water.
,87585
>87357
,87*34
,86907
,86676
,86441
,86208
,85976
,85736
,85493
,85248
,85006
,84762
,84511
,84262
100 grain1
of fpirit to
30 grains
of water.
100 grams
of fpirit t<
35 grains
of water.
too grains
if fpirit to
85 grains
of water.
>93474
>93274
,93072
,92859
>92647
>92436
,9*225
,92010
>9*793
>9*569
>9*340
,91119
,90891
,90662
,90428
,88282
,88059
,87838
>87613
>87384
>87150
,86918
,86686
>86451
,86212
,85966
85723
>85483
,85232
>84984
100 grain
f fpirit to
90 grains
of water
55 grains 50 grains
of fpirit to of fpirit to
,96209
,96048
>95879
>95705
>95534
>95357
,95181
,95000
>94813
,94623
>9443*
>94236
,94042
>93839
100 1,9363s
100 grams
of water.
100 grams
of water
,9647°
>963*5
,96159
>95993
,9583*
,95662
>95493
>953*8
>95139
>94957
,94768
>94579
>94389
>94*96
>93999
,96719
>96579
>96434
,96280
,96126
>95966
,95804
>95635
>95469
,95292
,95111
>94'932
>94748
,94563
,94368
>9374*
>9354*
>9334*
>93*3*
,929*9
,92707
>92499
,92283
,92069
>9*849
,91622
>9*403
>9**77
>90949
,90718
,88921
,88701
,88481
,88255
,88030
,87796
>87568
>87337
,87105
,86864
,86623
,86380
,86139
,85896
,85646
100 grains
f fpirit t.<
95 grains
of water.
too grams
of fpirit to
too grains
f water.
>9399*
>9379°
>93592
>93382
>93*77
,92963
,92758
,92546
>92333
,92111
>9*891
.91670
,9*446
,91221
,90992
,89511
,89294
89073
88849
88626
88393
88169
87938
87705
87466
87228
86984
>86743
,86499
86254
4.5 gram
of fpirit to
lOO grains
of water.
,96967
,96840
,96706
>96563
,96420
,96272
,96122
>95962
,95802
>95638
>95467
>95297
>95*23
>94944
>94759
40 grams
of fpirit to
100 grains
of water,
,97200
,97086
,96967
,96840
,96708
>96575
>96437
,96288
,96143
>95987
,95826
>95667
,95502
>95328
>95*52
,94222
,94025
>938z7
,93621
>934*9
,93208
,0 2002
,92794
,92580
>92364
,92142
>9*923
,9*705
,91481
,91252
35 grains
of fpirit to
30 grams
,f fpirit
100 grams 100 grain
of water, of water,
>974*8
>97 $ *9
,97220
,97110
>96995
,96877
,96752
,96620
,96484
>96344
,96192
,96046
,95889
>95727
>95556
>97635
>97556
>97472
>97384
,97284
,97181
>97074
,96959
,96836
,96708
,96568
>96437
,96293
>96*39
>95983
grains mo grains
f fpirit to
45 grains
of water.
00
>f fpirit
40 grains
of water.
,90054
,89839
,89617
,89396
,89174
>88945
,88720
,88490
,88254
,88018
,87776
>8754'
,87302
,87060
,86813
reo grains
of fpirit to
jo grains
of water.
95 grama
f fpirit to
00 grains
of water
,90558
>90345
,90127
,89909
,89684
,89458
,89232
,89006
,88773
,88538
,88301
,88067
,87827
,87586
>87340
90 grains
of fpirit t<
too grains
of water.
85 grains
of fpirit to
100 grains
of water
94447
94249
,94058
,93860
>93658
>93452
>93247
,93040
,92828
,92613
>92393
,92179
,91962
>9*740
>9*5*3
25 grains
of fpirit to
too grain
of water.
,97860
>97801
>97737
,97666
>97589
>9750
,97409
>97309
>97203
,97086
,96963
,96843
,96711
,96568
,96424
100 grams
of fpirit to
55 grains
of w ater.
,91023
,908 11
,90596
,90380
,90160
»89933
,89707
,89479
>89252
,89018
,88781
,88551
,88312
,88069
>87824
80 grains
ffpitit t(
100 grains
of water
,94675
,94484
94295
94096
>93897
>93696
>93493
,93285
,93076
,92865
,92646
>92432
,92220
,91998
,91769
20 grains
of fpirit u
100 grain
of water.
,98108
,98076
>98033
,97980
,97920
>97847
>9777*
,97688
>97596
>97495
>97385
! >97271
! >97*53
>97025
! >96895
,94920
>94734
>94547
,94348
,94149
>93948
>93749
>93546
>93337
>93*32
>929*7
,92700
,92491
,92272
,92047
15 grains
if fpirit to
1 o grains
of water.
,98412
>98397
>98373
>98338
,98293
>98239
,98*76
,98106
,98028
>97943
>97845
>97744
>97637
>97523
,97401
>95*73
,94988
,94802
,94605
,94414
>942‘3
,94018
,93822
,93616
>934*3
,93201
,92989
>92779
,92562
>92346
9*449
,91241
,91026
,90812
90596
90367
>90144
,89920
,89695
,89464
,89225
,88998
,88758
,88521
,88271
100 grains 1
of fpii it to
60 grains
of water.
00 gi ains
of fpirit ti
grains
of water.
,91847
,91640
,91428
>91211
>92997
,90768
>90549
,90328
,90104
,89872
,89639
,89409
>89*73
,88937
,88691
75 grains
of fpirit U
roo gra ns
of water
70 grains
of fpint to
100 grain
of water
10 grains
of fpirit to
too grains
of water
,98804
,98804
>98795
>98774
,98745
,98702
,98654
,98594
,98527
,98454
,98367
,98281
,98185
,98082
,97969
>95429
,95246
,95060
,94871
,94683
,94486
,94296
,94099
,93898
>93695
,93488
,93282
•93075
,92858
,92646
j grains
of fpirit to
100 grain
of water.
>92217
,92009
>9*799
91584
>9*370
>9**44
,90927
,90707
>90484
>90252
,90021
,89793
,89558
,89322
,89082
6j grains
of fpirit to
100 grains
of water,
>99334
>99344
>99345
>99338
>993‘6
,99284
,99244
>99*94
>99*34
,99066
,98991
,989*2
,9*824
,98729
>98625
,95681
,95502
>95328
>95*43
,94958
>94767
>94579
,94388
>94*93
>93989
>93785
>93582
>9338i
>93*70
>92957
Water.
1,00090
1,0009 4
1,00086
1,00068
1,00038
1,00006
>99.95°
,99894
,99830
>99759
,99681
,99598
,99502
,99402
95944
95772
,95602
>95423
>95243
>9505
,94876
,94689
,94500
>943°*
,94102
>93902
>937°3
>93497
>93293
Wc
S P I [
^Lkluop^1 ,lemer]y obfen/ed, that the fertes of mixtures
t^i, y ■ i ' c^ofen by Sir Charles Blagden, for the advantages at-
tending it in making the experiment, was not faked for
folving the qneftiwns which commonly occur in the fpi-
rit bniinefs. He accordingly faggefts the propriety of
forming tables in a convenient feries from the data fur-
uifhed by thefe experiments, indicating the proportion
of ingredients contained in fame conftant weight or
bulk. h
To facilitate the conftru&ion of fach tables, it is
Decenary to confider the .fabjeft in the moft general
manner, fherefore let a reprefent the conftant num-
'3e|* reprefent the quantities of water
and (pint by weight in any mixture; that is, the
pounds, ounces, or grains of each. Let w reprefent
the quantity per cent, of fpirits alfo by weight ; that
is, the numoer of pounds of fpirits contained in 100
pounds of the mixture; and let y be its quantity per
cent, m gallons, or the number of gallons contained in
loo gallons of the unmixed ingredients. Let m be the
bulk of a pound of fpint of any given temperature, the
puix of a pound of water of the fame temperature beintr
accounted i. °
Then w+s is the weight of any mixture, and w-i-
mt is its bulk. '
We have the following proportions : I . w-f- j uz=a :
x, and * = -~L (Equation ift); and hence j may be
found when x the per centage in weight is given, for s
•—  (Lquation 2.)
s p r
w + ms : m s = a : y, ?m&yz=a
(E-
quation 3d) ; and s may be found wheny, the per centage
in gallons, is given ; for j. r= (Equation 4th.)
The ufual queftions which can be folved from thefe
experiments are,
1. To afeertain the quantity of fpirits per cent, in
bulk from obfei ration of the fpecific gravity, or to tell
how many gallons of fpirit are in 100 gallons of mix¬
ture.
Look for the fpecific gravity in the table, and at
the head of the column will be found the wand / cor-
refponding. If the preeffe fpecific gravity obferved is
rot in the tables, the / mull be found by interpola¬
tion. And here ft is proper to remark, that taking the
fimple proportional parts of fpecific gravity will not be
fafficiently exact, efpeciaily near the beginning or the
end of the table, becaufe the denfities corre'fpondino to
the feries of mixtures do not change uniformly. We
muft have recourfe to the general rules of interpolation,
by means of firft and fecond differences, or be provided
with a lubfidiary table of differences. A good deal of
practice in computations of this kind faggefted the fol¬
lowing method of making fuch interpolations with great
cifpatch and abundant accuracy. On a plate of wood,
|™„ °r merta;> °r ftiff card-paper, draw a line EF (fig. 7.),,
f * as a fcale. of equal parts, reprefenting- the leading or
equable arithmetical feries of any table, fin the ore
lent cafe EF ,Vthe Me on which , is computed.)!
imsTa Tr PF li 1 awr,draw ,he
iars b A, I_. C, TD, &c. Make one of them AB
more confptcuous than the reft, and diftinguifh the others
7°.T ]
alfa m fach fort, that the eye fhall readily catch their Sp!ritt
ddtance from the principal hire A B. Let GPL be a ^
Uun flip of wnalebone, of uniform breadth and thick- ^
ne s, alio divided into equal parts properly diftinguifh-
m e’f y-’ ^ !hvre be a pin P flxcd near the mid¬
dle of the principal line AB.
Now fappofe that a value of / is to be interpolated
by means of an obferved fpecific gravity not in the ta
ble. Look for the neareft to it, and note its diftance
from the preceding and the following. Let thefe be
PH and PK on the flexible fcale. Alfo take notice of
the lines K 10 and H 10, whofe diftances from AB
are equal to the conftant difference between the faccef-
five values of S, or to any eafily eftimated multiple of it
(as in the prefent cafe we have taken 10 and 10, in-
itead of 5 and the running difference of Sir Charlea
Blagden’s table). Then, leaning the middle point P of
the whalebone on the pin P in the board, bend it, and
place it flantwife till the points K and H fall fome-
where on the two parallels K 10 and H ic. No matter
how oblique the pofition of the whalebone is. It will
bend in fach a manner that its different points of divi-
non (.reprefenting different fpecific gravities) will fall
on the parallels which reprefent the correfpondina va-
lues of / We can fay that all this may be done in lefa
than half a minute, and lefs time than is neceffary for
infpecting a table of proportional parts, and not the
tenth part of that neeefiary for interpolating by fecond
differences. Yet it is exaft enough (if of the fize of a
duodecimo page) for interpolating three decimal places,
i his is ten times more exaeft than the prefent. cafe re-
quires. To return from this digreffion.
Having thus found / in the table, we get x ory by
the equations nr x, and a s —Y
w+/ w-fm
But here a material circumftance occurs. The weiVht
alcohol /, and its per centage x, was rightly deter¬
mined by the fpecific gravity, becaufe it was interpolated
between two values, which were experimentally con-
netfed with this fpecific gravity. But in makirm the
tranfition from x to y, we only give the per centaoe
in gallons before mixture, but not the number of gal-
Ions of alcohol contained in an hundred gallons of mix¬
ed liquor. For when we have taken a—y andy in (lead;
and 5 will indeed make a iimilar compound
when mixed, becaufe the proportion of their ingredients
is ic fame. But they will nut make 100 gallons of
this compound, becaufe there is a flirinking or condenfa-
hy} "fll,XtUr^ a"d the Specific gravity by which we
inteipolated / is the phyfical or real fpecific gravity
correfponding to and / ; while -^±L, the fpecific
gravity implied m the value of y, is the mathematical
denlity independent on this condenfation. Since there
fore y together with a-y, make-lefs than 100 gal¬
lons of the compound, there muft in 100 gallons of it
be more alcohol than is expreffed by y.
Let G be the mathematical fpecific gravity f —
w-}~/ \ , 0 j K —
and g the- phyfical or real obferved fpecific
w -j- ms,
gravity (which we cannot exprefs algebraically) • and
let « be the gallons of alcoliol really contained in'icoj
gallons of the compound. The bulk being inverfely as
the denlity or fpecific. gravity, it is evident that the
*• bulk.
s P* I . t 7°4 1 S P I
9,w.,.n. WU of the compound mull be to too gallon, a. g to the fpeelfie gravity by Mpeflloo. If not, we mud In- Spirit,,™,
. . ^  ^ it ftill un to ICO
i.iquoi’s. G. And fmce we want to make it ftill up
J gallons, we mutt increafe it in the proportion ot G to
terpolate.
N.B. The value of »?, which is employed in thefe re-
Liquors,
f11AndWbe‘eaufe'nthisa augmentation muft be of the duaionv, varies with the temperatute. It « alway. ob-
£meW with,lu. eomra^U,uo, both.ngred,
lame lUCIlS^Ul WM-tl et.tc   -1 r n . 1
ents muit be increafed in the proportion ot G to g, ana
and a = ^ X^-. Now, in
we muit have G/.g
ftead of y, write a
-y'.z, and z =. g x—
m f. and inftead of -i- write
w-f- f
io-\~ m s
which are refpe&ively equal to them.
This
gives us z = ^ a X
w\-m s *n s
■gaX.
m s
rwS VV-^-S wTf
All this will be illuftrated by an example.
Suppofe that we have obferved the fpecitic gravity of
a fpirituous liquor of the temperature 6o° to be 0,94128.
Looking into Sir Charles Blagden’s table, we hnd the
gravities 0,94018 and 0,94296, and the s correfpond-
ing to them is 80 and 75? ^ie wat:er *1.1 each mixture
being 100. By interpolation we obtain the s corre-
fponding to 0,94r 28, viz. 7.8. At this temperature m
— L__, = 1,21212, and mx = 94>54545* There-
0*825
94>54545 } ^ 49,997, or
fore z ~ 0,94128 X too X
194>54545
very nearly 50. ' . . ,
We have feen even perfons not unacquainted with
fubjefts of this kind puzzled by this fort ot paradox.
z is faid to be the per centage of fpirit in the com¬
pound. The compound has the fame proportion of in¬
gredients when made up to 100 gallons as before, when
temperature by the fpecific gravity of water of the
fame temperature. The quotient is the real fpecific
gravity of alcohol for that temperature. Both of thefe
are to be had in the firfl and lafl copartments of Sir
Charles Blagden’s table.
Thefe operations for particular cafes give theanfwer*
to particular occafional queftions. By applying them
to all the numbers in the table, tables may be conitriift-
ed for folving every queftion by infpe&ion.
There is another queftion which occurs moil fre¬
quently in the excife tranfadftions, and alfo in all com- ’
pohtions of fpirituous liquors, viz. What ftrength will
refult from a mixture of two compounds of known
ftrength, or mixing any compound with water ? To
folve queftions of this kind by the table fo often quo¬
ted, we muft add into one fum the water per gallon of
the different liquors. In like manner, take the fum of
the fpirits, and fay, as the fum of the waters is to that
of the alcohols, fo is a to x ; and operate with a and x
as before.
Analogous to this is the queftion of the duties.
Thefe, are levied on proof fpirit ; that is, a certain du¬
ty is charged on a gallon of proof fpirit; and the gau¬
ger’s bufmefs is to difcover how many gallons of proof
'fpirit there is in any compound. The fpecifcation of
proof fpirit in our excife laws is exceedingly obfcure
and complex. A gallon weighing 7 pounds 13 ounces
(at 550) is accounted 1 to 6 under proof. The gal-
gredients when made up to 100 gallons as e ore, wren ^ ^ water conta;ns 58476 grains, and this fpirit is
y was faid to be its per centage, and yet y and z art no .^gg. jts denfity therefore is 0,93523 at 550, or (as
the fame. The fad is, that although s is the number ^ ^ ^ ^ table) at 6o0> Thij
of gallons of alcohol really contained m ico ga ons o denlity correiponds to a mixture of 100 grains of wa-
the compound, and this alcohol is m the lame proper- ^ wjtp 0^457 of alcohol. If this be fuppofed to re-
tion as before to the water, this proportion is not t a from the mixture of 6 gallons of alcohol with 1 of
r-o i-n rn ? for if the ingredients weie feparate again, water ^ag js fUpp0fed by the defignation of 1 to 6 un-
of 50 to <;o : for if the ingredients were feparated again,
there would be 50 gallons of alcohol and 52,876 of
water* . -. • 1 • r
The proportion of the ingredients in their leparate
Hate is had by the 3d Equation
which
is equivalent to G a
m x
w + x
w-f-mx
For the prefent example
der proof), the gallon of proof fpirits confifts of 100
parts of fpirits by weight, mixed with 75 parts of
water. Such a fpirit will have the denfity 0,9162
nearly. .«
This being premifed, in order to find the gallons of
proof fpirits in any mixture, find the quantity of alco¬
hol by weight, and then fay, as 100 to 175, fo is the
w-r •» A1UA u7 ^ M *'**''“ “V f — .'.J7 —  
y will be found 48,599, and a —y, or the water per alcohol in the compound to the proof fpirit that may
cent. 51,401, making 100 gallons of unmixed ingre- be made of it, and for which the duties muft be paid.
dients. We fee then that there has been added 1,398
gallons of alcohol; and fince both ingredients are aug¬
mented in the proportion oi G to g, there have alfo
been added 1,478 of water, and the whole addition for
making up the 100 gallons of compound is 2,876
gallons ; and if the ingredients of the compound were
feparate, they would amount to 102,876 gallons. This
might have been found at the firft, by the proportion,
G:jt — G = ICO: (The addition.)
The next queftion which ufually occurs in bufinefs is
to find what denfity will refult from any propofed mix*
ture per gallon. This queftion is folved by means of the
equation — = x. In this examination it will be
Tn{a—y)
moft convenient to make <w~ a. If the value of x
found in this manner falls on a value in the tables, we have
We have confidered this fubjedf at fome length, be-
caufe it is of great importance in the fpirit-trade to have
thefe circumftances afeertained with precifion ; and bc-
caufe the fpecific gravity is the only fare criterion that
can be had of the ftrength. Firing of gunpowder, or
producing a certain bubble by (baking, are very vague
lefts ; whereas, by the fpecific gravity, we can very fe-
curely afeertain the ftrength within one part in 500, as
will prefently appear.
Sir Charles Blagden, or Mr Gilpin, have publifhed * a#
moft copious fet of tables, calculated from thefe valu-
able experiments. In thefe, computations are made for
every unit of the hundred, and for every degree of the
thermometer. But theie tables are ftill not in the moft
commodious form for bufinefs. Mr John Wilfon, an
ingenious gentleman refiding at Dundee, has juft pub-
2 lifted
s p I t 705 '] S P I
Spjncuftui llfhed at Edinburgh tables fomewhat, fimllar, founded
1-><r|f>rs on the fame experiments. Both of thefe tables fhow
T""" the quantities by meafure correfponding to eveiy unit
by weight of Sir Charles Blagden’s experiments, and
for every degree of temperature. They alfo (how the
per tentage of alcohol, and the condenfation or the quan¬
tity loft by mixture. But as they both retain the ori¬
ginal feries of parts by weight, which is very unufual,
the fpirit traders will find confiderable difficulty in ma¬
king ufe of them. Retaining ^his feries alfo caufes all
the per centage numbers (which are the only interefting
ones to the trader) to be fraftional, and no anfwer can
be had without a double interpolation.
We have therefore calculated a table in the form in
which it rnuil be moil ufeful and acceptable to thofe
who are engaged in the fpirit trade, {bowing at once
the fpecific gravity which refults from any proportion of
admixture in hundredth parts of the whole. This an-
fwers immediately the chief queftions in the terms in
which they are ufuaHy conceived and propofed. The
two firft or leading cc)lumns fhow the proportion in gal¬
lons, pints, or other cubic meafures, of the mixture, the
whole quantity being always 100. The fecond column
fhows the correfponding fpecific gravity : fo that we
can either find the proportion of the ingredients by the
obferved fpecific gravity, or find the grav ty reful'ting Spirltinu*
from any proportion of the ingredients. iA third co- L/C>uars-
lumn (hows how much the hundred meafures of the two '—•"Y—*^
ingredients fall ffiort of making an hundred meafurcs of
the Compound. A fimple proportion, which can be
done without the pen, will determine what part of this
deficiency muft be made up by fpirit. The life of this
table muft now be fo familiar to the reader’s mind,
that we need not give further inftru&ions about it.
This is followed by another fimilar table, giving an
immediate anfwer to the moft ufual queftion, “ Hovr
many meafures of alcohol are there really contained in
100 meafures ? This is alfo accompanied by a column of
condenfation. It would have been fomewhat more ele¬
gant, had the fpecific gravities in this table made the
equable feries and leading column. But we did not ad¬
vert to this till we had computed the table, and the la¬
bour was too great to be repeated for flight teafoni.
The tables are only for the temperature 60°. To this
the fpirituous liquors can always be brought in thefe cli¬
mates ; and in cafes where we cannot, a moment’s in-
ipedion of Sir Charles Blagden’s table will point out
very nearly (or exa&ly, by a fhort computation) the
neceflary corrections.
Compound.
IOO
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
9i
90
80
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
79
7«
77
76
75
74
73
72
7i
70
69
68
67
66
w.
Sj erific
Gravity.
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26,
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
0,82 50
0,8278
0,8306
0>8333
0,8360
0,8387
0,8413
0,8439
0,8465
0,8491
0,8516
0,8542
0,8567
0,8592
0,8617
0,8641
0,8666
0,8690
0,8713
c>8737
0,8760
0,8764
0,8807
0,8830
°,SS53
0,^876
0,8899
0,8921
0,8944
0,8966
0,8988
0,9010.
0,9031
°’9C53
0,9073
Cond,
ter
Voi.XVII. Part
0,19
°»33
0,4
°>5
0,6
°»7
0,8
0,9
J,2
x>3
M
M
I>5
1,6
1>7
I>7
M
1,8
2,
2,
2,1
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.3
2*3
2.4
2.5
2,5
2,5
2»5
117"
Compound,
S. W.
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
5i
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
4i
4°
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
Specific
Gravity.
0,9073
0,9095
0,9116
Q,9i57
0,9177
0,9198
0,9218
0,9238
0,9257
0.9277
0,9296
0,9316
°’9335
0,9353
o,937i
0,9388
0,9406
0,9423
0,9440
0,9456
o,9473
0,9489
o»95°5
0,9520
G»9535
0,9549
0,9563
0,9577
0,9590
0,6603
0,9616
0,9628
0,9640
Cond.
Compound.
S. | W.
Specific
Gravity.
2.5
2.6
2,6
2,6
2,6
2,7
2,7
2,7
2.7
2-7
2.8
2,8
2.8
2.8
2,8
2,8
2,8
2,8
2,8
2,8
2,7
2,7
2,7
2,7
2,7
2,6
2,6
2,6
2,5
2,5
2,4
2,4
2,3
2,3
33 | 67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
1 I 99
O iioo
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
x9
18
17
16
!5
M
*3
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0,9640
0,9651
0,9662
0,9673
0,9683
0,9693
0,9704
o,97‘3
0,9724
°»9734
0,9744
°»9754
0,9763
c,9773
0,9783
°,9793
0,9802
0,9812
0,9822
0,9832
0,9842
0 9853
0,9863
0,9874
0,9886
0,9897
0,9909
0,9921
°,9933
0,9946
0,9959
0,9972
0,9985
1,0000
Cond
/«•
2,3
2.3
2,2
2,1
2,
I»9
1,9
1,8
*,7
1,6
x,6
1,5
1.4
i,3
1,2
1,2
1,1
i»
0,9
0,9
0,8
Q*7
°»7
0,6
°»5
0,4
°’3
°,3
0,2
0,1
0,07
0,03
0,01
0,00
4 U
Spit,
Spirituous
Liquors.
S P I
t 706 ]
S P I
Spirifuoui
Liquors.
Spir.
per
cent.
OO
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
91
90
89
88
8?
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
69
68
67
66
Specific
Gravity.
Contr.
0,82500
0,82629
O.83I42
0,83449
0,83750
0,84048
084339
0,84621
0,84900
0,85172
0,85443
0,85704
0,85971
0,86228
0,86483
0,86737
0,86987
0,87235
0,8748 i
0,87726
0,87969
0,88207
0,88445
0,88676
0,88909
0,89140
0,89367
0,89593
0,89815
0,90035
0,90241
0,90464
0,90675
0,90885
0,91095
apir.
per
cent.
0,l8
0,34
0,46
0,57
0,68
0,8
0,9
1 01
1,IX
1,21
I>39
M7
1’54
1,6 j
1,67
I»74
1,81
1,88
1,94
2,
2,05
2,11
2,17
2,22
2,26
2,31
2,36
2,41
2>49
2>47
2,51
2>55
2,59
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
5i
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
Spec.fic
Giavi y.
0,91095
0,91306
0,91511
0,91714
0,91914
0,92112
0,92308
0,92501
0,92692
0,92883
o,93o72
0,93258
o,93436
0,93612
0,93786
°»93958
0,94128
0,94293
o»94455
0,94610
0,94768
0,94923
0,95074
0,95219
0,95 364
0,95502
0,95636
0,95766
0,95894
0,96019
0,9^' 41
0,96258
0,9637!
0,96481
Contr.
2.59
2.62
2,64
2,66
z,68
2.70
2,72
2,74
2.76
2.77
2.78
2.80
2.81
2.81
2.82
2,81
2.79
2,78
2,76
2-73
2.71
2,70
2,68
2,66
2.63
2.60
2,58
2,54
2,49
2,46
2,43
2,38
2,33
2,27
Spir.
per
cent.
Specific
Gravity.
33
3 2
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
J9
18'
17
.6
15
>4
I 3
12
II
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
o
0,96481
0,96587
0,96691
0,96793
0,9689+
0,96992
0,97089
o 97185
0,97280
0-.97374
0,97468
0,97561
0,97654
o»97747
0,97841
0,97936
0,98032
0,98129
0,98228
0,98328
0,98430
o.98534
0,98640
0,98748
0,98858
°>98973
0,99091
0,99211
o,99334
0,99461
0,9959.
0,99725
0,99861
1,00000
Contr.
2,27
2,2 1
2,15
2,08
2,00
I>93
1,86
i,79
I»7I
1,63
1,56
1,+8
I,4
I,S2
1,24
*»17
1,08
1,00
,93
»85
,78
,7i
,66
,61
,5i
,43
,34
>25
,18
,12
»7
>3
,1
,0
61 In the firft table, of which the foie intention is to
point out the proportion of ingredients, the fpecific gra¬
vities are computed only to four places, which will al¬
ways give the anfwer true to Touoth part. In the laft,
which is more immediately interefting to the merchant
in his tranfa&ions with the excife office, the computa¬
tion is carried one place further ”
The confideration of the firft of thefe two tables will
fiirnifh fome ufeful information to the reader who is in-
terefted in the philofophy of chemical mixture, and who
endeavours to inveftigate the nature of thofe forces
which conned the particles of tangible matter. Thefe
vary with the diftance of the particle; and therefore
the law of their aftion, like that of univerfal gravitation,
is to be difeovered by meafuring their fenfible effeds at
their various diftances. Their change of diftance is
leen in the change of denfity or fpecific gravity.
Did the individual denfities of the water and fpirit
remain unchanged by mixture, the fpecific gravity would
change by equal differences in the feries of mixtures on
which this table is conftruded ; for the bulk being al¬
ways the fame, the change of fpecinc gravity mnft be
the difference between the weight of the gallon of wa¬
ter which is added and that of the gallon of fpirit which
is taken out. The whole difference of the fpecific gra¬
vities of fpirits and water being 1,750 parts in 10,000,
the augmentation by each fucceffive change of a meafure
of fpirit for a meafure of water would be the 1 ooth
part of this, or 17,5. But, by taking the fucceffive
differences of denfity as they occur in the table, we lee
that they are vaftly greater in the firft additions of wa¬
ter, being then about 29 ; after which they gradually
diminifh to the medium quantity 174, when water and
fpirits are mixed in nearly equal bulks. The differen¬
ces of fpecific gravity ftill diminifh, and are reduced to
9, when about 75 parts of water are mixed with 25 of
fpiiit. The differences now increafe again ; and the
laft, when 99 parts of water are mixed with 1 part of
fpirit, the difference from the fpecific gravity of pure
water is above 14.
The mechanical effeft, therefore, of the addition of
a meafure of water to a great quantity of fpirit is great¬
er than the fimilar effeft of the addition of a meafure of
fpirits to a great quantity of water. What we call me¬
chanical effedt is the local motion, the change of diftance
of the particles, that the corpufcular forces may again
be in equilibrio. Obferve, too, that this change is
greater than in the proportion of the diftance of the
3 particles;.
s p r [ 707 1
SpJntuou* particles; for the denfity of water is to that of fpirits AUG
,<!Uors nearly as 6 to 5, and the changes of fpecific gravity are
nearly as 6 to 3.
We alfo fee that the changing caufe, which produces
the abfolute condenfation of each ingredient, ceafes to
operate when 73 parts of water have been mixed with
23 of alcohol: for the variation of fpecific gravity,
from diminifhing comes now to increafe ; and therefore,
in this particular ftate of compofition, is equable. Things
are now in the fame ftate as if we were mixing two
fluids which did not aft on each other, but were mutu¬
ally difTemmated, and whofe fpecific gravities are nearly
as 9 to 10 ; for the variation 9 of fpecific gravity may
be confidered as the 100th part of the whole difference,
in the fame manner as 17,3 would have been had water
and alcohol fuftained no contraftion.
The imagination is greatly affifted in the contempla¬
tion of gesmetrical quantity by exhibiting it in its own
form. . Specific gravity, being an exprdlion of denfity
(a notion purely geometrical), admits of this illuftra-
tion.
Therefore let AB (fig. 4.) reprefent the bulk of any
hiium#
Plate
CCCCLXXII. • V 6' • /
' mixture of water and alcohol. The fpecific gravity of
water may be reprefented by a line of fuch a length,
that AB (hall be the difference between the gravities of
alcohol and water. Suppofe it extended upwards, to¬
wards <7, till B a is to A a as 10,000 to 8230. It will
fuit our purpofe better to reprefent it by a parallelo¬
gram a B F f, of any Ireadth BE. In this cafe the dif¬
ference of the fpecific gravities of alcohol and water
will be expreffed by the parallelogram A BEE. If there
were no change produced in the denfity of one or both
ingredients, the fpecific gravity of the compound would
increaf e as this parallelogram does, and AG HE would
be the augmentation correiponding to the mixture of
the quantity AG of alcohol with the quantity GB of
water, and fo of other mixtures. But, to exprefs the
augmentation of denfity as it really obtains, we muft
do it by fome curvilineal area EABCHD, which va¬
ries at the rate determined by Sir Charles Blagden’s ex¬
periments. This area muft be precifely equal to the
reftangle ABFE. It muft therefore fall without it in
fome places, and be deficient in others. Let DMHKC
be the curve which correfponds with thefe experiments.
It is evident to the mathematical reader, that the ordi¬
nates LM, GH, IK, &c. of this curve are in the ulti¬
mate ratio of the differences of the obferved fpecific gra¬
vities. If Aaja/3, &c. are each =3, the little fpaces
A * J'D, See. will be precifely equal to the diffe¬
rences of the fpecific gravities 0,8230; 0,8387; 0,8516;
&c. correfponding to the different mixtures of water
and alcohol. The curve cuts the fide of the parallelo¬
gram m K, where the ordinate GK expreffes the mean
variation of denfity 0,0017,3. is the fmalleft va¬
riation. The condenfation may be expreffed by draw¬
ing a curve dmGif parallel to DMGKF, making
L = AE. The condenfatiort is now reprefented by
the fpaces comprehended between this laft curve and
the abfeiffa AGB, reckoning thofe negative whic-h lie
on the other fide of it. This fhows us, not only that
the condenfation is greateil in the mixture AG XGB,
but alfo tliat in mixing fuch a compound with another
AIXIB, there is a rarefaftion. Another curve ANPOB
may be drawn, of which the ordinates LN, GP, 10,
&c. are proportional to the areas AL m d> AG/wD,
S P L
1 D(_AG«r/ GU), &c. This curve fhaws Sphitnnti*
the whole condenfation. i.iquor*
This manner of reprefenting the fpecific gravities of . , j]
mixtures will fuggeft many curious inferences to fuch as1’1’ 3***
will confider them in the manner of Bofcovich, with a
view to afeertain the nature of the forces of cohefion
and chemical affinities: And this manner of viewing the
fubjeft becomes every day more promifing, in confe-
quence of our improvements in chemical knowledge •
for we now fee, that mechanifrn, or motive forces, are
the caufes of chemical aftion. We fee in almoft every
cafe, that chemical affinities are comparable with me¬
chanical preffirres; becaufe the converfion of a liquid in-
to a vapour or gas is prevented by atmofpheric pref-
uire, and produced by the great chemical agent heat.
1 he aftion of heat, therefore, or of the caufe of heat,
is a mechanical aftion, and the forces are common me¬
chanical forces, with which we are familiarly acquaint-
. " It may be alfo remarked in the column of contrac¬
tions, that in the beginning the contraftions augment
nearly in the proportion of the quantity of fpirits (but
more flpwly) ; whereas, in the end, the contraftions are
nearly in the duplicate proportion of the quantity of
water. This circumftance deferves the confideration
of the philofopher. We have reprefented it to the eye
by the curve a o-f/.” 1
We ftiould here take fome notice of the attempt made
to elude fome part of the duties, by adding fome ingre¬
dient to the fpirits. But our information on this fub¬
jeft is not very exaft ; and befides it would be doing
no femce to the trader to put fraud more in his power.
T. here are fome falts which make a very great augmen-
tation of denfity, but they render the liquor unpala¬
table.^ Sugar is frequently ufed with this view; 16 grains
of refined fugar difi'olved in looo grains of proof fpirits
gave it no fufpicious tafte, and increafed its Ipecific gra¬
vity hom 0,920 to 0,923, which is a very great change,
equivalent to the addition of 9 grains of water to a
mixture of t oo grains of alcohol and 80 of water.
SPITHEAD, a road between Portfmouth and the
Ifle of Wight, where the royal navy of Great Britain
frequently rendezvous.
SPITTLE, in phyfiology. See Saliva.
SPI TZBERGEN, See Greenland, n° 10.
bPLACHNUM, in botany ^ A genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs of cryptogamia, and order of mufek
The anthers; are cylindrical, and grow on a large co¬
loured apophyfis or umbraculum. The calyptra is ca¬
ducous. The female ftar grows on a feparate ftem.
There are fix fpecies, the rubrum, luteum. fphaericum,
ampullaceum, vafculofum, anguftatum. Two of thefe
are natives of Britain.
1. The ampullaceum, orcrewet fplachnum, is found in
bogs and marfhes, and often upon cow-dung. It grows in
thick tufts, and is about two inches high. The leaves
are oval lanceolate, terminated with a long point or
beard. The top of the filament or peduncle fwells into
the form of an inverted cone, which Linnaeus terms an
apophyfis or umbraculum ; upon the top of which is
placed a Cylindrical anthera, like the neck of a crewet.
The calyptra is conical, and refembles a fmall exting-
guilher.
2. Phe 'vafculofum, or acorn-fhaped fplachnum, is
found upon bogs and cow-dung, and upon the points of
4 I? 2 rocks
s ? o [ 708 T ^ ^ . e
1 ^ fnn nf the Highland mountains, as on ftance of tTie patron by the king’s writ of Indieavit. So
Ben-Lomond, and in the Me of Sky, and elfewher.e. alio if a clerk, without any colour ot "U, ^as^ano-
Spondee
This differs little from the preceding, and perhaps is
no more than a variety. The filaments are about an
inch high. The leaves oval-acute, not io lanceolate
and bearded as the other. The apophyfis, and the
anthera at the top of it, form together nearly an oval
figure, not unHke an acorn in its cup, the apophytis
beino tranfverfely femi-oval, and of a blood-red colour,
the anthera fhort and conical. The calyptra is the ame
as that of the other. The operculum is (hort and ob-
tufe, and the rim of the anthera has eight large hori¬
zontal cilia. The anthera of the other is alfo ciliated,
but not fo diftin&ly. It is an elegant mois, and very
diftin ruUhable on account of its orange-coloured hla-
xnents and dark-red capiules 0
SPLEEN, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n 99.
SpLHPu-lVort. See Asplknium.
SPLENETIC, a perfon aillided with an obllruttion
of the fpleen. . u •
SPLENT, or Splint, among farriers, a callous in-
fenfible excrefcence, breeding on the (hank-bone of hor-
fes. See Farriery, Se&. xxxi. >
SPLICING, in the fea-language, is the untwilting
the ends of two cables or ropes, and working the ie-
veral ft rands into one another by a fidd, fo that they
Become as ftrong as if they were but one rope. < #
SPOILS, whatever is taken from the enemy in time
of war. Among the ancient Greeks, the Ipoils were
divided among the whole army ; only the general s (hare
was largeft : but among the Romans, the ipoils belong¬
ed to the republic. , , , , , .
SPO LETTO, a duchy of Italy,bounded on the north
Bv the Marquifate Ancona and duchy of Urhino, on
the eaft by Farther Abruzzo, on the fouth by Sabina and
the patrimony of St Peter, and on the weft by Orvie-
tano and Perugtno. It is about 5 5 miles m length and
40 in breadth. It was anciently a part of Umbria, and
now belongs to the Pope—The name of the capital ci¬
ty is alfo Spoietto. It was formerly a large place, but
in 170.3 was ruined by an earthquake; from whence ic
has never recovered itfelf
SPOLIATION, in eccleiiaftical law, is an injury
done by one clerk or incumbent to another, in taking
the fruits of his benefice without any right thereunto,
but under a pietended title. It is remedied by a de¬
cree to account for the profits fo taken. ihis injury,
when the jus patronatus, or right of advowfon, doth not
-come in debate is cognizable in the fpmtual court :
as if a patron fir ft prefents A to a benefice, who is
inftituted and induded thereto ; and then, upon pre¬
tence of a vacancy, the fame patron prefents B to the
fame living, and he alfo obtains mftitution and induc¬
tion. Now it A difputes the faa of the vacancy,
then that clerk who is kept out of the profits of the
living, whichever it be, may fue the other m the fpi-
titual court for'fpoliation, or taking the profits of his
benefice. And it {hall there be tried, whether the
living were or were not vacant; upon which the vali¬
dity of the fecond clerk’s pretenfions muff depend. But
if the right of patronage comes at all into dupute, as it
one patron prefented A, and another patron prdented
B, there the ecclefiaftical court hath no cognizance, pro-
yided the tithes fued for amount to a fourth part of the
•value of the living, but may be prohibited at the xn-
S^ongia.
auo 1: a ciciiv, wiiuuui. any colour ot v le, ejects —_
ther from his pavfonage, this injury irvutbe redreffed in
the temporal courts: for it depends upon no quellion
determinable by the fplritual law (as plurality of bene¬
fices or no plurality, vacancy or no vacancy), but 1*
merely a civil injury.
SPONDEE, in ancient poetry, a foot confiding ot
two long fyllables, as omnts.
SPONDIAS, Brasilian or Jamaica Plum, in
botany ; a genus of plants belonging to the clafs of
decondrhi, and order of pent igyma The calyx is quin-
ouedentate. The corolla pentapetalons. The fruit
contains a quinquelocular kernel. 1 here are only two
fpecies, the mombin and myrobalanus, which appear fo
much confounded in the deferiptions of different bota-
nifts, that we do not venture to prefent them to our
readers.
SPONGIA, Sponge, in natural hiftory ; a genus
of animals belonging to the clafs of vermes, and order ot
zoophytes. It is fixed, flexible, and very torpid, grow¬
ing in a variety of forms, compofed either of reticula¬
ted fibres, or vnaffes of fmall fpines interwoven together,
and clothed with a living gelatinous flefti, full of imall
mouths or holes on its fui face, by which it lucks in and
throws out the water. Fifty fpecies have already been
dilcovered, of which to belong to the Britifh coafts.
I. Oculata, or branched fponge, is delicately loft and
very much branched ; the brancVs are a little cotnpref-
fed, grow ere&, and often united together. They
have rows of cells on each margin, that projeft a little.
This fpecies is of a pale yellow colour, from five to te”
inches high. The fibres are reticulated, and the flelfi
or gelatinous part is fo tender, that when it is taken out
of the water it foon dries away. It is very common
round the fea-coaft of Britain and Ireland. This de-
feription will be better underftood by Plate cccclxxv.
fig. 1 At b, b, along the edges and on the nut ace ot
the branches, are rows of fmall paoillary holes, through
which the animal receives its nourifhment.
2. Criflata, or cock’s-comb fponge, is flat, ereft, and
foft, growing in the {hape of cock’s combs, with rows
of little holes along the tops, which projed a little. It
abounds on the rocks to the eaftward of Halting s m
Suffex, where it may be feen at low-water, it is com¬
monly about three inches long, and two inches hig ,
and of a pale yellowifh colour. When put into a glafs
veffel of lea-water, it has been obferved to fuck in and
fquirt out the water through little mouths along the
tops, giving evident figns of life.
3. \upofa, tow-fponge, or downy branched fponge,
is foft like tow, with round branches, and covered with
fine pointed hairs. It is of a pale yellow colour, and
about three inches high. It is frequently thrown oa
the fhore at Haftings in Suffex. Fig. 2- re prefents this
fponge ; but it is fo clofely covered with a fine down
that the numerous fmall holes in its furface are not dif-
^^Dichotoma, dichotomous or forked fponge, is ftiff,
branched, with round, upright, elaftic branches, cover¬
ed with minute hairs. It is found on the coaft of Nor¬
way and alfo, according to Berkenhout, on the Cor-
nilh and Yorkihire coafts. It is of a pale yellow colour,,
and full of very minute pores, guarded by minute fpmes.
3-
S P O t 709 T s p o
gporgrj. y. Urtm or tomtntofa, Ringing fpon?c, or crumb of the foft fubRanee of the fponge In queR of a fafe re- Sponfor
' bread fponge, is of many form?, foil of pores, very treat. That this was really the cafe, he was folly affu- II
brittle and foft, and interwoven with very minute Ipines. red of, by infpc&ing a number of fpecimens of theSpotfwoo<!*
It is full of fmall protuberances, with a hole in each, by fame fort of fponge, juft frefh from the fea He put ' V ^
vdiich it fucks in and throws out the water. It is very them into a glafs filled with fea-water; and then iwftead
common on the Britilh coaft; and is frequently feen fur- of feeing any of the little animals which Dr Pevfonell
rounding fucufes. It is found alfo on the fhores of deferibed, he obferved the papilla or fmall holes with
North America, Africa, and in the Eaft Indie®. When which the papillae are forrounded contrad and dilate
newly taken out of the fea, it is of a bright orange co- themfelves. He examined another variety of the fame
lour, and full of gelatinous flefh ; but when dry, it be- fpecies of fponge, and plainly perceived the fmall tubes
comes whitifh, and when broken has the appearance of infpire and expire the water. He therefore concluded
crumb of bread. If rubbed on the hand, it will raife that the fponge is an animal, and that the ends or
bhfters ; and if dried in an oven, its power of ftinging is openings of the branched tubes are the mouths by
much increaled, efpecially that vatiety of it which is which it receives its nourifhment, and difeharges its ex-
found on the fea-coaft of North America. crements. &
6. Pal mat a y palmated fponge, is like a hand with fin¬
gers a little divided at the top. The mouths are a
little prominent, and irregularly difpofed on the furface.
It is found on the beach at Brighthelmftone. It is of
a reddifh colour, inclining to yellow, and of the fame
foft woolly texture with the fpongia oculata, fig. 4.
7. Coronata, coronet fponge, is very fmall, confuting
of a fingle tube furrounded at top by a crown of little
fpines. The tube is open at the top. The rays that
compofe the little crowm are of a bright, fhimng pearl
colour ; the body is of a pale yellow. It has been
found in the harbour of Emfworth, between Suffex and
Hampfhire.
8. Botryoidesj grape fponge, is very tender and
branched, as if in bunches : the bunches are hollow,
and are made up of oblong oval figures having the ap¬
pearance of grapes ; and each bunch is open at top.
This ipecies is of a bright, Ihining colour. The open¬
ing* at the top are evidently the mouths by which the
animal imbibes and difeharges moifture. When the
furface is very much magnified, it appears covered with
little maffes of triple, equidiltant, fhining fpines.
9. Lacujlrisi creeping fponge, has ere A, cylindrical,
and obtufe branches. It is found in lakes in Sweden
and England.
1 o. Fluviatiliiy river fponge, is green, ereA, brittle,
and irregularly dilpofed in numerous branches. It
abounds in many parts of Europe, in the frefh rivers of
Ruflia and England, but particularly in the river Thames.
It fcarcely exhibits any fymptoms of lite, is of a fifhy
fmell: its pores or mouths are fometimes filled with
green gelatinous globules. It difiers very little fiom
the lacuftris.
So early as the days of Ariftotle fponges were fup-
pofed to poffefs animal life ; the perfons employed in
colleAing them having obferved them fhrink when torn
from the rocks, thus exhibiting fymptoms of lenfation.
The fame opinion prevailed in the time of Pliny : But
no attention was paid to this fubjeA till Count Mar-
figli examined them, and declared them vegetables. Dr
Feyfonell, in a paper which he fent to the Royal So¬
ciety in the year 1752, and in a fecond in 1757, af¬
firmed they were not vegetables, but the produAion of
animals ; and has accordingly deferibed the animals, and
the proeels which they performed in making the
fponges. Mr Ellis, in the year 1762, was at great
pains to dilcover thefe animals. For this purpofe he
dificAed the fpongia urens, and was furpnfed to find ai
great number of imall worms ol the genus of nereis or
fiea-Jcolopendia, which had pierced their way through
SPONSORS, among Chriftians, are thofe perfons
who, in the office of baptifm, anfwer or are fureties
for the perfons baptized.
SPONI ANEOUS, a term applied to fuch motions-
of the body and operations of the mind as we peiformi
of ourfelves without any conftraint.
SPOON bill, in ornithology. See Plata lea.
SPOONING, in the fea-language, is faid of a {hip,,
which being under fail in a ftorm at fea, is unable to>
bear it, and confequently forced to go right before the
wind.
4 BPORADES, among ancient aftronomers, a name
given to foch ftars as were not included in any conftei-
lation.
SI ORADIC diseases, among phyiicians, are fuch.'
as feize particular perfons at any time or feafon, and in
any place ; in which fenfe they are diftinguifhed from
epidemical and endemical difeafes.
SPOTo, in aftronomy, certain places of the fun’s or
moon’s difk, oblerved to be either more bright or dark,
than the reft ; and accordingly called._/ac«/W cf macula.
See AsTRONOMY-/Wr.v.
SPOTS WOOD (John), archbifliop of St An¬
drew’s in Scotland,. was defetnded from the lauds of
Spotfwood in the Merfe, and u^as born in the year
1565. He was educated in the univerfity of Glalgow,
and iucceeded his father in the parfonage of Calder
when but 18 years of age. In 1601 he attended Lodo-
wick duke of Lennox as his chaplain, in an embafiy to-
the court ol France for confirming the ancient amity
between the two nations, and returned in the ambaffa-
dor’s retinue through England. When he entered in¬
to the archbilhopric of Glafgow, he found there was
not 1 ;c 1. Sterling of yearly revenue left ; yet fuch
was his care for his fucceffors, that he greatly impro¬
ved it, and much to the latisfaAion of his diocele. Af- 1
ter having filled this lee 1 » years, he was raifed to that
of St Andrew s in 1.6 ly, and made primate and metro¬
politan of all Scotland. Pie prefided in feveral affem-
blies for reftoring the ancient difeipline, and bringing
the church oi Scotland to fome fort of uniformity with
that of England. He continued in high efteem with
king James I. nor was he lefs valued by king Charles I.
who was crowned by him in 1633, in the abbey-
church of Holyroodhoufe. In 1635, upon the death
ol the earl of Kinnoul chancellor of Scotland, our pri¬
mate was advanced to that pollbut had fcarcely held
it four years, when the conlilfions beginning in Scot¬
land, he was obliged to retire into England; and being
broken with grief* and fickntjls^ died at .London in
S P R
t 7
Spout
Sprit.p.
1639, and was interred in Wedminfter-abbey. He wrote
A Hiftory of the Church of vScotland from the year
20^ to the reign of king James VI. in folio.
SPOUT, or IVatcr-SpouT. See IVat hr-Spout.
Spout-F/'/&. See Solen.
SPRAT (Dr Thomas), bifhop of Rochefter, was
born in 1636. He had his education at Oxford, and
after the Reftoration entered into holy orders.. He
irecame fellow of the Royal Society, chaplain to
George duke of Buckingham, and chaplain in ordi¬
nary to king Charles II. In 1667 he publifhed the
Hiftory of the Royal Society, and a Life of Mr Cow¬
ley ; who, by his laft will, left to his care his printed
works and MSS. which were accordingly publiihed by
him. In 1668 he was inftalled prebendary of. Weft-
mi nfter ; in 1680, was appointed canon of Windfor ;
in 1683, dean of Weftminfter ; and in 1684* confeciated
to the biihopric of Rochefter. He was clerk of the clo-
iet to king James II. ; in 168.5, was made dean °f the
chapel royal and the year following, was appointed
one"of the commiflioners for ecclefiaftical affairs. In
1692 his lordfhip, with feveral other perfons, was
charged with treafon by two men, who drew up an al-
fociation, in which they whole names were fubferibed
declared their refolution to reftore king James ; to fei/e
the princefs of Orange, dead or alive ; and to be ready
with 30,000 men to meet king James when he fhould
land. To this they put the names of Sancroft, Sprat,
Marlborough, Saliftmry, and others. The biftiop was
arrefted, and kept at a meffenger’s, under a ftrid guard,
for eleven days. His houfe was fearched, and his pa¬
pers feized, among which nothing was found of a trea-
Ibnable appearance, except one memorandum,, in the
following words : Thorough-paced doElrine. Being alk-
ed at his examination the meaning of the words, he
faid that, about 20 years before, cunohty had led him
to hear Daniel Burgefs preach .; and that being ftruck
with his account of a certain kind of doctrine* which
he faid entered at one ear, and pacing through the head
went out at the other, he had inferted the memorandum
in his table-book, that he might not lofe the fubftance
of fo ftrange a fermon. His innocence being proved,
he was fet at liberty, when he publifhed an account of
his examination and deliverance ; which maae luch an
impreffion upon him, that he commemorated it through
life by an yearly day of thankfgiving. He lived to the
^nth year of his age, and died May 20. 1713. His
works, befides a few poems of little value, are, “ Tht
Hiftory of the Royal Society,” “ The Life of Cow
ky •” “ The Anfwerto Sorbiere “ The Hiftory of
the Rye-houfe Plot“ The Relation of his own Ex¬
amination and a volume of “ Sermons.” Dr Johnfon
fays “ I have heard it obferved, with great juftnefs,
that every book is of a different kind, and that each
has its diftindt and charaderiftical excellence.”
Sprat, in ichthyology. See Clupea..
SPRAY, the fprinkling of the fea, which is driven
from the top of a wave in ftormy weather. It differs
from fpoon-drift, as being only blown occaftonally from
the broken furface of a high wave ; whereas the latter
continues to fly horizontally along the fea, without in-
termiffion, during the excefs of a tempeft or hurricane.
SPRING, in natural hiftory, a fountain or fource
of water rifing out of the ground.
Many have been the conjedtures of philofophers con*
10 3 S P R
cerning the origin of fountains, and great pains have
been taken both by the members of the Royal Society
and thofe of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, in or-
der to afeertain the true caufe of it. It was Ariftotle’s
opinion, and held by molt of the ancient philofophers
alter him, that the air contained in the caverns ot the
earth, being condenfed by cold near its lurlace, was
thereby changed into water ; and that it made its way
through, where it could find a paffage. But we have
no experience of any fuch tranfmutation of air into wao
ter.
Thofe who imagine that fountains owe their origin
to waters brought irom the fea by fubterraneous dufls,
give a tolerable account how they lofe their faltnefs
by percolation as they pafs through the earth : but they
find great difficulty in explaining by what power the
water rifes above the level of the fea to near the tops
of mountains, where fprings generally. abound ; rt be¬
ing contrary to the laws of hydroftatics, that a fluid
flrould rife in a tube above the level of its fource. How¬
ever, they have found two ways whereby they endea¬
vour to extricate themfelves from this difficulty. Ihe
one is that of Des Cartes, who imagines,, that after
the water is become frelh by percolation, it is raifed
out of the caverns of the earth in vapour towards its
furface ; where meeting with rocks near the tops of
mountains in the form of arches or vaults, it flicks to
them, and runs down their fides, (like water in an
alembic), till it meets with proper receptacles, from
which it fupplies the fountains. Now this is a mere
hypothefis, without foundation or probability: for, in
the firft place, we know of no internal heat of the earth
to caufe fuch evaporation; or if that were allowed, yet
it is quite incredible that there fiiould be any caverns fo
fmooth and void of protuberances as to anfwer the ends
of an alembic, in colle&ing and condenfmg the vapours
together in every place where fountains arife. i heie
are others (as Varenius, &c.) who fuppofe that the wa¬
ter may rife through the pores of the earth, as thiough
capillary tubes byattra&ion.. But hereby they fhow,
that they are quite unacquainted with what relates to
the motion of a fluid through fuch tubes : for when a
capillary tube opens into a cavity at its upper end, or
grows larger and larger, fo as to ceafe to be capillary
at that end, the water will not afeend through that tube
into the cavity, or beyond where the tube is capillary j
becaufe that part of the periphery of the cavity, which
is partly above the furface of the water and partly be¬
low it, is not of the capillary kind. Nay, if the ca¬
vity is continually fupplied with water, it will be at-
traaed into the capillary tube, and run down it as
through a funnel, if the lower end is immerged in the
fame fluid, as in this cafe it is fuppofed to be.
It has been a generally received opinion, and much
efpoufed by Mariocte (a diligent obierver of nature),
that the rife of fprings is owing to the rams and melted
{•now. According to him, the rain-water which falls
upon the hills and mountains, penetrating the furface,
meets with clay or rocks contiguous to each other;
along which it runs, without being able to penetrate
them till, being got to the bottom of the mountain,
or to* a confiderable diftance from the top, it breaks
out of the ground, and forms fprings.
In order to examine this opinion, Mr 1 errault, JJe
la Hire, and D. Sideleau, endeavoured to make an
eftimate
Spring,
S P R l y
Sfring. eftlmate of the quantity of rain and fnow that falls in
the fpace of a year, to fee whether it would be fuffici-
cnt to afford a quantity of water equal to that which is
annually difchatged into the fea by the rivers. The re-
fult of their inquiries was, that the quantity of rain and
fnow which fell in a year into a cylindrical veffel would
fill it (if fecured from evaporating) to the height of
about nineteen inches. Which quantity D. Sideleau,
fhowed, was not fufficient to fupply the rivers ; for that
thole of England, Ireland, and Spain, difcharge a
greater quantity of water annually, than the rain, ac¬
cording to that experiment, is able to fupply. Heiides
which, another obfervation was made by them at the
fame time, viz. that the quantity of water raifed in va¬
pour, one year with another, amounted to about thirty-
two inches, which is thirteen more than falls in rain : a
plain indication that the water of fountains is not [ap¬
plied by rain and melted fnow.
I hus the true caufe of the origin of fountains re¬
mained undifeovered, till Dr Halley, in making his ce-
leifial oblervations upon the tops of the mountains at
St Helena, about 800 yards above the level of the fea,
found, that the quantity of vapour which fell there (even
when the fky was clear) was fo great, that it very much
impeded his obiervations, by covering his glaffes with
water every half quarter of an hour ; and upon that he
attempted to determine by experiment the quantity of
vapour exhaled from the furface of the fea, as far ^as it
rifes from heat, in order to try whether that might be
a iufficient iupply for the water continually difeharged
by fountains. The procefs of his experiment was as
follows: He took a velfel of water faked to the fame
degree with that 01 fea water, in-which he placed a ther¬
mometer ; and by means of a pan of coals brought the
wrater to the fame degree of heat, which is obferved to
be that of the air in oufi hottell fummer ; this done, he
fixed the veffel of water with the thermometer in it to
one end of a pair of fcales, and exadlly counterpoifed it
with weights on the other: then, at the end of two
hours, he found, by the alteration made in the weioht
©f the veffel, that about a fixtieth part of an inch 'of
the depth of the water was gone off in vapour; and
therefore, in twelve hours, one-tenth of an inch would
have gone off. Now this accurate obferver allows the
Mediterranean Sea to be forty degrees long, and four
broad, (the broader parts compenlating for the narrow¬
er, fo that its whole furface is 160 fquare degrees) ;
which, according to the experiment, mutt yield^at leaft
5,280,000,000 tons of water : In which account no re¬
gard is had to the wind and the agitation of the furface
of the fea, both which undoubtedly promote the evapo¬
ration.
It remained now to compare this quantity of water
with that which is daily conveyed into the fame fea by
the rivers. The only way to do which was to compare
them with fome known river ; and accordingly he takes
his computation from, the river Thames ; and, to avoid
all objections, makes allowances, probably greater than
what were abfolutely neceffary.
1 he Mediterranean receives the following confider-
able rivers, viz. the Iberus, the Rhone, the Tyber, the
Po, the Danube, the Niefter, the Borylthenes the ff’a-
nais, and the Nile. Each of thefe he fuppofes to* bring
down ten times as much water as the Thames, whereby
he allows for fmaller rivers which fall into the famc.fca.
11 ] S P R
The Thames, then, he finds by menfuration to difcharge
about 20,goo,000 tons of water a-day. If therefore
the above-faid nine rivers yield ten times as much water
as the Thames doth, it will follow, that all of them to¬
gether yield but 1827 millions of tons in a day, which
is but little more than one-third of what is proved to be
raifed in vapour out of the Mediterranean in the fame
time. We have therefore from hence a fource abun¬
dantly fufficient for the fupply of fountains.
Now having found that the vapour exhaled from
the fea is a fufficient fupply for the fountains, he pro¬
ceeds in the next-place to coniider the manner in which
they are raifed ; and how they are condenfed into water
again, and conveyed to the fources of iprings.
In order to this he confiders, that if an atom of
water was expanded into a fheli or bubble, fo as to be
ten times as big in diameter as when it was water, that
atom would become fpeeifically lighter than air ; and
therefore would rife fo long as the warmth which firfl
feparated it from the furface of the water ffiould conti¬
nue to diflend it to the fame degree ; and conlequently,
that vapours may be railed from the furface of the fea'
in that manner, till they arrive at a certain height in the
atmofphere, at which they find air of equal fpecific gra¬
vity with themfelves. Here they will float till, being
condtnted by cold, they become fpecifically heavier tham
the air, and fall down m dew ; or being driven by the
winds againft the fides of mountains (many of which-
far htrpais the ulual height to which the vapours would
of themfelves attend), are compelled by the ftream of
the air to mount up with it to the tops of them; where
being condenfed into water, they prefently precipitate,
and gleeting down by the crannies of the ftones, part,
of them enters into the caverns of the hills ; which be¬
ing once filled, all the overplus of water that comes thi¬
ther runs over by the loweft place, and breaking out by
the fides of the hills forms fingle fprmgs. Many of thefe
running down by the valleys between the ridges of the
hills, and coming to unite, form little rivulets or brooksr
many of thefe again meeting in one common valley, and
gaining the plain ground, being grown lefs rapid, be¬
come a river ; and many of thefe being united in one
common channel, make fuch ftreams as'the Rhine and
toe Danube ; which latter, he oblerves, one would
hardly think to be a collection of water condenfed out
of vapour, unlefs we confider how vaita trad of ground
that river drains, and that it is the fum oi ail thott fpringt*
which break out on the fouth fide of the Carpathian
mountains, and on the north, fide of the immenfe ridgg
of the Alps, which is one continued chain of mountains
from Switzerland to the Black Sea.
-Thus one part of tlie vapours which are blown on
the land is returned- by the rivers into the fea from
whence it came.. Another part fails into the tta before
it leaches the land and this is the realon why the ri¬
vers do not return fo much water into the Mediterra¬
nean as is raifed in vapour.. A third part falls on tha
low lands, where it affords nourifliment to plants ; yet
it does not reff there, but is again exhaled in vapour by
the adion of the fun, and is either carried by the winds
to the fea to fall in rain, or dew there, or "elfe to the
mountains to become the fources of fprings.
However, it is not to be fuppofed t-hat ail fountains
are owing to one and the fame caufe; but that fome
proceed iiom rain and melted fnow, which, fubfiding
through
Spring,
S P R [7
Ppr>n?. through the furface of the earth, makes Its way Into
’‘■■■■■"V " certain cavities, and thence iffues out in the form of
fprings ; becaufe the waters of feveral are found to in*
creafe and diminifh in proportion to the rain which falls :
that others again, efpecially fuch as are fait, and fpring
near the lea fhore, owe their otigin to fea-water perco¬
lated through the earth ; and fome to both thefe caufes:
though without doubt moft of them, and efpecially
fuch as fpring near the tops of high mountains, receive
their waters from vapours, as before explained.
This reafoning of Dr Halley’s is confirmed by
more recent obfervations and difcoveries. It is now
found, that though water is a tolerable condudlor of
the eleftric fluid, dry earth is an eleftric per fey con-
fequently the dry land muft always be in an electrified
Hate compared with the ocean, unlefs in fuch particu-
ler cafes as are mentioned under the article Earth¬
quake, n0 82. It is alio well known, that fuch bodies
■as are in an eleitrified ilate, whether plus or minus, will
attract vapour, or other light .fubflances that come near
them. Hence the vapours that are railed from the
ocean muft neceffarily have & tendency to approach the
land in great quantity, even without the afliftance of
the wind, though this laft muft undoubtedly contribute
greatly towards the fame purpofe, as Dr Halley juftly
oblerves. In like manner, the higher grounds are al¬
ways in a more electrified ftate than the lower ones:
and hence the vapours having once left the ocean and
approached the fhore, are attracted by the high moun¬
tains , of which Mr Pennant gives an inftance in Snow¬
don. Hence we may fee the reafon why fprings are fo
common in the neighbourhood of mountains, they be¬
ing fo advantageoufly formed in every refpeCt for col¬
lecting and condenfing the vapours into water.
The heat of fprings is generally the fame with
the mean temperature of the atmofphere. The mean
temperature of the fouth of England is 48° ; in
Scotland, near Edinburgh, it is 45° ; in the north
of Ireland it is 4S0, and on the fouth coaft about
51°. At Upfal, in Sweden, it is 430, and in Paris
530. According to accurate experiments made by
eminent philofophers, the heat of the fprings in thefe
different countries correfponds with the medium tem¬
perature. We have not heard that fimilar experiments
have been made in other countries, or we fhould have
been careful to colleCI them. We do not, however,
doubt but they have been made in moft countries of
Europe ; yet we fufpeft little attention has been paid
to this fuhjeCl within the tropical regions.
Though this coincidence of the heat of fprings with
the mean temperature of the climate where they flow,
feems to be a general fad, yet it admits of many ex¬
ceptions. In many parts of the world there are fprings
which not only exceed the mean temperature, but even
the ftrongeft meridian heat ever known in the torrid re¬
gions. The following table will give a diftinft notiwn
■of the degrees of heat which different fprings have been
found to poffefs, according to the experiments of phi¬
lofophers. It is neceffary to remark, that experiments
made upon the fame fprings, made by different perfons,
•vary a little from one another, wh’ch may be owing to
many accidents eafily accounted for. Where this is
the cafe, we fhall mention both the loweft and higheft
degree of heat which has been afcribed to the fame
ipring, according to Fahrenheit’s thermometer.
ia ] S P R
Places.
Springs.
Briftol,
Buxton,
Matlock,
Bath,
Aix-la-Chapelle,
Barege,
Pifa,
Caroline baths
in Bohemia,
Iceland,
St Vincent’s or
the hot well,
Gentleman's bath
King’s bath,
Pmdel or furi¬
ous,
Geyzer,
Higheft He* I.nweft He-
greeofheat, greeofheat.
84 76
, 82
69
II9 II3
136
122
IO4
*65
212
Spring,
In cold countries, where congelation takes place, the
heat of the earth is confiderably above the freezing
point, and continues fo through the whole year. From
experiments that have been made m mines and deep pits,
it appears that this heat is uniform and ftationary at a
certain depth. But as the heat of thefe fprings far
exceeds the common heat of the internal parts of the
earth, it muft be occaiioned by caufes peculiar to cer¬
tain places; but what thefe caufes are it is no eafy mat¬
ter to determine. We are certain, indeed, that hot
fprings receiye their heat from fome fubterranean caufe;
but it is a matter of difficulty to inveftigate how this
heat is produced and preferred. Theories, however,
have been formed on this fubjeft. The fubterranean
heat has been aferibed to the elerifrical fluid, and to a
great body of fire in the centre of the earth : But we
fufpeft that the nature of the eleftrical fluid and its ef-
fefts are not fufficiently ur.derftood. A s to the fuppo-
fition that the heat of fprings is owing to a cential fire,
it is too hypothetical to requiie any refutation. From
what then does this heat originate, and whence is
the fuel which has produced it *or fo many ages ? To
enable us to anfwer thefe queftions with precifion, more
irriormation is neceffary than we have hitherto obtained
refpefting the ftrufture of the internal parts of the
earth. It is peculiarly requilite that we fhould he made
acquainted with the foflils which are moft common in
thole places where hot fprings abound. We fhould
then perhaps difeover that hot fprings always pals thro’
bodies of a ccmbuftible nature. It is well known to
chemifts, that when w-ater is mixed with the vitriolic
acid, a degree of heat is produced fuperior to that of
boiling water. It is alio an eftablifhed faft, that when
water meets with pyrites, that is, a mixture of fulphur 11 \
and iron, a violent inflammation takes place. If, there¬
fore, we could prove that thefe materials exift in the ftra-
ta from which hot fprings are derived, we fhould be en¬
abled to give a fatisfaftory account of this curious pheno¬
menon. As fome apology for this fuppofition, we may
add, that moft of the hot fprings mentioned above have
been found by analyfis to be impregnated with fulphur, ,
and fome of them with iron. It muft, hi -/ever, be ac-P^-V^
knowledged, that the hot fprings of Iceland, which are Ctmt*}
112°, the heat of boiling water, according to an accurate and S-w^
analyfis of their contents by the ingenious Dr Black,
were neither found to contain iron nor fulphur. It
will therefore, perhaps, be neceffary that we fhould wait
with patience, and continue to colleft fafts, till the fei-
ences of chemiftry and mineralogy fhall be fo far ad-
vanted as to enable us to form a permanent theory on
this fubjeft.
Springs are of different kinds. Seme are perennial,
or
4
^ / C y /
'sru/ //rr * '/'t/s.
CS'
yrUMY/MM or /Of/ ^
•7/7/
' /////-
x// ////,".> a/sst
<//£//.:/yy/„/.
SqtxaXvI Smarts. piate cccci/xxvi.
V
Spring
Spun.
S P U [ 713
or continue to flow daring the whole year ; others flow
only during the rainy feafon ; fome ebb and flow At
Torbay there is- one of this kind, which ebbs and flows
five or fix inches every hour. There is another near
Corifo in Italy, which ebbed and flowed three times a-
day in the time of Pliny, and continues to do Hill. A
fpring near Henly fometitnes flow's for two years to¬
gether, and then dries up for an equal period The
caufe of this is explained under the article Hydrosta¬
tics, n° 26. for the ingredients found in fprings,
fee Mineral Waters, and Water.
Spring, in mechanics, denotes a thin piece of tem¬
pered fteel, or other elallic fubftance, which being
wound up ferves to put machines in motion by its ela-
fticity, or endeavours to unbend itlelf; fuch is the fpring
of a watch, clock, or the like.
Spring, Ver, in cofmography, denotes one of the
feafons of the year ; commencing, in the northern parts
of the world, on the day the fun enters the fiift degree
of Aries, which is about the icth day of March, and
ending when the fun leaves Gemini ; or, more ftridfly
and generally, the fpring begins on the day when the
dillance of the fun’s meridian altitude from the zenith,
being on the increafe,is at a medium between the greateft
and lealt. rf he end of the fpring coincides with the be¬
ginning of fummer. See Summer.
SpRiNG-Tide. See Astronomy-ZWi?*, and Tide.
Burning Springs. See BuRNiNG-Springs.
Springer, or iSpring-Z?^, in zoology. See Capra.
SPRIT, a (mall boom 01 pole which erodes the fail
of a boat diagonally, from the mail to the upper
hindmoil corner of the fail, which it is ufed to extend
and elevate ; the lower end of the fprit retts in a fort of
wreath or collar called the /matter, which encircles the
mail in that place.
SPRITSAIL. See Sail and Ship.
SvRnsail-Bopfaih See Sail and Ship.
SPRUCE-tree. See Pinus.
SvkucE-Beer, a cheap and wholefome liquor, which
is thus made : Take of water 16 gallons, and boil the
halt of it. Put the water thus boiled, while in full heat,
to the referved ct>ld part, which fhould be previoufly
put into a barrel or other veflel; then add 16 pounds of
treacle or molafles, with a few table fpoonfuls of the
eflence of fpruce, tlirring the whole well together ; add
half a pint of yeaft, and keep it in a temperate fitua-
tion, with the bung hole open, for two days, till the
fermentation be abated. Then clofe it up or bottle it
off, and it will be fit for being drunk in a few days af¬
terwards. In North America, and perhaps in other
countries, where the black and white fpruce-firs abound,
inflead of adding the ejfence of the ipruce at the fame
time with the molaffes, they make a decodtion of
the leaves and fmall branches of thefe trees, and find
the liquor equally good. It is a powerful anti*
fcorbutic, and may prove very ufeful in long fea voy¬
ages.
SPUNGE, or Sponge. See Spongia.
SPUNGING, in gunnery, the cleaning of the infide
-of a gun with a fpunge, in order to prevent any fparks
of fire from remaining in it, which would endanger
the life of him that fhould load it again.
SPUN yarn, among Tailors, is a kind of line made
’from rope yarn, and ufed for feizing or fattening
•thmps together.
¥01.. XVII. Part XI.
] S U
SPUNK, in botany. See Boletus.
SPUR, a piece of metal confiding of two branches
encompafling a horfeman’s heel, and a rowel in form
of a flar, advancing out behind to prick the horfe.
Spur-Winged Water Hen. See Parra.
SPURGE, in botany. See Euphorbia.
SpvRGF-LaHre/. See Daphne.
SPUR RE Y, in botany. See Spergula.
SPY, a perfon hired to watch the a&ions, motions,
&c. of another ; particularly what paffes in a camp.
When a fpy is difeovered, he is hanged immediatelv.
SQUADRON, in military affairs, denotes a body
of horfe whofe number of men is not fixed ; but is
ufually from 100 to 200.
Squadron of Ships, either implies a detachment of
fhips employed on any particular expedition, or the
third part of a naval armament.
SQUADS, in a military fenfe, are certain divifions
of a company into fo many fquads, generally into three
or four. The ufe of forming companies into as many
fquads of infpeftion as it has ferjeants and corporals,
is proved by thofe regiments who have pra&ifed that
method ; as by it the irregularity of the foldiers is con-
fiderably reftrained, their drefs improved, and the dif-
cipline of the regiment in general mofl remarkably for¬
warded. Every officer fhould have a roll of his com¬
pany by fquads.
SQUALL, a hidden and violent blaft of wind, ufu¬
ally occaiioned by the interruption and reverberation of
the wind from high mountains. Thefe are very frequent
in the Mediterranean, particularly that part of it which
is known by the name of the Levant, as produced by
the repulfien and new diredlion which the wind meets
with in its paffage between the various Hands of the
Archipelago.
SQUALUS, Shark, in ichthyology ; a genus ar¬
ranged by Linmeus under the clafs of amphibia, and the
order of nantes, but by Gmelin referred to the clafs of
pifees, and order of chondropterygii. The head is obtufe ;
on the fides of the neck there are from 4 to 7 femilunar
fpiracles. The eyes are oblong, vertical, half covered,
and before the foramen tempora/e. The mouth is fitua-
ted in the anterior and lower part of the head, and is
armed with feveral rows of teeth, which are ferrated,
acute, partly moveable and partly fixed, and unequal in
form. '1 he body is oblong, tapering and rough, with
very tender prickles. The ventral tins are much lefs
than the pedtoral, and are fituated round the anus and
genitals. There are 32 fpecies; the ifabella canicula
or greater dog fifli ; catulus orfmallcr dog-fifh ; fteliaris;
galeus or tope ; muftelus or fmooth hound ; cirratus;
barbatus or barbu ; tigrinus or tigre ; Africamis or
galonne ; ocellatus or oeiile ; zygjgna or balante-fifir;
tiburo or pantouflier of Brduffonet; grifeus or grifet;
values or fea-fox ; longicaudus ; glaucus or blue fliark ;
cornubius, porbeagle, or beaumaris-fhark; cinereus or
perlon ; maximus ; carcharias or white thark ; prittis
or feie ; fpinofus or bouele; acanthias or picked dorr
fifli; fernandinus ; fpinax or fagre ; fquamofus or ecaif-
leux ; centrina or humantin ; indices; American us or
liche; fquatina or angel fifh ; maffafa; and kumai. The
following are the mofl; remarkable :
r..The ifabella has a wrinkly fpotted fkin, and the
anterior dorjal fin is perpendicular to the abdominal fins,
i he boay is fomewhat flat; the head fhort, large, and
4 X obtufb.
s CL u [7
Squalii#. obtufe. The teeth are difpofed In fix row#, comprefled,
(hort, and triangular, having a notch on each fide of
their bafes. The eyes are funk ; the iris is of a copper
colour, aiid the pupil is black and oblong. The fins
of the back are almoft fquare ; the caudal fin is divided
into two lobes, and the lateral line is parallel to the
back. The upper part of the body is of a reddilh afh-
colour, with blackifh fpots difpofed irregularly. The
under' part is of a dirty white hue. I his fpecies is
found near New Zealand, and is about 2y feet long.
2. Canicula, greater dog-fifti, or fpotted fiiark, is
diftinguifhed by large noftrils, which are covered by
a lobe and worm-fhaped flap, or by the pofition ot the
anal fin, which is at an equal difiance from the anus
and tail. The body is fpotted ; the head is fmall, with
a fhort fnout; the eyes are oblong ; the iris whitifh ;
the mouth is large and oblong, armed with three rows
of teeth ; the tongue is cartilaginous ; the anus is be¬
fore the middle of the body ; the iirft dorfal fin is be¬
hind the ventral fins ; the other, which is lefs, is almoll
oppofite the anal fin ; the caudal fin is narrow and mar-
ginated. This fpecies is found in almoft every fea, is
about four feet*long, extremely voracious, generally
feeding on fiflies, and is long lived. The fitin, which
is fpotted like a leopard’s, is ufed when dried for vari¬
ous purpofes.
3. Catulus, finaller dog fifh, has a large head ; the
punil of the eyes is black ; the iris white ; the fnout is
of *a bright hue ; the mouth, which is large, is fituated
between the noftrils, and is armed with four rows of
teeth, ferrated with three points bent inwards ; thofe in
the middle between the two mandibles are longer than
the reft. The tongue is broad and fmooth ; the fpira-
cles are five ; the back is tapering and yellowifh ; the
fides are fomewhat comprefltd ; the tail longer than the
body, and the caudal fin is narrow and marginated ; the
anterior anal and dorfal fins are behind the ventral ; the
pofterior dorfal fin is oppofite to the anal. It inhabits
the Mediterranean, Northern, and Indian Ocean, and
is two or three feet long.
4. St ell arts, or greater cat fifh. The head is mark¬
ed with points ; the abdominal fins are united and fharp
at the apex ; the dorfal fins extend almoft to the tail;
the fkin is reddifh, marked with black fpots of different
fizes, and is of a dirty afh colour below. It is from two
to fix feet long ; refembles the canicula, but diftinguifh¬
ed by larger and fewer fpots, by a fnout fomewhat longer,
a tail fomewhat fhorter, and noftrils almoft fhut. It
brings forth 19 or 20 young at a time. It inhabits the
European feas, living chiefly on {hell fifh, mollufcse,
and other fmall fifties. The dorfal fins are equal ; the
anterior one being behind the middle of the body,
and the pofterior one being a little behind the anal.
5. Ttgrinus, or tigre, is about 15 feet long; the body
is long, of unequal thicknefs, black, interfperfed with
white ftripes and fpots, irregularly and tranfverfely.—
The head is large ; the mouth low and tranfverfe, the
upper jaw having two curls ; the upper lip is thick and
prominent; there are five fpiracles on each fide, the two
laft being united fo as to give the appearance only of
four; the mandibles are armed with very fmall pointed
teeth ; the tongue is fhort and thick ; the eyes fmall
and oblong ; the pupil azure coloured ; the iris black.
The abdomen is broad ; the pedloral fins are broad, and
rounded at the extremity. The anterior dorfal is oppo-
4 ] s q_ u
fite to the ventral fins, and the pofterior dorfal fin to the Squafu,
anal. The tail is compreffed on both fides, and the fin
which terminates it is hollow. The tigrinus is found
in the Indian Ocean, and lives chiefly on fhell fifh. See
Plate CCCCLXXVI. fig. 1.
7. Zygeena, marteau, or balance-fifh, is frequently fix
feet long, and weighs 500 lbs. The head is elongated
on each fide ; the fore part is bent back, and convex
both above and below. At the extremities of the elon¬
gated part arc the eyes, which are large, prominent, and
directed downwards ; the iris is of a golden colour ;
the mouth is arched, and near the beginning of the
trunk. It has a horrible appearance from the teeth,
which are arranged in three or four row's, and are broad,
pointed, and ferrated on both fides. The tongue is
thick, broad, and like a man’s. The trunk is long and
tapering : the fins are femicircular on the margin, and
black at the bafis ; the ventral fins are feparate; the anal
and pofterior doifal fins are fmall; the anterior dorfal
fin is large, and near the head ; the caudal is long.—
This fpecies inhabits the Mediterranean Sea and ths
Indian Ocean. It is one of the moft voracious of the
whole tribe. See fig. 2.
8. Vulpes, or fea-fox, is moft remarkable for the great
length of its tail, the body being about feven feet and
the tail fix feet long. The head is fhort and conical j
the eyes are large; the jaws are armed in a dreadful
manner with three rows of triangular, compreffed, and
pointed teeth ; the tongue is blunt; the lateral line is
ftraight. The anterior dorfal fin is placed about the
middle of the back ; the pofterior, which confifls of two
pointed lobes, is oppofite to the anal fin ; the ventral
fins are very near one another ; the anal is acuminated ;
the inferior lobe of the tail is about a foot long ; the
upper, which is fhaped like a feythe, is five times
longer. This fpecies inhabits the Ivlediterranean, the
coaft of Scotland and England. It is covered with,
fmall feales ; its back is afh coloured, belly whitifh. It
is extremely voracious. The ancients ftyled this fifh
axa/Twfq and •vu/pes, from its fuppofed cunning. They
believed, that when it had the misfortune to have taken
a bait, it fw'allawed the hook till it got at the cordj
which it bit off, and fo efcaped.
9. G/aucus, or blue fhark, is about feven feet long*
The colour of the back is a line blue ; the belly a filvery
white ; the head is flat ; the eyes fmall and roundifh >
the teeth are almoft triangular, elongated, and pointed,
but not ferrated. The anus is very near the tail; the.
anterior dorfal fin is fituated before the ventral fins,
about the middle of the body, and is almoft triangular ;
the pofterior dorCal fin is equal to the anal fin, and
placed nearer the tail; the pe&oral fins are large, long,
and marginated ; and the ventral are blue above and
white below ; the caudal is blue, divided into two lobes,
of which the fuperior is much longer than the inferior
lobe. This fpecies is frequent in every. fea, and. is fierce,
but not very deftnnflive in our feas.
10. The maximus, balking fhark, or the fun-fifh of
the Irifh. This fpecies has been long known to the in¬
habitants of the fouth and weft of Ireland and Scotland,
and thole of Caernarvonfhire and Anglefea ; but ha¬
ving never been confidered in any other than a cora-
mercial view, is deferibed by no Englifh waiter except
Mr Pennant ; and, what is worfe, miftaken for and
confounded with the luua of Rondektius, the fame
that
. S u [71
that our Engtifi* writers call the fun-fHh, The In(h
and WelHi give it the fame name, from its lying as if to
fun itfelf on the furface of the water ; and for the fame
reafon Mr Pennant calls it the balking (hark. It was
long taken for a fpecies of whale, till Mr Pennant
pointed out the bronchial orifices on the Tides, and the
perpendicular fite of the tail. Thefe are migratory
filh, or atleaft it is but in a certain number of years that
they are feen in multitudes on the Wellh feas, though in
moft fummers a fingle, and perhaps a ftrayed filh ap¬
pears. They inhabit the northern feas, even as high
as the arftic circle. They vifited the bays of Caernar-
vonihire and Anglefea in vaft fhoals in the fummers of
1756 and a few fucceeding years, continuing there
only the hot months ; for they quitted the coaft about
Michaelmas, as if cold weather was difagreeable to
them. Some old people fay they recolleft the fame
fort of filh vifiting thefe feas in vaft numbers about 40
years ago. They appear in the Frith of Clyde, and
among the Hebrides, in the month of June, in fmall
droves of feven or eight, but oftener in pairs. They
continue in thofe feas till the latter end of July, when
they difappear.
They have nothing of the fierce and voracious nature
of the ftiark kind, and are fo tame as to fuffer them-
felves to be ftroked ; they generally lie motionlefs on
the furface, commonly on their bellies, but fometimes,
like tired fwimmers, on their backs. Their food feems
tx> confift entirely of fea plants, no remains of fifh
being ever difeovered in the ftomachs of numbers that
were cut up, except fome green fluff, the half digefted
parts of algae, and the like. Linnaeus fays it feeds on
medufae.
At certain times, they are feen fporting on the
waves, and leaping with vaft agility feveral feet out of
the water. They fwim very deliberately, with the
dorfal fins above water. Their length is from three
to twelve yards, and fometimes even longer. Their
form is rather (lender, like others of the (hark kind.
The upper jaw is much longer than the lower, and
blunt at the end. The tail is very large, and the up¬
per part remarkably longer than the lower. The
colour of the upper part of the body is a deep lead¬
en ; the belly white. The fkin is rough like fliag-
reen, but lefs fo on the belly than the back. In the
mouth, towards the throat, is a very fhort fort of
whale-bone. The liver is of a great fize, but that of
the female is the largeft ; fome weigh above 1000
pounds, and yield a great quantity of pure and fweet
oil, fit for lamps, and alfo much ufed to cure bruifes,
burns, and rheumatic complaints. A large fifh has af¬
forded to the captors a profit of 20 1. They are vivi¬
parous ; a young one about a foot in length being found
in the belly of a fifh of this kind. The meafurements
of one found dead on the fhore of Loch Ranza in the
ifle of Arran were as follow: The whole length, 27
feet 4 inches ; fiift dorfal fin, 3 feet; 1'econd, 1 foot;
peftoral fin, 4 feet; ventral, 2 feet; the upper lobe of
the tail, 5 feet; the lower, 3.
They will permit a boat to follow them, without ac¬
celerating their motion till it comes almofl within con-
taft when a harponeer (trikes his weapon into them,
as near to the gills as poffible. But they are often fo
mfenfible as not to move till the united ftrength of two
men have forced in the harpoon deeper. As kon as
Squilu*.
5 1 s cl U
they perceive themfelvea wounded, they fling up their
tail and plunge headlong to the bottom; and fre- —-v
quently coil the rope round them in their agonies, at¬
tempting to difengage the harpoon by rolling on the
ground, for it is often found greatly bent. As foon
as they difeover that their efforts are in vain, they fwim
away with amazing rapidity, and with fuch violence,
that there has been an inftance of a veffel of 70 tons
having been cowed away againft a frefh gale. Ther
fometimes run off with 200 fathoms of line, and with
two harpoons in them ; and will employ the fifliers for
12, and fometimes for 24 hours, before they are fub-
dued. When killed, they are either hauled on (bore,
or, if at a diftance from land, to the veffel’s fide. The
liver (the only ufeful part), is taken out, and melted
into oil in kettles provided Ifor that purpofe. A large
fifh will yield eight barrels of oil, and two of worthlefs
fediment.
li. Carcharias, requin, oy white fhark, is often 30
feet long, and according to Gillius weighs 4C00 pounds.
The mouth of this fifh is fometimes furniftied with
a fix-fold row of teeth, flat, triangular, and exceedingly
(harp at their edges, and finely ferrated. Mr Pennant
had one rather more than an inch and a half long.
Grew fays, that thofe in the jaws of a fhark two yards
in length are not half an inch; fo that the fifh to which
this tooth belonged muft have been fix yards long, pro¬
vided the teeth and body keep pace in their growth.
This dreadful apparatus, when the fifh is in a ftate Fig. 4,
of repofe, lies quite flat in the mouth ; but when he
feizes his prey, he has power of ere&ing them by the
help of a fet of mufcles that join them to the jaw.
The mouth is placed far beneath ; for which reafon
thefe, as well as the reft of the kind, are faid to be
obliged to turn on their backs to feize their prey ;
which is an obiervation as ancient as the days of Plinv.
The eyes are large ; the back broad, flat, and fhorter
than that of other (harks. The tail is of a femilunar
form, but the upper part is longer than the lower. It
has vaft ftrength in the tail, and can ftrike with great
force ; fo that the failors inftantly cut it off with an
axe as foon as they draw one on board. The pe&oral
fins aie very large, which enables it to fwim with great
fwiftnefs. The colour of the whole body and fins is a
light afh. The ancients were acquainted with this fifh;
and Oppian gives a long and entertaining account of
its capture. Their fleflt is fometimes eaten, but is efteem-
cd coarfe and rank.—They are the dread of the failors
in all hot climates, where they conftantly attend the
(hips in expectation of what may drop over-board : a
man that has that misfortune perifhes without redemp-
tion ; they have been feen to dart at him like gudgeons
at a worm. A mafter of a Guinea flilp informed Mr
Pennant, that a rage of filicide prevailed among his
new-bought (laves, from a notion the unhappy creatures
had, that after death they fhould be reftored again to
their families, friends, and country. To convince them
at leaf! that they fhould not reanimate their bodies, he
orderd one of their coipfes to be tied by the heels to a
rope and lowered into the fea ; and though it was drawn
up again as faff as the united force of the crew could
be exerted, yet in that fhort fpace the (harks had de¬
voured every part but the feet, which were fecured at
the end of the cord.
Swimmers very often perifh by them ; fometimes
4X2 they
s q. u
[ 716 1
Sqaalar. they lofe an arm or leg, and fometimes are bit quite
afunder, ferving but for two morfels for this ravenous
animal: a melancholy tale of this kind is related in a
Weft India ballad, preferved in Dr Percy’s Relics of
ancient Englifti Poetry.
This fpecies inhabits the abyfs of the ocean, and on¬
ly appears on the furface when allured by its prey. It
is the moft voracious of all animals, not even it is faid
fparing its own offspring, and often fwallowing its prey
entire. At the famous naval battle ot the 12th of A-
pril 1782, when the Csefar, one of the French (hips of
the line,-was ftt on fire, the failors threw themfelves
.into the fea, Sir Charles Douglas’cbferved great num¬
bers of thefe (harks, which lay between the French and
Britifh fleets, inflantly feize on the unhappy victims,
Pie feveral times faw two of them difputing about their
prey, each feizing a leg, and at length dilappearing,
dragging the body along with them. Notwithftanding
the continued roar of artillery, he heard diftindtly the
cries of thofe unhappy men.
12. Prijiuy feie, or faw-fifh, is fometimes 17 feet
long, finooth, black on the upper parts, afti coloured
on the (ides, and white underneath. The head is fiat
and conical; the beak or fnout projecting from the nole
is about five feet long, covered with a coriaceous (kin,
and armed on each fide, generally with 24 long, ftrong,
and (harp-pointed teeth ; but the number varies with
age. The teeth are granulated; the eyes large, the
iris of a golden colour, and the fpiracles five. The an¬
terior dorfal fin correfponds to thofe of the belly ; the
pofterior is fituated in the middle, between the former
and apex of the tail ; the peftoral fins are broad and
long ; the caudal is fhorter than in the other fpecies. It
inhabits all the feas from Greenland to Brazil: and is
found alfo in the IrTdian Ocean. It is harmlefs.
13. SpinaXf fagre, or picked dog-fifh, takes its name
from a ftrong and (harp fpine placed juft before each
of the back-fins, diftinguifhing it at once from the reft
of the Britifh {harks. The nofe is long, and extends
greatly beyond the mouth, but is blunt at the end.
The teeth are difpofed in two rows, are fmall and (harp,
and bend from the middle of each jaw towards the cor¬
ners of the mouth, 'l ire back is of a brownifti aih-co-
lour; the belly white.—It grows to the weight of
about 20 pounds. This fpecies fwarms on the coafts
of Scotland, where it is taken, fplit, and dried ; and is
a food among the common people. It forms a fort of
inland commerce, being carried on womens backs 14
S q.U
This is the fi(h which connects the genus of rays and Squalu*.
(harks, partaking fomethinp of the charaCler of both ; VT^1
yet is an exception to each in the fituation of the
mouth, which is placed at the extremity of the head.
It is a fifh not unfrequent on moft of our coafts, where
it prowls about for prey like others of the kind. It is
extremely voracious ; and, like the ray, feeds on floun¬
ders and flat fi(h, which keep at the bottom of the
water. It is extremely fierce, and dangerous to be
approached. Mr Pennant mentions a fiflierrnan whofe
leg was terribly torn by a large one of this fpecies,
which lay within his nets in (hallow water, and which
he went to lay hold of incautioufly. The afpett of
thefe, as well as the reft of the genus, have much ma¬
lignity in them : their eyes are oblong, and placed
length wife in their head, funk in it, and overhung by
the (kin, and feem fuller of malevolence than fire.
Their (kin is very rough ; the ancients made ufe of it
to polilh wmod and ivory, as we do at prelent that of
the greater dog-fi(h. The flefh is now but little efteem-
ed on account,of its coarfenefs and ranknefs ; yet Ar-
cheftratus (as quoted by Athenssus, p. 319-), fpeak->
ing of the fifli of Miletus, gives this the firft place, in
rclpedl to delicacy, of the whole cartilaginous tribe.
They grow to a great fize ; being fometimes near an
hundred weight.
Sharks are feldom deftruftive in the temperate re¬
gions ; it is in the torrid zone that their ravages are
moft frequent. Tn the Weft Indies accidents happen
from them almoft every day.
“During the American war in 1780, while the Pal-Mofelnm
las frigate was lying in Kingfton harbour, a young Trap,cal
North American jumped overboard one evening to make
his efcape, and perifhed by a (hark in a (hocking man¬
ner.
“ He had been captured in a fmall veffel, loft all his
property, and was detained by compulfion in the En-
glifh navy, to ferve in a depredatory war againft his
country. But he, animated with that fpirit which per¬
vaded every bofom in America, refolved, as foou as he
arrived at fome port, to releafe himfelf from the morti¬
fying date of employing his life againft his country,
which, as he faid when dying, he was happy to lay
dowp, as he could not employ it againft her enemies.
“He plunged into the water; the Pallas was a quarter
of a mile from the (hore. A (hark perceived him, and
followed him, very quietly, till he came to a (late of
reft, near the (bore : where, as he was hanging by a
or 16 miles up the country, and fold or exchanged for rope, that moored a veffel to a wharf, fcarcely out of his
neceffaries. depth, the (hark feized his right leg, and (tripped the
14. Squatina, angel-fifh, is from fix to eight feet fle(h entirely away from the bones, and took the foot oft
long, has a large head ; teeth broad at their bafe, but at the ancle. He ftill kept his hold, and called to the
(lender and very (harp above, and difpofed in five row's people in the veffel near him, who were (landing on the
all round the jaws. Like thofe of ail (harks, they are deck and (aw the affair. The (hark then feized his
capable of being railed or depreffed by means of miff- other leg, which the man by Ins ftrugghng difengaged.
cles uniting them to the jaws, not being lodged in foe- from his teeth, but with the flefh cut through down to
kets as the teeth of cetaceous fiih are. The back is of
a pale afh-colour, and very rough ; along the middle is
a prickly tuberculated line : the belly is white and
fmooth. The pe&oral fins are very large, and extend
horizontally from the body to a great diftance ; they
have fome refemblance to wings, whence its name. The
ventral fins are placed in the fame manner, and the
double penis is placed in them ; which forms another
character of the males in this genus.
the bone, into a multitude of narrow (lips. The people
in the veffel threw billets of w'ood into the water, and
frightened the (hark away. The young man was
brought on (bore. Dr Mofeley was called to him ; but
he hadjloft fo much blood before any affiftance could be
given him, that lie expired before the mangled limbs
could be taken off.
“A few w'eeks before this accident happened, a (hark,
of 12 feet in length, was caught in the harbour; and
OB
s CL U
SqualtK on being opened, the entire head of a man was found in
u—Y—~ his ftomach. ri 'he fcalp, and flefh of the face, were ma¬
cerated to a foft pulpy lubftancc ; which, on being
touched, ftparated entirely from the bones. The bones
were fomewhat foftened, and the futures loofened.”
The following extraordinary in fiance of intrepidity
and friendfhip is well worth recording. It is given on
the authority of Mr Hughes, who publifhed a natural
hi (lory of Barbadoes. About the latter end of Queen
Anne’s wars, captain John Beanis, commander of the
York Merchant, arrived at Barbadoes from England.
Having difembarked the lall part of his lading, which
was coals, the failofs, who had been employed in that
dirty work, ventured into the fea to v/afh themfelves ;
there they had not been long before one on board efpi-
ed a large (hark making toward them, and gave them
notice of their danger ; upon which they fwam back,
and all reached the boat except one : him the monfter
overtook almotl within reach of the oars, and griping
him by the fmall of his back, foon cut him afunder,
and as foon (wallowed the lower part of his body ; the
remaining part was taken up and carried on board,
where a comrade ot his v/as, whofe friendfhip with the
deceafed had been long diilinguifhed by a reciprocal
diicharge of all fuch endearing offices as implied an
union and fympathy of fouls. When he faw the feve¬
red trunk of his friend, it w'as with an horror and emo¬
tion too great for words to paint. During this affec¬
ting feene, the infatiate (hark was feen traverfing the
bloody turface in fearch of the remainder of his prey ;
the reil of the crew thought themfelves happy in being
on board, he alone unhappy, that he was not within
reach of the deffroyer. Fired at the fight, and vow¬
ing that he would make the devourer difgorge, or be
{wallowed himfelf in the fame grave, he plunges into
the deep, armed with a (harp-pointed knife. The (hark
no fooner faw him, but he made furioufiy toward him ;
both equally eager, the one of his prey, the other of
revenge. The moment the (hark opened his rapacious
jaws, his adverfary dexteroufly diving, and grafping him
with his left hand fomewhat below the upper fins, fuc-
eeisfully employed his knife in his right hand, giving
him repeated (labs in the belly ; the enraged (hark, af¬
ter many unavailing efforts, finding himfelf overmatched
in his own element, endeavoured to difengage himfelf,
fometimes plunging to the bottom, then mad with pain,
rearing his uncouth form, now ffained with his own
dreaming blood, above the foaming waves. The crews
of the furrounding veffels faw the unequal combat, un¬
certain from which of the combatants the dreams of
\ blood iffued ; till at length the (hark, much weakened
by the lofs of blood, made toward the (hore, and with
him his conqueror ; who, Oufiied with an afi’urance of
victory, puflred his foe with redoubled ardour, and, by
the help of an ebbing tide, dragged him on (hore, rip¬
ped up his bowels, and united and buried the fevered
carcate of his friend ”
“ It is evident (fays Dr Mofeley, to whofe valuable
work we are indebted for the (lory of the American
related above), that digeftion in thefe animals is not
performed by trituration, nor by the.mufcular adtion
of the ftomach ; though nature has furnifhed them with
a ftomach of wonderful force and thicknefs, and far ex¬
ceeding that of any other creature. Whatever their
force of digeftion is? it has no efftd upon their young
[ 717 ] S T A
ones, which always retreat into their ftomachs in time
of danger.
“ That digeftion is not performed by beat In fifh, is
equally evident. Being on the Banks of Newfound¬
land in Auguft 1782, 1 opened many cod-filh, and rip¬
ped up their ftomachs juft as they came alive out of
the water ; in which were generally found fmall dyfters,
muffles, cockles, and crabs, as well as fmall fifties of
their own and other fpecies. The coldnefs of the fto¬
mach of thefe fifties is far greater than the temperature
of the water out of which they are taken ; or of any
other part of the fifh, or of any other fubftance of ani¬
mated nature I ever felt. On wrapping one of them
round my hand, immediately on being taken out of the
fi(h, it eauffd fo much aching and numbnefs that I could
not endure it long.”
SQU AM A RI A, in botany. SccLathraia.
SQUAMOUS, in anatomy, a name given to the
fpurious or falff futures of the fkull, becauff compo-
ted of fquamse, or (bales like thoff of fifties.
SQUARE, in geometry, a quadrilateral figure both
equilateral and equiangular. See Geometry.
S^u^kk-RooL See . v lgebra, Part I. Chap. iv. and
Arithmetic, n° 33. and 34.
Hollow Sq/are, in the military art, a body of foot
drawn up with an empty fpace in the middle, for the
colours, drums, and baggage, faced and covered by
the pikes every way, to keep off the horfe.
Square, among mechanics, an inftrument confiding
of two rules or branches, faftened perpendicularly at one
end of their extremities, fo as to form a right angle. It
is ot great ufe in the delcription and menfuration of
right angles, and laying down perpendiculars^
Ssyj/iiiE-Rigged, an epithet applied to a (hip whofe
yards are very long. It is alfo uffd in contradiftinc-
tion to all veffels whofe fails are extended by days or
lateen-yards, or by booms and gaffs ; the ufual (itua-
tiom of which is nearly in the plane of the keel; and
hence,
Ssn-/!Rj;-Sai/, is a fail extended to a yard which hangs
parallel to the horizon, as difiinguifiied from the other
fails which are extended by booms and (lays placed ob¬
liquely. Phis fail is only uffd in fair winds, or to ffud
under in a tempeft. In the former cafe, it is furniftied
with a large additional part called the bonnet, which is
then attached to its bottom, and removed when it ia
necefikry to scud. See Scudding.
SQUAT1NA. See Squalus.
SQUILL, in botany. See Scilla,
SQUILL A, the name of a fpecies of cancer. See
Cancer.
SQUINTING. See Medicine, n0 383.
SQUIRREL, in zoology. See Sciurus.
STABBING, in law. The offence of mortally
dabbing another, though done upon fudden provoca¬
tion, is puniftied as murder ; the benefit of clergy be¬
ing taken away from it by ftatute. (See Murder).
For by Ja. I. c. 8. when one thrufts or (labs another,
not then having a weapon drawn, or who hath ‘not
then firlt (tricken the party ftabbing, fo that he dies
thereof w’thin fix months after, the offender (hall not
have the benefit of clergy, though he did it not of
malice aforethought. This ftatute was made on ac¬
count of the frequent quarrels and (tabbings with fhort
daggers between the Scotch and the Englilh, at the ac-
ceffioG
Sqaamaria
il.
Stabbing.
S T A * [7
< ‘Staclr/?, cefilon of James I. ; and beinjr therefore of a tempo-
^ rary nature, ought to have expired with the mifchief
which it meant to remedy. For, in point of folid and
fubftantial juitice, it cannot be faid that the mode of
killing, whether by ftabbing, ftrangling, or fhooting,
can either extenuate or enhance the guilt; unlefs udrere,
as in the cafe of poifoning, it carries with it internal
evidence of cool and deliberate malice. But the be-
'Blachjf. nignity of the law hath conitrued the ftatute fo favour-
Comment. ably in behalf of the fubjedf, and fo ftriftly when againft
vol. v. him, that the offence of ftabbing now Hands almoft upon
P- ,93* the lame footing as it did at the common law. Thus,
(not to repeat the cafes mentioned under Manslaugh¬
ter, of ftabbing an adulterefs, &c. which are barely
manflaughter, as at common law), in the conftruftion
of this ftatute it hath been doubted, whether, if the de-
ceafed had ftruck at all before the mortal blow given,
this does not take it out of the ftatute, tho’ in the pre¬
ceding quarrel the ftabber had given the firft blow ; and
it feems to be the better opinion, that this is not within
the ftatute. Alfo it hath been refolved, that the kil¬
ling a man, by throwing a hammer or other weapon, is
not uuthin the ftatute ; and whether a fhot with a piftol
be fo or not is doubted. But if the party flain had a
cudgel in his hand, or had thrown a pot or a bottle, or
difcharged a piftol at the party ftabbing, this is a fuffi.
cient reafon for having a weapon drawn on his fide with¬
in the words of the ftatute.
STAC FI YS, in botany : A genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clais of didynamia, and order of gymnofpermia;
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 42d or¬
der, Verlicillata. The upper lip of the corolla is arch¬
ed ; the lower lip reflexed, and the larger intermediate
lacinia is marginated. The ftamina, after fhedding the
farina, are bent towards the fides. There are 17 fpe-
cies, the fylvatica, paluftris, alpina, germanica, lanata,
cretica, glutinofa, orientalis, pakeftina, maiitima, aethio-
pica, hirta, canarienfis, re£la, annua, and arvenfis. Four
only are natives of Britain,
t. Sylvatica, hedge-nettle. The plant is hairy all
over, ere£t, a yar d high, and branched ; the hairs are
Jointed. The flowers are of a deep red colour, fix or
eight in a whirl, which terminates in a long fpike defti-
tute of leaves. The leaves are heart-fhaped, and grow
on footftalks. The whole plant has a ftrong fetid fmell.
It grows commonly in woods and fhady places, and
flowers in July or Auguft. 2. Palujiris, clown’s all¬
heal. The roots are white and tuberous. The ftalk
is branched at the bottom, and two or three feet high.
The flowers are red or purple, from fix to ten in a whirl,
ending in a long fpike. The leaves are feflile, narrow,
pointed, and in part furrounding the ftem. This plant
has a fetid fmell and bitter tafte, and is reckoned a good
■vulnerary. It grows on the fides of rivers and lakes,
in low moift grounds, and fometimes in corn-fields,
g. Germanica, bafe hore-hound. The ftem is downy,
and about two feet high. The leaves are white, downy,
wrinkled, and indented. The flowers are white, pur-
plifh within, and grow in multiflorous whirls. It grows
in England. 4. Arvenjis, corn-ftachys, petty iron-
wort, or all-heal. The ftalk is jo or 12 inches high,
fquare, b-anched, and hairy. The leaves are heart-
fhaped, obtuie, bluntly ferrated, and lefs hairy. J he
calyx is hairy and feflile, and deeply divided into five
acute dents of equal length. The flowers are fkfh-co-
8 ] s T A
loured, and grow from three to fix in a whirl. The Stafium,
lower lip is trifid ; the middle fegment fpotted with red, S:adthol(J«
but not emarginated according to the chara&er of the er’
genus. It is frequent in corn-fields, and grows from ""' ^
June to Auguft.
STADIUM, an ancient Greek long meafure, con¬
taining 12$ geometrical paces, or 625 Roman feet, cor-
refponding to our furlong. The word is faid to be
formed from the Greek word «-a<nc “a ftation,” or V>w<
“to ftand,” becaufe it is reported that Hercules having
run a ftadium at one breath, flood ftill at the end of it.
The Greeks ufually meafured diftances by ftadia, which
they called rfa^iao-^of. Stadium alfo fignified the
courfe on which their races were run.
STADTHOLDER, the principal magiftrate or
governor of the Seven United Provinces. This office
is now abolifhed by the republican influence of France ;
but as the prince of Orange is In alliance with this
country, our readers will probably not be ill pleafed with
a fhort account of his feveral powers and claims. To
render that account the more intelligible, we fhall trace
the office of Stadtholder from its origin.
The Seven Provinces of the Low Countries were
long governed by princes invefled with the fovereignty,
though limited in their powers, and under various
titles ; as Counts of Holland, Dukes of Guelder, Bijhop of
Utrecht, &c. When thefe countries fell to the princes
of the houfe of Burgundy, and afterwards to thofe of
Auftria, who had many other dominions, the abfence
of the fovereign was fupplied by a ftadtholder or gover¬
nor, vefted with very ample powers. Thefe ftadthol-
ders or lieutenants had the adminiftration of the govern¬
ment, and preiided in the courts of juftice, whole jurif-
dittion was not at that time confined merely to the trial
of caufes, but extended to affairs of Hate. The ftadt-
holders fwore allegiance to the princes at their inaugu¬
ration, jointly with the ftates of the provinces they go¬
verned. They likewfife took an oath to the ftates, by
which they promifed to maintain their fundamental laws
and privileges.
It was upon this footing that William the Firft,
prince of Orange, was made governor and lieutenant-
general of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, by Philip
the Second, upon his leaving the Low Countries to go
into Spain. The troubles beginning foon after, this
prince found means to bring about an union, in 1576,
between Plolland and Zealand ; the ftates of which two
provinces put into his hands, as far as was in their pow¬
er, the fovereign authority (for fo long time as they
Ihould remain in war and under arms), upon the fame
footing as Holland had intruded him with in the year
before. In 1581 the fame authority was again renew¬
ed to him by Holland, as it was foon after by Zealand
likewife ; and in 1384, being already eledled count of
Holland, upon certain conditions he wrould have been
formally inveiled with the fovereignty, had not a
wretch, hired and employed by the court of Spain, put
an end to his life by a horrid affaffination.
In the preamble of the inftruments by which the
ftates in 1581 conferred the fovereign authority upon
prince William the Firft, we find thefe remarkable
words, which are there fet down as fundamental rules :
“ That all republics and communities ought to pre-
ferve, maintain, and fortify themfelves by unanimity ;
which being impofiible to be kept up always among fo
6 many
8 T A [ 7
StaJthf W- many members, often differing in inclinations and fenti-
, er' ments, it is confequently neceiTary that the government
T fhould be placed in the hands of one fingle chief magi-
ftrate.” Many good politicians, and the greateft part
of the inhabitants of thefe provinces, have, fince the
eftablifhment of the republic, looked upon the ftadthol-
derian government as an effential part of her conltitu-
tion ; nor has fhe been without a ftadtholder but twice,
that is to fay, from the end of 1650 to 1672, and again
from March 1702 till April 1747. The provinces of
Friefland and Groningen, with Ommelands, have al¬
ways had a ftadtholder without interruption : their in*
flru&ions, which are now no longer in force, may he
feen in Aitzema ; but formerly the powers of the Itadt-
holder of thefe provinces were confined within narrower
bounds, and till William the Fourth there v/as no ftadt¬
holder of the feven provinces together.
The ftadtholder cannot declare war nor make peace,
but he has, in quality of captain-general of the union,
the command in chief of all the forces of the ftate (a) ;
and military perfons are obliged to obey him in every
thing that concerns the fervice. He is not limited by
inftrudtions, but he has the important power of giving
out orders for the march of troops, and the difpoiition
of all matters relative to them. He not only diredts
their marches, but provides for the garrifons, and changes
them at pleafure. All military edidts and regulations
come from him alone ; he conftitutes and authorizes the
high council of war of the United Provinces, and, as
captain-general of every province, difpofes of all milita¬
ry offices, as far as the rank of colonel inclufively. The
higher polls, fuch as thofe of velt-maiIhals, generals,
lieutenant-generals, major-generals, are given by the
ftates-general, who choofe the perfons recommended by
his highnefs. He makes the governors, commandants,
&c. of towns and ftrong places of the republic, and of
the barrier. The perfons nominated prefent their in^
ftruments of appointment to their high mightineftes,
wh© provide them with commiflions. The ftates-gene¬
ral have likewife great regard to the recommendation
of the prince ftadtholder in the difpofition of thofe ci¬
vil employments which are in their gift.
The power of the ftadtholder as high-admiral, ex¬
tends to every thing that concerns the naval force of
the republic, and to all the other affairs that are here
withirr the jurifdidlion of the admiralty. He pre-fides
at thefe boards either in perfon or by his reprefenta-
tives ; and as chief of them all in general, and of every
one in particular, he has power to make their, orders
and inftrudliona be obferved by themfelvea and others.
Fie bellows the polls of lieutenant-admiva), vice-admi¬
ral, and rear-admiral, who command under him ; and
he makes likewife poll-captains.
The ftadtholder grants likewife letter^ of grace, par¬
don, and abolition, as well for the crime called 6’owwa-
nia DeliEta, as for military offences. In Holland and
Zealand thefe letters are made ©ut for crimes of the firft
19 1 S T A
fort, m the name of the fate?, with the advice of hia Stadthold-
highnefs. In military offences he confults the high er'
council of v/ar, and upon the communia dehSa he takes t'“—v—-1
the advice of the courts of juftice, of the counftllors,
committees of the provinces, of the council of ftate, and
the tribunals of juftice in the refpedive towns, accord¬
ing to the nature of the cafe.
In the provinces of Holland and Zealand, the ftadt¬
holder eleas the magiftrates of the towns annually, out
of a double number that are returned to him by the
towns themfelves. 1
When any of thofe offices become vacant, which, at
the time there was no governor, were in the difpofal of
the ftates of Flolland, or as formerly in that of the
chamber of accounts, the ftadtholder has his choice of
two, or, in fome cafes, of three candidates, named by
their noble and great mightineffes. He choofes like¬
wife the counfellors, infpe&ors of the dykes of Ryn-
land, Deltland, and Seheeland, out of three perfons
prefented to him by the boards of the counfellprs
mfpeclors ; which boards arc of very ancient eftablifti-
ment in Holland.
. H1S highnefs prefides in the courts of Holland, and
in the courts of juftice of the other provinces ; and his
name is placed at the head of the proclamations and
acts, called in Hutch Mandamenten, or Provijisn van
JuJlitie. In Overyffel and in the province of Utrecht
the poffeffors of fiefs hold of the prince ftadtholder.
He is fupreme curator of the univeriities of Guelder,
Friefland, and Groningen ; grand forefter and grand
veneur in Guelder, in Holland, and other places. In the
province of Utrecht, his highnefs, by virtue of the re¬
gulation of 1674, difpofes of the provoftfhips and other
benefices which remain to the chapters, as alfo of the
canonical prebends that tall in the months which were
formerly the papal months.
. By the firft article of the council of ftate of the U-
nited Provinces, the ftadthoU.er.is.lhe firft member of-
it, and has a right of, voting there, with an appointment
of 25,000 guilders a-year. He affifts alfo as often as
he thinks it. tor the fervice of the ftate, at the delibera¬
tions of the ftates-general, to make propofitions to them,
and fometimes alfo at the conferences which the deputies
of their high mightineffes hold in. their different com¬
mittees, in confequence of their {landing orders. He
likewife affifts at the afi'emblies of the ftates of each
particular province, and at that of the counfellors com¬
mittees. In Guelder,.Holland, and Utrecht, his high-
nefs has a fhare of the fovereignty, as chief or prefident
of the body of nobles ; and in Zealand, where he poffef-
fes the marquifate of Yeer and Fluffing,, as firft noble,
and reprefenting the whole.nobility. In his abfence he
has in Zealand his -eprefentatives, who have the fiift
place and the firib, voice in all the councils, and the
firft of whom is always firft deputy from the province ■
to the affembly of their high mightineffes.
In 1 749 the prince ftadtholder was created by the
Hates-
f A) tirnes ^ war’ however,.the ftates have always named deputies for the army, to accomoany the ftadt-
holdeis in the fieid, and to ferve them as counlellors in all their enterprifes, particularly in the rnoft important af-
*uch aa JPVAn£ battle, or undertaking a fiege, &c. This was always pra&ifed till the accefilon of king
Wdham the I bird to the crown of Great Britain, and after his death was continued with regard to the general
m chief of the army of the republic. la 1747 and, 1748 there were likewife deputies with the army, but with
more limited power.
S T A
[
St»Tielina {latcs-gcncral, governor-general and fupreme direftor of-
I' the Eall and Weft India companies ; dignities which
Stafifa. p,;ve jiim a great (teal 0f authority and power, and which
* l'"1 pa(i never been conferred upon any of his predeceftbrs,
not have they hitheito been made hereditary. He has
his reprefentatives in the feveral chambers of the compa¬
ny, and choofes their direftors out of a nomination of
three qualified perfons. The prince enjoyed this pre-
jogative in Zealand from the time of his elevation to
the ftadtholderate.
The revenues of the ftadtholderate of the feven U-
nited Provinces are reckoned (including the 25,000
guilders which the prince enjoys annually as the firft
' member of the council of ftate, and what he has from
the India company’s dividends) to amount to 300,000
guilders a year. As captain-general of the union, his
ferene highnefs has 120,coo guilders per annum, befides
24,000 from Friefland, and 12,000 from Groningen, in
quality of captain-general of thofe provinces. In times
of war the ftate allows extraordinary fums to the captain-
general for the expence of every campaign.
& To all thefe powers and privileges the prince of O-
vange has a legal and conftitutional right ; but he has
been diverted of them by a fa&ion which feems deter¬
mined to fell to the cruel and arbitrary republic of
France that country which his anceftors redeemed from
Auftrian fiavery, at the hazard of lofing every thing dear
to them but liberty and honour.
STZE.HELINA, in botany : A genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of fyngenejia, and order of polygamia
a quails ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
49th order, CompoJtU. The receptacle is paleaceous,
the chaff being very fhort ; the pappus is branchy, and
the anther® caudated. There are eight fpecies, the gna-
phaloides, dubia, arborefeens, fruticofa, ilicifolia, corym-
bofa, cbamsepeuce, and imbricata..
STAFF, an inftrument ordinarily ufed to reft.on in
walking. The ftaff is alfo frequently ufed as a kind of
natural weapon both of offence and defence ; and for fe¬
veral other purpofes.
Staff, alight pole ere&ed in different parts of a fiup,
whereon to hoift and difplay the colours..
The principal of thefe is reared immediately over the
ftern, to difplay the enfign ; another is fixed on the
bowfprit, to extend the jack ; three more are ere&edat
the three mart heads, or formed by their upper ends, to
ftiow the flag or pendant of the refpe&ive (quadron or
divifion to which the fliip is appropriated. See Ent-
■ sign. Mast, Jack, and Pendant.
Staff, in military matters, confifts of a quarter-
.mafter-general, adjutant-general, and .majors of brigade.
The ftaff properly exifts only in time of war. See
Quarter-Majier General, &c.
Regimental Stjff, confifts in the adjutant, quarter-
tnafter, chaplain, furgeon, &c.
Staff, in mufic, five lines, on which, with the in¬
termediate fpaces, the notes of a fong or piece of mufic
are marked.
' Fore-S-jj.-y. -See FoRE-StaJf.
STAFF A, one of the Hebrides or Weftern Iflands
of Scotland, remarkable for its bafaltic pillars. It was
vifited by Sir Joftph Banks, who communicated the
following account of it to Mr Pennant.
* The little ifland of .Staffa lies on the weft coal! of
720 ] S T A
Mull, about three leagues north-eaft from Iona, or I-
columbkill : its greateft length is about an Englifh “
mile, and its breadth about half a one. On the weft
fide of the ifland is a fmall bay where boats generally
land ; a little to the fouthward of which the firft ap¬
pearance of pillars are to be obferved : they are final!;
and inftead of being placed upright, lie down on their
fides. each forming a fegment ot a circle. From thence
you pafs a fmall cave, above which the pillars, now-
grown a little larger, are inclining in all directions :
in one place in particular, a fmall mafs of them very
much refembles the ribs of a fliip. From hence having
paffed the cave, which, if it is not low-water, you muft
do in a boat, you come to the firft ranges of pillars,
which are ftill not above half as large as thofe a little
beyond. Over againft this place is a fmall ifland, call¬
ed in Erfe Boo-Jha-la, feparated from the main by a
channel not many fathoms wide. This whole ifland is
compofed of pillars without any ftratum above them ;
they are ftill fmall, but by much the neateft formed of
any about the place.
“ The firft divifion of the ifland, for at high water it
is divided into two, makes a kind of a cone, the pil¬
lars converging together towards the centre : on the
other they are in general laid down flat : and in the
front next to the main, you fee how beautifully they
are packed together, their ends coming out fquare with
the bank which they form. All thefe have their tranf-
verfe feftions exaft, and their furfaces fmooth ; which
is by no means the cafe with the large ones, which are
cracked in all dire&ions. I much queftion, however,
if any part of this whole ifland of Boo-flra-la is two feet
in diameter.
“ The main ifland oppofite to Boo-flia-la, and farther
towards the north-well, is fupported by ranges of pil¬
lars pretty ereft, and, though not tall (as they are not
uncovered to the bafe), of large diameters ; and at
their feet is an irregular pavement, made by the upper
fides of fuch as have been broken off, which extends as
far under water as the eye can reach. Here the forms
of the pillars are apparent : thefe are of three, four,
five, fix, and feven fides ; but the number of five and
fix are by much the moft prevalent. The largeft I
meafured was of feven ; it was four feet five inches in
diameter.
“ The furfaces of thefe large pillars, in general, are
rough and uneven, full of cracks in all direttions ; the
tranfverfe figures in the upright ones never fail to run
in their true dire&ions. The furfaces upon which we
walked were often flat, having neither concavity nor
convexity ; the larger number, however, were concave,
though fome were very evidently convex. In fome pla¬
ces, the interftices within the perpendicular figures were
filled up with a yellow fpar: in one place, a vein pafled
in among the mafs of pillars, carrying here and there
fmall threads of fpar. Though they were broken and
cracked through in all directions, yet their perpendicu¬
lar figures might eafily be traced : from whence it is
eafy to infer, that whatever the accident might have
been that caufed the diflocation, it happened after the
formation oi the pillars.
“ From hence proceeding along fhore, you arrive at.
Fingal’s cave. It$ dimenfions I have given in the form
et a table:
r Length
Staffs,'
S T A
Staffa.
C
Feet.
37*
250
53
20
117
70
39
54
18
9
s
T A
'Length of the cave from the rock v "thout,
From the pitch of the arch,
Breadth of ditto at the mouth,
At the farther end,
Height of the arch at the mouth,
At the end, - *
Height of an oatftde pillar,
Of one at the north-weft corner,
Depth of water at the mouth,
At the bottom,
“ The cave runs into the rock in the diredlion of
north-eaft by eaft by the compafs.
“ Proceeding farther to the north-weft, you meet with
the higheft ranges of pillars ; the magnificent appear¬
ance of which is paft all defcription. Here they are
bare to their very bafis, and the ilratum below them is
alfo vifible: in a fhort time, it rifes many feet above
the water, and gives an opportunity of examining its
quality. Its furface is rough, and has often large lumps
of ftone flicking in it as if half immerfed : itfelf, when
broken, is compofed of a thoufand heterogeneous parts,
which together have very much the appearance of a
lava : and the more fo, as many of the lumps appear
to be of the very fame ftone of which the pillars are
formed. This whole ftratum lies in an inclined pofi-
tion, dipping gradually towards the fouth-eaft. As
hereabouts is the iituation of the higheft pillars, I
ihall mention my mtafurements of them, and the dif¬
ferent ftrata in this place, premifing, that the mea-
furements were made with a line, held in the hand of
a perfon who flood at the top of the cliff, and reaching
£0 the bottom ; to the lower end of which was tied a
white mark, which was obferved by one who flaid be¬
low for the purpofe : when this mark was fet off from
the water, the perfon below noted it down, and made
Signal to him above, who made then a mark in his
rope : whenever this mark paffed a notable place, the
fame fignal was made, and the name of the place no¬
ted down as before : the line being all hauled up, and
the drftanccs between the marks meafured and noted
-down, gave, when compared with the book kept be¬
low, the diftances, as for inftance in the cave :
“ N° I. in the book below, was called from the wa¬
ter to the foot of the firft pillar in the book above ;
ti° 1. gave 36 feet 8 inches, the higheft of that afeent,
which was compofed of broken pillars.
“ N0 1. Pillar at the weft corner of Fingal’s cave.
Feet. In.
1 From the water to the foot of the pillar,
2. Height of the pillar,
3 Stratum above the pillar,
“ N'-’ 2. Fingal’s cave,
a From the water to the foot of the pillar,
2 Height of the pillar,
3 From the top oi the pillar to the top of the
arch, ...
4 Thicknefs of the ftratum above.
By adding together the three firft meafurements,
we got the height of the arch from the wa-
tei, - - - - 1176
N° 3 Corner pillar to the weftward of
Fingal’s cave.
Stratum below the pillar of lava-like matter, r 1 o
Length of pillar, - . C4 O
Vol. XVII. Part II.
2 1 J
Stratum above the pillar
“ N° 4. Another pillar to the weftwanL
Stratum below the pillar,
Height of the pillar,
Stratum above, -
“ N0 5. Another pillar farther to the weft*
ward.
Stratum below the pillar,
Height of the pillar.
Stratum above, - - *
Staffi
8
I 2
37
66
36
39
31
34
19
55 -r
54 7
“ The ftratum above the pillars, which is here men¬
tioned, is uniformly the fame, confifting of numberlefs
fmall pillars, bending and inclining in all dire&ions,
fometimes fo irregularly that the ftones can only be faid
to have an inclination to affume a columnar form ; in
others more regular, but never breaking into or difturb-
ing the ftratum of large pillars, whofe tops everywhere
keep an uniform and regular line.
“ Proceeding now along the fhoj-e round the north
end of the ifland, you arrive at Oua nn/carve, or the
Corvorant’s Cave. Here the ftratum under the pillars
is lifted up very high ; the pillars above it are conlider-
ably lefs than thofe at the north weft end of the illand,
but ftill very confiderable. Beyond is a bay, which
cuts deep into the ifland, rendering it in that place not
more than a quarter of a mile over. On the fides of
this bay, efpecially beyond a little valley, which almoft
cuts the ifland into two, are two ftages of pillars, but
fmall; however, having a ftratum between them exadlly
the fame as that above them, formed of innumerable
little pillars, fhaken out of their places, and leanino- in
all diredtions.
“ Having paffed this bay, the pillars totally ceafe; the
rock is of a dark-brown ftone, and no figns of regularity
occur till you have paffed round the fouth-eaft end of
the ifland (a fpace almoft as large as that occupied by
the pillars), which you meet again on the weft fide, be¬
ginning to form themfelves irregularly, as if the ftratum
had an inclination to that form, and ioon arrive at the
bending pillars where I began.
“ The ftone of which the pillars are formed, is a
coarfe kind of bafaltes, very much refembling the Giant’s
Caufeway in Ireland, though none of them are near fo
neat as. the fpecimens of the latter which I have feen at
the Britifh Mufeum; owing chiefly to the colour, which
in ours is a dirty brown, in the Infh a fine black ; in¬
deed the whole produftion feems very much to referable
the Giant’s Caufeway.”
STAFFORD, the county town of Staffordfhire,
in W. Long. 2. o. N. Lat. 53. o. It Hands on the
river Sow, has two parifh-churches, a fine fquare mar¬
ket-place, and a flourishing cloth;manufadture. It fends
two members to parliament, and is 13? miles from Lon¬
don.
STAFFORDSHIRE, a county ofEngland, bound¬
ed on the fouth by Worcefter(hire,.by Chefldre and Der¬
by fhire on the north, by Warwickfhire and Derby fhire
on the eaft, and Shropfhme and Chefhire on the weft.
The length is reckoned 62 miles, the breadth 33,
and the circumference 180. It contains 5 hundreds,
150 parifhes, 810,000 acres, and 18 market towns.
The air, except in thofe parts that are called the
Moorlands and Woodlands, and about the mines, is
good, efpecially upon the hills, where it is accounted
4 Y very
*
Stafford-
fhire
Stage.
§ See
Stone■
Ware.
S T A [ r.
very fine. The foil in the northern mountainous parts
is not fertile ; but in the middle, where it is wa¬
tered by the Trent, the third river in England, it is
both fruitful and pleafant, being a mixture of arable and
meadow grounds. In the fouth, it abounds not only
with corn, but with mines of iron and pits of coal.
The principal rivers of this county, belides the 'Trent,
which runs almoft thro’ the middle of it, and abounds
with falmon, are the Dove and Tame, both of which
are well ftored with fifh. In this county are alfo a great
many lakes, or meres and pools, as they are called ;
which, having ftreams either running into them or from
them, cannot be fuppofed to be of any great prejudice
to the air ; they yield plenty of fifh. In divers parts of
the county are medicinal waters, impregnated with dif¬
ferent forts of minerals, and confequently, of different
qualities and virtues ; as thofe at Hints and Brefsford-
houfe, which are mixed with bitumen ; thofe at In-
geftre, Codfalwood, and Willough-bridge park, which
are fulphureous. Of the faline kind are the Brine-pits
at Chertley, Epfom, Penfnet-clofe, of which very good
fait is made. There is a well at Newcaftle-under Line
that is faid to cure the king’s evil; another called Elder-
wel! near Blemhill, faid to be good for fore eyes; and
a third called the Spa, near Wolverhampton.
Great flocks of fheep are bred in this county, efpe-
dally in the moorlands, or mountains of the northern
part of it; but the wool is faid to be fomewhat coarfer
than that of many other counties. Of this wool, how¬
ever, they make a variety of manufadtures, particularly
felts. In the low grounds along the rivers are rich paf-
tures for black cattle ; and vaft: quantities of butter and
cheefe are made. In the middle and fouthern parts not
only grain of all kinds, but a great deal of hemp
and flax are railed. This county produces alfo lead,
copper, iron ; marble, alabafter, millftones, limefione ;
coal, fait, and marks of feveral forts and colours; brick-
earth, fullers earth, and potters-clayparticularly a fort
ufed in the glafs manufa&ure at Amblecot, and fold at
feven-pence a bulhel; tobacco pipe-clay ; a fort of red-
difh earth called Jl'p., ufed in painting divers veflels; red
and yellow ochres; fire-ftones for hearths of iron fur¬
naces, ovens, &c. ; iron ftones of feveral forts; blood-
itones, or haematites, found in the brook Tent, which,
when wet a little, will draw red lines like ruddle; quar¬
ry-hones, and grind-ftones. For fuel the county is well
fupplied with turf, peat, and coal of feveral forts, as
cannel coal, peacock-coal, and pit-coal. The peacock-
coal is fo called, becaufe, when turned to the light, it
difplays all the colours of the peacock’s tail ; but it is
fitter ter the forge than the kitchen. Of the pit-coal
there is an inexhauftible ftore: it burns into white
aihes, and leaves no fuch cinder as that of the New-
caftle coal. It is not ufed for malting till it is charred,
and in that ftate it makes admirable winter-fuel for a
chamber.
This county is in the diocefe of Litchfield and Co¬
ventry, and the Oxford circuit. It fends ten mem¬
bers to parliament; namely, two for the county, two
for the city of Litchfield, two for Stafford, two lor
Ncwcaftle-under-Line, and two for Famworth.
STAG, in zoology. See Cervus.
St AG-Beetle. See Lucan us.
STAGE, in the modern drama, the place of aftion
13d reprefentalion included between the pit and the
j ] s T A
fcrties, and anfwering to the profeenium or pulpitum of Stamen
the ancients. See Playhouse and Theatre. |i
S BAGGERS. See Farriery, $ xiii. Stalagmite,
STAHL (George Ernefl), an eminent German che- '““'Y—
mift, was born in Franconia in 1660, and chofen pro-
feffor of medicine at Hall, when a univerfity was found¬
ed in that city in 1694. The excellency of his le&ures
while he filled that chair, the importance of his various
publications, and his extenfive praftice, foon raifed his
reputation to a very great height. He received an in¬
vitation to Berlin in 1716, which having accepted, he
was made counfellor of ftate and phyfician to the
king. He died in 1734, in the 75th year of his
age. Stahl is without doubt one of the greateft men
of which the annals of medicine can boafl: his name
marks the commencement of a new and more illuf-
trious era in chemiftry. He was the author of the
do&rine of phlogifton, which, though now complete¬
ly overturned by the difeoveries of Lavoifier and
others, was not without its ufe ; as it ferved to com¬
bine the fcattered fragments of former chemifts into a
fyftem, and as it gave rife to more accurate experiments
and a more fcientific view of the fubject, to which ma¬
ny of the fubfequent difeoveries were owing. This
theory maintained its ground for more than half a cen¬
tury, and was received and fupported by fome of the
moil eminent men which Europe has produced; a fuffi-
cient proof of the ingenuity and the abilities of its au¬
thor. He was the author alfo of A Theory of Medicine,
founded upon the notions which he entertained of the
abfolute dominion of mind over body ; in confequence
of which, he affirmed, that every mufcular adtion is a
voluntary adl of the mind, whether attended with con-
feioufnefs or not. This theory he and his followers
carried a great deal too far, but the advices at leaft
which he gives to attend to the ftate of the mind of the
patient are worthy of the attention of phyficians.
His principal works are, 1. Exper'menta et Ohftrva-
tiones Chemica et Pbyfica, Berlin, I 73 1,8vo. 2. Di/fer-
tationes Medicce, Hall, 2 vols 410. 'i h's is a colledlioti
of thefes. 3. Theoria Medico, vera, 1737, 4t0, 4- 0-
pufculum Chymico-phyjico medicum, 1740, 4t®. 5. A
Treatife on Sulphur, both Inflammable and Fixed, writ¬
ten in German. 6. Negotium Otiofum, Hall, 17 20, 4to.
It is in this treatife chiefly that he eftablifhes his fyftem
concerning the aftion of the foul upon the body.
7 . Fundamenta Cby mica Dogmatics et Exper'mentalh,
Nuremberg, '747, 3 vols 4to. 8. A Treatife on Salts,
written in German. 9. Commentarium in Mctaliurgiam
Becchcri, 1723. '
STAINING or Colouring o/Bone, Horn, Mar¬
ble, Paper, Wood, &c. See thefe articles.
STAIRCASE, in architecture, an afeent inclofed
between walls, or a baluftrade confifting of flairs or Heps,
with landing places and rails, ferving to make a com¬
munication between the feveral ftories of a houfe. Se«
Architecture, n° 89, &c.
STALACTITiE, in natural hiftory,cryftalline fpars
formed into oblong, conical, round, or irregular bodies,
compofed of various crufts, and ufually found hanging
in form of ificks from the roofs of grottoes, &c.
STALAGMITTS, in botany; A genus of the mo-
wzeia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants,;
and in the natural method ranking under the 38th or
der, T.ricocca, The calyx is either quadriphyllous or
8 hexaphylloua;,
S T A
Stale
It
Stamina,
hexaphyllous; the corolla confifts of four or of fix pe
tals: the receptacle is fleihy, and fomewhat fquare-fha-
ped ; the filaments about 30. In the hermaphrodite
flower xhejlylus is fhort, thick, and ereft ; the fruit is
a berry of a globular fhape, unilocular, and crowned
with ihtjlylus an&Jligma : they contain three oblong
jointed triangular feeds. Of this there is only one fpe-
lics, viz. the Cambogtoides, a native of the hialt Indies
and of the warmer parts of America. From this plant
is obtained the gutta cambogia, or gum gamboge of the
fhops. See Gamboge.
Till very lately botanills were at a lofs for the true
nature of the plant which yields this gum. Koenig, a
native of Ireland, and an excellent botanift, travelled
over a great part of India, and collected a great num¬
ber of new plants, and among the reft the ftalagmitis.
Thefe he bequeathed to Sir jofeph Banks prefident of
the Royal Society.
STALE, among fportfmen, a living fowl put in a
place to allure ad bring others where they may be ta¬
ken. For want of thefe, a bird fhot, his entrails taken
out, and dried in an oven in his feathers, with a ftick
thruft through to keep it in a convenient pofture, may
ierve as well as a live one.
Stale is alfo a name for the urine of cattle.
Animated STALK. This remarkable animal was
found by Mr Ives at Cuddalore : and he mentions
feveral kinds of it; fome appearing like dry flraws tied
together, others like grafs; fome have bodies much lar¬
ger than others, with the addition of two fcaly imper-
fedl wings ; their neck is no bigger than a pin, but
twice as long as their bodies ; their heads are like thofe
of an hare and their eyes vertical and very brifk. They
live upon flies, and catch thefe infefts very dexteroufly
with the two fore-feet, which they keep doubled up in
three parts clofe to their head, and dart out very quick
on the approach of their prey; and when they have caught
it, they eat it very voracioufly, holding it in the lame
manner as a fquirrel does its food. On the outer joints
of the fore-feet are feveral very fharp hooks for the ea-
fier catching and holding of their prey ; while, with the
other feet, which are four in number, they take hold of
trees or any other thing, the better to furprife whatever
they lie in wait for. They drink like a horfe, putting
their mouths into the water. Their excrements, which
are very white, are almoft as large as the body of the
animal, and as the natives fay, dangerous to the eyes.
STALLION, or Stone-horse, in the manege, an
horfe defigned for the covering of mares, in order to
propagate the fpecies. See Equus.
S 1 AMFORD, an ancient town of Lincolnfhire in
England; feated on the river Welland, on the edge of
Northamptonfhire. It is a large handfome place, con¬
taining fix parifh-churches, feveral good ftreets, and fine
buildings. It had formerly a college, the ftudents of
which removed to Biazen Note college in Oxford. It
has no confiderable manufadfcries, but deals chiefly in
malt. W. Long. o. 31. N. Lat. 52. 42.
STAMINA, in botany, are thofe upright filaments
whish, on opening a flower, we find within the coiolla
furrounding the piltillum. According to L nnteus, they
are the male organs of generation, whole office it is to
prepare the pollen. Each llamen confifts of two diftind
parts, viz. the filamentum and the anthera.
C 72.? ]
S T A
ota m in a, in the animal body, are defined to be th@fe Stamina,
Ample original parts which exifted firft in the embryo !l
or even in the leed; and by whofe diftindion, augmen* Standard,
tation, and accretion by additional juices, the animal ^
body at its utmoft bulk is fuppofed to be formed.
S 1 AMP-duties, a branch of the perpetual revenue.
See Revenue.
In Great Britain there is a tax impofed upon all
parchment and paper, whereon any legal proceedings or
private inftruments of almoft any nature whatfoever are
written ; and alio upon licences for retailing wines, of
all denominations ; upon all almanacs, newfpapers, ad-
vertifements, cards, dice, &c. Thefe impofts are very
various ; being higher or lower, not fo much according
to the value of the property transferred, as according to
the nature of the deed. T. he higheft do not exceed Stnitb'
fix pounds upon every flieet of paper or fkin of parch- Wealth of
mem ? and thefe high duties fall chiefly upon grants
from the crown, and upon certain law proceedings,
without any regard to the value of the fubjedf. There
are in Great Britain no duties on the regiftration of
deeds or writings, except the fees of the officers who
keep the regitter ; and thefe are leldom more than a
reafonable recompenfe for their labour. The crown
derives no revenue from them.
The ft amp-duties conftitute a tax which, though in
fome inftances it may be heavily felt, by greatly increa-
fing the expence of all mercantile as well as legal pro¬
ceedings, yet (if moderately impofed) is of fervice to
the public in general, by authenticating inftruments,
and rendering it much more difficult than formerly to
forge deeds of any ftanding; fince, as the officers of
this branch of the revenue vary their ftamps frequently,
by marks perceptible to none but themfelves, a man
that would forge a deed of King William’s time, muft
know and be able to counterfeit the ftamp of that date
alio. In I ranee and fome other countries the duty is
la.d on. the contract itfeli, not on the inftrument in
which it is contained; as, with us too in England (be-
fides the ftamps on the indentures), a tax is laid, by
Itatute 8 Ann. c. 9. on every apprentice-lee; of 6 d. in
the pound if it be 50I. or under, and is. in the pound
if a greater furh : but this tends to draw the iubjeft in¬
to a thoufand nice difquilitions and difputes concerning
ii.e nature of his contract, and whether taxable or not;
in which the farmers of the revenue are lure to have
the advantage. Our general method anfwers the pur-
pofes of the ftate as well, and confults the cafe of the
iubjea much better. The ffrft inftitution of the ftamp-
duties was t>y ftatute 5 and 6 W. and M. c. 2 1. and
they have fince, in many inftances, been increafed to
five times their original amount.
S1ANCHION, or Stanchions, a fort of fmall
pillars of wood or iron ufed for various purpofes in a
ihip ; as to fupport the decks, the quarter-rails, the
nettings, the awnings, &c. The firft of thefe are two
ranges of fmall columns fixed under the beams, through-
out the fhip’s length between decks ; one range bemo-
on the ftarboard and the other on the larboard fide <>f
the hatchways. They are chiefly intended to fupoort
the weight of the aitillcry. 1
STAND, in commerce, a weight from two hundred
and an half to three hundred of pitch.
STANDARD, in war, a fort of banner or flag,
4 Y 2 borne
S T A
[ 3
S T A
Sfan^ard, borne as a fignal for the joining together of the feveral
Stanhope. tro0pS belonging to the fame body.
— Standard, in commerce, the original of a weight,
meafure, or coin, committed to the keeping of a ma-
giftrate, or depofited in fome public place, to regulate,
adjuft, and try the weights ufed by particular perfons
in traffic. See Money.
STANHOPE (Philip Dormer, earl of Chefterfield),
was born in 1695, and educated in Trinity-hall, Cam¬
bridge ; which place he left in 17'4» when, by his own
account, he was an abfolute pedant. In this charafter
he went abroad, where a familiarity with good compa¬
ny foon convinced him he was totally mdlaken in al-
moft all lus notions 1 and an attentive ftudy of the air,
manner, and addrefs of people of fafhion, foon pohfhed
a man whofe predominant defire was to pleafe ; and
who, as it afterward appeared, valued exterior accom-
plifhments beyond any other human acquirement.
While Lord Stanhope, he got an early feat in parlia¬
ment ; and in 1722, fucceeded to his father’s eftate
and titles. In 1728, and in 1745, he was appointed
ambaflador extraordinary and plenipotentiary to Hol¬
land : which high chara&er he fupported with the
greateft dignity ; ferving his own country, and gain¬
ing the efteem of the ftates-general. Upon his return
from Holland, he was fent lord-lieutenant of Ireland ;
and during his admir.illration there, gave general fa-
tisfaftion to all parties. He left Dublin in 1746, and
in O&ober fucceeded the earl of Harrington as fecre-
tary of ftate, in which poll he officiated until February
6th 1748. Being feized with a deafnefs in 1752, that
incapacitated him for the pleafures of Society, he from
that time led a private and retired life, amufing him-
fclf with books and his pen ; in particular, he engaged
largely as a volunteer in a periodical mifcellaneous pa¬
per called in which his conti ibutions have
a diftmguifhed degree of excellence. He died in 1773,
leaving a charaAer for wit and abilities that had few
equals*! He diliinguiffied himfelf by his eloquence in
parliament on many important occafions; of ivhich
we have a charafteriitic inftance, of his own relating.
He was an aAive promoter of the bill for altering the
ftyle ; on which oecafion, as he himfelf writes in one
of his letters to his fon, he made fo eloquent a fpeech
in the houfe, that every one was pleafed, and faid he
had made the whole very clear to them ; “ when (fays
he), God knows, I had not even attempted it. I
could juft as foon have talked Celtic or Sclavonian to
them, as aftronomy ; and they would have underftood
me full as well.” Lord Macclesfield, one of the
greateft mathematicians in Europe, and who had a prin¬
cipal hand in framing the bill, fpoke afterwards, with
all the clearnefs that a thorough knowledge of the fub-
je& could di&ate ; but not having a How of words
equal to Lord Chefterfield, the latter gained the ap-
plaufe from the former, to the equal credit of the
fpeaker and the auditors. The high chara&er Lord
Chefterfield fupported during life, received no fmall
injury foon after his death, from a fuller difplay of it by
his own hand. He left no iffue by his lady, but had a
natural ion, Philip Stanhope, Efq; whofe education was
for many years a clofe objeA of his attention, and who
was afterward envoy extraordinary at the court ot
Drefden, but died before him. When Lord Cheiler-
field died, Mr Stanhope’s widow publifhed a courfe of
letters, written by the father to the fon, filled with in- Sfanknp*,
ftruAions fuitable to the different gradations of the ' 
young man’s life to whom they were addreffed. Thefe
letters contain many fine obfervations on mankind, and
rules of conduct: but it is obfervable that he lays a
greater ftrefs on exterior accompliihments and addrefs,
than on intelle&ual qualifications and fincerity; and
allows greater latitude to fafhionable plcafures than
good morals will juftify, efpecally in paternal inftrudions.
Hence it is that a celebrated writer $, and of manners § £)r
fomewhat different from thofe of the polite earl o'fon,
Chefterfield, is faid to have obferved of thefe letters
that “ they inculcate only the morals of a whore, with
the manners of a dancing-mafter.”
Stanhope (Dr George), an eminent divine, was
born at Hertiffiorn in Derbyfhire, in the year 1660.
His father was rc&or of that place, vicar of St Mar¬
garet’s church in Leicefter, and chaplain to the earls of
Chefterfield and Clare. His grandfather Dr George
Stanhope was chaplain to James I. and Charles I. ;
had the chancellorfhip of York, where he was alfo a
canon refidentiary, held a prebend, and was reftor of
Weldrake in that county. He was for his loyalty dri¬
ven from his home with eleven children ; and died in
1644. Our auth°r was fent to fchool, firtt at Upping¬
ham in Rutland, then at Leicefter; afterwards removed
to Eaton ; and thence chofen to King’s college in
Cambridge, in the place of W. Cleaver. He took the
degree of B. A. in 1681 ; M. A. 1658 •, was eleAed
one of the fyndics for the univerfity of Cambridge, in
the hufinefs of Alban Francis, 1 687 ; minifter of Qnoi
near Cambridge, and vice-proAor, 1688 ; was that year
preferred to the reAory of Tring in Hertfordfhire,
which after fome time he quitted. He was in 1689
prefented to the vicarage of Lewifham in Kent by Lord
Dartmouth, to whom he had been chaplain, and tutor
to his fon. He was alfo appointed chaplain to King
William and Queen Mary, and continued to enjoy that
honour under Queen Anne. Pie commenced D. D.
July 5th 1697, performing all the offices required to
that degree publicly and with great applaui'e. He
was made vicar of Deptford in 1703 ; fucceeded Dr
Hooper as dean of Canterbury the fame year ; and was
thrice'chofen prolocutor of the lower houfe of convoca¬
tion. His uncommon diligence and induftry, affifted
by his excellent parts, enriched him with a large ftock
of polite, folid, and ufeful learning. His difeourfes
from the pulpit were equally pleafing and profita¬
ble ; a beautiful intermixture of the cleared; realon-
ing with the pureft diAion, attended with all the graces
of a juft elocution. The good Chriftian, the folid di¬
vine, and the fine gentleman, in him were happily uni¬
ted. His converfation was polite and delicate, grave
without precifenefs, facetious without levity. His piety
was real and rational, his charity great and univeriaK
fruitful in a As of mercy, and in all good works. He
died March 18th 1728, aged 68 years ; and was buried
in the chancel of the church at Lewiftiam. The dean
was twice married : 1. to Olivia Cotton, by whom he
had one fon and four daughters. His fecond lady, who
was filter to Sir Charles Wager, furvived him, dying
OAober ift I730» aged about 54. One of the dean’s
daughters was married to a fon of biftiop Burnet. Bi-
fhop Moore of Ely died the day before Queen^Anne 5
who, it has been faid, defigned our dean for that
fee
S T A [ 725 3 S T A
Stanhope, fee when it fhould become vacant. Dr Felton fays,
Stariiflaui. “ rfhe late dean of Canteibury is excellent in the
v/hole. His thoughts and reafoning are bright and
folid. His ftyle is juft, both for the purity of the lan¬
guage and for the ftrength and beauty of exprefiion ;
but the periods are formed in fo peculiar an order of
the words, that it was an obfervation, nobody could
pronounce them with the fame grace and advantage as
himfelt:.,, His writings, which are an ineftimable trea-
lure of piety and devotion are, A Paraphrafe and
Comment upon the Epiftles and Gofpels, 4 vols, 1705,
8vo. Sermons at Boyle’s Lecftures, 1706,410. Fif¬
teen Sermons, 1700, 8vo. Twelve Sermons on fe-
veral Occafions, 1727, 8vo. Thomas a Kempis 1696,
8vo. Epictetus’s Morals, with Simplicius’s Com¬
ment, and the Li!e of Epiftetus, 1700, 8vo. Parfon’s
Chriftian Directory, 1716, 8vo. Rochefoucault’s
Maxims, 1706, 8vo. A Funeral Sermon on Mr Rich¬
ard Sare bookfeller, 1724 ; two editions 410. Twen¬
ty Sermons, publifhed fmgly between the years 1692
and 1724. Private Prayers for every Day in the
Week, and for the feveral Parts of each Day ; tranfla-
ted from the Greek Devotions of Biftrop Andrews,
with Additions, 1730. In his tranflations, it is well
known, Dr Stanhope did not confine himfelf to a ftridl
and literal verfion : he took the liberty of paraphrafing,
explaining, and improving upon his author ; as will evi¬
dently appear (not to mention any other work) by the
flighteft perufal of St Auguftine’s Meditations, and the
Devotions of Bifhop Andrews.
STANISLAUS (Leczinfki), king of Poland, was
born at Leopold the 20th of OStofter 1677. His fa¬
ther was a polifh nobleman, diftinguifhed by his rank
and the important offices which he held, but ftill more
by h;s firmnefs and courage. Staniflaus was fent am-
baffador in 1704 by the aflembly of Warfaw to
Charles XII. of Sweden, who had conquered Poland.
He was at that time 27 years old, was general of great
Poland, and had been ambaffador extraordinary to the
Grand Signior in 1699. Charles was fo delighted with
the franknefs and fincerity of his deportment, and with
the firmnefs and fweetnefs which appeared in his coun¬
tenance, that he offered him the crown of Poland, and
ordered him to be crowned at Warfaw in lyoy. He
accompanied Charles XII. into Saxony, where a treaty
was concluded with King Auguftus in 1705, by which
that prince refigned the crown, and acknowledged Sta-
niflaus king of Poland. The new monarch remained
in Saxony with Charles till >707, when they returned
into Poland and attacked the Ruffians, who were obli¬
ged to evacuate that kingdom in 1708. But Charles
being defeated by Peter the Great in 1709, Auguftus
returned into Poland, and being affifted by a Ruffian
army, obliged Staniflaus to retire firft into Sweden,
and afterwards into Turkey. Soon after he took up
his refidence at Weiffenburg, a town in Alface. Au¬
guftus difpatched Sum his envoy to France to complain
of this; but the duke of Orleans, who was then re¬
gent, returned this anfwer: “ Tell your king, that
France has always been the afylum of unhappy princes.”
Staniflaus lived in obfeurity till 1725, when Louis XV.
efpoufed the princefs Mary his daughter. Upon the
death of King Auguftus in 1733, he returned to Po¬
land in hopes of remounting the throne @f that king¬
dom. A large party declared for him j but his com¬
petitor the young eleftor of Saxony, being fupported Staniflaus,
by the Emperor Charles VI. and the Emprefs of Ruf-' '
fia, was chofen king, though the majority was againft
him. Dantzic, to which Staniflaus had retired, was
quickly taken,and the unfortunate prince made his efcape
in difguife with great difficulty, after hearing that a price
was fet upon his head by the Ruffians. When peace
was concluded in 1736 between the Emperor and France,
it was agreed that Staniflaus fhould abdicate the throne,
but that he fhould be acknowledged king of Poland
and grand duke of Lithuania, and continue to bear
thefe titles during life ; that all his effedls and thofe of
the queen his fpoufe fhould be reftored ; that an amnefty
fhould be declared in Poland for all that was pall, and
that every perfon fhould be reftored to his pofleffions,
rights, and privileges : that the eledor of Saxony fheuld
be acknowledged king of Poland by all the powers who
acceded to the treaty : that Staniflans fhould be put in
peacable pofleffion of the duchies of Lorrain and Bar;
but that immediately after his death thefe duchies
fhould be united for ever to ihe crown of France.
Staniflaus fucceeded a race of princes in Lorrain, who
were beloved and regretted ; and his fubje&s found their
ancient lovereigns revived in him. He tailed then the
pleafure which he had fo long delired, the pleafure of
making men happy. He affifted his new fubjefts ; he
embellifhed Nancy and Luneville ; he made ufeful efta-
bliffiments ; he founded colleges and built hofpitals.
He was engaged in thefe noble employments, when an
accident occafioned his death. His night-gown caught
fire and burnt him fo feverely before it could be ex-
tinguiflied, that he was feized with a fever, and died
the 23d of February 1766. His death occafioned a
public mourning : the tears of his fubjecls indeed are
the beft eulogium upon this prince. In his youth he
had accuftomed himfelf to fatigue, and had thereby
ftrengthened his mind as well as his conftitution. He lay
always upon a kind of mattrefs, and feldom required any
fervice from his domeftics. He was temperate, liberal,
adored by his vaffals, and perhaps the only nobleman in
Poland who had any friends. He was in Lorrain what
he had been in his owm country, gentle, affable, com-
paffionate, treating his fubjefts like equals, participating
their forrows and alleviating their misfortunes. He
refembled completely the pifture of a philofopher which
he himfelf has drawn. “The true philofopher (faid
he) ought to be free from prejudices, and to know the
value of reafon : he ought neither to think the higher
ranks of life of more value than they are, nor to treat
the lower orders of mankind with greater contempt
than they deferve : he ought to enjoy plealures with¬
out being a flave to them, riches without being attach¬
ed to them, honours without' pride or vanity: he
ought to fupport difgraces without either fearing or
courting them : he ought to reckon wffiat he poflefles
fufficient for him, and to regard what he has not as ufe-
lefs: he ought to be equal in every fortune, always
tranquil, always gay : he ought to love order, and to
obferve it in all his adlions: he ought to be fevere to
himfelf, but indulgent to others : he ought to be frank
and ingenuous without rudenefs, polite without falfe-
hood, complaifant without bafenefs : he ought to have
the courage to difregatd every kind of glory, and to
reckon as nothing even philofophy itfelf.” Such was
Slaniflausin every fituation. His temper was affedtion-
ate,.
S T A t 7*6 3 S T A
Starnfhus ate. He told his treafurer one day to put a certain
il officer on his lift, to whom he was very much attached :
,fol:atlliary- « jn what quality (faid the treafurer) fhall I mark
him down?” “ As my friend” (replied the monarch.)
A young painter conceiving hopes of making his for¬
tune if his talents were made known to Staniflaus, pre-
fented him with a picture, which the courtiers criticifed
feverely. The prince praifed the performance, and paid
the painter very generoufly : then turning to his cour¬
tiers, he faid, “ Do ye not fee, gentlemen, that this poor
man muff provide for his family by his abilities ? if you
difcourage him by your cenfures, he is undone. We
ought always to affift men; w'e never gain any thing by
hurting them.” His revenues were fmall; but were we
to judge of him by what he did, we ffiould probably
reckon him the richeft potentate in Europe. A fmglc
inftance Will be fufficient to fhow the well judged eco¬
nomy with which his benevolent plans were conduced.
He gave 18,coo crowns to the magiftrates of Bar to be
employed in purchafing grain, when at a low price, to
be fold out again to the poor at a moderate rate when
the price fhould rife above a certain fum. By this ar¬
rangement (fay the authors of DiSionaire Hijlorique),
the money increafes continually, and its good effedts may
in a ffiort time be extended over the whole province.
He was a prote&or of the arts and Iciences :he wrote
feveral works of philofophy, politics, and morality,
which were colledled and publifhed in France in 1765,
in 4 vols, 8vo. under the title of Oeuvres du P'nlofophe
Bienfaifant, “the works of the Benevolent Philofopher.”
STANITZAS, villages or fmall diftridts of the
banks of the Don, inhabited by Coffacs.
STANLEY (Thomas), a very learned Englifh
writer in the 1 7th contury, was the fon of Sir Thomas
Stanley of Cumberlow-Green in Herefordfhire, knight.
He was born at Cumberlow about 1644, and educated in
his father’s houfe, whence he removed to the univerlity
©f Cambridge. He afterwards travelled ; and, upon
his return to England, profecuted his ftudies in the
Middle Temple. He married, when young, Dorothy,
the eldeft daughter of Sir James Engan of Flower,
in Northamptonfture. Fie wrote, 1. A volume of
Poems. 2. Hiftory of Philofephy, and Lives of the
Philofophers. 3. A Tranllation of Efchylus, with a
Commentary ; and feveral other works. He died in
1678.
STANNARIES, the mines and works where tin
is dug and purified ; as in Cornwall, Devonfhire, &c.
STANNARY courts, in Devonfhire and Corn¬
wall, for the adminiftration of juftice among the tinners
therein. They are held before the lord-warden and
his fhbftitutes, in virtue of a privilege granted to the
workers in the tin-mines there, to fue and be fued
only in their own courts, that they may not be drawn
from their bulinefs, which is highly profitable to the
public, by attending their lavv-iuits in other courts.
The privileges of the tinners are confirmed by a char¬
ter, 33 Edw. I. and fully expounded by a private ila-
tute, 50 Edw. Ill which has iince been explained by
,n , a public a£t, (6 Car. I. c. 15. What relates to our
Comment, prefent purpofe is only this : That all tinners and la-
vol. iii. bourns in and about the ftannaries {hall, during the
p. 79 and time of their working therein, bonajide, be privileged
from fuits of other courts, and be only pleaded in the
ftannary court in all matters, excepting pleas of land,
life, and member. No writ of error lies from hence to Stannum
any court in Weftminfter hall; as was agreed by all, II.
the judges, in 4 Jac. I. But an appeal lies from the^ aph)linm.
fteward of the court to the under-warden ; and from
him to the lord-warden ; and thence to the privy-coun-
cil of the prince of Wales, as duke of Cornwall, when
he hath had livery or inveftiture of the fame. And
from thence the appeal lies to the king himfelf, in the
laft refort.
STANNUM, Tin. See Chemistry-/Wex, and
Tin.
STANZA, in poetry, a number of lines regularly
adjufted to each other; fo much of a poem as contains
every variation of meafure or relation of rhyme ufed in
that poem.
STAPHYLEA, Bladder-nut, in botany: A
genus of plants belonging to theclafsof pentandna, and
order of trigynia; and in the natural fyftem arranged
under the 2 3d Qr&er, trihi/ata. The calyx is quinque-
partite. There are five petals. The capfules are three,
inflated and joined together by a longitudinal future.
The feeds are two, and are globofe with a fear. There
are two fpecies, the pinnata and trifolia. The pinnata,
or bladder nut-tree, is a tall fhrub or tree. T he leaves
are pinnated ; the pinnte are generally five, oblong,
pointed, and notched round the edges. The flowers are
white, and grow in whirls on long pendulous footflalks.
This plant floweis in June, and is frequent in hedges
about Pontefradf and in Kent. The trifolia, or three¬
leaved bladder-nut, is a native of Virginia.
STAPHYLINUS, a genus of animals belonging to
the clafs of infe8<ey and order of coleopte>a. The an¬
tennas are moniliform ; the feelers four in number; the
elytra are not above half the length of the abdomen ;
the wings are folded up and concealed under the elytra;
the tail or extremity of the abdomen is Angle, is pro¬
vided with two long veficles which the infedl can fhoot
out or draw back at pleafure. Gmelin enumerates 1 1 7
fpecies, of which five only are natives of Great Britain ;
the murinus, maxillofus, ruins, riparius, chryfomelinus.
1. Murinus. The head is deprefled. The colour is
grey, clouded with black. The length is fix lines. It
lives among horfe-dung. 2. The maxillofus is black,
with afh-coloured ftripes, and jaws as long as the head.
It inhabits the woods. 3. Rufus is of an orange-colour ;
but the pofterior part of the elytra and abdomen is
black, as are alio the thighs at their bafe. 4. Riparius
is of a reddilh brown colour ; but the elytra are azure-
coloured ; and the head, antennae, and two laft rings of
the abdomen, are black. It is frequent on the banks of
rivers in Europe. 5. Cbryfomelinus is black ; the thorax,
elytra, and feet being teftaceous. It is found in the
north of Europe.
The infeils have a peculiarity to be met with in al-
moll every fpecies of this genus, which is, that they
frequently turn up their tail, or extremity of the abdo¬
men, el'pecially if yen chance to touch them ; in which
cafe th« tail is feen to rile immediately, as if the iul’eft
meant to defend itfelf by Hinging. Yet that is not
the place where the infedt’s offenfive weapons are fitua-
ted. Its tail has no fting, but in recompenfe it bites
arid pinches flrongly with its jaws; and care muft be Bariut’i
taken, elpecially in laying hold of the larger fpecies. ^^era
Their jaws are ftrong, Ihoot out beyond the head, ^ni}fe to>m'
are fubfervient to the animal in febsing and deftroying
its
Staple,
Star.
Star.
^7^73 STA
e^rSUtly twoftVvHnUf JEeimS f T" E,iZab'th)' ;t mar b' allowable ,o
and tear’each "other. Kngh ,hlfbM ha.^S ZPst '*7^’ “ ^ ^ '
elytra, yet tt. wmgs are large ; but they are cu,lot,fly the baniftment of the Jews EdZi ? fh ■bef0''e
folded up and concealed under the elytra. The rafea trafls and obligations were denominated ' <;0n'
  e - ... records Farrar or fi-om^corr^ptio'h of ltheCHetTOrT»/lA
brew word,a covenant. (Tovey’s 4ng/. Judaic.?- ^
32. Selden. tit. of hon. n. 34. Uxor Ebraic. l i4.)
r , , UUUCI ciytra. ifteinlett
unfolds and expands them when he choofes to fly, which
he does very lightly. Among the fmall fpecies of this
genus, there are feveral whofe colours are lively and
Angularly intermingled. J
Some of them are found upon flowers, but they
chiefly inhabit the dung of cows. Their larvie, which
referable them fo much as to be fcarce diflinguifhable,
live m damp places under ground. They are by fome
called Rove beetles.
STAPLE, primarily fignifies a public place or mar¬
ket, whither merchants, &c. are obliged to brine? their
goods to be bought by the people; as the Gre~ve, or
the pmces along the Seine, for fale of wines and corn
at Paris, whither the merchants of other parts are obli-
ged to bring thofe commodities.
Formerly, the merchants of England were obli ged
to carry, their wool, cloth, lead, and other like ftaole
commodities of this realm, in order to expofe them
by whole fale ; and thefe ftaples were appointed to be
Thefe ftarrs, by an ordinance of Richard thTpirfl, pte-
ierved by Hoyeden, were commanded to be enrolled
and depofited in chefts under three keys in certain places •.
one, ^ and the moll confiderable, of which was in the
king s exchequer at Weftminfter : and no ftarr was al-
lowed to be valid, unlefs it were found in fome of the
laid repofitones. (Memorand. in Scad P. 6. Edw. J„
prefixed to Maynard’s year-book of Edw. II. fol 8*
Madox tuft. exch. c. vii. £ 4. 6.) 'fhe room at'the
exchequer, where the chefts containing thefe ftarrs were
kept was probably called Jlar.chamber ; and, when
r ^W,S W[e.re exPelIed the kingdom, was applied to the
ufe o. the king s council, fitting in their judicial capa¬
city. Po confirm this, the firft time the ftar-chamber
is mentioned in a.ny record, it is faid to have been fitua-
ted near the receipt of the exchequer at Weftminfter:
( tile kimr7.*;  11 ^ ....
conftantly kept “at York, Lincoln, NewcaftTe unon Itt”?’ 7^7 U the-cheq„er at Weftminfter:
Tyne, Norwich, Weftminfler, Canterbury, Chichefter ar,1 other ‘!r c!'?1,.cellor> treafurer, juftices,
Winchefter, Exeter, and Briftol; in each whereof a / ^^‘'n la chaumbre des ejhiliet
public mart was appointed to bJ kept, and each of vZ ^ Ei^ lI1-
them had a rmiH- nf fUo r , . or In Pr°cefs of time, when the meaning of the
linrrs xxrove* _ .7 * ^ ^ .
a rr ana cacn or
them had a court of the mayor of the ftaple, for deci¬
ding differences, held according to the law-merchant, in
a fummary way.
STAR, in aftronomy, a general name for all the
heavenly bodies, which, like fo many brilliant ftuds,
are difperfed throughout the whole heavens. The
ftars are diftinguifhed, from the phenomena of their
motion, &c. into fixed, and erratic or wanderin j ftars ;
theie laft are again diftinguiihed into the greater lumi¬
naries, viz. the fun and moon ; the planets, or wander-
ftars, properly fo called; and the comets ; which
ail fn 11 /-I»»..A   1 * i i «
mgr
^ r r / 5 - uic comers 5 vvilicn
have been all fully confidered and explained under the
article Astronomy. a" ‘-1-- r 1 n
c n j i V f xiAcu luars, mey are
*° called, becaufe they ieem to be fixed, or perfedffy at
reft, and confequently appear always at the fame diftance
from each other.
Fa//ing Stjrs, in meteorology, fiery meteors which
dart through the fky in form of a ftar. See Meteor.
Twinkling of the Scars. See Optics, n° 21 et
feq.^
lStar, is alfo a badge of honour, worn by the knights
fcf the garter, bath, and thiftle. See Garter ^
Star of Bethlehem, in botany. See Ornithoga-
LUM.
Court of Star-chamber, (camera flellata), a famous
or rather infamous, English tribunal, faid to have been
io called either from a Saxon word fignffyin.r to fleer
or govern ; or from its punifhing the crimen fillionatm,
or cofenage ; or becaufe the room wherein it fat, the
old council-chamber of the palace of Weftminfter,
{-Lamb 148.) which is now converted into the lotterv-
cffice, and forms the eaftern fide of New Palace-yard,
was full of windows ; or, (to which Sir Edward Coke,
4 Inft. 60. accedes), becaufe haply the roof thereof was
at the firft garmfhed with gilded/As all thefe
are merely conjeaures (for no ftars are now in the
roof, nor are any faid to have remained there fo late as
Jewifh fares were forgotten, the word farZhamber
was naturally rendered in law French, la chaumbn dc*
eHeilles, and in law Latin camera fellata ; which con¬
tinued to be the ftyle m Latin till the diffolution of
that court.
m TnS7f an.COUrt of very anci‘ent original; but new,
modelled by ftatutes 3 Hen. VII. c. 1. and 21 Hen.
V HL c. 20. confifting of divers lords fpiritual and tem¬
poral, being privy-counfellors, together with two judges
ot the courts of common-law, without the intervention
of any jury. 1 heir junfdi&ion extended legally over
riots, perjury, m.fbehaviour of fheriffs, and other noto-
As to the fixed ftars hev r ’ ^ milbehavio,lr of fheriffs, and other noto-
: iac rixeo itars, they are nous mitdemeanors. contrarv r, 1 r .l . ,
*eem “ ^ fi-i. ox perfcaiy at Yet this was afterwatS ladA ut. AihC knd;
v , . r ’ , ^ ^ *aws ot the land.
IVlV™ af [waiis (as lord Clarendon informs us)
fti etched to the affertmg of all proclamations and:
orders of ftate ; to the vindicating of illegal commif-
lrait6 ,ofrnJ10n°P0,ies ; ho!ding honour¬
able that which pleafed, and for juft that which profit-
ed ; and becoming both a court of law to determine
civil lights, and a court of revenue to enrich the trea-
finy; the council-table by proclamations enjoining to-
the people that which was not enjoined by the laws,
and prohibumg that which was not prohibited; and
the ftar-chamber, which confifted of the fame perfons in
different rooms, cenfurmg che breach and difobedience
to thofe proclamations by very great fines, imprifon-
ments, and corporal feverities : fo that any difrefpeeft to
any aib-of ftate, or to the perfons of ftatefmen, was in
no time more penal, and the foundations of right never
™re in danger to be deftroyed.” For which rcafons,
it was hnally abohfhed by ilatute 16 Car. I. c. 10 ‘0
the general joy of the whole nation. See Kikg’s Bench.
1 heiT is in the Britifh Mufeum (Harl. MSS Vol I*
n , 26 ) a very full, methodical, and accurate account
of the conftiuition and courfe of this court, compiled
by William Hudfon of Gray’s Inn, an eminent prac*
tmoner L-Srein, A frroit account of the fame, with
copias-
S T A
r 728 i
S T A
'S-ar,
l&tarchr
copies of all its procefs, may alFo be found in 18 Rym.
Foed. 102, &c. . , ,
S-TAK-Board, the right fide of the fhip when the eye
of the fpe&ator is dire&ed forward.
STAR-Fifh. See Astfrias.
STAR-Jhot, a gelatinous fubftance frequently found
in fields, and fuppofed by the vulgar to have been
produced from the meteor called m fallingJlar : but,
in reality, is the half-digefted food of herons, fea-mews,
and the like birds ; for thefe birds have been found,
when newly (hot, to difgorge a fubftance of the fame
kind.
STAR-Stone, in natural hlftory, a name given to cer¬
tain extraneous foffil ftones, in form of fhoit, and com¬
monly fomewhat crooked, columns compofed of feveral
joints, each refembling the figure of a radiated ftar, with
a greater or fmaller number of rays in the different
fpecies: they are ufually found of about an inch in
length, and of the thicknefs of a goofe-quill. Some of
them have five angles or rays, and others only four ;
and in fome the angles are equidiftant, while in others
they are irregularly fo : in fome alfo they are (liort and
blunt, while in others they are long, narrow, and point¬
ed ; and fome have their angles very ffiort and obtufe.
The feveral joints in the fame fpecimen are ufually all
of the fame thicknefs ; this, however, is not always the
cafe : but in fome they are larger at one end, and in
others at the middle, than in any other part of the body;
and fome fpecies have one of the rays bifid, fo as to
emulate the appearance of a fix-rayed kind.
STAR-Th'iftle, in botany. See Cfntaurea.
SfAR-lVort, in botany. See Aster.
STARCH, a fecula or fediment, found at the bot¬
tom of veffels wherein wheat has been fteeped in water,
.of which fecula, after feparating the bran from it, by
paffing it through fieves, they form a kind of loaves,
which being dried in the fun or an oven, is aftei wards
cut into little pieces, and fo fold. T- he belt flarch is
white, foft, and friable, and eafily broken into powder.
Such as require fine ftarch, do not content themfelves,
like the ftarchiuen, with refufe wheat, but ufe die fipeft
•Train. The procefs is as follows : 1 he grain, being
well cleaned, is put to ferment in veffels full of water,
which they expofe to the fun while in its greateft heat;
changing the water twice a-day, for the fpace of eight
or twelve days, according to the feafon. AVhen the
grain burfts eafily under the finger, they judge it fuffi-
ciently fermented. The fermentation perfeHed, and
the grain thus foftened, it is put, handful by handful,
into a canvas-bag, to leparate the flour from the bulks ;
which is done by rubbing and beating it on a plank
laid acrofs the mouth of an empty veffel that is to re¬
ceive the flour. . ,
As the veffels are filled with this liquid flour, there
is feen fwimming at top a reddifti water, which is to be
•carefully feummed off from time to time, and clean wa¬
ter is to be put in its place, which, aftei ftnring the
whole together, is alfo to be (trained through a cloth
or fieve, and what is left behind put into the veffel with
new water, and expofed to the fun for fome time. As
the fediment thickens at the bottom, they drain off the
water four or five times, by inclining the veffeb hut
without paffing it through the fieve. What remains at
bottom is the llarch, which they cut in pieces to get
out, and leave it to dry in the fun. When dry, it Is
laid up for ufe.
STARK (Dr William), known to the public by
a volume containing Clinical and Anatomical Obfervatiom,
with fome curious Experiments on Diet, was born at Man-
chefter in the month of July 1740; but the family
from which he fprang was Scotch, and rtlpeddable for
its antiquity. His grandfather John Stark of Ktller-
mont was a covenanter ; and having appeared in arms
againft his fovereign at the battle of Bothwell bridge
in the year 1679, becapie obnoxious to the government,
and to conceal himfelf, withdrew into Ireland. There
is reafon to believe that he had not imbibed either the
extravagant zeal or the favage manners of the political
and religious party to which he adhered ; for a^ter re-
Tiding a few years in the country which he had chofen
for the feene of his banifliment, he married Elizabeth
daughter of Thomas Stewart Efq; of Balydrene in the
north of Ireland; who, being defeended of the noble
family of Galloway, would not probably have matched
his daughter to fuch an exile as a ruthlefs fanatic of the
laff century. By this lady Mr Stark had feveral chil¬
dren ; and his fecond fon i. homas, who fettled at Mau-
chcffer as a wholefale linen-draper, and married Mar¬
garet Stirling, daughter of William Stirling, Efq; of
Northwoodiide, in the neighbourhood of Glaigow, was
the father of the fubjeft "of this article. _ Another of
his fons, the reverend John Stark, was minifter of Le-
cropt in Perthfhire ; and it was under the care of this
gentleman that our author received the rudiments of
his education, which, when we confider the charafter
of the mafter, and reflet on the relation between him
and his pupil, we may prefume was calculated to ft ore
the mind of Dr Stark with thofe virtuous principles
which influenced his condudt through life.
From Lecropt young Stark was lent to the umveiii-
ty of Glafgow, where, under the tuition of the Dodtora
Smith and Black, with other eminent matters, he learn¬
ed the rudiments of fcience, and acquired that mathe¬
matical accuracy, that logical precilion, and that con¬
tempt of hvpothefes, with which he profecuted all his
future ftudies. Having chofen phyfic for his profeffion,
he removed from the univerfity of Glaigow to that of
Edinburgh, where he was foon diftinguifhed, and ho¬
noured with the friendfhip of the late Dr Cullen ; a mar*
who was not more eminently confpicuous for the fupe-
riority of his own genius, than quick-fighted in percei¬
ving, and liberal in encouraging, genius in his pupils.
Having ftnifhed his ttudies at Edinburgh, though he
took there no degree, Mr Stark, in the yeai 17^5*
went to London, and devoted himfelf entirely to the
ftudy of phyfic and the elements of furgery ; and hik¬
ing upon anatomy as one of the principal pillars o! both
thefe arts, he endeavoured to complete with Dr Hun¬
ter what he had begun with Dr Monro ; and under
thefe two eminent profeffors he appears to have acqui¬
red a high degree of anatomical knowledge. He hkewife
entered himfelf about this time a pupil at St George’s
hofpital; for being difgufted, as he often confeffed*
with the inaccuracy or want of candour obfervable m
the generality of praftical writers, he determined to ob¬
tain an acquaintance with difeafes at d-better fchool and
from an abler mafter; and to have from his own expe¬
rience a ftandard, by which he might judge of the ex-
^ penenee
Stark.
6tar!{,
T A . , [ 729 1 S T A
With what jndudry he profeeuted null ; .afterwards he tried bread and <waUr with roajled
perience of others. . j    
this plan, and with what fnccefs his labours were crown¬
ed, may be feen in a feries of Clinical and Anatomical
Obfervations, which were made by him durintr his at¬
tendance at the hofpital, and were publifhed after his
death by his friend Dr Carmichael Smyth. Thefe ob-
fervations give the public no caufe to complain of want
of candour in their author; for whatever delicacy he
may have obferved, when relating the cafes of patients
treated by other phylicians, he has related thofe treat¬
ed by himfelf with the utmoft impartiality. Whilft at-
tending the hofpital, he hkewife employed himfelf in
making experiments on the blood, and other animal
fluids ; and alfo in a courfe of experiments in chemical
pharmacy ; but though accounts of thefe experiments
were left behind him, we believe they have not yet been
given to the public.
In the year 1767 Mr Stark went abroad and obtain¬
ed the degree of M. D. in the univerfity of Leyden,
publifhing an inaugural diflertation on the dyfentery.
On his return to London, he recommenced his ftudies
at the hofpital; and when Dr Black was called to the
chemical chair in Edinburgh, which he has long filled
with fo much honour to himfelf and credit to the uni¬
verfity, Dr Stark was foheited by feveral members of
the univerfity of Glafgow to Hand a candidate for their
profefforfhip of the theory and practice of phyfic, ren¬
dered vacant by Dr Black’s removal to Edinburgh,
i his however Dr Stark declined, being influenced by
tne advice of his Englifh friends, who wiflaed to detain
him in London, and having likewife fome profpedts of
an appointment in the hofpital.
In the mean time he had commenced (1769) a feries
of experiments on diet, which he was encouraged to un¬
dertake by Sir John Pringle and Dr Franklin, whofe
friendfhip he enjoyed, and from whom he received many
hints refpefting both the plan and its execution. Thefe
experiments, or rather the imprudent zeal with which
he profecuted them, proved in the opinion of his friends,
fatal to himfelf; for he began them on the 1 zth of July
1669 in perfedl health and vigour, and from that day,
though his health varied, it was feldom if ever good,
till the 23d ©f February 1 770, when he died, after
inhering much uneafinefs. His friend and biographer
Dr Smyth thinks, that other caufes, particularly cha¬
grin and difappointment, had no fmall fhare in haftening
his death ; and as the Dodlor was intimately acquaint¬
ed with his character and difpofition, his opinion is pro¬
bably well-founded, though the pernicious effedis of the
experiments are vifible in Dr Stark’s own journal. When
he entered upon them, the weight of his body was 12
ftone 3 lb. avoirdupois, which in a very few days was
uciuced to 11 ftone 10 lb 8 oz: and though fome kinds
of food increafed it, by much the greater part of what
he ufed had a contrary effeft, and it continued on the
whole to decreafe till the day of his death. This in¬
deed can excite no wonder. Though the profefied ob-
jeft of his experiments was to prove that a pleafani and
varied diet is equally conducive to health with a more
ilridt and fimple one, moft of the difhes which he ate
during thefe experiments were neither pltafant nor
fimple, but compounds, fuch as every ftomach muft:
naufeate. He began with bread and water; from which
<ie proceeded to bread, water, and fugar ; then to bread,
•ivaier, and oil of olives ; then to bread and water with
Vou XVII. Part II.
Stark
•Jjtatice,
goofep bread and water with boiled beefflewed lean of
beef with the gravy and water without bread ; dewed
lean of beej with the gravy, oil oi fat or fad and water ; ' *
flour, oil offuet, water and fait ; flour, water, and fait;
and a number of others infinitely more difagreeable to
the ftomach than even thefe, fuch as bread, fat of bacon
ham, infufion of tea with fugar ; and bread or flour with
honey and the infufion of rofemary. But though we con-
fider Dr Stark’s experiments as whimfical, it cannot be
denied that they indicate eccentricity of genius in the
peifon who made them; and fuch of our readers as think
genius hereditary, may perhaps be of opinion, that be
derived a ray.from the celebrated Napier the inventor
of the logarithms, who was his anceftor by both pa¬
rents. At any rate, thefe experiments, of which a full
account is given in the fame volume with his clinical
and anRtomical obfervations, difplay an uncommon de¬
gree of fortitude, perfeverance, feif-denial, and zeal for
the promoting of ufeful knowledge in their author *
and with refpeft to his moral charafter, we believe it is
with great j.uftice that Dr Smyth compares him to Ca¬
to by applyiug to him what was faid of that virtuous
Roman by Salluft.—“ Non divitiis cum divite, neque
faefione cum fatftiofo; fed cum ftrenuo virtute, cum mo-
defto pudore, cum innocente abftinentia certabat; efie,
quam videri, bonus malebat „
STARLING. See Sturnus. Catiline
STATE of a Controversy. See Oratory/'"**0
Part I. nc 14.
STATES, or Estates, a term applied to feveral or¬
ders or clafles of people affembled to confult of matters
for the public good.
Thus ftates-general is the name of an affembly con-
fifting of the deputies of the feven United Provinces.
Thefe are ufually 30 in number, fome provinces fending
two, others more; and whatever refolution the ftates-ge¬
neral take, muft be confirmed by every province, and by
every city and republic in that province, before it has
the force of a law. The deputies of each province, of
what number foever they be, have only one voice, and
are e.fteemed as but one perfon, the votes being given by
provinces. Each province prefides in the affembly in
its turn, according to the order fettled amono- them.
Gwelderland prefides firft, then Holland, &c. °
States of Holland are the deputies of eighteen cities,
and one reprefentative of the nobility, confHtuting the
ftates of the province of Holland.* the other provinces
have hkewife their ftates, reprefenting their fovereignty 5
deputies from which make what they call the ftates-ge-'
ncral. In an affembly of the ftates of a particular pro¬
vince, one diffenting voice prevents their coming to any
refolution,
STA I ICE 1 hrift, in botany : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and order of penta-
gynia; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the qSth.
order, aggregate. The calyx is monophyllous, entire,
folded, and fcariofe. There are five petals, with one fu-
perior feed. There are 22 fpecies, the armeria, pfeud-
armena,limonium, incana, cor-data, reticulata, echioides,
fpeciofa, tatarica, echinus, flexuofa, purpurata, minuta,
fuffruticofa, monopetala, aurea, ferulacea, Unifolia, prui-
nofa, finuata, mucronata, and lobata. Three of thefc
are Britifh plants.
1. I he armeria, thrift, or fea gilly-flower, has a Ample
4 ^ naked
. \
R T A r 73° ] , $ T A
Statics, naked ftem about fix inches high. The radical leaves
?re like grafs. The flowers are terminal, pale red, with
a round’ head, and not very large; This plant flowers in
July or Auguft, and grows in meadows near the fea.
2. Lirndnium, fea lavender. The (fern is naked, branch¬
ed, and about a foot high. The radical leaves are long,
pointed, and grow on footflalks. The flowers are blue,
and grow on long fpikes on the tops of the branches.
It grows on the fea coaft in South Britain.
3. Reticulata, matted fea-lavender. The ftem is pro-
flrate, and terminated by a panicle of flowers. I. he
branches are naked, barren, and bent back. The leaves
are wedge fhaped. 1. his fpecies is alfo found on the
fea coaft of South Britain.
STATICS, a term which the modern improvements
in knowledge have made it neceflary to introduce into
phyfico-mathematical fcience. It was found conveni¬
ent to diftribute the doftrines of univerfal mechanics in¬
to two clafles, which required both a different mode of
confideration and different principles of reafoning.
Till the time of Archimedes little fcience of this
kind was poffeffed by the ancients, from whom we
have received the firft rudiments. His inveftiga-
tion of the 'centre of gravity, and his theory of the
lever, are the foundations of our knowledge of common
mechanics; and his theory of the equilibrium of floating
bodies contains the greateft part of" our hydroftatical
knowledge. But it was as yret limited to the fimpleft
cafes; and there were fome in which Archimedes was
ignorant, or was miftaken. The marquis Guido Ubul-
di, in 1 (jyS, publifhed his theory of mechanics, m which
the doftrines of Archimedes were well explained and
confiderably augmented. Stevinus, the celebrated Dutch
engineer, publifhed about 20 years after an excellent
fyftem of mechanics, containing the chief principles
which now form the fcience of equilibrium among folid
bodies. In particular, he gave the theory of inclined
planes, which was unknown to the ancients, though it
is of the very firft importance in almoft every machine.
He even dates in the moft exprefs terms the principle
afterwards made the foundation of the whole of mecha¬
nics, and publifhed as a valuable difcovery by Varig-
non, viz. that three forces, whofe direftions and inten-
fities are as the fides of a triangle, balance each other.
His theory of the preffure of fluids, or hydroftatics, is
no lefs eftimabk, including every thing that is now re¬
ceived as a leading principle in the fcience. When we
oonlider the ignorance, even of the moft learned, of
that age in mechanical or phyfico-mathematical know¬
ledge, we muft confider thofe performances as the works
of a great genius, and we regret that they are fo little
known, being left in a croud of good writings on thofe
fubjedls which appeared foon after.
Hitherto the attention had been turned, entirely to
equilibrium, and the circumftances neceffary for produ¬
cing it. Mechanicians indeed faw, that the energy o: a
machine might be fomehow meafured by the force
which could be oppofed or overcome by its interven¬
tion : but they did not remark, that the force which
prevented its motion, but did no more than prevent it,
was an exafl meafure of its energy, becaufe it was in
immediate equilibrio with the preffure exerted by that
part of the machine with which it was conne&ed. If
this oppofed force was lefs, or the force afting at the
ether extremity of the machine was greater, the me¬
chanicians knew that the machine would move, and StaBc*,
that work would be performed ; but what wrould be 1
the rate of its motion or its performance, they hardly
pretended to conjedlure. They had not ftudied the ac¬
tion of moving forces, nor conceived what was done
when motion was communicated.
The great Galileo opened a new field of fpeculation
in his work on Local Motion. He there confiders
a change of motion as the indication and exadt and ade¬
quate meafure of a moving lorce; and he confiders every
kind of preffure as competent to the production of fuch
changes. — He contented hirnfelf with the application of
this principle to the motion of bodies by the adtion of
giavity, and gave the theory of projedtiles, which re¬
mains to this day without change, and only improved
by confidering the changes which are produced in it by
the refiftance of the air.
Sir Ifaac Newton took up this fubjedt nearly as Ga¬
lileo had left it. For, if we except the theory of the
centrifugal forces arifing from rotation, and the theory
of pendulums, publilhed by Huygens, hardly any thing
had been added to the fcience of motion. Newton con-
fidered the fubjedt in its utmoft extent; and in his ma¬
thematical principles of natural philofophy he confider®
every conceivable variation of moving force, and deter¬
mines the motion refulting from its adkion. —His firft
application of thefe dodtrines was to explain the celefti-
al motions ; and the magnificence of this fubjedl caufed
it to occupy for a wdrile the whole attention of the ma¬
thematicians. But the fame work contained propofi-
fitions equally conducive to the improvement of common
mechanics, and to the complete underftanding of the me¬
chanical adfions of bodies. Philofophers began to make
thefe applications alfo. They faw that every kind of work
which is to be performed by a machine may be confidered
abftradledly as a retarding force; that £ne impulfe of wa¬
ter or wind, which ai;e employed as moving powers, adl.
by means of preffures which they exert on the impelled-
point of the machine ; and that the machine itfelf may
be confidered as an affemblage of bodies moveable in
certain limited circumftances, with determined direc¬
tions and prop-rtions of velocity. From all thefe con-
fiderations refulted a general abftradf condition of a
body afted on by known powers. And they found,
that after all conditions of equilibrium were fatisfied,
there remains a furplus of moving force. They could
now ftate the motion which will enfue, the new refiftance
which this will excite, the additional power which this-
will abforb ; and they at laft determined a new kind of
equilibrium, not thought of by the ancient mechanici¬
ans, between the refiftanc.e to the machine performing
work and the moving power, which exaftly balance
each other, and is indicated, not by the rej,. but by the
un’form motion of the machine.—In like manner, the
mathematician was enabled to calculate that precife
motion of water which would completely abfarb, or, in
the new language, balance the fuperiority of preffure
by which water is forced through a fluice, a pipe, or
canal, with a conftant velocity.
Thus the general dodlrines of motion came to be con¬
fidered in two points of view, according as they balan¬
ced each other in a ftate of reft or of uniform motion..
Thefe two ways of confidering the fame fubjedt requi¬
red both different principles and a different manner o£
reafoning. The fuff has been named Statics, as ex*
prefling
S T A [ 7
prefling'that reft which is the teft of this kind of equi.
librium. The fecond has been called Dynamics or
Universal Mechanics, becaufe the different kinds
of motion are chara&eriftic of the powers or forces
which produce them. A knowledge of both is indif-
peniably neceffary for acquiring any ufeful praaical
knowledge of machines : and it was ignorance of the
docttines ol accelerated and retarded motions which
made the progrefs of praftical mechanical knowledge
fo very flow and imperfedt. ft'he mechanics, even of
the moderns, before Galileo, went no further than to
ftate the proportion of the powder and refiftance which
would be balanced by the intervention of a given
machine, or the proportion of the parts of a machine
by which two known forces may balance each other,
i his view of the matter introduced a principle, which
even Galileo confidered as a mechanical axiom, viz.
that what is gained in force by means of a machine is
exatlly ccmpenfated by the additional time which it obliges
us to employ. 1 his is falie in every inftance, and not
only prevents improvement in the conftru&ion of ma¬
chines, but leads us into erroneous maxims of conftruc-
tion. . 1 he true principles of dynamics teach us, that
there is a certain proportion of the machine, dependent
on the kind and proportion of the power and refdtance,
which enables the machine to perform the greateft pof-
flble work. ^
It is highly proper therefore to keep feparate thefe
two ways of confidering machines, that both may be
improved to the utmoft, and then to blend them toge¬
ther in every praftical difcuffion.
btatics theiefore is preparatory 10 the proper ftudy
of mechanics ; but it does not hence derive all its im¬
portance. It is the foie foundation of many ufeful
parts of knowledge. This will be beft feen by a brief
enumeration.
1. It comprehends all the do&rines of the excitement
and propagation of preffure through the parts of folid
bodies, by which the energies ot machines are produced.
A preffure is exerted on the impelled point of a machine,
fuch as the float-boards or buckets of a mill-wheel. This
excites a prefl'ure at the pivots of its axle, which aft
on the points of fupport. This muft be undei flood,
both as to diredlion and intenfity, that it may be effeau-
ally refitted. A preffiire is alfo excited at the adting
tooth of the cog-wheel on the fame axle, by which it
urges round another wheel, exciting fimilar preffures on
its pivots and on the aftirg tooth perhaps of a third
wheel.:—Thus a preffure is ultimately excited in the
working point of the machine, perhaps a wiper, which
lifts a heavy {tamper, to let it fall again on fome matter
to. be pounded. Now italics teaches us the inten-
fities and direaion of all thofe preffures, and therefore
how much remains at the working point of the machine
unbalanced by reiiftance.
2. It comprehends every circumftance which influ*
ences the liability of heavy bodies; the invefligation and
properties of the centre of gravity ; the theory of the
conflrudtion ot arches, vaults, and domes ; the attitudes
of animals.
3- The ftrength of materials, and the principles of
conltrudhon, fo as to make the proper adjuftment of
flrength and ftrain m every part of a machine, edifice,
or flrudlure of any kind. Statics therefore furnifhes
us with what may be called a theory of carpentry, and*
M ] S T A
gives us proper inftrudions for framing floors, roofs,
centres, &c,
4. Statics comprehends the whole 'dodtrine of the
preffure of fluids, whether liquid or aeriform, whether
arifing from their weight 0/from any external adtion.
Hence therefore we derive our knowledge of the {labi¬
lity of ihips, or their power of maintaining themfelves in
a pofition nearly upright, in oppofition to the action of
the wind on their fails. We learn on what circumftances
of figure and ftowage this quality depends, and what
will augment or diminifh it.
Very complete examples will be given in the remain¬
ing part of this work of the advantages of this feparate
confideration of the condition of a machine at reit and
in .working motion ; and in what yet remains to be
delivered of the hydraulic do&rines in our account of
IVATER-JVorks in general, will be perceived the propriety
of Hating apart the equilibrium which is indicated by
the.uniform motion of the fluid. The obfervations too
which we have to make on the ilrength of the materi¬
als employed in our edifices or mechanical ftrudlures,
will be examples of the inveftigation of thofe powers,
preffures, or drains, which are excited in all their parts.
S fATISTICS, a word lately introduced to exprefs
a view or .Purvey of any kingdom, county, or pariffi.
A Statiftical view of Germany was publifhed in 1790
by Mr 13. Clarke; giving an account of the imperial and
territorial conilitutions, forms of government, legiila-
tion, adminiilration of juftice, and of the ecclefiaftica!
ftate ; with a flcetch of the character and genius of the
Germans ; a fhort inquiry into the ftate of their trade
and commerce; and giving a diitinA view of the domi¬
nions, extent, number of inhabitants to a iquare mile ;
chief towns, with their lize and population; revenues, ex-
pences, debts, and military flvength of each ftate. In
1 inffia, in baxony, oardinia, and i ufcany, attempts have
alio been made to draw up ftatiilical accounts; but they
were done rather with a view of afcertamin j- the prefent
Hate of thefe countries, than as the means of future im¬
provement.
A grand, and extenfive work of this kind, founded
on a judicious plan, conduced by the mod patrio¬
tic and enlightened motives, and drawn up from the
communications of the whole body of the clergy, was
undertaken in Scotland in the year 1790 by Sir John
Sinclair of Uibfler, one of the moil ufeful members of
his country. Many praifes are heaped upon genius and
learning; but to genius and learning no applaufe is due,
except when exerted for the benefit of mankind: but
gratitude and praife is due to him whofe talents fhine
only in great undertakings, whofe happinefs feems to
confift in patriotic exertions, and whofe judgment is
uniformly approved by his fuccefs. A work of this
kind, fo important in its objedl, fo comprehenfive in its
range, fo judicious in its plan, and drawn up by more
than 900 men of literary education, many of them men
°f great genius and learning, muff be of immenfe value.
Sixteen volumes oftavo are already publifhed ; and it is
fuppofed that the work will be completed in two or
three additional volumes.
. The great object of this work is to give an accurate
view of the ftate of the country, its agriculture, its
manufa&ures, and its commerce; the means of improve¬
ment, of which they are refpe&ively capable; the amount
of the population of a ftate, and the caufes of its inoreafe
4 Z 2 or
Statlff,
SUbfticff.
/
S T A [ 73» 1 S T A
StatifHcf, or decreafe; tlie manner in which the territory of a coun-
" ' ’ try is poflefied and cultivated ; the nature and amount
of the various productions of the foil; the value of the
perfonal wealth or hock of the inhabitants, and how it
can be augmented; the d • afes to which the people are
fubjeCt, their caufes and their cure ; the occupations of
the people ; where they are entitled to encouragement,
and where they ought to be fupprefled ; the condition
of the poor, the bell mode of maintaining them, and of
giving them employment; the hate of ichools, and other
inhitutions,formed for purpofesof public utility; thehate
of the v llages and towns, and the regulations beft calcu¬
lated foi their police and good government; the hate of
the manners, the moials, and the religious principles of
the people, and the means by which their temporal and
eternal interehs can beh be promoted.
To fuch of our readers as have not an opportunity
of perufmg this national work, or of examining its plan,
we will prefect the fcheme for the hatihical account of
a parochial dihrief which Sir John Sinclair publifhed
for the confuleration of the clergy, and which has been
generally followed by them, though often with great
improvements.
The name of the parifh and its origin ; fltuation and
extent of the parilh ; number of acres ; delcription of
the foil and fu face ; nature and extent of the fea coaft;
lakes, rivers; i(lands, hills, rocks, caves, woods, orchards,
&c.; climate and difeafes ; inftances of longevity ; (late
of pioperty; number of proprietors; number of redding
proprietors; mode oi cultivation; implements of hufban-
dry; manures; leedtime and harvtft; remarkable inftances
of good and bad feafons; quantity and value of each ipe-
cies of crop; total value of the whole produce of the dil-
trief ; total real and valued rent; price of grain and pro-
vifions; total.quantity of grain and other aiticles confu-
med in the parilh; wages and price of labour ; fe’rvices,
■whetherexacted oraboliftied; commerce; manufactures;
jnanufaCtureo: kelp,its amounr, and the number of people
employed in it; dfheries; towns and villages; prince; inns
ancl alehoules; roads and bridges;Jiarbours; ferries, and
theirftate; number of drips and vefiels; number of teamen;
ftate of the church ; liipend, mante, glebe, and patron ;
number of poor ; parochial (usds, and the management
of them ; ftate of the ichools, and number of fcholars ;
ancient ftate of population caufes of its inereale or de-
crcafe ; number of families ; exaet amount of the num¬
ber of touls now living; diviftoa of the inhabitants;
j. by the place of their biith ; 2. by their ages ; 3. by
their religious perfuaftons ; 4. by their occupations and
£tuation in life; 5. by their refidence, whether in town,
village, or in the country ; number of houfes ; number
of uninhabited houles ; number of dove-cots, and to
what extent they are deftruCtive to the crops ; number
of horfes, their nature and value; number of cattle, their
nature and value; number of (beep, their nature and va¬
lue ; number of fwine, their nature and value ; minerals
in general; mineral fprings; coal and fuel; eminent men;
antiquities ; parochial records; mifcellaneous obferva-
tions ; charaCier of the people; their manners, cuftoms,
Jlature, &c. ; advantages and difadvantages ; means by
which their (ituation could be meliorated.
If funilar fuiveys (fays the public-fpirited editor of
% this work) were inftituted in the other kingdoms of
Europe, it might be the means of eftablifhing, on furc
foundations, the principles of tlxat mod important of aU
fciences, viz. political or ftatiftical philofophy p that fa, Stadut
the fcience, which, in preference to every other, ought II
to be held in reverence. No fcience can fui nifh, to any Statt|e‘
mind capable of receiving ufetul information, (o much v™"'
real entertainment; none can yield luch important hints,
for the improvement of agriculture, for the extenfion of
commercial induftry, ror regulating the conduct of in¬
dividuals, or for extending the prolperity of the ftate ;
none can tend fo much to promote the general happi-
neis of the fpecies.
STATIUS (Publius Papinius), a celebrated La¬
tin poet of the nrft century, was born at Naples, and
was the Ion of Statius, a native of Lpirus, who went
to Rome to teach poetry and eloquence, and had P)o-
mitian for his fcholar, Statius the poet alfo obtained
the favour and friendfhip of that prince ; and dedica¬
ted to him his '1 hebais apd Achilleis ; the firft in twelve
books, and the laft in two. He died at Naples about
the year 100. Behdes the above poems, there are
alio Hill extant his Sy/va, in live books ; the (lyle of
which is purer, more agreeable, and more natural, than
that of his Thebais and Achilleis.
STA i UARY, a branch of fculpture, employed in
the making of ftatues. See Sculpture and the next
article.
Statuary is one of thofe arts wherein the ancients
furpalied the moderns ; and indeed it was much more
popular, and more cultivated, among the former than
the latter. It is difputed between ftatuary and paint¬
ing, which of the two is the moil difficult and the mod
artful.
Statuary is alfo ufed for the artificer who makes
ftatues. Phidias was the greateft ftatuary among the
ancients, and Michael Angelo among the moderns.
STATUE, is defined to be a piece of fculpture in
full relievo, reprefenting a human figure. jDaviler more
feientireally defines tlatue a reprelentation, in high re¬
lievo and inlulate, of iome perion ditlinguifhed by his
birth, merit, or great actions, placed as an ornament in
a fine building, or expofed in a public place, to preferve
the memory of .his worth. In Greece one of tire high-
eft honours to which a citizen could afpire was to ob¬
tain a ftatue.
Statues are formed with the chifel, of feveral matters,
as ftone, marble, plalter, See. They are alio call of
various kinds of metal, particularly gold, lilver, brafs,
and lead. For the method of calling ftatues, fee the
article Foundery of Statues.
Statues are ufually diftinguifhed into four general
kinds. The firft are thofe lels than the life ; oi which •
kind we have feveral ftatues of great men, oi kings, and
of gods themfelvts. The fecond are thofe equal to the
life ; in which manner it was that the ancients, at the
public expence, uled to make ftatues of perlons emi¬
nent for virtue, learning, or the fervices they had done.
The third are thofe that exceed the life ; among which
thole that lurpaffed the life once and a half were for
kings and emperors ; and thole double the life, lor he¬
roes. i he fourth kind were thole that exceeded the
life twice, thrice, and even more, and were called colof
Jujes. See Colossus.
Every ftatue rdembiing the perfon whomit is intended
to repretent, is calledjiau.a icuntca. Statues acquire va¬
rious other denominations. 1. Thus, allegorical ftatue
is that which, under a human .figure, or other fymbol,
1 - rep re*
S T A r 733
yeprefents fomething of another kind ; as a part of the
earth, a fealon, age, element, temperament, hour, &c,
2. Curule llatues, are thol'e which are reprefented in
chariots drawn by bigae or quadrigae, that is, by two
or four horfes ; o! which kind there were feveral in the
circufes, hippodromes, &c. or in cars, as we fee fome,
with triurpphal arches on antique medals. 3. Equeftri-
an llatue, that which reprefents fome illuftrious perfon
on horfeback, as that famous one of Marcus Aurelius
at Rome ; that of king C harles I. at Charing-crofs j
King George II in I.eicefter-Square, See. 4. Greek
ftatue, denotes a figure that is naked and antique ; it
being in this manner the Greeks reprefented their deities,
athletse oi the olympic games, and heroes; the llatues
of heroes were particularly cailed Achillean Jlatues, by
reaion of the great number of figures of Achilles in
moft of the cities of Greece. 5. Hydraulic ftatue, is
any figure placed as an ornament of a fountain or grot¬
to, or that does the office of a jet d'eau, a cock, fpout,
or the like, by any of its parts, or by any attribute it
holds: the like is to be underllood of any animal ter-
ving tor the fame ufe. 6. Pedeftrian ilatue, a ftatue
itanding on foot; as that of king Charles hi. in the
Royal Exchange, and of king Jrmes II. in the Privy-
Gardens. 7. Roman ftatue, is an appellation given to
Inch as are clothed, and which receive various names
from their various drefles. Thofe of emperors, with
long gowns over their armour, were calledJlatua pa-
ludatte : thofe of captains and cavaliers, with coats of
arms, thoracaU; thofe of ioldiers with cniralfes, lo¬
ricate ; thofe of fenators and augurs, trabeate ; thofe of
magiftrates with long robes, tog,eta ; thofe of the people
with a plain tunica, tunicata ; and, laftly, thofe of wo¬
men with long trains, /lolate.
In repairing a ftatue call in a mould, they touch it
up with a child, graver, or other inftrument, to finifti
the places which have not come well off: they alfo
clear off the barb, and what is redundant in the joints
and projectures.
STATURE. See Dwarf and Giant.
STATUTE, in its general fenfe, fignifies a law,
ordinance, decree, &c. See Law, &c.
Statute, in our laws and cuftoms, more immedi¬
ately figrrifies an adl of parliament made by the three
eftates of the realm ; and ftich ftatutes are either gene¬
ral, of which the courts at Weftminfter muft take notice
without pleading them ; or they are fpecial and private,
which laft muft be pleaded. /
STAVESACRE, in botany ; a fpectes of Delphi-
NI-UM.
STAY, a large ftrong rope employed to fupport the
irraft on the fore-part, by extending from its upper end
towards the fore part of the ftiip as the fhrouds are ex¬
tended to the right and left, and behind it. See Mast,
Rigging, and Shroud.
The ftay of the fore-maft 0, fig. 3. plate CCLXXYL
which is called the fore-Jlav, reaches from the maft-
head towards the bowfprit-end : the main ftay b ex¬
tends over the forecaftle to the {hip’s item ; and the
.mizen-ftay 0 is ftretched down to that-part of the main-
malt which lies immediately above the quarter-deck -
the fore-top-maft ftay o' comes alio to the end of the
bowfpiritj a htile beyond the fore-ftay: the main-top-
tnaft ftay e is attached to the head or hounds ol the
fore-matt; and tire nuzeri-top-malt itay comes alio to
Stay,
Stearn.
] S T E
the hounds of the ma?n-maft : the fore-top-gallant ftay
comes to the outer end of the jib-boom ; and the main -
top gallant ftay is extended to the head of the fore-top.'—  
jnaft. ' e
Stay-Sail, a fort of triangular fail extended upon a
ftay. See Sail.
SI DAM, is the name given in our language to the Definition,
vihble moilt vapour which ariles horn all bodies which
contain juices calily expelled from them by heats not
fufficient for their oombultiou. Thus we lay, the fteam
of boiling water, oi malt, of a tan-bed, &c. It is dif-
tinguilhed from fmoke by its not having been produced
by combuftion, by not containing any loot, and by its
being condenfible by cold into water, oil, inflammable
fpirit-s, or liquids compofed of thefe.
We fee it rife in great abundance from bodies when A. *
they are heated, forming a white cloud, which diffufes Ue a
ilfelt and difappears at no very great ditlance from the whife
body from which it was produced. In this cafe thecloud
funoimdmg air is found loaded with the water or other
juices which feem to have produced it,, and the fteam
leems to be completely lolubie in air, as fait is in water,
compofing while thus united a tranlparent elaftic fluid.
But in order to us appearance in the form of an When d'ni-
opaque white cloud, the mixture with or diffenunation fcmiMated
in air feem abfolutely neceffary. If a tea-kettle boils *a ail-
violently, fo that the fteam is formed at the fpout in
great abundance, it may be obferved, that the vifible
cloud is not formed at the very mouth of the fpout,
but at a imall diftance before it, and that the vapour is
perfeaiy tranfparent at its nrft emiffion. This is ren-
dered ftill more evident by fitting to the fpout of the
tea-kettle a glafs pipe ol any length, and of as large a
diameter as we pleale. The fteam is produced as co-
pioufly as without this pipe, but the vapour is tranlpa¬
rent through the whole length of the pipe. Nay, if
this pipe communicate _ with a glafs veiiel terminating
in another pipe, and if the veiiel be kept fufficiently
hot, the fteam will be as abundantly produced at the
mouth of this fecond pipe as before, and the veil'd will
be quite tranfparent. 1 he viiibility therefore of the
matter which conftitutes the fteam is an accidental or
extraneous circumltance, and requires the admixture
with air ; yet this quality again leaves it when united
with air by lolution. It appears therefore to requiie a
dijfemtnation in the air. The appearances are quite
agreeable to this notion : for we know that one per¬
fectly traniparent body, when minutely divided and
diftuted among the parts of another tranfparent body,
but not diflulved in it, makes a mafs which is vifible-
I bus oil beat up with water makes a white opaque
mni s.
in the mean time, as fteam is produced, the water is
gradually waftes in the tea kettle, and will foon be to-< on verted1
tall) expended, if we continue if on the fire. It is rea. mto waterr
Ion able therefore to fuppofe, that this fteam is nothing by coU‘
but water changed by heat into an aerial or elaftic
form If lo, we ffiouid expeft that the privation of
this heat would leave it in the form of water again.
Accordingly this is fully verified by experiment; tor if
the pipe fitted to the fpout of the tea kettle be lurround-
cd with cold water, no fteam will iffoe, hat water will
continually trickle from it in drops ; and if the proeefs -
be conducted with the proper precautions, the water
which we thus obtain from the pipe will be found
equal
S T E C 734 1 S T E
Its appear¬
ances ex¬
plained,
f team, equal In quantity to that which difappears from the tea-
kettle. ' . . , '
This is evidently the common procefs for diftilUng ;
and the v/hole appearances may be explained by faying,
that the water is converted by heat into ah elaftic va¬
pour, and that this, meeting with colder air, imparts to
it the heat which it carried off as it arofe from the heat¬
ed water, and being deprived of its heat it is again wa¬
ter. The particles of this wrater being vaftly more re¬
mote from each other than when they were in the tea-
kettle, and thus being diffeminated in the air, become
vifible, by refiefting light from their anterior and polfe-
rior furfaces, in the fame manner as a tranfparent fait
becomes viiible when reduced to a tine powder. This
difTeminated water being prefented to the air in a very
extended furface, is quickly diffolved by it, as pounded
fait is in water, and again becomes a tranfparent fluid,
but of a different nature from what it was before, be¬
ing no longer convertible into water by depriving it of
its heat.
Accordingly this opinion, or fomething very like it,
has been long entertained. Mulchenbroeck exprefsly
fays, that the wafer in the form of vapour carries off
6 with it all the heat which is continually thrown in by
And the the fuel. But Dr Black was the firit who attended
eaufe t.f its mfnutely to the whole phenomena, and enabled us to
converfion, £Qrm diftinT notions of the fubjeft. He had difcovered
Black’s dif-that it was not fufficient for converting ice into water
-covery of that it he raifed to that temperature in which it can no
latent heat. jonger remain in the form of ice. A piece of ice of
the temperature 3 2° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer will
remain a very long while in air of the temperature 50°
before it be all melted, remaining all the while of the
temperature 32°, and therefore-continually ahforhing
heat from the furrounding air. By comparing the time
in which the ice had its temperature changed from 28°
to 32° with the fubfequent time of its complete lique-
faftion, he found that it abforbed about 130 or 140
times as much heat as would raife its temperature one
degree ; and he found that one pound of ice, when
mixed with one pound of water 140 degrees warmer,
was juft melted, but without rijing in its temperature
above 320. Hence he juftly concluded, that water dif¬
fered from ice of the fame temperature by containing,
as a conftituent ingredient, a great quantity of lire, or
of the caufe of heat, united with it in fuch a way as
rot to quit it for another colder body, and therefore fo
as not to go into the liquor of the thermometer and ex-
pand it. "Confldered therefore as the poflible caufe of
heat, it was latent, which Dr Black expreffcd by the
abbreviated term latent heat. If any more heat
was added to the water it was not latent, but would
readily quit it for the thermometer, and,, by expanding
the thermometer, wrould (how what is the degree of
this redundant heat, while fluidity alone is the indica¬
tion of the combined and latent heat.
Dr Black, in like manner, concluded, that in order to
convert water into an elaftic vapour, it was n^cefiary,
not only to increafe its uncombined heat till its tempe¬
rature is 212% in which ftate it is juft ready to become
elaftic ; but alfo to pour into it a great quantity of fire,
or the caufe of heat, which-combines with every parti-
He of it, fo as to make it repel, or to recede from, its
adjoining particles, and thus to make it a particle of an
elaftic fluid. He fuppofed that this additional heat
might he combined with it fo as not to q«!t it for the
thermometer; and therefore fo as to be in a latent ftate, —-v—W
having elaftic fluidity for its foie indication, 7
This opinion was very conliftent with the phenome-The tea!,
non of boiling off a quantity of water. The applica-pe,ratlir.e al
tion of heat to it caufes it gradually to rife in its tem-
perature till it reaches the temperature 212°. It then Ld the ’
begins to fend off elaftic vapour, and is flowly expend-of
ed in this way, continuing all the while of the fame ^at vv^!c^
temperature. The fleam alfo is of no higher tempera-11 ablo‘^‘’
ture, as appears by holding a thermometer in it. We
muft conclude that this iteam contains all the heaf
which is expended in its formation. Accordingly the
fealding power of fleam is well known ; but it is ex¬
tremely difficult to obtain precife meafures of the quan¬
tity of heat abforbed by water during its converuon in¬
to fleam. Dr Black endeavoured to afeertain this point,
by comparing the time of railing its temperature a cer¬
tain'number of degrees with the time of boiling it off
by the fame external heat ; and he found that the heat
latent in fleam, which balanced the preffure of the at-
mofphere, was not lefs than 800 degrees. Fie alfo dt-
refted Dr Irvine of Glafgow to the form of an experi¬
ment for meafuring the heat actually extricated from
fuch fleam during its condenfation in the refrigeratory
of a itill, which was found to be not lefs than 774 de¬
grees. Dr Black was afterwards informed by Mr
Watt, that a couvfe of experiments, which he had made
in each of thefe ways with great preciiion, determined
the latent heat of fleam under the ordinary preffure of
the atmoiphere to be about 948 or 950 degrees. Mr
Watt alfo found that water wouid^diilil with great eafe
in vacuo when of the temperature 70°; and that in this
cafe the latent heat of the fleam is not lefs than 1200
or 1300 degrees: and a train of experiments, which he
had made by diitilling in different temperatures, made
him conclude that the lum of the fenlible and latent
heats is a conftant quantity. This is a curious and not
an improbable circumftance ; but we have no informa¬
tion of the particulars of thefe experiments. The con-
clufion evidently preluppofes a knowledge of that par¬
ticular temperature in which the water has no heat;
but this is a point which is flill fub judice. g
This converlion of liquids (tor it is not confined to Steam, by
water, but obtains alfo in ardent fpirits, oils, mercury,bein^ com*
&c.) is the caufe of their boiling. The heat is applied
to the bottom and fldes of the veffel, and gradually ac-s eij.
cumulates in the fluid, in a feniible ftate, uncombined, ft;c and
and fieady to quit it and to enter into any body that is light,
colder, and to diffufe itielf between them, 't hus it en¬
ters into the fluid of a thermometer, expands it, and
thus gives us the indication of the degree in which it
has been accumulated in the water; for the thermome¬
ter fwells as long as it continues to abforb fenlible heat
from the water : and when the fenlible heat in both is
in equilibrio, in a proportion depending on the nature
of the two fluids, the thermometer riles no more, becaufe
it abforbs no more heat or fire from the water ; for the
particles of water which are in immediate contact with
the bottom, are now (by this gradual expanfion of liqui¬
dity) at fuch diftance from each other, that their laws
of attradlion for each other and for heat are totally
changed. Each particle either no longer attradls, or
perhaps it repels its adjoining particle, and now accu¬
mulates round itielf a great number of the particles of
2 heat.
Steam.
9
And pro¬
duces ths
phenome¬
non of boil
rilg.
S T E [ 735
iieat, and forms a particle ofelaftic fluid, fo related to way
the adjoining new formed particles, as to repel them
to a diilance at leaft a hundred times greater than their
diftances in the Hate of water. Thus a mafs of elaftic
vapour of fenfible magnitude is formed. Being at leaft
ten thoufand times lighter than an equal bulk of wa¬
ter, it muft rife up through it, as a cork would do, in
form of a tran[parent ball or bubble, and getting to
the top, it diflipates, filling the upper part of the veffel
with vapour or fleam. rl hus, by tolling the liquid in¬
to bubbles, which are produced all over the bottom and
hdes of the veflel, it produces the phenomenon of ebulli¬
tion or boiling. Obferve, that during its paffasre up
through the water, it is not changed or condenfed ; for
the furrounding water is already fo hot that the fenfible
or uncombined heat in it, is in equilibrio with that in the
vapour, and therefore it is not difpofed to abforb any
of that heat which is combined as an inpredient of this
vapour, and gives it its elafticity. For this reafon, it hap¬
pens that water will not boil till its whole mafs be heat-
ed UP to 212° ; lor if the upper part be colder, it
robs the riling bubble of that heat which is necefl'ary
for its elafticity, fo that it immediately collapfes a<rain,
and the furface of the water remains Hill. This"may
be perceived by holding water in a Florence flalk over
a lamp or choffer. It will be obferved, fome time be¬
fore the real ebullition, that fome bubbles are formed
at the Bottom, and get up a very little way, and then
e ilappear. i he dillances which they reach before col-
lapfmg increafe as the water continues to warm farther
up the mafs, till at laft it breaks out into boiling
if the handle of a tea-kettle be grafped with the hand,
a tremor will be felt for fome little time before boiling,
aniing from the little fuccuflions wjiich are produced by
the collapling of the bubbles of vapour. This is much
more violent, and is really a remarkable phenomenon, if
we fuddenly plunge a lump of red hot iron into a veffel
ol cold water, taking care that no red part be near the
lurface. If the hand be now applied to the lide of the
vellel, a moll violent tremor is felt, andfometimes ftrong
thumps: thefe arife from the collapfing of very large
bubbles. If the upper part of the iron be too hot, it
warms the furrounding water fo much, that the bubbles
from below come up through it uncondenfed, and pro¬
duce ebullition without this fuccuffion. The great
refemblance of this tremor to the feeling which we
have during the (hock of an earthquake has led many
to fuppofe that thefe laft are produced in the fame
J S T e
(See Earthquake, n° 88 — 98); and then'by- Steam,
pothens, notwithftanding the objeflions which we have
elfewhere ftated to it, is by no means unfeafible.
It is owing to a fimilar caufe that violent thsmps areThendfc
iometimes felt on the bottom of a tea-kettle, efpeciallyone obterved im
which has been long in ufe. Such are frequently cruft-the boilin^
e_d on the bottom with a ftony concretion. This fome-tf V**"
tunes ^ detached in little feales. When one of thefe isSed.*"
adhering by one end to the bottom, the water gets be¬
tween them in a thin film. Here it may be heated
confiderably above the boiling temperature, and it fud-
denly riles up in a large bubble, which collapfes imme¬
diately. A fmooth (hilling lying on the bottom will
produce this appearance very violently, or a thimble
with the mouth down.
In order to make water boil, the fire muff be ap-Water will
plied to the bottom or lides of the veffel. If then°t boil un¬
heat be applied at the top of the water, it will waftelefs the fue
away without boiling ; for the very fuperficial particles?6 ?Pi!ed
are firft fupplied with the heat neceffary for rendering tom "x fide,
them elaltic, and they fly off without agitating the^f the vef-
reft (a). ^ & fd.
. Sjn^e th,'s difengagement of vapour is the effba ofM fl12 .
its elafticity, and flnee this elafticity is a determined^ bo’il rill
loree when the temperature is given, it follows, thateLaiu-
flmds cannot boil till the elafticity of the vapour over-'?0^6
comes the preffure of the incumbent fluid and of the at-varo"r °"
rnofphere. Iherefore, when this preffure is removed or^heprTn'ure
iminilhed, the fluids mull fooner overcome what re.'dthein-
mains, and boil at a lower temoerature. Accordingly itcumbent
is obferved that water will boil in an exhaufted receiverbodlCi-
when of the heat of the human body. If two glafs
balls A and B (lig. 1.) be connected by a (lender tube, platc
and one of them A be filled with water (a fmall open-CCCCLXXVir’
nig or pipe b being left at top of the other), and 'this
be made to boil, the vapour produced from it will drive
ail the air out of the other, and will at laft come out
itltif, producing fleam at the mouth of the pipe. When
the ball B is obferved to be occupied by tranfparent va¬
pour we may conclude that the' air is completely ex-
pelled. Now lhut the pipe by (licking it into a piece
ot tallow or bees-wax ; the vapour in B will foon con-
deine, and there will be a vacuum. Ike flame of a
lamp and biow-pipe being dire&ed to the little pipe,
wil! caufe it immediately to clofe and feal hermetically.
We now have a pretty inflrument or toy called a Pulse
glass. Grafp the ball A in the hollow of the hand ;
the heat of the hand will immediately expand the bub¬
ble
Tur .V condenfed by co-
I he particles of it are femetimes very diftinuuiffiahle In tvf * , , his cloud w hich is very inexplicable.
of very fmall drops of ware , I gZe 7e Ser releaion of^ k “W" e'l ^ ^
we attend alfo to their motik, we fee th™ defeendinf verv nlT ” v V£fc.ll ‘l' a W^ble. IP
drop; and this veficular conrtitntion is ^ ^ ,**"? °f 3 fol,'d :
fleam. It is feen furrounded bv a taint h^n with • p i , ^ ooking at a candle through- a cloud of
optical laws to belong to a collection of vehicles I m'< ? lcal colo“tSj precifely fuch as we can demonllrate by
byacolleftion of foM dkps tl /erC Sht ,0taI,)r -m ,be halo which would be produced,
des, each of which was tZointd'C withkarw ^ ^ ^ T ^ P»«i-
thefe velicles fhall include within it a b 11 of air • hut — ’ '-CIr|ciun1cated to the arr, and how each of
oilis boiling or nearly boiling, the furihee be obliquely ySaJhaf bTSfcrt ^ 5^
h in explaining fevcral phenomena of the atmCfpher”. f“m * d S'i ^ he makes-c0"fi<kri‘b1'
S T E
[ 736 ]
S T E
Steam,
We of vapour which may be in it, and this vapour will
dj-ive the water into B, and then will blowup through
it for a long while, keeping it in a ftate oi violent ebul¬
lition, as long as there remains a drop or film of water
in A. But care muft be taken that B is all the while
kept cold, that it may condenfe the vapour as fait as it
rifes through the water. Touching B with the hand,
or breathing warm on it, will immediately itop the ebul¬
lition in it. When the water in A has thus been diffipa-
ted, grafp B in the hard ; the water will be driven in¬
to A, and the ebullition will take place there as it did
in B. Putting one of the balls into the mouth will
make the ebullition more violent in the othei, and the
one in the mouth will feel very cold. This is a pretty
illuitration of the rapid abforption of the heat by the
•particles of water which are thus converted into elaftic
vapour. We have feen this little toy fufpended by the
middle of the tube like a balance, and thus placed in
the infide of a window, having two holes a and b cut
in the pane, in fuch a fituation that when A is full of
water and preponderates, B is oppofite to the hole b.
Whenever the room became fufficiently warm, the va¬
pour was formed in A, and immediately drove the wa¬
ter into B, which was kept cool by the air coming in¬
to the room through the hole b. By this means B was
made to preponderate in its turn, and A was then op¬
pofite to the bole a, and the procefs was now repeated
in the oppoiite diredtion ; and this amufement continu-
1, ed as long as the room was warm enough.
{Liquorsdif- We know that liquors differ exceedingly in the tem-
tfor much in peratures neceffary for their ebullition. 1 his forms the
the tem- t chem;cal diflin&ion between volatile and fixed bo¬
dies. But the difference of temperature in which they
boil, or are converted into permanently elaftic vapour,
under the preffure of the atmofphere, is not a ceitain
meafure of their differences of volatility- The natural
boiling point of a body is that in which it will be con¬
verted3into elaftic vapour under no preffure, or in vacuo.
The boiling point in the open air depends on the law of
the elafticity of the vapour in relation to its heat. A
fluid A may be lefs volatile, that is, may require more
heat to make it boil in vacua, than a fluid^ B : But if
the elafticity of the vapour of A be more increafed by
an increafe of temperature than that of the vapour of
B, A may boil at as low, or even at a lower tempera¬
ture, in the open air, than B does ; for the incieafed
elafticity of the vapour of A may fooner overcome the
preffure of the atmofphere. Few experiments have been
made on the relation between the temperature and the
elafticity of different vapours. So long ago as the year
1765, we had occafion to examine the boiling points ef
all fuch liquors as we could manage in an. air-pump ;
that is, fuch as did not produce vapours which deftroy-
ed the valves and the leathers of the piftons : and we
thought that the experiments gave us reafon to conclude,
,, that the elafticity of all the vapours was affected by heat
SDifference nearly in the fame degree. For we found that the dft-
between ference between their boiling points in the an an m
vacuo was nearly the fame in all, namely, about 120 e-
grees lof Fahrenheit’s thermometer. . It is exceedingly
difficult to make experiments of this kind : The va¬
pours are fo condenfible, and change their elafticity fo
prodigioufly by a trifling change of. temperature, that
it is almoft impoffible to examine this point with preci-
fioH. It is, however, as we fhall fee by and by, a fub-
Steam,
je<ff of confiderable practical importance in the mechanic
arts ; and an accurate knowledge of the relation would
be of great ufe alfo to the diftiller : and it would be
no lefs important to difeover the relation of their elaftici-
-ty and denfity, by examining their compreffibility, in
the fame manner as we have afeertained the relation in
the cafe of what we call aerialfluids, that is, fuch as we
have never obferved in the form of liquids or folids, ex¬
cept in confequence of their union with each other or
with other bodies. In the article Pneumatics we
took notice of it as fomething like a natural law, that
all thefe airs, or gafes as they are now called, had their
elafticity very nearly, if not exactly proportional to their
denfity. This-appears from the experiments of Achard,
of Fontana, and others, on vital air, inflammable air,
fixed air, and fome others. It gives us fome prefump-
tion to fuppofe that it holds in all elaftic vapours what¬
ever, and that it is connefted with their elafticity ; and
it renders itfomewhat probable that they are all elaftic,
only becaufe the caufe of heat (the matter of fire if you
will) is elaftic, and that their law of elafticity, in refpeft ^
of denfity, is the fame with that of fire. But it muft Fowhatthe
be obferved, that although we thus affign the elafticity of
r • i- _r»r fluids may
the tem
perature
neceffary
for their
ebullition
their boil¬
ing points
in air and
in vaLuo a-
fcout IiO°.
15
of fire as the immediate caufe of the elafticity of vapour,
, r _ 1 . r  „ oc owuia.
in the fame way, and on the fame grounds, that we a-
feribe the fluidity of brine to the fluidity of the water
which holds the folid fait in folution, it does not follow
that this is owing, as is commonly fuppofed, to a repul-
fion or tendency to recede from each other exerted by
the particles of fire. We are as much entitled to infer
a repulfion of unlimited extent between the particles of
water ; for we fee that by its means a fingle particle of
fea-falt becomes difleminated through the whole of a
very large vefleh If water had not been a vifible and
palpable fubftance, and the fait only had been vifible
and palpable, we might have formed a limilar notion of
chemical folution. But we, on the contrary, have
confidered the quaquaverfum motion or expanfion of the
fait as a diffemination among the particles of water; and
we have aferibed it to the ftrong attradfion of the atoms
of fait for the atoms of water, and the attraction of
thefe laft for each other, thinking that each atom of fait
accumulates round itfelf a multitude of watery atoms,
and by fo doing muft recede from the other faline
atoms. Nay, we farther fee, that by forces which we
naturally confider as attractions, an expanfion may be
prodticed of the whole mafs, which will adt againft ex¬
ternal mechanical forces. It is thus that wood fwells
with almoft inluperable force by imbibing moiftufe ;
it is thus that' a fponge immerfed in water becomes
really an elaftic compreffible body, refembling a blown
bladder ; and there are appearances which warrant us
to apply this mode of conception to elaftie fluids.-—
. When air is fuddenly compr.efl’ed, a thermometer in¬
cluded in it fhows a rife of temperature ; that is, an
appearance of heat now redundant which was former¬
ly combined. The heat feems to be fqueezed out as
the water from the fpongc. 16
Accordingly this opinion, that the elafticity of fteam Afcribeedt()
and other vapours is owing merely to the attraftion for^J^
fire, and the confequent diffemination of- their particles but inipr0.
through the whole mafs of fire, has been entertainedperiy.
by many naturalifts, and it has been aferibed entirely to
attradfion. We by no means pretend to decide ; but
we think the analogy by far too flight to found any
1 con-
s T E t 737 3 S T E
Steam, eonfictent opinion ort It. The aim i's to folve phenomena
by attraftion only, as if it were of more eafy concep¬
tion than repulfion. Confidered merely as fa6ts, they
are quite on a par. The appearances of nature in
which we obferve a£tual receffes of the parts of body
from each other, are as diftinft, and as frequent and fa¬
miliar, as the appearances ot aftual approach. And if
we attempt to go farther in our contemplation, and to
conceive the way and the forces by which either the
approximations or receffes of the atoms are produced,
we mull acknowledge that we have no conception of
the matter ; and we can only fay, that there is a caufe
©f thefe motions, and we call it a force, as in every cafe
of the production of motion. We call it attraftion or
repulfion juft as we happen to contemplate an accefs or
a recefs. But the analogy here is not only flight, but
imperfeCf, and fails moft in thofe cafes which are moft
Ample, and where we fhould expeft it to be moft com¬
plete. We can fqueeze water out of a fponge, it is
true, or out of a piece of green wood ; but when the
white of an egg, the tremella, or fome gums, fwell to
a hundred times their dry dimenfions by imbibing water,
we cannot fqueeze out a particle. If fluidity (for the
reafoning muft equally apply to this as to vaporouf-
nefs) be owing to an accumulation of the extended
matter of fire, which gradually expanded the folid by
its very minute additions; and if the accumulation round
a particle of ice, which is neceflary for making it a par¬
ticle of water, be fo great in comparifon of what gives
it the expanfion of one degree, as experiment obliges
us to conclude — it feems an inevitable confequence that
all fluids fhould be many times rarer than the folids from
which they were produced. But we know that the dif-•
ference is trifling in all cafes, and in feme (water, for
inftance, and iron) the folid, is rarer than the fluid.
Many other arguments (each of them perhaps of little
ore pro- weight when taken alone, but which are all fyftertiati-
[fbly ow- cally conne&ed) concur in rendering it much more
utual3 e Pro^a^e t^at ^ie matter fire', in caufing elafticity,
[]ilfion be* a'^:s immediately by its own elafticity, which we cannot
fi'een the conceive in any other way than as a mutual tendency in
{.rtides its particles to recede ifrom each other; and we doubt
^re' not but that, if it could be obtained alone, we ihould
find it an elaftic fluid like air. We even think that
there are cafes in which it is obferved in this ftate. The
elaftic force of gunpowder is very much beyond the
elafticity of all theWapours which are produced in its
deflagration, each of them being expanded as much as
we can reafonably fuppofe by the great heat to which
they are expofed. 1 he writer of this article exploded
'fome gunpowder mixed with a confiderable portion of
•finely powdered quartz, and another parcel mixed with
fine filings ©f copper. The elafticity was meafured by
the penetration of the ball which was difeharged, and
was great in the degree now mentioned. The experi¬
ment was fo condudled, that much of the quartz and
copper was colleffed ; none of the quartz had been
melted, and fome of the copper was not melted. The
heat, therefore, Could not be fuch as to explain the
elafticity by expanfion of the vapours ; and it became
not improbable that fire was afting here as a detached
chemical fluid by its own elafticity. But to return to
our fubjeft.
There is one circumftance in which we think our
■©wn experiments fhow a remarkable difference (at leaft
in degree) between the coadenfible and incondenfibie
Von.XVII. Part I£.
vapours. It is well known, that when air is very Aid- Steam,
denly expanded, cold is produced, and heat when it is
fuddenly condenfed. When making experiments with pro},ably
the hopes of difeovering the connexion between the a great dif-*
elafticity and denfity of the vapours of boiling water, ference be-«
and alfo of boiling fpirits of turpentine, we found the cwee" con-
change of denfity accompanied by a change of tempe- and incon-
rature vaftly greater than in the cafe of incoercible gafes. denfible v*-
When the vapour of boiling water was fuddenly allow-pours ;
ed to expand into five times its bulk, we obferved the
depreflion of a large and feniible air thermometer to be
at leaft four or five times greater than in a fimilar ex¬
panfion of common air of the fame temperature. The
chemical reader will readily fee reafons for expefting,
on the contrary, a fmaller alteration of temperature,
both on account of the much greater rarity of the fluid,
and on account of a partial condenfation of its water,
and the confequent difengagement of combined heat.
_ This difference in the quantity of fire which is com- And aftb
bined in vapours and gafes is fo confiderable as to au- fome dif-
thorize us to fuppofe that there is fomc difference in the ference in
chemical conftitution of vapours and gafes, and that the thf che?1i*
connexion between the fpecific bafes of the vapourand the tution ofi’
fire which it contains is not the fame in air, for inftance, vapour,
as in the vapour of boiling water ; and this difference
may be the reafon why the one is eaiily condenfible by
cold, while the other has never been exhibited in a li¬
quid or folid form, except by means of its chemical
union with other fubftances. In this particular inftance
we know that there is an effential difference—that in
vital or atmofpheric air there is not only a prodigious
quantity of fire which is not in the vapour of water, but
that it alfo contains light, or the caufe of light, in a
combined ftate. This is fully evinced by the great dif-
covery of Mr Cavendifh of the compoiition of water.
Here we are taught that water (and confequently its
vapour) confifts of air from which the light and
greateft part of the fire have been feparated. And the
fubfequent difeoveries of the celebrated Lavoifier fhow,
that almoft all the condenfible gafes with which we are
acquainted confift either of airs which have already loft
much of their fire (and perhaps light too), or of mat¬
ters in which we have no evidence of fire or light beinjr
combined in this manner.
This confideration may go far in explaining this dif¬
ference in the condertfibility of thefe different fpecies of
aerial fluids, the gafes and the vapours ; and it is with
this qualification only that we are difpofed to allow that
all bodies are condenfible into liquids or folids by ab-
ftrafting the heat. In order that vital air may become
liquid or folid, we hold that it is not fufficient that a
body be prefented to it which fliall limply abftradt its
heat. This would only abftratft its uncotnbined fire.—
But another, and much larger portion remains chemi.
cally combined by means of light. A chemical affinity
muft be brought into afticn which may abftradt, not
the fire from the oxygen (to fpeak in the language of
Mr Lavoifier), but the oxygen from the fire and hVht.
And our production is not the detached balls of air, but
detached heat and light, and the formation of an oxyd
of i'ome kind.
To profecute the chemical confideration of SteamsGenerai
farther than thefe .general obfervations, which are ap-observe
plicable to all, would be almoft to write a treatii'e of rioNS*
chemiflry, and would be a repetition of many tilings
which have been treated of in fufiicieut detail in other
5 A articles
Steam.
no
Steam rifes
at different
tempera¬
tures ac¬
cording as
the air is
heavy or
IX
As fluids
boil under
S T E [
articles of tliis work. We Oiall therefore conclude this
article with lome other obfervations, which are alio ge¬
nera], with refpe£t to the different kinds of coercible
vapours, but which have a particular relation to the
following article.
Steam or vapour is an elaftic fluid, whofe elafticity
balances the preffure of the atmofphere ; and it has been
produced from a folid or liquid body raifed to a fufficient
temperature for giving it this elafticity ; that is, for
caufmg the fluid to boil. This temperature muft vary
with the preffure of the air. Accordingly it is found,
that when the air is light (indicated by the barometer
being low), the fluid will boil fooner. When the ba¬
rometer ftands at 30 inches, water boils at the tempe¬
rature z’2°. If it ftand fo low as 28 inches, water
will boil at 2o8f. In the plains of Quito, or at Gon-
dar in Abyflinia, where the barometer ftands at about
21 inches, water will boil at 1950. Highly redlified
alcohol will boil at 1 6o°, and vitriolic tether will boil
at 88° or Hq'b This is a temperature by no means uu*
common in thefe places ; nay, the air is frequently
warmer. Vitriolic aether, therefore, is a liquor which
can hardly be known in thofe countries. It is hardly
poffible to preferve it in that form. If a phial have not
its Hopper firmly tied down, it will be blown out, and
the liquor will boil and be diflipated in fteam. On the
top of Chimboracao, the human blood muft be difpofed
to give out air-bubbles.
We faid fome time ago, that we had concluded, from
fome experiments made in the receiver of an air-pump,
the preffure that fluids boil in vacuo at a temperature nearly 120
t'-vvhich degrees lower than that neceffary for their boiling in
attends the open air. But we now fee that this muft have been
from them, but a grofs approximation ; for in thefe experiments
the can- the fluids were boiling under the preffure of the vapour
mentioned produced, and which could not be abftradl-
in n9 14. is ed by working the pump. It appears from the experi.
only a grofsments of Lord Charles Cavendifh, mentioned in the ar.
approxima-tide Pneumatics, that water of the temperature 72°
*lon* was converted into elaftic vapour, which balanced a pref¬
fure of ^ths of an inch of mercury, and in this ftate it
occupied the receiver, and did not allow the mercury in
the gauge to fink to the level. As fall as this was ab-
ftrafted by working the air-pump, more of it was pro¬
duced from the furface of the water, fo that the preffure
continued the fame, and the water did not boil. Had
it been pofiible to produce a vacuum above this water,
it would have boiled for a moment, and would even have
continued to boil, if the receiver could have been kept
very cold.
Account of Upon reading thefe experiments, and fome very curi-
tx; eri- ous ones of Mr Nairne, in the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvri.
xnentsto the writer of this article was induced to examine more
dttLimmc particularly the relation between the temperature of the
betweenl' '#aPowr and its elafticity, in the following manner:
the ttmpe- ABCD (fig. 2.) is the feftion of a fmall digefter
rature of rmde of copper. Its lid, which is fartened to the body
vapour and fcrews, is pierced with three holes, each of which
had a fmall pipe foldered into it. I he firft hole was
furnifhed with a brafs fafety-valve V, nicely fitted to it
by grinding. The area of this valve was exaftly -|th of
an inch. There refted on the ftalk at top of this valve
the arm of a fteelyard carrying a Aiding weight. This
arm had a fcale of equal parts, fo adjufted to the weight
that the number on the fcale correfponded to the inches
of mercury, whofe preffure on the under furface of the
738 ] S T E
valve is equal to that of the fteelyard on its top ; fo that
when the vreight was at the divifion 10, the preffure L
of the fteelyard on the valve was juft equal to that of a
column of mercury ro inches high and 4th of an inch
bafe. The middle hole contained a thermometer T
firmly fixed into it, fo that no vapour could efcape by
its fides. I he hall of this thermometer was but a little
way below the lid. 1 he third hole received occafional*
ly the end of a glafs-pipe S G F, whofe defeending leg
was about 36 inches long. When this fyphon was not
ufed, the hole was properly {hut with a plug.
The veffel was half filled with diftilled "water which
had been purged of air by boiling. The lid was then
fixed on, having the third hole S plugged up A lamp
being placed under the veffel, the water boiled, and the
fteam iffued copioufly by the fafety-valve. The ther¬
mometer ftood at 213, and a barometer in the room at
29,9 inches. The weight was then put on the fifth di¬
vifion. The thermometer immediately began to rife ;
and when it was at 2 2c, the fteam iffued by the fides
of the valve. The weight was removed to the roth
divifion; but before the thermometer could be diftindly
obferved, the {team was iffuing at the valve. The lamp
was removed farther from thelbottom of the veffel, that
the progrefs of heating might be more moderate ; and
when the fteam ceafed to iffue from the valve, the ther¬
mometer was at 227. The weight was now fliifted to
15 ; and by gradually approaching the lamp, the fteam
again iffued, and the thermometer was at < 3 24-. This
mode of trial was continued all the way to the 75th
divifion of the fcale. fl he experiments were then re¬
peated in the contrary order ; that is, the weight being
fufpended at the 75th divifion, and the fteam iffuing
ftrongly at the valve, the lamp was withdrawn, and the
moment the fteam ceafed to come out, the thermome¬
ter was obferved. The fame was done at the 70th, 65th,
divifion, &c. Thefe experiments were feveral times re¬
peated both ways; and the means of all the refults for
each divifion are expreffed in the following table, where
column ift expreffes the elafticity of the fteam, being
the fum of 29,9, and the divifion of the fteelyard ; co¬
lumn 2d expreffes the temperature of the fteam corre»
fponding to this elafticity.
its daftki-
ty.
1.
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
i°5
inches.
II
219'’
226
232
237
242
247
251
255
259
263
267
270-lr
2 74r
278
281
A very different procefs was neceffary for afeertainmg
the elafticity of the fteam in lower temperatures, and
confequently under fmaller preffures than that of the
atmofphere. The glafs fyphon SGF was now fixed in¬
to its hole in the lid of the digefter. The water was
made to boil fmartly for fome time, and the fteam iffued
copioufly both at the valve and at the fyphon. The
lower
S T E
Steam.
lower end of the fyphon was now Iramerfcd into a broad
' faucer of mercury, and the lamp inftantly removed,
and every thing was allowed to grow cold. By this
the fteam was gradually condenfed, and the mercury
rofe in the fyphon, without fenfibly finking in the fau¬
cer. The valve and all the joints were fmeared with a
thick clammy cement, compofed of oil, tallow, and ro-
fin, which effectually prevented all ingrefs of air. The
weather was clear and frofty, the barometer Handing at
29,84, and the thermometer in the veffel at 42The
mercury in the fyphon flood at 29,7, or fomewhat
higher, thus {howing a very complete condenfation.
The whole veffel was furrounded with pounded ice, of
the temperature 320. This made no fenfible change
in the height of the mercury. A mark was now made
at the furface of the mercury. One obferver was fta-
tioned at the thermometer, with inftru&ions to call out
as the thermometer reached the divifions 42, 47, 52,
57, and fo on by every five degrees till it fhould attain
the boiling heat. Another obferver noted the corre-
fponding defeents of the mercury by a fcale of inches,
which had its beginning placed at 29,84 from the fur-
face of the mercury in the faucer.
The pounded ice was ^ow removed, and the lamp
placed at a confiderable diftance below the vtlffl, fo as
to warm its contents very {lowly. Thefe obfervations
being very eafily made, were feveral times repeated, and
their mean refults are fet down in the following table :
Only obferve, that it was found difficult to note down
the defeents for every fifth degree, becaufe they fuc-
ceeded each other fo fall. Every 10th was judged fuf-
ficient for eftablifhing the law of variation. The firft
column of the table contains the temperature, and the
fecond the defeent (in inches) of the mercury from the
mark 29,84.
F 739 1
S T E
3 2
40
50
60
70
80
90
ICO
110
120
13b
I40
MO
160
170
ISO
IQO
200
210
$
0,1
0,2
0,82
1,18
1,61
2,25
3,00
3>95
5>'S
6,72
8,6j
I!,OJ
14,05
27,85
22,62
28,65
Four or five numbers at the top of the column of
elafticities are not fo accurate as the others, becaufe the
mercury paffed pretty quickly through thefe points.
But the progrefs was extremely regular through the re¬
maining points; fo that the elafticities correfponding to
temperatures above 70° may be confidered as very ac¬
curately afeertained.
Not being altogether fatisfied with the method em¬
ployed for meafuring the elafticity in temperatures above
that of boiling water, a better form of experiment was
adopted. (Indeed it was the want of other apparatus
which made it neceffary to employ the former). A glafs
tube was procured of the form reprefented in fig1. 3. ha¬
ving a little cittern L, from the top and bottom ef
which proceeded the fyphons K and MN. The cittern
contained mercury, and the tube MN was of a (lender
bore, and was about fix feet two inches long. The end
K was firmly fixed in the third hole of the lid, and the
long leg of the fyphon was fmniffied with a fcale of
inches, and firmly fattened to an upright poft.
The lamp was now applied at fuch a diftance from
the veffel as to warm it (lowly, and make the water
boil, the fteam efcaping for feme time through the fafe-
ty valve. A heavy weight was then fufpended on the
fteelyard; fuch as it was known that the veffel would
fupport, and at the fame time, fuch as would not allow
the fteam to force the mercury out of the long tube.
The thermometer began immediately to rife, as alfo the
mercury in the tube MN. Their correfpondent ftations
are marked in the following table:
Steam.
Temp.
212*
220
230
240
2 co
260
270
280
Elafty.
0,0
5»9
14,6
25,0
36,9
50,4
64,2
106,0
This form of the experiment is much more fufceptible
of accuracy than the other, and the meafures of elafticity
are more to be depended on. In repeating the experi¬
ment, they were found much more conftant; whereas,
in the former method, differences occurred of two inches
and upwards.
We may now connect the two fets of experiments into
one table, by adding to the numbers in this laft table
the conftant height 29,9, which was the height of the
mercury in the barometer during the laft fet of obfer¬
vations.
Temp.
32*
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
no
120
130
140
*5°
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
23°
240
250
260
270
280
5 A 2
Elafty.
0,0
0,1
0,2
°,35
o,55
0,82
1.25
1,6
2.25
3,o
3,95
S>'S
6,72
8,65
11,05
14,05
i7,85
22,62
28,65
35.8
44.7
54.9
66.8
8°,3
94,r
is?
s T E [ 74° ]
In the memoirs of the Royal Academy of Berlin for perature
1782, there is an account of fome experiments made by
S T E
. *3
Which a-
gree well
with thofe
rf Mr A-
ehard.
Mr Achaid on the elaftic force of fleam, from the tcm
perature 3 2° to 212 '. They agree extremely well
with thole mentioned here, rarely differing more than
tvv^> or three tenths of an inch. He allb examined
the elaflicity of the vapour produced from alcohol,
and found, that when the elaflicity was equal to that of
the vapour of water, the temperature was about 3^*
lower. Thus, when the elaflicity of both was rneam-
red by 28,1 inches of mercury, the temperature of the
watery vapour was 209°, and that of the fpintuous va¬
pour was 173°. When the elallicity was 18,5, the
temperature of the water was 1 89,5, and that of the
alcohol 154,6. When the elaflicity was 11,05, the
water was 168°, and the alcohol I34°,4. Obferving
the difference between the temperatures of equally elaf¬
tic vapours of water and alcohol not to be conflant, but
gradually to diminifh, in Mr Achard’s experiments,
along with the elafticity, it became interefling to difeo-
ver whether and at what temperature this difference
would vanifh altogether. Experiments were according¬
ly made by the writer of this article, fimilar to thofe
made with water. They were not made with the fame
ferupulous care, nor repeated as they deferved, but they
furnifhed rather an unexpedled refult. The following
fable will give the reader a diflindl notion of them :
A 24
An unex-
pedted re-
lult in com¬
paring the
tempera¬
tures of e-
qually elaf¬
tic vapours
of water
sndalcohol.
Temp.
3^
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
1 80
200
220
240
Elafl.
0,0
0,1
0,8
c,8
3>9
6,9
12.2
21.3
34>
SM
78,5
115’
We fay that the refult was unexpe&ed ; for as the natu¬
ral boiling point feemed by former experiments to be
in all fluids about 12o'* or more below their boiling
point in the ordinary preffure of the atraofphere, it was
reafonable to expedt that the temperature at which they
ceafed to emit fenfibly elaflic fleam would have fome
relation to their temperatures when emitting fleam of
any determinate elafticity. Now as the vapour of alco¬
hol of elafticity 30 has its temperature about 36° low¬
er than the temperature of water equally elaftic, it was
to be expedled that the temperature at which it ceafed
to be fenfibly affedted would be feveral degrees lower
than 3 20. It is evident, however, that this is not the
cafe. But this is a point that deferves more attention,
becaufe it is clofely connedted with the chemical rela¬
tion between the element (if fuch there be) of fire and
the bodies into whofe compofition it feems to enter as a
conftituent pait. What is the temperature 3 2°, to
maEe it peculiarly connedted with elafticity ? It is a
temperature affumed by us for our own conveniency,
on account of the familiarity of water in our experi¬
ments. -/Ether, we know, boils in a temperature far
below this, as appears from Dr Cullen’s experiments
narrated in the Effays Phyfical and Literary of Edin¬
burgh. On the faith of former experiments, we may
be pretty certain that it will boil in vacuo at the tem»
14°, bccaufe in the air it boils at -f-i 06°. "Steam.
Therefore we may be certain, that the fleam or vapour —0
of aether, when of the temperature 32°, will be very fen-
Ably elaftic. Indeed Mr Eavoifier fays, that if it be
expofed in an exhaufled receiver in winter, its vapour
will fupport mercury at the height of 10 inches. A
feries of experiments on this vapour fimilar to the above
would be very inftrudtive. We even wifh that thofe on
alcohol were more carefully repeated. If we draw a
curve line, of which the ablciffa is the line of tempera¬
tures, and the ordinates are the correfponding heights of
the mercury in thefe experiments on water and alcohol,
we fhall oblerve, that although they both fenfibly coin¬
cide at 3 2r, and have the ablciffa for their common tan¬
gent, a very fmall error of obfervation may be the caufe
of this, and the curve which expreffes the elafticity of
fpirituous vapour may really interfedl the other, and go
backwards confiderably beyond 3 2°.
This range of experiments gives rife to fome curious Thef/ei.
and important reflettions. We now fee that no parti-perimenti
cular temperature is neceffary for wrater affirming the Kive fife t»
form of permanently elaflic vapour ; and that it is high-^|^^
ly probable that it affumes this form even at the tempe¬
rature 32° ; only its elallicity is too fmall to afford us
any feniible meafure. It is well known that even ice
evaporates (fee experiments to this purpofe by Mr Wil-
fon in the Philoiophical Tranfadtions, when a piece of VoLln,
polifhed metal covered with hoar-froft became perfcdlly
clear by expofmg it to a dry frolly wind).
Even mercury evaporates, or is converted into elaftic
vapour, when all external preffure is removed. The dim
film which may frequently be obferved in the upper
part of a barometer which Hands near a ftream of air,
is found to be fmall globules of mercury flicking to the
infide of the tube. They may be feen by the help of
a magnifying glafs, and are the befl left of a well made
barometer. They will be entirely removed by can ling
the mercury to rife along the tube. It will lick them
all up. They coufift of mercury which had evaporated
in the void fpace, and was afterwards condenfed by the
cold glafs. But the elaflicity is too fmall to occafion a
fenfible depreffion of the column, even when confider¬
ably warmed by a candle.
Many philofophers accordingly imagine, that fponta- ^
neous evaporation in low temperatures is produced in ous evap*„
this way. But we cannot be of this opinion, and muft ration pro-
Hill think that this kind of evaporation is produced bydu«<)^
the diflblving power of the air. When moifl air is fud-1*!6
denly rarefied, there is always a precipitation of water, of^e°air.
This is moft diflindlly feen when we work an air-pump
brifkly. A miff is produced, which we fee plainly fall
to the bottom of the receiver. But by this new doc¬
trine the very contrary fhould happen, becaufe the ten¬
dency of water to appear in the elaftic form is promo¬
ted by removing the external preffure ; and we really
imagine that more of it now a&ually becomes fimple
elaftic watery vapour. But the miff or precipitation
fhows incontrovertibly, that there had been a previous
folution. Solution is performed by forces which aft in
the way of attraftion; or, to exprefs it more fafely, fo-
lutions are accompanied by the mutual approaches of
the particles of the menftruum and folvend : all fuch ten¬
dencies are obferved to increafe by a diminution of di-
ftance. Hence it muji follow, that air of double denfi-
ty will diffolve more than twice as much water. There¬
fore when we fuddenly rarefy falurated air (even tho*
its
S T E
Sieam. its heat fhonld not diminifh' feme water mud be lei
What may be its quantity we know not; but it
[ 74i ]
S T E
may be more than what would now become elaftic by
this diminution of furrounding preflure ; and it is not
unlikely but this may have, ibme effeA in producing
the veiiclcs which we found fo difficult to explain.
T hefe may be filled with pure watery vapour, and be
floating in a fluid compofed of water diffolved in air.
An experiment ot Fontana’s feems to put this matter
out of doubt. A diftilling apparatus A-B (.fig. 4.)
was fo contrived, that the heat was applied above the
furnace of the water in the alembic A. L his was done
by inclofing it in another veffel CC, filled with hot wa¬
ter. In the receiver B there was a fort of baieme-
ter D, with an open ciftern, in order to fee what
prefiure there was on the furface ot the fluid. While
the receiver and alembic contained air, the heat applied
at A produced no fenfihle diftillation during ieveral
hours: But on opening a cock E in the receiver at
its bottom, and making the water in the alembic to boil,
11 earn was produced which loon expelled all the air,
and followed it through the cock. The cock was now
(hut, and the whole allowed to grow cold by removing
the fire, and applying cold water to the alembic. The
barometer fell to a level nearly. Then warm water
was allowed to get into the outer veffel CC. The ba¬
rometer rofe a little, and the diftillation went on brilkly
without the fmalleft ebullition in the alembic. The con¬
clusion is obvious : while there was air in the receiver
and communicating pipe, the diftillation proceeded en¬
tirely by the difiblving power of this air.* Above the
water in the alembic it was quickly faturated; and this
faturation proceeded flowly along the ftill air in the
communicating pipe, and at laft might take place thro’
the whole of the receiver. The fides of the receiver
being kept cold, fhould condenfe part of the water dif¬
folved in the air in contaA with them, and this fhould
trickle down the fides and be colle&ed. But any per-
fon who has obferved how long a cryftal of blue vi¬
triol will lie at the bottom of a glafs of ftiii water be¬
fore the tinge will reach the furface, will fee that it
mu-ft be next to impoffible for diftillation to go on in
thefe circumitances; and accordingly none was ©bfer-
ved. But when the upper part of the apparatus was
filled with pure watery vapour, it was fupplied from
the alembic as faft as it was condenfed in the receiver,
juft; as in the pulfe glafs.
K certain Another inference which may be drawn from thefe
win the experiments is, that Nature feems to aflfeA a certain
ilatation of law in the dilatation of aeriform fluids by heat. They
r’ "r™ feem to be dilatable nearly in proportion of their pre-
fent dilatation. For if we fuppofe that the vapours
refemble air, in having their elafticity in any given tem¬
perature proportional to their denfity, we muft fuppofe
that if fleam of the elafticity 60, that is, fupporting 60
inches of mercury, were fubje&ed to a preflure of 30
inches, it w'ould expand into twice its prelent bulk.
The augmentation of elafticity therefore is the mea-
fure of the bulk into which it would expand in order
to acquire its former elafticity. Taking the increafe
«jf elafticity therefore as a meafure of the bulk into
which it would expand under one conftant preflure,
we fee that equal increments of tempeiature pro¬
duce neatly equal multiplications of bulk. Thus if a
certain diminution of temperature diminifhes its bulk
riform
luida by
.eat.
^■th, another equal diminution of temperature will Steam,
diminifh this new bulk ‘th very nearly. Thus in our v—
experiments, the temperatures' 1 ic°, 140° 170°, 200%
2 3 , aie in .arithmetical progreffion, having equal diffe¬
rences ; and we fee that the correfponding dafticities
2,25> 5>}5> 44>7> ar^ very neatly in
the continued proportion of 1 to 7. The elafticity
Coirelponding to the temperature 260 deviates confide-
rably from this h\v, which would give 88 or 89 in-
ftead of 83 ; and the deviation increafes in the higher
temperatures. But ftill we fee that there is a confider-
able approximation to this law ; and it will frequently
afliu us to recoiled, that whatever be the prefent tem¬
perature, an increafe of 30 degrees doubles the elaftici¬
ty and the bulk of wratery vapour.
That 40 will increafe the elafticity from 1 to i-A
8 - - I to if
10 - - itox4-
izl -
18 -
22
24
26
I to if
I to if
I to I*
I to I
I to I,4
This is fufficiently exad for moft praftical purpofes.
7 hus cm engineer finds that the injedion cools the cy¬
linder of a fleam-engine to 192°. It therefore leaves
a fleam whofe elafticity is fths of its full elafticity,
— 18 inches But it is better at all times to have
recourfe to the table. Obferve, too, that in the lower
temperatures, z. e. below 1 io°, this increment of tem-
ptrature docs more than double the elafticity*
This kw obtains more remarkably in the incoercible OltaiL
vapours ; fuch as vital air, atmofpheric air, fixed air, more re™
&c. all of which have alfo their elafticity proportional markabIy
to their bulk inverfely : and perhaps the deviation from in inco’
the law in fleams is conneded with their chemical dif-pouiT '
ference of conftitution. If the bulk wrere always aug¬
mented in the fame proportion by equal augmentations
of temperature, the elafticities wmiild be accurately re-
prelented by the ordinates of a logarithmic curve, of
which the temperatures are the correfponding abiciffte ;
and we might contrive fuch a fcale for our thermome¬
ter, that the temperatures would be the common loga¬
rithms of the elafticities, or of the bulks having equal
elafticity ; or, with our prefent fcale, we may find inch
a multiplier m for the number x of degrees of our ther¬
mometer (above that temperature where the elafticity
is equal to unity), that this multiple fhall be the com¬
mon logarithm of the elafticity y ; fo that m x = log.y.
But our experiments are not fufficiently accurate tor
determining the temperature where the elafticity is mea-
fured by ) inch ; becaufe in thefe temperatures th#
elafticities vary by exceedingly fmall quantities. But
if we take 11,04 for the unit of elafticity, and number
our temperature from 170°, and make m =z 0,010035,
wre fhall find the produd m x to be very nearly the lo¬
garithm of the elafticity. The deviations, however,
fiom this law, are too great to make this equation of
any ufe.. But it is very pradicable to frame an equa¬
tion which fhall correspond with the experiments to
any degree of" accuracy ; and it has been done for air
in a tranflation of Creneral Roy’s Meafurement of the
Bale at Hounflow Heath into French by Mr Prony.
It is as follows; Let x be the degrees of Reaumur’s
5 ther-
'S T E [ 742
Ptssw, thcrnwmctcr ; let y be the expanfion of xo,ooo parts fuel
■—v— of air; let ,? be = ic, m r: 2,7976, 0,01768 :
then y = t’" + "x- 627,5. Now e being = 10, it is
plain that f x is the number, of which m n x is
the common logarithm. This formula is very exaft as
Jar as the temperature 6o°: but beyond this it needs a
corredlion ; becaufe air, like the vapour of water, does
not expand in the exatt proportion ol its bulk.
We obferve this law confiderably approximated to in
'the augmentation of the bulk or elafticity of elaflic va¬
pours ; that is, it is a fa& that a given increment of
temperature makes very nearly the fame proportional
augmentation of bulk and elafticity. khis gives us fome
]
S T E
19
And is con
Ikleraldy
apt roxinu-
ted to in PourS
the aug-
n.tntation
of elaftic
vapours
of the bulk not;0a of the manner in which the fuppofed expandin _
of dafticUy caufe Pr0(iuces t1ie When vapour of the bulk
c a' 1L ^ is expanded into a bulk 5 by an addition of 10 de¬
grees of fenfible heat, a certain quantity of fire goes in¬
to it, and is accumulated round each particle, in fuch a
manner that the temperature of each, which formerly
was iv, is now wz+io. Let it now receive another equal
augmentation of temperature. This is now and
r r
the bulk is 5   or 64, and the arithmetical increafe of
bulk is 1 The abfolute quantity of fire which has
■entered it is greater than the former, both on account
of the greater augmentation of fpace and the greater
temperature. Confequently if this vapour,be compref-
ied into the bulk 5, there mufl be heat or fire in it
which is not neceffary for the temperature m -f-20, far
Ms for the temperature to + 10. It mufl therefore
emerge, and be difpofed to enter a thermometer which
lias already the temperature to -f- 20: that is, the va¬
pour muft grow hotter by comprefiion ; not by fquee-
y.tng out the heat, like water out of a fponge, but be¬
caufe the law of attra&ion for heat is deranged. It
would be a very valuable acquifition to our knowledge
to learn with precifion the quantity of fenfible heat pro¬
duced in this way; but no fatisfaftory experiments have
yet been made. M. Lavoifier, with hk chemical friends
and colleagues, were bufily employed in this inquiry;
but the wickednefs of their countrymen has deprived
the world of this and many other important additions
which we might have expe&ed from this celebrated and
unfortunate philofopher. He had made, in conjunc¬
tion with M. de la Place, a numerous train of accurate
and expenfive experiments for meafuring the quantity
of latent or combined heat in elaflic vapours. This is
evidently a very important point to the difliller and
practical chemifl. This heat muft all come from the
and it is greatly worth while to know whether
any faving may be made of this article. Thus we know
that diftillation will go on either under the preffure of
Steam.
the air, or in an alembic and receiver from which the
air has been expelled by fleam ; and we know that this
laft may be condufted in a very low temperature, even
not exceeding that of the human body. But it is un¬
certain whether this may not employ even a greater
quantity of fuel, as well as occafion a great expence of
time. We are difpofed to think, that when there is no
air in the apparatus, and when the condenfation can be
fpeedily performed, the proportion of fuel expended to
the fluid which comes over will diminifh continually as
the heat, and confequently the denfity of the fleam, is
augmented ; becaufe in this cafe the quantity of com¬
bined heat muft be kfs. In the mean time, we earneft-
ly recommend the trial of this mode of diftillation in
veflels cleared of air. It is undoubtedly of great advan¬
tage to be able to work with fmaller fires; and it would
fccure us againll all accidents of blowing off the head
of the Hill, often attended with terrible confequences(B)..
We muft not conclude this article without taking
notice of fome natural phenomena which feem to owe
their origin to the adlion of elaftic fleam.
We have already taken notice of the refemblance of
the tremor and fuccuffions obferved in the (hocks of ma¬
ny earthquakes to thefe which may be felt in a veffel
where water is made to boil internally, while the break¬
ing out of the ebullition is ftifled by the cold of the up¬
per parts ; and we have likewife ftated the objettions
which are ufually made to this theory of earthquakes.
We may perhaps refume the fubjeft under the article
Volcano ; but in the mean time we do not hefitate to
fay, that the wonderful appearances of the Geyzer
fpring in Iceland (fee Hues. ; and Iceland, nP3—5.)
are undoubtedly produced by the expanfion of fleam in
ignited caverns. Of thefe appearances we fuppofe the
whole train to be produced as follows.
A cavern may be fuppofed of a fhape analogous tOExplana-
CBDEF (fig. 5.), having a perpendicular funnel AB non of the
iffuing from a depreffed part of the roof. The part FP1?e"omenJ
may be lower than the reft, remote, and red-hot. Such^
places we know to be frequent in Iceland. Water mayin [Ceiand
be continually trickling into the part CD. It will fill by the
it up to B, and even up to E e, and then trickle flowlyforce
along into F. As foon as any gets into contadl withft£am‘
an ignited part, it expands into elaftic fleam, and is
partly condenfed by the cold fides of the cavern, which
it gradually warms, till it condenfes no more. This
produc
(b) We earneftly recommend this fubjefl to the confideration of the philbfopher. The laws which regulate
the formation of elaflic vapour, or the general phenomena which it exhibits, give us that link which conneds che-
miftry with mechanical philofophy. Here we fee chemical affinities and mechanical forces fet in immediate op-
'mfition to each other, and the one made the indication, charafteriftic, and meafure of the other. We have not
the lead doubt that they make but one feienee, the Science of Univerfal Mechanics; nor do we defpair of feeing
the phenomena of folution, precipitation, cryftallization, fermentation, nay animal and vegetable fecretion and
affimilation, fuccefsfully inveftigated, as cafes of local motion, and explained by the agency of central forces. Some
thing of this kind, and that not ineonfiderabk, was done when Dr Cullen firft (bowed how the double affini¬
ties might be illuftrated by the affiftance of numbers. Dr Black gave to this hint (for it was little more)
that elegant precifion which characterizes all his views. Mr Kirwan has greatly promoted this fludy by his
numerous and ingenious examples of its application ; and the moft valuable paffages of the writings of Mr
•Lavoifier, are thofe where he traces with logical precifion the balancings of force which appear in the chemical
phenomena. It is from the fimilar balancings and confequent meafurements, which may be obferved and obtained
in the prefent cafe, that we are to hope-for admiffion into this almoft unbounded fcience of contemplation. . We
have another link equally interefting and promifing, viz. the production of heat by fridtion. This alfo highly
deferves the confideration of the mathematical philofopher.
Sfcam-
Engine
ST E , [
produftmn of fleam hinders not in the fmalleft degree
_ trickling of more water into F, and the continual
produ&ion of more fleam. This now preffes on the
furface of the water in CD, and caufes it to rife gra¬
dually in the funnel BA ; but (lowly, becaufe its cold
furface is condenfing an immenfe quantity of fleam W^e
may eafily fuppofe that the water trickles fafler into F
than it is expended in the produilion of fleam; fo that
it reaches farther into the ignited part, and may even
fall in a dream into fome deeper pit highly ignited. It
will now produce deam in vafl abundance, and of pro¬
digious eladicity; and at once pufh up the water thro’
the funnel in a folid jet, and to a great height. This
mud continue till the furface of the water finks to BD.
If the lower end of the funnel have any inequalities or
notches, as is mod likely, the deam will get admifiion
along with the water, which in this particular place is
boiling hot, being fuperficial, and will get to the mouth
of the funnel, while water is dill preffed in below. At
lad the deam gets in at B on all fides ; and as it is con-
verging to B, along the furface of the water, with pro¬
digious velocity it fweeps along with it much water, and
blows it up through the funnel with great force. When
this is over, the remaining deam blows out unmixed
with water, growing weaker as it is expended, till the
bottom Qi the funnel is again dopped by the water in-
creafing in the cavern CB.D. All the phenomena above
ground are perfectly conformable to the neceffary con-
fequences of this very probable conftrudtion of the ca¬
vern. The feeling of being lifted up, immediately be¬
fore the jet, in all probability is owing to a real heaving
up of the whole roof of the cavern by the fird expanfion
of the great body of deam. We had an accurate defcrip-
tion of the phenomena from perfons well qualified to
judge of thefe matters who vifited thefe celebrated
Iprings in 1789.
743 3 S T E
ceder was indeed a proje£lor, and very importunate and
mydenous withal in his applications for public encou¬
ragement. His account, however, of the fleam-engine,
although by no means fit to give us any didinft notions
of its dru6lure and operation, is exaft as far as it goes,
agreeing precifely with what we now know of the fub-
18 N0 68. of his inventions. His words are as
follow: “ This admirable method which I propofe of
railing water by the force of fire has no bounds if the
veffels be flrong enough : for I have taken a cannon,
and having filled it |ths full of water, and fhut up its
muzzle and touch-hole, and expofed it to the fire for
24 hours, it burd with a great explofion. Having af¬
terwards difcovered a method of fortifying veffels inter¬
nally, and combined them in fuch a way that they fill¬
ed and adted alternately, I have made the water fpout
in an uninterrupted flream 40 feet high; and one veffel
of rarefied water raifed 40 of cold water. The perfon
who conduced the operation had nothing to do but
turn two cocks; fo that one veffel of water being confu-
med, another begins to force, and then to fill itfelf with
cold water, and fo on in fuccefIion.,,
Stem-
Enirn e,.
. ^ ^oes not aPPear that the noble inventor could ever But firftre-
intered^the public by thefe accounts. His charadler asclucei.11'3
. ±   j Aiis cTiaracitr ^v
a projector, and the many failures which perfons of this^radice by
turn of mind rtaiKr  1 11 • 1 • 1 Captain £>&«»
. SrF.AM-Engine, is the name of a machine which de-
nves ns moving power from the elafticity and conden-
fibility of the fleam of boiling water. It is the mofl
valuable prefent which the arts of life have ever received
from the philofopher. The mariner’s compafs, the te-
lefcope, gunpowder, and other moil ufeful fervants to
human weaknets and ingenuity, were the productions of
chance, and we do nor exadtly know to whom we are
indebted for them ; but the fleam-engine was, in the
very beginning, the .refult of refte&ion, and the produc¬
tion of a very ingenious mind ; and every improvement
it has received, and every alteration in its conftrudtion
and principles, were alfo the refuffs of philofophical
1 ftudy.
eam-en- The fleam-engine was beyond all doubt invented by
irbynt'he!t"^e.marqU18 0t Worcefter during the reign of Cha. II.
iarqui., ofThJs noWeman publifhed in 1663 a final! book intitled
"orcefter. A Century of Inventions; giving fome obfeure
and enigmatical account of an hundred difeoveries or
contrivances ©f his own, which he extols as of great
importance to the public. He appears to have been a
perfon of much knowledge and great ingenuity : but
his defeription or accounts of thefe inventions feem not
fo much intended to inftruft the public, as to raife won¬
der ; and his encomiums on their-utility and impor¬
tance are to a great degree extravagant, relembling more
the puff of an advertifing tradefman than the patriotic
communications of a gen^emam The marquis of Wor-
turn of mind daily experience, probably prejudiced peo-van-
ple againfl him, and prevented' all attention to his pro
jedts. It was not till towards the end of the century
when experimental philofophy was profecuted all over
Furope with uncommon ardour, that thefe notions again
engaged attention. Captain Savary, a perfon alfo of
great ingenuity and ardent mind, faw the reality and
practicability of the marquis of Worcefler’s projedl.
He knew the great expanfive power of fleam, and"had
difcovered the inconceivable rapidity with which it is
reconverted into water by cold ; and hv foon contrived
a machine xor raifing water, in which both of thefe
properties were employed. He fays, that it was en¬
tirely his own invention. Dr Defaguliers infills that
he only copied the marquis’s invention, and charges
him with grofs plagiarifm, and with having bought un
and burned the copies of the marquis’s book, in order
to iecure the honour of the difeovery to himfelf. This
is a very grievous charge, and fhould have been fub-
itantiated by very diflinA evidence. Defaguliers oro-
duces none fueh ; and he was much too late to know
what happened at that time. The argument which he
gives is a very foohfh one, and gave him no title to
coniider Savary’s experiment as a falfehood ; for, it
might have happened precifely as Savary relates, and not
as it happened to Defaguiliers, The fact is, that Sa-
vary obtained his patent of invention after a hearing of
’ 0 ’-jeftlons’ among which the difeovery of the marquis
of Worcefter was not mentioned : and it is certain that
the account given ,n the Century of Inventions could
inftruct no perfon who. was not fufficiently acquainted
with the properties of fleam to be able to invent the
machine himfelf.
Captain Savary obtained his patent after having actually Pamn
erettea feveralmachines, of which he gave a defeription1 0 claim to
m a -book .intitled The Miner’s Friend, publifhed inthe iuven-
1696, and in another work publifned in 1600. Much r°n ‘he
about this time JJr Papin, a Frenchman and fellow of tend P‘?*
the Royal Society, invented a method of diffolving
-ones and other animal folids in water, by confining
, • them
S T E
fteani' them lit clofe vcffcls, which he called digesters, fo as
En^'nc. t0 aCquire a great degree of heat. For it muft be ob-
^ ferveci in this place, that it had been difeovered long
before (in 16S4) by Dr Hooke, the mod inquifuive
experimental philofopher ot that inquifitive age, that
water could not be made to acquire above a certain
temperature in the open air ; and that -as foon as it be¬
gins to boil, its temperature remains iixed, and an in-
creafe of heat only produces a more violent ebullition,
and a more rapid watte. But Papin’s experiments made
the elaftic power of fteam very familiar to him : and
when he left England and fettled as profeflbr of mathe-
[ 744 1
S T E
5 team*
Engirt?.
The Englifh engineers had by this time fo much im¬
proved Savary’s firtt invention, that it fapplanted all
others. We have therefore no hetttation in giving the -i
honour of the firft and complete invention to the mar¬
quis of Worcefter ; and we are not difpoied to refufe
Captain Savary’s claim to originality as to the conftruc-
tion of the machine, and even think it probable that
his own experiments made him fee the whole indepen¬
dent of the marquis’s account.
Captain Savary’s engine, as improved and fimplified
by himfelf, is as follows. j
A (fig. 6.) reprefents a ftrong copper boiler proper-Captain St.
when he lelt .rmglana ana ictuea as piuicmji wi -m. a c •_ . vnrv>e
matics at Marpurgh, he made many aukward attempts ly bu.lt up .n a furnace. There proceeds from ,ss top;.
to employ this force in mechanics, and even for railing a large fteam-p.pe B, which enters into the top of an- »
^ - . , , , J.  -• ts with other ftrong veflel R called the receiver, i his pipefcribed>
has a cock at C called the steam-cock. In the bot
Plate
water. It appears that he had made experiments
this view in 1698, by order of Charles Landgrave of
Heffe. For this reafon the French affeft to confider
him as the inventor of the fleam-engine. He indeed
tom of the receiver is a pipe F, which communicates
fide wife with the rifing pipe KGH. The lower endc CC1, v>*
him as the inventor 01 tne neam-engme. a-lc . . . 0 f 1 • .t. * c •*.
publilhed foine accc-unt of his invention in 1707 ; but H of this pipe is immerfed in the water of the pit or
L  i^-o. Plata, had alfo. and well, and its upper part K opens into the cittern into
he acknowledges that Captain bavary had aifo,^ and
without any communication with him, invented the
fame thing. Whoever will take the trouble of looking
at the deicription which he has given of thefe inven¬
tions, which are to be feen in the J3a Eruditorum,
lApfue., and in Leupold’s Theatrum Macbinarum, will
fee that they are moft aukward, abfurd, and impracti¬
cable. His conceptions of natural operations were al-
ways vague and imperfect, and he was neither philo¬
fopher nor mechanician.
We are thus anxious about the claim of thofe gentle¬
men, becaufe a moft refpe£table French author, Mr Bof-
/- r • \ • tt 1 1 * - fit*!} i m nr
r r — # . * .
well, and its upper part K opens into the cittern into
which the water is to be delivered. Immediately be¬
low the pipe of communication F there is a valve G,
opening when preffed from below, and fhutting when
preffed downwards. A fimilar valve is placed at I,
immediately above the pipe of communication. Laftly,
there is a pipe ED which branches off from the rifing
pipe, and enters into the top of the receiver. This
pipe has a cock D called the injectio-n-cock. The
mouth of the pipe ED has a nozzle /"pierced with
fmall holes, pointing from a centre in every dire&ion.
The keys of the two cocks C and D are united, and the
men, became a moit rcipceuiuic a   „
fat, fays in his Hydrodynamique, that the firtt notion of handle gb is called the regulator
the fleam-engine ias certainly owing to Dr Papin, who _ Let the regulator be fo placed that the fleam-cock C
had not only invented the digefter, but had in 1695 open and the injeaiomcock D is fhut; P“t water n-
publifhed a little performance deferibing a machine for to the boiler A, and make it boil ftrongly. Ihe fleam
Sfimr water, in which the pittons are moved by the coming from it will enter the receiver, and gradually
vapour of boiling water alternately dilated and conden- warm it, much fteam being condenfed in producing this
fed Now the taft is. that Papin’s firft publication was effeft. When it has been warmed fo as to condenfe no-
- ’ ,1-  : th-yr. a floarer more, the fteam proceeds into the riling pipe ; the
valve G remains fhut by its weight; the fteam lifts the
valve I, and gets into the rifing pipe, and gradually
When the workman feels this to be the cafe.
4
Mr Air,on
tons’s fire
..wheel.
in 1707, and his pifton is nothing more than a floatei
on the furface of the water, to prevent the wafte of
fteam by condenfation ; and the return of the piiton is
not produced, as in the fteam-engine, by the condenfa¬
tion of the fteam, but by admitting the air and a co¬
lumn of water to prefs it back into its place. I he
whole contrivance is fo aukward, and fo unlike any
diftinft notions of the fubjeft, that it cannot do credit
to any perfon. We may add, that much about the
fame time Mr Amontons contrived a very ingenious
but intricate machine, which he called zjire-'u.heel. It
confifted of a number of buckets placed in the circum¬
ference of a wheel, and communicating with each other
by very intricate circuitous paffages. One part of this
circumference was expofed to the heat of a furnace,and
another to a ftream or ciftern of cold water. The
communications were fo difpofed, that the fteam pro¬
duced in die buckets on one fide of the wheel drove
the water into buckets on the other fide, fo that one
fide ol the wheel was always much heavier^ tnan the
other ; and it mutt therefore turn round, and may ex¬
ecute fome work. i he death of the inventoi, and the
intricacy of the machine, caufed it to be neglected.
Another member of the Panfian academy ot fciences
(Mr Deflandes) alfo piefented to.lhe academy a project
of a fteam-wheel, where the impulfive force ot the va¬
pour was employed; .but it met with no encouragement.
warms it.    —
or hears the raiding of the valve I, he immediately turns
the fleam-cock fo as to fhut it, the injedtion-cock ftill
remaining fhut (at leaft we may fuppofe this for the
prefent). The apparatus muft now cool, and the fteam
in the receiver collapfes into water. There is nothing
now to balance the prefiure of the atmofphere; the
valve I remains fhut by its weight; but the air incum¬
bent on the water in the pit preffes up this water
through the fuCtion-pipe H G, and caufes it to lift the
valve G, and flow into the receiver R, and fill it to the
top, if not more than 20 or 25 feet above the furface of
the pit'water.
The ileam-cock is now opened. The fteam which,
during the cooling of the receiver, has been accumula¬
ting in the boiler, and acquiring a great elafticity by the
adtion of the fire, now rufhes in with great violence, and,
preflhig on the furface of the water in the receiver,
caufes it to fhut the valve G and open the valve I by
its weight alone, and it now flows into the rifing pipe,
and would Hand on £ level if the elailicity of the fteam
were no more than what would balance the atmolpherical
preflure. But it is much more than this, and therefore
is preJRs the water out of the receiver into the rifing
r pipe.
S T E
Stfsnv
Engine.
ie£e<5ls of
pis ma-
jiine fuch.
pipe, and will even caufe it to come out at K, if the
e’.afticity of the fleam is fufficiently great. In order to
enfure this, the boiler has another pipe in its top,
covered with a fafety-vzhe. V, which is kept down by a
weight W fufpended on a fteelyard L M, 'This weight
is fo adjufted that its preflure on the fafety-valve is fome-
what greater than the preflure of a column of water
Vk as high as the point of difeharge K. The fire is
fo regulated that the fleam is always ifluing a little by
the loaded valve V. rihe workman keeps the fleam-
valve open till he hears the valve I rattle. This tells him
that the water is all forced out of the receiver, and
that the fleam is now following it. He immediately
turns the regulator which (huts the fleam-cock, and
now, for the firft time, opens the inje£tion-cock. The
cold water trickles at firft through the holes of the noz¬
zle f, and falling down through the fleam, begins to
condenfe it; and then its elaflieity being lefs than the
preffure of the water in the pipe K E D/, the cold wa¬
ter fpouts in all directions through the nozzle, and,
quick as thought, produces a complete condenfation.
The valve G now opens again by the preffure of the
atmofphere on the water of the pit, and the receiver is
toon filled with cold water. The inje<ftion-cock is now
fhut, and the fleam-cock opened, and the whole opera¬
tion is now repeated ; and fo on continually.
This is the fimple account of the procefs, and will
ferve to give the reader an introductory notion of the
operation ; but a more minute attention muft be paid
to many particulars before we can fee the properties and
defeCts of this ingenious machine.
The water is driven along the rifing pipe by the
elafticity of the fleam. This muft in the boiler, and
every part of the machine, exert a preffure on every
fquare inch of the veffels equal to that of the upright
column of water. Suppofe the water to be raided too
feet, about 2q; of this may be done in the fuftion-pipe ;
that is, the upper part of the receiver may be about
25 feet above the furface of the pit-water. The re¬
maining ^5 muft be done by forcing, and every fquare
f 745 1
S T E
ftrengthen the yeffds from within by radiated bars and Steam,
by hoops, but in vain. Very fmall boilers or evapora- E'1gir>e.
tors were then tried, kept red-hot, or nearly fo, and ’ 
fupplied with a flender ftream of water trickling into
them ; but this afforded no opportunity of making a
collection of fleam during the refrigeration of the^re-
ceiver, fo as to have a magazine of fleam in readinefs
for the next forcing operation ; and the working of
fuch machines was always an employment of great
danger and anxiety. " ^
The only fituatisn in which this machine could be That it can
employed with perfeCt fafety, and with feme effeCt, was be Pl)y*
where the whole lift did not exceed 30 or 35 feet. In aivanci
this cafe the greateft part of it was performed by the only in cer-
fuCtion-pipe, and a very manageable preffure was fuffi-tain fitua.
cient for the reft. Several machines of this kind wereaons‘
ereCIed in England about the beginning of this cen¬
tury. A very large one was erected at a falt-work in
the louth of France. Here the water was to be raifed
no more than 18 feet. The receiver was capacious,
and it was occafionally fupplied with fleam from a fmall
falt-pan conftruCted on purpofe with a cover. The
entry of the fleam into the receiver merely allowed the *
water to run out of it by a large valve, which was open¬
ed oy the hand, and the condenfation was produced by
the help of a fmall forcing pump alfo worked by the hand.
In fo particular a fituation as this (and many fuch may
occur in the endlefs variety of human wants), this is a
very powerful engine; and having few moving and rub¬
bing parts, it muff be of great durability. This circum-
ftance has occafioned much attention to be given to this
firft form of the engine, even long after it was fupplant-
ed by thofe of a much better conftru&ion. A very in.
genious attempt was made very lately to adapt this con-
ftru&ion to the ufes of the miners. The whole depth
of the pit was divided into lifts of 15 feet, in the fame
manner as is frequently done in pump-machines. In
each of thefe was a fuftion-pipe 14 feet long, having
above it a fmall receiver like R, about a foot high, and
its capacity fomewhat greater than that of the pipe.
^ ^ ^gicaici man lilaL OI UIG pipe*
inch of the boiler will be fqueezed out by a preffure of This receiver had a valve at the head of the fuffion-
more than 30 pounds. This very moderate height
therefore requires very ftrong veffels ; and the Marquis
of Worcefter was well aware of the danger of their burft-
ing. A copper boiler of fix feet diameter muft be T96ths
or an inch thick to be juft in equilibrio with this pref¬
fure : and the foldered joint will not be able to with-
fland it, efpecially in the high temperature to which
the water mull be heated in order to produce fleam of
lufficient elafticity. By confulting the table of the
elafticity of fleam deduced from our experiments men¬
tioned in the preceding article, we fee that this tern*
perature muft be at leaft 280° of Fahrenheit’s thermo¬
meter. In this heat foft folder is juft ready to melt)
pipe, and another opening outwards into the little cif-
tern, into which the next fu&ion-pipe above dipped to
take in water. Each of thefe receivers fent up a pipe
from its top, which all met in the cover of a large vef-
fel above ground, which was of double the capacity of
all the receivers and pipes. This veffel was clofe on all
fides. Another veffel of equal capacity was placed im¬
mediately above it, with a pipe from its bottom palling
through the cover of the lower veffel and reaching near
to its bottom. This upper veffel communicates with
the boiler, and conftitutes the receiver of the fleam-en¬
gine. The operation is as follows : The lower veffel
is full of water. Steam is admitted into the upper vef-
and has no tenacity ; even fpelter folder is confiderably fel, which expels the air by a valve, and fills the veffel.
weakened by it. Accordingly, in a machine erefted It is then condenfed by cold water. The preffure of
by Captain Savary at York Buildings in London, the the atmofphere would caufe it to enter by all the fuc-
workman having loaded the fafety-valve a little more tion-pipes of the different lifts, and prefs on the furface
than ufual to make the engine work more brifkly, the ^ 1—-—•—-— —J f '
boiler burft with a dreadful explofion, and blew up
the furnace and adjoining parts of the building as if it
had been gunpowder Mr Savary fucceeded pretty
well in raifing moderate quantities of water to fmall
heights, but could make nothing of deep mines. Many
attempts weie made, on the Marquis’s principle, to
Vol. XVII. Part II.
of the water in the lower receiver, and force it into the
upper one. But becaufe each fuftion-pipe dips in a
ciltern of water, the air preffes this water before it,
raifes it into each of the little receivers which it fills,
and allows the fpring of the air (which was formerly
in them, but which now paffes up into the lower recei¬
ver) to force the water out of the lower receiver into the
5 B upper
S T E
[ 746 ]
S T E
Steam-
Engine.
Oceafions
great wafte
of ffeam
and fuel.
9
The at¬
tempts
made to
diminifti
this wafte
unfuccefs-
ful.
upper one. When this has been completed, the fteam is
attain admitted into the upper receiver. This allows
the water to run back into the lower receiver, and the
air returns into the fmall receivers in the pit, and allows
the water to run out of each into its proper ciftern.
By this means the water of each pipe has been raifed
1 j'feet. The operation may thus be repeated continu-
ally.
The contrivance is ingenious, and limilar to fome
which are to be met with in the hydraulics of Schottus,
Sturmius, and other German writers. But the opera¬
tion muft be exceedingly flow ; and we imagine that
the expence of fleam muft be great, becaufe it muft till
a very large and very cold veflel, which muft. wafte a
great portion of it by condenfation. We fee by fome
late publications of the very ingenious Mr Blackey,
that he is ftill attempting to maintain the reputation of
this machine by fomc contrivance of this kind ; but
we imagine that they will be ineffe&ual, except in fome
very particular fltuations.
For the great defeft of the machine, even when we
can fecure it againft all rifle of burfting, is the prodigi¬
ous wafte of fteam, and confequently of fuel. Daily
experience ftrows, that a few fcattered drops of cold wa¬
ter is fufficient for producing an almoft inftantaneous
condenfation of a great quantity of fteam. Therefore
when the fteam is admitted into the receiver of Savary’s
engine, and comes into contact with the cold top and
cold water, it is condenfed with great rapidity ; and the
water does notbegin to fubfide till its furface has become
fo hot that it condenfes no more fteam. It may now
begin to yield to the preffure of the incumbent ftsanr,
but as foon as it defeends a little, more of the cold lur-
face of the receiver comes into contact with the fteam,
and condenfes more of it, and the water can defeend no
farther till this addition of cold furface is heated up to
the ftate of evaporation. This rapid condenfation goes
on all the while the water h defcending._ By fome ex¬
periments frequently repeated by the writer of this arti¬
cle, it appears that no lefs than -’Tths of the whole fteam
Is ufelefsly condenfed in this manner, and not more than
^.th is employed in allowing the water to defeend by
its own weight; and he has reafon to think that the
portion thus wafted will be confiderably greater, if the
fteam be employed to force the water out of the receiver
to any confiderable height.
Obferve, too, that all this wafte muft he repeated in
every fucceeding ftroke ; for the whole receiver muft
be cooled again in order to fill itfelf with water.
Many attempts have been made to diminiftr this
wafte ; but all to little purpofe, becaufe the very fill¬
ing of the receiver with cold water occafions its fides
to condenfe a prodigio.us quantity of fteam in the fuc¬
ceeding ftroke. Mr Blackey has attempted to leften
this by ufing two receivers. In the firft was oil; and
into this only the fteam* was admitted. This oil paffed
to and fro between the two receivers, and never touched
the water except in a fmall furface. But this hardly
produced a fenfible diminution of the wafte ; for it muft
now be obferved, that there is a neceffity for the nr ft
cylinder’s being cooled to a confiderable degree below
the boiling point; otherwile, though it will condenl'e
much fteam, and allow the water to rife into the receiver,
there will be a great diminution ol the height of fudtion,
unlefs the veffel be much cooled. This, appears plainly
by infpedting the table of elafticity. Thus, if the veftel Steam,
be cooled no lower than 180°, we ftrould lofe one half, Engine,
of the preffure of the atmofphere ; if cooled to 120,
we fhould ftill lofe —th. The infpe&ion of this table
is of great ufe for underftanding and improving this no¬
ble machine ; and without a conftant recollection of the
elafticity of fteam correfponding to its adtual heat,
we fhall never have a notion of the niceties of its opera¬
tion. - _ ro
The rapidity with which the fteam is condenfed is
really aftoniftnng. Experiments have been made on ^ ‘!vgw^
fteam-veffels of fix feet in diameter and feven feet high; which
and it has been found, that about four ounces of water, ic.m is
as warm as the human blood, will produce a complete condenfei
condenfation in lefs than a fecond ; that is, will pro¬
duce all the condenfation that it is capable of producing,
leaving an elafticity about fth of the elafticity of the
air. In another experiment with the fame fteam-veflel,
no cold water was allowed to get into it, but it was
made to communicate by a Ions pipe f°ur inches in
diameter with another veffel immerfed in cold water.
The condenfation was fo rapid that the time could not
be meafured : it certainly did not exceed half a fecond.
Now this condenfation was performed by a very trifling
furface of contact. Perhaps we may explain it a little
in this way : When a mafs of fteam, in immediate con¬
tact with the cold water, is condenfed, it leaves a void,
into which the adjoining fteam inftantly expands ; and
by this very expanfion its capacity for heat is increafed,
or it grows cold, that is, abftrafts the heat from the
fteam fituated immediately beyond it. And in this ex¬
panfion and refrigeration it is itfelf partly condenfed or
converted into water, and leaves a void, into which the
circumjacent fteam immediately expands, and produces
the fame effeft on-the fteam beyond it. And thus it may
happen that the abftraftion of a fmall quantity of heat
from an inconfiderable mafs of fteam may produce a
condenfation which may be very extenfive. Did we know
the change made in the capacity of fteam for heat by a
given change of bulk, we ftiould be able to tell exaftly
what would be the efteft of this local actual condenfa¬
tion. But experiment has not as yet given us any pre-
cife notions ©n this fubjeCl. We think that this rapid
condenfation to a great diftance by a very moderate
aftual ahftradtion of heat is a proof that the capacity of
fteam for heat is prodigioufly increafed by expanfion.
We fay a very moderate udtual abjtradlion of heat, becaufe
very little heat is neceffary to raife four ounces of blood-
warm waier to a boiling tempeiature, which will unfit
it for condenfing fteam. The remarkable phenomenon
of fnow and ice produced in the Hungarian machine,
when the air condenfed in the receiver is allowed to
blow through the cock (fee Pneumatics), fhows this
to be the cafe in moift air, that is, in air holding water
in a itate of chemical folution. We fee fomething very
like it in a thnnder-Ilorm. A fmall black cloud fome-
times appears in a particular fpot, and in a very few fe-
conds fpreads over many hundred acres of fky, that is,
a precipitation of water goes on with that rapid diffu-
fion. We imagine that this increafe of capacity or der
mand for heat, and the condenfation that muft enfue if
this demand is not, fupplied, is much more remarkable
in pure watery vapours, and that this is a capital dif-
tin&ion of their conftitution from vapours diffolved io
air..
3,
The.
s T E [ 747 1 S T E
Stf*9n* The reftclei* rmift now be fo well acquainted with what
Eflg416’ patTes In the fteam-vefl'el, and with the exterior refults
V- '---v' prom {tj as reaj;iy f0 comprehend the propriety of the
changes which we fhall now defcribe as having- been
made in the conttru&ion and principle of the {team en-
ii gine.
Attempts Of all places in England the tin-mines of Cornwall
Se aeanv* m°k ‘n net^ ot' hydraulic affittance; and Mr Sa^
jjigine. var^ was much engaged in projects for draining them
by his {team-engine. This made its conftru&ion and
principles well known among the machinifts and engi¬
neers of that neighbourhood. Among thefe were a
Mr Newcomen, an iron-monger or blackfmith, and Mr
Cawley a glazier at Dartmouth in DevonOrire, who had
dabbled much with this machine. Newcomen was a
perfon of fome reading, and was in particular acquaint¬
ed uith the perfon, writings, and projedts of his'coun¬
tryman Dr Hooke. There are to be found among
Hooke’s papers, in the poffeffion of the Royal Society,
fome notes of obfervations, for the ufe of Newcomen his
countryman, on Papin’s boafted method of tranfmitting
to a great diftance the action of a mill by means of pipes.
Papin’s projedt was to employ the mill to work two air-
pumps of great diameter. The cylinders of thefe pumps
were to communicate by means of pipes with equal cy¬
linders furnilhed with piltons, in the neighbourhood of
a diftant mine. Thefe piftons were to be connedted,
by means of levers, with the piilon-rods of the mine.
Therefore, when the pifton of the air-pump at the mill
was drawn up by the mill, the correfponding pi (ton at
the fide of the mine would be preffed down by the at-
wofphere, and thus would raife the pifton-rod in the
mine, and draw the water. It would appear from thefe
notes, that Dr Hooke had diffuaded Mr Newcomen
from eredting a machine on this principle, of which
he had expofed the fallacy in feveral difeourfes before
the Royal Society. One paffage is remarkable. “ Could
he (meaning Papin) make a fpeedy vacuum under your
lecond pillon, your work is done.”
It is highly probable that, in the courfe of this fpe-
culation, it occurred to Mr Newcomen that the va¬
cuum he fo much wanted might be produced by fteam,
and that this gave rife to his new principle and conftruc-
tion of the fteam-engine. The fpecific delideratum was
in Newcomen’s mind|; and therefore, when Savary’s en¬
gine appeared, and became known in his neighbourhood
many years after, he would readily catch at the help
which it promifed.
Savary however claims the invention as his own ;
but Switzer, who was perfonally acquainted with both,
is pofuive that Newcomen was the inventor. By his
principles (as a quaker) being averfe from contention,
he was contented to {hare the honour and the profits
with Savary, whofe acquaintance at court enabled him to
procure the patent in 1705, in which all the three were
affociated. Pofterity has done juftice to the modeft in¬
ventor, and the machine is univerfally called Newco¬
men’s Engine, Its principle and mode of ©peration
14 may be clearly conceived as follows,
denption Eet A (fig, y.) reprefent a great boiler properly
men'i *n a ftlrnace' At a fmall height above it is a
cylinder CBBC of metal, bored very truly and fmooth-
ly. The boiler communicates with this cylinder by
means of the throat or fteam-pipe NQ^ The lower
aperture of this pipe is .fiiut by the plate N, which is
ground very fiat, fo as to apply very accurately to
the whole circumference of the orifice. This plate is
called the regulator or fteam-cock, and it turns hori-
zontally round an axis 60 which pafies through the top
of the boiler, and is nicely fitted to the focket, like the
key of a cock, by grinding. The upper end of this axis
is furnifhed with a handle 3 T.
A pifton P is fufpended in this cylinder, and made
air-tight by a packing of leather or foft rope, well fill¬
ed with tallow; and, for greater fecurity, a fmall quan¬
tity of water is kept above the pifton. The pifton-rod
PD is fufpended by a chain which is fixed to the upper
extremity F of the arched head FD of the great lever
or Working Beam HK, which turns on the gudgeon
O. There is a fimilar arched head EG at the other
end of the beam. To its upper extremity E is fixed a
chain carrying the pump-rod XL, which raifes the water
from the mine. The load on this end of the beam is
made to exceed confiderably the weight of the pifton
P at the other extremity.
At fome fmall height above the top of the cylinder
is a ciftern W called the Injection Cistern. " From
this defeends the Injection Pipe ZSR, which enters
the cylinder through its bottom, and terminates in a
fmall hole R, or fometimes in a nozzle pierced with
many fmaller holes diverging from a centre in all di¬
rections. This pipe has at S a cock called the In¬
jection Cock, fitted with a handle V.
At the oppofite fide of the cylinder, a little above its
bottom, there is a lateral pipe, turning upwards at the
extremity, and there covered by a clack-valve /, call¬
ed the Snifting Valve, which has a little dilh round
it to hold water for keeping it air-tight.
There proceeds alfo from the bottom of the cylinder
a pipe deg h (palling behind the boiler), of which the
lower end is turned upwards, and is covered with a valve
h. This part is immerfed in a ciftern of water Y, call¬
ed the Hot Well, and the pipe itfelf is called the
Eduction Pipe. Daftly, the boiler is furnifhed with
a fafety-valve called the Puppet Clack (which is not
repreiented in this {ketch for want of room), in the fame
manner as Savary’s engine. This valve is generally load¬
ed with one or two pounds on the fquare inch, fo that
it allows the fteam to efcape when its elafticity is 4^th
greater than that of common air. Thus ail rific of
burfting the boiler is avoided, and the preftiire outwards
is very moderate ; fo alfo is the heat. For, by infpec-
ting the table of vaporous elafticity, we fee that the
heat correfponding to 32 inches of elafticity is only
about 216® of Fahrenheit’s thermometer.
rJ hefe are all the eftential parts of the engine, and
are here drawn in the moft limple form, till our know¬
ledge of their particular offices fhall {how the pro¬
priety of the peculiar forms which are given to them.
Let us now fee how the machine is put in motion,
and what is the nature of its work. r3
The water in the boiler being fuppofed to be in a How the
Jlate of ftrong ebullition, and the fteam iffuing by the .machi"c
fafety-valve, let us confider the machine in a ftate
reft, having both the fteam-cock and inje&ion cock {hut. and 'ti e na-
The refting pofition or attitude of the machine muft beture ,>f die
fuch as appears in this {ketch, the pump rods preponde^01'11,
rating, and the great pifton being drawn up to the top
of the cylinder. Now open the fteam cock by turning
the handle T of the regulator. The Ream from the
5 B 2 boiler
S T E r 74s
boiler will immediately rulh ip, and flying all over the
cylinder, will mix with the air. Much of it will be con-
denfed by the cold furface of the cylinder and piilon,
and the water produced from it will trickle down tire
hides, and run off by the eduftion-pipe. This conden-
iation and watte of ffeam will continue till tire whole cy*
Under and piilon are made as hot as boiling water.
When this happens, the fleam will begin to open the
fnifting valve f, and iffue through the pipe ; flowly at
firfl, and very cloudy, being mixed with much air. The
blaft at f will grow Aronger by degrees, and more tranf-
parent, having already carried off the greateff part of
the common air which filled the cylinder. We tuppo-
fed that the water was boiling brifldy, fo that the fleam
was iffuing by the fafety-valve which is in the top of the
boiler, and through every crevice. The opening of the
fleam-cock puts an end to this at once, and it has fomc-
times happened that the cold cylinder abftradls the
fleam from the boiler with fuch aftonifhing rapidity,
that the preffure of the atmofphere has burfl up the
bottom of the boiler. We may here mention an ac¬
cident of which we were witneffes, which alfo Ihows
the immenfe rapidity of the condenfation. The boiler
was in a frail fhed at the fide of the engine-houfe ; a
fhoot of fnow from the top of the houfe fell down and
broke through the roof of the fired, and was fcattered
over the head of the boiler, which was of an oblong or
oval fhape. In an inftant the fidcs of it were fqueezed
together by the preffure of the atmofphere.
When the manager of the engine perceives that not
only the blatl at the fnifting valve is ftrong and Heady,
hut that the boiler is now fully fupplied wuth fleam of
a proper ilrength, appearing by the renewal of the dif-
charge at the fafety-valve, he (huts the fleam cock, and
opens the inje&ion cock S by turning its handle V.
The preffure of the column of water in the injedlion-
pipe ZS immediately forces fome water through tire
ipout R. This coming in contact with the pure va¬
pour which now fills the cylinder, condenfes it, and thus
makes a partial void, into which the more diftant fleam
immediately expands, and by expanding collapfes (as has
been already obferved). What remains in the cylinder
no longer balances the atmofpherical preffure on the fur-
face of the water in the injedlion-ciflern, and therefore
the water fpouts rapidly through the hole R by the
joint adlion of the column ZS and the unbalanced pref¬
fure of the atmofphere; at the fame time the fnifting
valve /"and the eduftion-valve h are fhut by the unba¬
lanced preffure of the atmofphere. The velocity of the
injedlion water mufl therefore rapidly increafe, and the
jet will dafh (if fingle) againfl the bottom of the piflon,
and be fcattered through the whole capacity of the cy¬
linder. In a vtry fhort fpace of time, therefore, the con¬
denfation of the fleam becomes univerfal, and the elafli-
city of what remains is almofl nothing. The whole
preffure of the atmofphere is exerted is the upper furface
of the piflon, while there is hardly any on its under
fide. Therefore, if the load on the outer end E of the
.working beam is inferior to this preffure, it mufl yield
to it. The piflon P mufl defeend, and the pump pitton
E mufl afeend, bringing along with it the water of the
mine, and the motion mufl continue till the great piflon
reaches the bottom of the cylinder ;• for it is not like
the motion which would take place in a cylinder of air
rarefied to the fame degree. In this kui cafe, the im-
1
Engine,
S T E
pellirg force would be continually diminiffied, becanfc
the capacity of the cylinder is diminifhed by the defceot
of the pifton, and the air in it is continually becoming
more denfe and elaflic. The piflon would flop at a cer.
tain height, where the elaflicity of the included air, to¬
gether with the load at E, would balance the atmofphe¬
rical preffure on the piilon. But when the contents of
the cylinder are pure vapour, and the continued flreatn
of inje&ed cold water keeps down its temperature to
the fame pitch as at the beginning, the elafticity of the
remaining fleam can never increafe by the defeent of the
pillon, nor exceed what correfponds to this temperature.
The impelling or accelerating force therefore remains
the fame, and the defeent of the piilon will be uniform¬
ly accelerated, if there is not an increafe of refiftance
arifing from the nature of the work performed by the
other end of the beam. This circumflance will come
under confideration afterwards, and we need not attend
to it at prefent. It is enough for our prefent purpofe
to fee, that if the cylinder has been completely purged
of common air before the fleam-cock was fhut, and if
none has entered fince, the piflon will defeend to the
very bottom of the cylinder. And this may be frequent¬
ly obferved in a good fleam-engine where every part ig
air-tight. It fometimes happens, by the pit pump
drawing air, or fome part of the communication be¬
tween the two ftrains giving way, that the piilon comes
down with fuch violence as to knock out the bottom of
the cylinder with the blow.
The only obfervation which remains to be made on phe pittos
the motion of the pifton in defeending is, that it does.toes no;
not begin at the inflant the injetlion is made. The^“^°
piilon was kept at the top by the preponderaney of the ^j^1!
outer end of the working beam, and it m,ult remaintiie Ulj£C.
there till the difference between the elaflicity of the don is
fleam below it and the prefliire of the atmofpheremadc-
exceeds this preponderancy. There muff therefore be
a fmall fpace of time between the beginning of the
condenfation and the beginning of the motion. This
is very fmall, not exceeding the third or the fourth part
of a fecond; but it may be very diftindly obferved by
an attentive fpedlator. He will fee, that the inftant the
injedion-cock is opened, the cylinder will fenfibly rife
upwards a little by the preffure of the air on its bottom.
Its whole weight is not nearly equal to this preffure
and inllead of its being neceffary to fupport it by a flrong
floor, we mufl keep it down by flroug joills loaded by
heavy walls. It is ufual to frame thefe joifts into the
polls which carry the axis of the working-beam, and
are therefoie loaded with the whole flrain of the ma¬
chine. This riling of the cylinder {hows the inftan-
taneous commencement of the condeniation ; and it is
not till after this has been diftindly obierved that the
piftori is feen to ftart, and begin to defeend. ^
When the manager fees the piflon as low as he thinks The cir-
proper, he {huts Ihe injedion-cock, and opens thecuniftan«3
fleam-cock. The fleam has been accumulating above^ the
the water in the boiler during the whole time ot thedefcent of
pifton’s defeent, and is now rufhing violently through the
the puppet clack. The moment therefore that the
fleam-cock is opened, it rufhes violently into the cylin¬
der, having an #elailicity greater than that of the air.
It therefore immediately blows open the fnifting valve,
and allows (at leafl) the water which had come in by
the former injedion, aad what arofe from the conden-
fed
Sfeam-
F.n^ine.
16
fTcft of
le iirft
nff of en-
nng
cam
17
f ^reat
iiife-
lerce fo
e good
Irform •
ice of a
tam-en-
|ne, that
c water
oployed
'In rain
t»€ ajr.
*8
ow the
] don rifes,
S T E [ 745
to defcend by it8 own weight through the 30
eduttion-pipe d e g b to open the valve h, and to run
out into the hot well. Ami we mult eafily fee that this
water is boiling hot; for while lying in the bottom of
the cylinder, it will condenfe iteam till it acquires this
temperature, and therefore cannot run down till it con-
denfes no more. There is ftill a wafte of iteam at its
firft admifijon, in order to heat the infide of the cylin¬
der and the inje&cd water to the boiling temperature :
but the fpace being fmall, and the whole being already
very warm, this is very foon done ; and when things
are properly conftru&ed, little more fleam is wanted
than what wall warm the cylinder ; for the edudtion-
pipe receives the injeftion water even during the de-
fcent of the piilon, and it is therefore removed pretty
much out of the way of the fleam.
This firft puff of the entering fleam is of great fer-
vice; it drives out of the cylinder the vapour which
it finds there. This is feldom pure watery vapour : all
water contains a quantity of air in a flate of chemical
union. The union is but feeble, and a boiling heat is
fufticient for difengaging the greateft part of it by in-
creafing its elaflicity. It may alfo be difengaged by
limply removing the external prefiure of the atmo-
fphere. This is clearly feen when we expofe a glafs
of water in an exhaufted receiver. Therefore the fmall
fpace below the pifton contains watery vapour mixed
with ail the air which had been difengaged from the
water in the boiler by ebullition, and all that was fepa-
rated from the inje&ion water by the diminution of ex¬
ternal preffures. All this is blown out of the cylinder
by the firft puff of fleam. We may abferve in this
place, that waters differ exceedingly in the quantity of
air which they hold in a flate of folution. All fpring
water contains much of it: and water newly brought
up from deep mines contains a great deal more, becaufe
the folution was aided in thefe fituations by great pref¬
fures. Such waters fparkle when poured into a glafs.
It is therefore of great confequence to the good per¬
formance ol a fleam-engine to ufe water containing
little air, both in the boiler and in the injedlion ciflern.
The water of running brooks is preferable to all others,
and the freer it is from any faline impregnation it ge¬
nerally contains lefs air. Such engines as are fo un¬
fortunately frtuated that they are obliged to employ
the very water which they have brought up from great
depths, are found greatly inferior in their performance
to others. The air collected below the piflon great¬
ly diminifhes the accelerating force, and the expul-
fion of fuch a quantity requires a long continued blafl
of the befl fleam at the beginning cf every flroke. It
is advifable to keep fuch water in a large fhallow pond
for a long while before ufiog it.
Let us now confider the Mate of the pifton. It is
evident that it will flart or begin to rife the moment
the fleam-cock is opened; for at that inftant the ex¬
cels of atmofpherical preffure, by which it was kept
down in oppolition to the preponderancy of the outer
end of the beam, isdiinimfhed. The pifton is therefore
] S T E
. y, that ia, to 26,7 inches nearly ; but if it is mft
this quantity, the pifton will rife as fall as this fleam
can be fupplied through the fleam-pipe, and the vdo-'
city of its afceut depends entirely on the velocity of
this fupply. ] his obfervation is of great importance ;
and it does not lee in to have occurred to the mathema¬
ticians, who have paid mod attention to the mechanifm
of the motion of ibis engine. In the mean time, we
may clearly fee that the entry of the fleam depends chiefly
on the counter weight at E : for fuppofe there was
none, fleam no flronger than air would not enter the
cylinder at all; and if the fleam be ftronger, it will en¬
ter only by the excefs of its ftrength. Writers on the
fleam-engine (and even fome of great reputation) fami¬
liarly fpeak of the fleam giving the pifton a pufli: But
this is fcarcely poffible. During the rife of the pifton
the fni ting valve is never obferved to blow; and we
have not heard any well attefled accounts of the pifton-
chains ever being flaekened by the upward preffure of
the fleam, even at the very beginning of the flroke. Du¬
ring the riling of the pifton the {team is (according to
the common conception and manner of fpeaking)
fucked in, in the fame way that air is fucked into a com¬
mon fyringe or pump when we draw up the pifton ;
for in the fleam-engine the pifton is reallv drawn up by
the counter weight. But it is fliil more fucked in, and
requires a more copious fupply, for another reafon. As
the pifton defcended only in confequence of the infide of
the cylinder s being fufficiently cooled to condenfe the
fleam, this cooled iurface mult again be prefented to
the fleam during the rife of the piflon, and muft con¬
denfe fleam a fecond time, ft'he pifton cannot rife an¬
other inch till the part of the cylinder which the pifton
has already quitted has been warmed up to the boiling
point, and fleam mufl be expended in this warming.
1 he inner furface of the cylinder is not only of the
heat of boiling water while the pifton rifes, but is alfo
perfeftly dry ; for the film of water left on it by the af-
cending piflon mufl be completely evaporated, other-
wife it will be condenfing fleam, ft’hat the quantity
thus wafted is conhderablc, appears by the experiments
of Mr Beighton. He found that five pints of water were
boiled oft in a minute, and produced 16 ftrokes of an en¬
gine whofe cylinder contained 113 gallons of 282 inches
each ; and he thence concluded that fleam was 2886
times rarer them water. But in no experiment made
with fcrupulous care on the expanfton of boiling water
does it appear that the denfity of fleam exceeds —^ th
1c,o-o
of the denfity of water. Befaguliers fays that it is above
14,000 times rarer than water. We have frequently
attempted to meafure the weight of fleam which filled a
very light veffel, which held 12,600 grains of water,
and found it always lets than one grain ; fo that we have
no doubt of its being much more than io,occ times rarer
than water. This being the cafe, we may fafely fup¬
pofe that the number of gallons of fleam, inilead of be¬
ing 16 times 113, were nearly five times as much ; and
that only -'th were employed in allowing the piflon to
, . . ' , . : ' ~ umy Tui were employed in allowing the pifton to
drugged upwards, and rt will rife even although the fleam rjfe> and the remaining }ths were employed to warm the
which is admitted be not fo elaflic as common air. Sup- cylinder
SfeiuR*
Engine.
pole the mercury in the barometer to fland at 30 inches,
and that the prepouderancy at the outer end of the beam
is yth of the preffure of the air on the pifton, the piflon
will not rife if the elaflicity of the fleam is not equal to
The moving force during the afcent of the pifton Its afi-ent
mu ft be confidered as refulting chiefly, if not folely, cIueflIr ow'’
from the preponderating weight of the pit pifton-rods. Sh^of
ft he office of this is to return the fteam-piilon to the the pit pi,
4 topfton-rodt^
ling the pump
another fervlce to perform in this ufe of the engine ;
namely, to return the pump piitons into their places at
the bottom of their refpeilive working barrels, in order
vthat they alfo may make a working ftroke. I'liis re¬
quires force independent of the friftion and inertia of the
moving parts ; for each pifton muft be pulhed down
through the water in the barrel, which mud rife through
which allows the air to prefs down the pifton, and that
the readmiffion of the fteam allows the pifVon to rife
again. This lumping and flovenly way of viewing it
has long prevented even the philofopher from feeing the
defefts of the conftru^tion, and the methods of remo¬
ving them. u
We now fee the great difference between Savary’s Difftrencs
and Newcomen’s engine in refpeft of principle. Sava-hc;vve*11
the pifton with a velocity whofe proportion to the velo^      e— r_  * - r --   Savarv'
city of the piflon is the fame with that of the bulk of ry’s was really an engine which railed water by the ^
the pifton to the bulk of the perforation through which
the water rifes through the pifton. It is enough at
prefent to mention this in general terms : we fhall con-
iider it more particularly afterwards, when we come to
calculate the performance of the engine, and to deduce
from our acquired knowledge maxims of conftruclion
and improvement.
From this general conftderation of the afeent of the
pifton, we may fee that the motion differs greatly from
fton differs tqe gefcent. It can hardly be fuppofed to accelerate,
greatly - -
from th
ideftent.
The afeent
of the !'i -
even if the fteam in the cylinder were in a moment anni-
lated. For the refiftance to the defeent of the pifton
is the fame with the weight of the column of water,
which would caufe it to flow through the box of the
pump pifton with the velocity with which it really rifes
through it, and muft therefore increafe as the fquare of
that velocity increafes ; that is, as the fquarc of the ve¬
locity of the pifton increafes. Independent of fri&ion,
therefore, the velocity of defeent through the water
rauft foon become a maximum, and the motion become
mniform. We fhall fee by and by, that in fuch a pump
as is generally ufed this will happen in lefs than the
Ioth part of a fecond. The fridtion of the pump will
diminifh this velocity a little, and retard the time of its
attaining uniformity. But, on the other hand, the fup-
ply of fteam which is neceflary for this motion, being
iufceptible of no acceleration from its previous motion,
and deoending entirely on the briflenefs of the ebulli¬
tion, an almoft xnftantaneous Hop is put to acceleration.
Accordingly, any perfon who obferves with atten¬
tion the working of a fleam-engine, will fee that the
rife of the pifton and defeent of the pump-rods is ex¬
tremely uniform, whereas the working ftroke is very
fenfibly accelerated. Before quitting this part of the
fubjeft, and left it fhould afterwards escape our recol-
leftion, we may obferve, that the counter weight is dif-
ter weight ferent duv;ng the two motions of the pump-rods,
durn^ the While the machine is making a working ftroke, it is
two mo- lifting not only the column of water in the pump, but
tiomof the-the abfolute weight of the piftons and pifton-rods alfo :
.pump-rods. ^ut wqqe the pump-rods are defeending, there is a di¬
minution of the counterweight by the whole weight
loft by the immeriion of the rod in water.. The wood¬
en rods which are generally ufed, foaked in water, and
joined by iron ftraps, are heavier, and but a little hea¬
vier than water, and they are generally about one-third
of the bulk of the water in the pumps.
Thefe two motions complete the period of the ope-
ration; and the whole may be repeated by (hutting the
fteam cock and opening the inje&ion-cock whenever the
pifton has attained the proper height. We have been
very minute in our attentio* to the different circum-
ftances, that tire reader may have a diftind notion of
a*
The toun
force of fteam ; but Newcomen’s raifes water entirely comen',
by the preffure of the atmolphere, and fteam is em- miunmej,
ployed merely as the moft expeditious method of pro¬
ducing a void, into which the atmofpherical preffure
may impel the jirji mover of his machine. The elafticity
of the (team is not the firft mover. ^
We fee alfo the great fuperiority of this new ma-Suprno ity
chine. We have no need of fteam of great and dange-ot Ne*'*
rous elafticity ; and we operate by means of very mode-COllien *’
rate heats, and confequently with much fmaller quan¬
tities of fuel; and there is no bounds to the power
of this machine. How deep foever a mine may be, a
cylinder may be employed of fuch dimenfions that the
preffure of the air on its pifton may exceed in any de¬
gree the weight of the column of water to be raifed.
And laftly, this form of the machine renders it appli¬
cable to almoft every mechanical purpofe ; becauie a
fkilful mechanic can readily find a method of convert¬
ing the reciprocating motion of the tvorking beam
into a motion of any kind which may fuit his purpoie.
Savary’s engine could hardlyr admit of fuch an imme¬
diate application, and feems almoft refiridted to railing
water. t ^
Inventions improve by degrees. This engine was Qrac^aily
firft; offered to the public in 1705. But many difficul-improved
ties occurred in the execution, wdiich were removed one
by one; and it was not till 1712 that the engine feem-
ed to give confidence in its efficacy. The moft exadl
and unremitting attention of the manager was required
to the precife moment of opening and (hutting the
cocks; and negledl might frequently be ruinous, by
beating out the bottom of the cylinder, or allowing the
pifton to be wholly drawn out of it. Stops were con¬
trived to prevent both of thefe accidents ; then firings
were ufed to conneft the handles of the cocks with the
beam, fo that they fhould be turned whenever it was in 1/
certain politions. Thefe were gradually changed and
improved into detents and catches of different fliapes ;P‘lie *
at laft, in 1717, Mr Beighton, a very ingenious and
well informed artift, iimplified the whole of thefe fub-
ordinate movements, and brought the machine into
the form in which it has continued, without the fmall-
eft material change, to the prelent day. We ffiall now
deferibe one of thefe improved engines, copying almoft
exactly the drawings and defeription given by Boffut
in his Hydrodynamique ; thefe being by far the moll
accurate and perfpicuous of any that have been pub-
lilhed. % , pijte
Fig. 8. nQ 1. is a perfpeftive view of the boiler cy*cCCCUiviu
Under, and all the parts neceffary for turning the cocks.
Fig. 8. n° 2. is a vertical fettion of the fame ; and the
fame pieces of both are matked with the fame letters of
reference.
The
s T E , r 75! ] S T E
fiteam- The rod X of the pi on P is fufpendec! from the holes, and a pin is put through them which unites them Steam-*—
Eng’ne' arc'1 °; t^e "’O’king beam, as was reprefented in the by a joint. The motion of the handle may be increa- Engine>*
6 preceding {ketch (ng. 7). An upright bar of timber fed or diminifhed by choofing for the joint a hole near ^ ^
efcr'p- FG is alto (een hanging by a chain. This is fufpend- to the axis or remote from it; and the exaft pofition at
< n of > ed from a concentric arch of the beam, as may be teen which the regulator is to flop on both fides is deter-
eani-011' f1^0 111 ^etch^t ^^ his bar is called the ; lug- mined by pins ftuck in the horizontal bar on which the
n >ine. beam, and it muft rile and fall with the pifton, but end of the handle appears to reft.
with a flower motion. ^ I he ule of this plug-beam is This alternate motion of the regulator to the ri dat
to give motion to the different pieces which turn the and left is produced as follows : There is fixed to the
C0<£t a. • ir ■ r • . axls BC a Piece of Jron 0 k l' called the Y, on account
I he Iteam-pipe IV is of one piece with the bottom of its refemblance to that letter of the alphabet invert- *
of the cylinder, and rifes within it an inch or two, to ed. The ftalk 0 carries a heavy lump p of lead or iron*
prevent any 01 the cold injection water from falling in- and a long leather ftrap qp r is faftened to p by the
to the boiler. 1 he lower extremity. Z of the fteam- middle, and the two ends are faftened to the beam above
pipe penetiates the head of the boiler, projecting a it, in fuch a manner that the lump may be alternately
little way.. A flat plate of brals, in fhape refembling a catched and held up to' the right and left of the per-
racket or battledore called the regulator, applies it felt pendicular. By adjufting the length of the two parts
exactly to the whole circumference of the iteam-pipe, of the ftrap, the Y may be flopped in any detired
and completely excludes the fteam from the cylinder, pofttion. The two claws 1 and / fpread out from each
Being moveable round, ap upright axis, which is repre- other, and from the line of the ftalk, and they are of
fented by the dotted lines at the fide of the fleam-pipe f*ch length as to reach the horizontal bolt e, which
in the profile, it may be turned afide by the handle /, croffes the ftirrup below, but not to reach the bottom
n 1. I he profile fhows in the feftion of this plate a of the fork h/g. Now fuppofe the ftirrup hanging;
protuberance in the middle This refts on a ftrong perpendicularly, and the ftalk of the Y alfo held per-
wTck 15 below it athwart the mouth pendicular ; carry it a little outward from the cylinder
of the fteam-pipe. . This fpnng. pieffes it ftrongly to- and then let it go. It will tumble farther out by its
wards the fteam-pipe, caufing it to apply very clofe ; weight, without affe&ing the ftirrup till the claw l
and this knob Aides along the fpring, while the regula- ftrikes on the horizontal bolt e, and then it puflies the
tor turns to the right or left. _ ftirrup and the fork towards the cylinder, and opens
VVehave faid that the mjeAion water is furnifhed the regulator. It lets it in motion with a fmart jerk,
from a ciftern placed above the cylinder. When this which is an effe&ual way of overcoming the cohefion
cittern cannot be fupphed. by pipes from fome more and fridtion of the regulator with the mouth of fhe
elevated fource, its water is raifed by the machine it- fteam-pipe. This puftx is adjufted to a proper length
felf A fmall lifting pump il (fig. 7.), called the jad- by the ftrap qp, which flops the Y when it has gone
bead ax jacquette, is worked by a rod >-<, fufpended from far enough. If we now take hold of the ftalk of the
a concentric arch f y near the outer end of the work- Y, and move it up to the perpendicular, the width be¬
ing beam. 1 his forces a fmall portion of the pit water tween its claws is fuch as to permit this motion, and
along the rifing pipe i LM into the inje&ion ciftern. fomething more, without affe&ing the ftirrup. But
In figure 8. 1. and 2. the letters QM 3' repre- when puttied ttill nearer to the cylinder, it tumbles to-
fent the pipe which brings down the water from the wards it by its own weight, and then the claw b ftrikes
injection ciftern. I his pipe has a cock at R to open the bolt e, and drives the ftirrup and fork in the ©ppo-
or flint the paflage.of this water. It fpouts through ftte direftion, till the lump p is catched by the ftrap rp,
the. jet 3', and dafhing againft the bottom of the pifton, now ftretched to its full length, while. 7/) hangs flack!
it is difperfed into drops, and fcattered through the Thus by the motion of the Y the regulator is opened
whole capacity of the cylinder, fo as to produce a ra- and flint. Let us now fee how the motion of the Y
pid condenfation of the fteam. , . is produced by the machine itfelf. To the horizontal
. An. upright poll.A may be obferved in the perfpec- axis BC ate attached two fpanners or handles m and n,
twe view of the c) finder, &c. I his iupports one end T he fpanner m paffes through a long flit in the plup--
L of a horizontal non axis BC. . I he end C is lup- beam, and is at liberty to move upwards or down-
ported by a fimilar poll, of which the place only is wards by its motion round the axis BC. A pin *
Biaiked by the dotted lines A, that the pieces connec- which goes through the plug-beam catches hold of m
ted with this axis may not be hid by it. A kind of when the beam rifes along with the pifton; and the pin
ftirrup abed hangs from this axis, fupported by the is fo placed, that when the beam is within an inch or two
hooks a and d. This ftirrup is crofted near the bottom of its higheft rife, the pin has lifted m and thrown the
by a round bolt or bar e, which paffes through the eyes ftalk of the Y paft the perpendicular. It therefore
or rings that are at the ends of the horizontal ioxk.hjg, tumbles over with great force, and gives a fmart blow
whofe long tail b is double, receiving between its to the fork, and immediately {huts the regulator. By-
branches the handle i of the regulator. It is plain from this motion the fpanner m is removed out of the neigh
this conftrufliion, that when the ftirrup is made to vi- bourhood of the plug-beam. But the fpanner «, mo-
brate round the horizontal axis BC, on which it hangs ving along with it in the lame dire&ion, now comes in-
freely by its hooks, the bolt e muft pull or puftr the to the way of the pins of the plug-beam. Therefore,
long fork hfg backwarks and forwards horizontally, when the pifton defeends again by the condenfation of
and by fo doing will move the regulator round its axis the fteam in the cylinder, a pin marked C? in the fide
y means ef the handle i. Both the tail oi the fork of the plug-beam catches hold of the tail of the fpan*
and. the handle of the regulator are. pierced with ieveral ner n, and by preffmg it down raifes the lump on the
ftalk!
K i»
S T E [ 752 ] ST E
re*rrT- 0f Y till it -p3^8 ^1C perpendicular, and it
ll^‘ne' , then falls down, outwards from the cylinder, and the
* claw / again drives the fork in the diredtion A ?, and
opens the {learn valve- This opening and {hutting of
the fleam valve is executed in the precife moment that
is proper, by placing the pins *- and fif at a proper
height in the plug-beam. For this reafon, it is pierced
through with a great number of holes, that the places
of thefe pins may be varied at pleafure. This, and a
proper curvature of the fpanners m and n, make the ad-
jullment as nice as we pleafe.
The injeftion-coek R is managed in a fimilar man¬
ner.* On its key may be obferved a forked arm s t,
like a crab’s claw ; at a little dillance above it is the
gudgeon or axis a of a piece y u z, called the hammer
or the F, from its refemblance to that letter. It has
a lump of metal y at one end, and a fpear u s proje&s
from its middle, and palfes between the claws s and t
of the arm of the inje£tion-cock. The hammer y is
held up by a notch in the underfide of a wooden lever
DE, moveable round the centre D, and fupporced at
a proper height by a (Iring r E made fall to the joift
above it.
Suppofe the inje&ion-cock (hut, and the hammer in
the poiition reprefented in the figure. A pin p of
the plug-frame rifes along with the pifton, and catch¬
ing hold of the detent DE, raifes it, and difengages
the hammer y from its notch. This immediately falls
down, and (Irikes a board L put in the way to flop it.
The fpear u s takes hold of the claw t, and forces it
afide towards x, and opens the injeftion-cock. The
pifton immediately defeends, and along with it the
plug-frame. During its defeent the pin fi meets with
the tail « z of the hammer, which is now railed conli-
derably above the level, and brings it down along with
it, raifing the lump y, and gradually (hutting the injec¬
tion-cock, becaufe the fpear takes hold of the claw s of
its arm. When the beam has come to its loweft lituation,
the hammer is again engaged in the notch of the de¬
tent DE, and fupported by it till the pifton again
reaches the top of the cylinder.
In this manner the motions of the inje&ion cock are
alfo adjailed to the precife moment that is proper for
them. The different pins are fo placed in the plug-
frame, that the fteam-cock may be completely Ihut be¬
fore the inje£tion-cock is opened. I he inherent mo¬
tion of the machine will give a fmall addition to the
afeent of the pifton without expending fleam all the
while ; and by leaving the (team rather lefs elaftic than
before, the fubfequent defeent of the pifton is promoted.
There is a confiderable propriety in the gradual (hut¬
ting of the injeftion-cock. Fom after the firft dalh of
the cold water againft the bottom of the pifton, the
condenfation is nearly complete, and very little more
water is needed ; but a continual acceffion of fome is
abfolutely neceffary for completing the condenfation, as
the capacity of the cylinder diminilhes, and the water
warms which is already injetled.
In this manner the motion of the machine will be
repeated as long as there is a fupply of fleam from the
boiler, and of water from the inje&ion ciftern, and a
clifcharge procured for what has been inje&ed. We
proceed to conhder how thefe conditions alfo are provi¬
ded by the machine itfelf.
The injection ciftern is fupplied with water by the
jackhead-pump, as we have already obferved. From Steam,
this fource all the parts of the machine receive their re- Engine,
fpedtive fupplies. In the fir ft place, a fmall branch *"**'
13, 13, is taken off from the inje£lion-pipe immediately
below the cillern, and conducted to the top of the cy¬
linder, where it is furniftied with a cock. The fpout is
fo adjufted, that no more runs from it than what will
keep a conftant fupply of a foot of water above the pi-
llon to keep it tight. Every time the pifton comes to
the top of the cylinder, it brings this water along with
it, and the furplus of its evaporation and leakage runs
off by a wade pipe 14, 14. This water neceffarily be¬
comes almoft boiling hot, and it was thought proper to
employ its overplus for fupplying the walle of the boil¬
er. This was accordingly praftifed for fome time.
But Mr Beighton improved this economical thought,
by fupplying the boiler from the edu6lion-pipe 2, 2,
the water of which muft be (till hotter than that above
the pifton. This contrivance required attention to ma¬
ny circumftances, which the reader will underftand by
conlidering the perfpe&ive and profile. The edu&ion
pipe comes out of the bottom of the cylinder at 1 with
a perpendicular part, which bends fidewife below, and
is fhut at the extremity 1. A deep cup 5 communi¬
cates with it, holding a metal valve nicely fitted to
it by grinding, like the key of a cock. To fecure its
being always air-tight, a (lender dream of water trickles
into it from a branch 6 of the wafte pipe from the top
of the cylinder. The edu£lion-pipe branches off at 2,
and goes down to the hot well, where it turns up, and
is covered with a valve. In the perfpedlive view may be
obferved an upright pipe 4, 4, which goes through the
head of the boiler, and reaches to within a few inches
of its bottom. This pipe is called the feeder^ and rifes
about three or four feet above the boiler. It is open
at both ends, and has a branch 3, 3, communicating
with the bottom of the cup 5, immediately above the
metal valve, and alfo a few inches below the level of
the entry 2 of the edu£lion-pipe. This communicating
branch has a cock by which its paffage may be dimi-
nifhed at pleafure. Now fuppofe the Hearn in the boil¬
er to be very ftrong ; it will caufe the boiling water
to rife in the feeding pipe above 3, and coming along
this branch, to rife alfo in the cup 5, and run over.
But the height of this cup above the furface of the \va-
tefi in the boiler is fuch, that the Hearn is never ftrong
enough to produce this effecl. Therefore, on the con¬
trary, any w£ter that may be in the cup 5 wall run off
by the branch 3,3, and go down into the bolleV by the
feeding pipe.
Thefe things being underftood, let us ftippofe a inK^
quantity of injected water lying at the bottom of the
cylinder. It will run into the eduftion-pipe, fill the
crooked branch 1,1, and open the valve in the bottom
of the cup (its weight being fupported by a wire hang¬
ing from a (lender fpring). and it will fill the cup to the
level of the entry 2 of the edu&ion-pipe, and will then
flow along 3, 3, and fupply the boiler by the feeder 4, 4.
What more water runs ia at 1 will now go along the
edu&ion-pipe 2, 2, to the hot well. By properly adjull-
ing the cock on the branch 3,3, the boiler may be fup-
plied as fall as the wafte in fleam requires. This is a
mod ingenious contrivance, and does great honour to
Mr Beighton. It is not, however, of much impor¬
tance. The fmall quantity which the boiler requires
may
S T E
Steam-
Engine.
t 753 1
28
Vhich en*
may be immediately taken even from a cold cittern,
without fenfibly diminittiing the produ&ion of fteam:
for the quantity of heat necettary for raifing the fen-
fible heat of cold water to the boiling temperature is
quite infignificant, when compared with the quantity of
heat which mutt then be combined with it in order to
convert the water into fteam. No difference can be ob-
fetyed in the performance of fuch engines and of thofe
which have their boilers fupplied from a brook. It has,
however, the advantage of being purged of air ; and
when an engine mult derive all its fupphes from pit
water, the water from the eduftion-pipe is vaftly pre¬
ferable to that from the top of the cylinder.
We may here obferve, that many writers (among
them the. Abbe Boffut), in their defcriptions of tire
fleam-engine, have drawn the branch of communication
3,3, from the feeding pipe to a part of the crooked pipe
1,1, lying below the valve in the cup 5. But this is
quite erroneous ; for, in this cafe, when the inje&ion
is made into the cylinder, and a vacuum produced, the
water from the boiler would immediately rulh up through
the pipes 4, 3, and fpout up into the cylinder : fo would
the external air coming in at the top of the feeder.
This contrivance has alfo enabled us to form fome
S T E
Steam-
Enjnne.
ties US to • , *.«**!.» uao tuiu cndUlCU US tO lOTOl lOme
orm fome lud?ment the internal flate of the engine during the
augment performance. Mr Beighton paid a minute attention to
f the ;
the fituation of the water in the feeders and edudfion-
1 an engine, which feems to have been one of
pe per-
brmance
ernalftate plpe 0 __   
tine during tiie ^ Yet been erefted. It was lifting a co-
he tier- lumn of water whofe weight was 4ths of the prefl'ure of
the air on its pifton, and made 16 ftrokes, of 6 feet
each, in a minute. This is acknowledged by all to be
a very great performance of an engine of this form. He
concluded that the elafticity of the fteam in the cylin¬
der was never more than one-tenth greater or lefs than
the elafticity of the air. The water in the feeder never
rofe more than three feet and a half above the furface of
the boiling water, even though it was now lighter by
4Tth than cold water, 'i he edudlion-pipe was only 44
feet long (vertically), and yet it always difcharged the
inje&ion water completely, and allowed fomev to pafs
into the feeder. This could not be if the fteam was
much more than -/oth weaker than air. By grafping this
pipe in his hand during the rife of the pifton, he could
guefs very well whereabouts the furface of the hot wa¬
ter in it relied during the motion, and he never found
it fupported fo high as four feet. Therefore the fteam in
the cylinder had at leaft -f ths of the elafticity of the air.
Mr Buat, in his examination of an engine which is
eiedled at Montrelaix, in France, by an Englifh engi¬
neer, and has always been confidered as the pattern in
that country, finds it neceffary to fuppofe a much greater
variation in the ftrength of the fteam, and fays that it
mull have been fth ftronger and yth weaker than common
air. But this engine has not been nearly fo perfeft.
Its lift was not more than 4 of the preffure of the at-
mofphere, and it made but nine ftrokes in a minute. 
At W is a valve covering the mouth of a fmall pipe,
and. furrounded with a cup containing water to keep
it air-tight. T. his allows the air to efcape which had
been extricated from the water of laft injeftion. It is
driven out by the firft ftrong puff of fteam which is
admitted, into the cylinder, and makes a noife in its
exit. 1 his valve is therefore called the fmfting valve.
T.o finiftr our defcription, we obferve, that beftdes
Vol.XVII. Part II.
the fafety valve 9 (called the pup? et clack), which
is loaded with about 3 pounds on the fquare inch
(though the engine will.work very well with a load of
1 or 2 pounds), there is another discharger 10,10,
having a clack at its extremity fupported by a cord.
Its ufe is to difcharge the fteam without doors, when the
machine gives over working. There is alfo a pipe S I
near tne bottom of the boiler, by which it may be emp¬
tied when it needs repairs or ckanfmg.
There are two fmall pipes 11,1 i,and 1 2,12, with cocks
called gage-pipes. I he firft defcends to within two
inches of the furface of the water in the boiler, and the
fecond goes about 2 inches below that furface. If both
cocks emit fteam, the water is too low, and requires a
recruit. If neither give fteam, it is too high, and there
is not fufficient room above it for a collection of fteam.
Laftly, there is a filling pipe by which the boiler
may be filled when the machine is to be let to work.
i he engine has continued in this form for many yeats. Thisf^rir nf
The only remarkable change introduced has been the rhe en-ine
manner of placing the boiler. It is no longer placed iasIjeen
below the cylinder, but at one fide, and the fteam isrntinuei
introduced by a pipe from the top of the boiler into aZTZ
flat box immediately below the cylinder. The ufe of my change
this.box is merely to lodge the regulator, and give room t ie
for its motions. This has been a very confiderable im-p, f7‘’ of
provement.. It has greatly reduced the height of the °11Cr‘
building. This was formerly a tower. The wall which
fupported the beam could hardly be built with fufiicient
ftrength for withftanding the violent fhocks which were
repeated without ceafing; and the buildings feldom
lafted more than a very few years. But the boiler is
now fet up in an adjoining fhed. and the gudgeons of
the main beam reft on the top of upright ports, which
are framed into the joifts which fupport the cylinder.
Thus the whole moving parts of the machine are con¬
tained in one compaft frame of carpentry, and have lit¬
tle or no connection with the flight walls of the build-
ing, which is merely a cafe to hold the machine, and
proteft it from the weather.
It is now time to inquire what is to be expedited from How^o
this machine, and to afeertain the molt advantageousafeettain
proportion between the moving power and the load’^001^
that is to be laid on the. machine. advantage-
It may be confidered as a great pulley, and is indeed hTP°r“
~ /V. /l C-t 1 .1 1 « - ... LIU ll lit--
fometimes fo conftruAed, the arches at'the ends of the rweerthe
working beam being completed to a circle. It muft be moving
unequally loaded that it may move. It is loaded, du-Poweraud
ring the working ftroke, by the preffure.of the atmo-'he ‘0‘‘d’
fphere on the pifton fide, and by the column of water
to be railed and the pump-gear on the pump fide. —
During the returning ftroke it is loaded, on the pifton
fide, by a fmall part <*f the atmofpheric preffure, and
on the pump fide by the pump gear a&ing as a coun¬
ter weight. 1 he load during the working ftroke rn'.’.ft
therefore confift of the column of water°to be raffed
and this counter weight. The performance of the ma¬
chine is to be meafured only by the quantity of water
railed in a given time to.a given height. It varies, there¬
fore, in the joint proportion of the weight of the co¬
lumn of water in the pumps, and the number of ftrokes
made by the machine in a minute. Each ftroke confilts
of two parts, which we have called the working and
the returning ftroke. It does not, therefore, depend
{Imply on the velocity of the working ftroke and the
5 C ' quantity
Engine,
S T E
quantity of water raifed by it.
to be attended to, we know that the weight ot the co¬
lumn of water fhould be nearly fths of the preffure of
the atmofphere, this being the proportion which gives
the maximum in the common pulley. But the time of
the returning ifroke is a neceffary part of the whole
time tlapfed, and therefore the velocity of the return¬
ing ftroke equally merits attention. '1 his is regulated
by the counter weight. The number of ftrokes per
[ 7.!4 1 . s T E
If this were all that is cylinder is cooled by the injefttoti to the degree that 13
every day pra&icable, and the pitton really bears during
its defeent a prefliire very near to 14 pounds on the inch.
The load mult be diminifhed, not on account or the im-
perfeit vacuum, but to give the machine .a reafonable
motion. We mult conlider not only the moving :orce,
but alfo the quantity of matter to be put in motion. This
is fo great in the fleam engine, that even it it were balan¬
ced, that is, if there were fufpended on the pillon arm a
minute dots not Rive an immediate proof of the good- weight equal to the whole column of water and the coun-
31
nefs o! the engine. A imall load of water and a great
counter weight will enfure this, becaufe theie condi¬
tions will produce a brilk motion in both diredlions.—
The proper adjuftment of the pretTure of the atmofphere
on the piflon, the column of water to beiaifed, and the
counter weight , is a problem of very great difficulty ;
and mathematicians have not turned much of their at¬
tention to the fubjedt, although it is certainly the moil
interefting quellion that practical mechanics affords
them. 1
MrBi.ffut’s Mr Boffltit has folved it very fliortly and fimply,
{blution, upon this fuppofition, that the working and return¬
ing firoke fhould be made in equal times. This, in¬
deed, is generally aimed at in the eredtion of thefe ma¬
chines, and they are not reckoned to be well arranged if
it be otherwife. We doubt of the propriety of the
maxim. Suppoiing, however, this condition for the
prefer.t, we may compute the loadings of the two ends
of the beam as follows. Let a be the length of the
inner arm of the working beam, or that by which the
•great piiton is fupported. Let b be the outer arm car¬
rying the pump rods, and let W be a weight equivalent
to all the load which is laid on the machine. Let c1 be
the area of the pifton ; let H be the height, of a column
of water having cl for its hafe, and being equal in weight
to the preffure exerted by the fteam on the under lide of
the pilton ; and let h be the preffure of the atmofphere
on the fame area, or the height of a column of water
of equal weight. It is evident that both ftrokes will be
performed in equal times, it h c* a — W l be equal to
(/.> — H) c* a 4- W b. The ftrft of thefe quantities
is the energy of the machine during the working ftroke,
and the fecond expreffes the fimiiar energy during the
returning ftroke. This equation gives us W =r
2hc'a~H.c'a If we fuppoec
we have W
2b
the arms of the lever
h
2 b
and H —
= e2— : that is,
cus maxim.
ter weight, the full preffure of the atmofphere on the
fteam pifton would not make it move twice as fall asitdoes. 33
'This equation by Mr IkitTut is moreover effenthlly Ami faul*
faulty in another refpedL The W in the firft member
is not the fame with the W in the fecond. In the ^ re’
it is the column of water to be raifed, together with c
the counter weight. In the fecond it is the counter
weight only. Nor is the quantity 11 the fame in both
cafes, as is molt evident. The proper equation for en-
furing the equal duration of the two ftrokes may be had
in the following manner. Let it be determined by ex¬
periment what portion of the .atmoipheric preffure is
exerted on the great pifton during its defeent. This
depends on the remaining elafticity of the fteam. Sup-
pole it-j^ths: this we may exprefs by a by a being =T9oths.
Let it alfo be determined by experiment what portion
ef the atmofpheric preffure on the pifton remains un¬
balanced by the fteam below it during its afeent. Sup-
pofe this Toth, we may exprefs this by b h. Then let
w be the weight of the column of water to be raifed*
and c the counter weight. Then, if the arms of the
beam are equal, we have the energy during the work¬
ing ftroke ah — W.— c, and during the returning
ftroke it is ;= c —• £h. Therefore c — bh — ah —
W
and,
; which, on the above
equal
the whole weight of the outer end
z
of the beam ffiould be half the preffure of the air on
the great pifton. This is nearly the ufual pra£lice ; and
the engineers exprefs it by faying, that the engine is
loaded with feven or eight pounds on the fquare inch.
34 This has been found to be nearly the moft advantage-
Founded enous load. This way of expreffing the matter would
an errone- d0 well enough, if the maxim were not founded on er¬
roneous notions, which hinder us from feeing the ftate
of the machine, and the circumftances on which its im¬
provement depends. The pifton bears a preffure of 15
pounds, it is laid, on the fquare inch, if the vacuum
below it be perfeft ; but as this is far from being the
cafe, we muft not load it above the power of its vacuum,
which very little exceeds eight pounds. But this is
very far from the truth. When the cylinder is tight,
the vacuum is not more than -^th deficient, when the
fuppofition of the values of a and b, gives us c =
 . We ffiall make feme ufe of this equation af-
2
terwards ; but it affords us no information concerning
the moft advantageous proportion of h and W, which
is the material point. 34
We mult confider this matter in another way : And Anotf^e^
that we may not involve ourfelves in unneceffary diffi-^
culties, let us make the cafe as fimple as poffible, andmaUer>
fuppoie the arms of the working-beam to be of equal
length. 1
We fhall firfl confider the adjuftment of things at the
outer end of the beam. 35
Since the foie ufe of the fteam is to give room for the Adjuit-
aftion of the atmofpheric preffure by its rapid conden-
fibility, it is admitted into the cylinder only to allow th‘n^ter
the pifton to rife again, but without giving it any im-erKiofthe
pulfe. The pump-rods muft therefore be returned to beam coa-
the bottom of the working barrels by means of a pre-lldered*
ponderancy at the outer end of the beam. It may be
the weight of the pump-rods themfelves, or may be con-
fidered as making part of this weight. A weight at
the end of the beam will not operate on the rods which,
are fufpended there by chains, and it muft therefore be
attached to the rods themfelves, but above their refpec-
tive pump-barrels, fo that it may not lofe part of its
efficacy by immerfion in the water. We may confider
the whole under the notion of the pump-gear, and call
it p. Its office is to deprefs the pump-rods with fuffi-
1 cient
S T E
Steam*
Engine.
cient velocity, by overcoming the refinances arlfing from
the following caufes.
1. From the inertia of the beams and all the parts of
the apparatus which are in motion during the defcent
of the pump-rods.
2. brom the lofs of weight fuftained by the immer-
lion of the pump-rods in water.
3. I rom the fridtion o‘ all the piftons and the weight
of the plug-frame.
4. from the refiftance to the pifton’s motion, arifing
from the velocity which mull be generated in the wa¬
ter in palling through the defcending pillons.
The fum of all thefe refinances is equal to the pref-
fure of fome weight (as yet unknown), which we may
call m.
When the pump-rods are brought up again, they
bring along with them a column of water, whofe weight
we may call w.
It is evident that the load which mud be overcome
by the prefiure of the atmofphere on the tteam pillon
confids of and p. Let this load be called L, and the
prefiure of the air be called P.
Il be rr L, no water will be raifed ; if ^ be =r 0,
the rods will not defcend : therefore there is fome in¬
termediate value of p which will produce the greatell
In order to difcover this, let^ be the fall of a heavy
body in a fecond.
The detcendirg mafs is p : but it does not defcend
with its full weight ; becaufe it is overcoming a fet of
refiflances which are equivalent to a weight m, and the
moving force is p—m. In order to difcover the fpace
through which the rods will defcend in a fecond, when
urged by the force />—m (fuppofed condant, notwith-
Itanding the increafe of velocity, and confequently of
m), we mud inltitute this proportion p -.p — m zz g i
g(p—m)
P
The fourth term of this analogy is the fpace re¬
quired.
Let t be the whole time of the defcent in feconds.
g(p—m) fg{p—m)
C 755 3
S T E
*Then
tJ = -
This lad term is
p p
the whole defcent or length of the droke accomplifhed
in the time t.
The weight of the column of water, which has now
got above the pifton, is <w, ~ L —p. This mud
be lifted in the next working droke through the fpace
t*g[p—m)
 ^ . Therefore the performance of the engine
P
That this may be the greated poffible, we mud con-
fiderp as the variable quantity, and make the fluxion of
iXL—/> 
the fraction tL
P
This will he found to give us p^z*/Y^m ; that is,
the counter weight or preponderancy of the outer end
of the beam is = v'L*,.
This gives us a method of determining m experimen
tally. We can difcover by adlual meafurement the
quantity L in any engine, it being equal to the un¬
balanced weights en the beam and the weight of the
water in the pumps. Then
Alfo we have the weight of the column of water
— F—pi — L—v^Lwi.
W hen therefore we have determined the load which
is to be^on the outer end of the beam during the work¬
ing droke, it mud be diftributed into two parts, which
have the proportion of V^Ij to L—Xj m. The fird
is the counter weight, and the fecond is the weight of
the column of water.
If »2 is a fradlion of L, fuch as an aliquot part of it j
that is, if
L L L L L
1 ’ 4 ’ 9 ’ 16’ 25’ ^c*
L L L L L
P~~i —> ~T>—y &c.
1 2 3 4 >
The circumdance which is commonly obtruded on
us by local confiderations is the quantity of water, and
the depth from which it is to be raifed; that is, <zv: and
it will be convenient to determine every thing in con¬
formity to this.
We faw that wrrL—V^Lm. This gives us L rr
‘zi/ffi 4- { j-w, and the counterweight
Steam-
Engine.
+
/ nv m —
P—y '4
Having thus afeertained that didribution of the load what pro*
on the outer end of the beam which produces the great-portion ot"
ed effedl, we come now to confider what proportion of moving
moving force we mud apply, fothat it may be employAorce
ed to the bed advantage, or fo that any expence of ^
power may produce the greated performance. It will (,reateft ad-
be fo much the greater as the work done is greater, vantage
and the power employed is lefs ; and will therefore be
properly meafured by the quotient of the work done di¬
vided by the power employed.
The work immediately done is the lifting up the
weight L. In order to accomplifli this, we mud em¬
ploy a predure P, which is greater than L. Let it be
= L + y ; alfo let s be the length of the droke.
If the mafs L were urged along the fpace s by the
force L-j-y, it would acquire a certain velocity, which
we may exprefs by Vs \ but it is impelled only by the
force y, the red of P being employed in balancing L.
The velocities which different forces generate by impel¬
ling a body along the fame fpace are as the fquare roots
of the forces. Therefore \/ L -j-y : y/ y = y/j;
-V/ j y
 - 1 •. The fourth term of this analogy expreffes the
</L+y ^ *
velocity of the piden at the end of the ftroke. The
quantity of motion produced will be had by multiply¬
ing this velocity by the mafs L. This gives ;
and this, divided by the power expended, or by L-f-y,
gives us the meafure of the performance; namely,
F V7sy 
L-fyX v'L-t-y
That this mav
be a maximum,
5 C 2
confider y as the va¬
riable
S T E
[ 756
Steam- liable quantity, and make the fluxion of this formula
Engine.
This will give usy= —•
Now — L~h—» — 4-1-"
2
Therefore the
•whole load on the outer end of the beam, confifting of
the water and the counter weight, muft be |ds of the
preffure of the atmofphere on the fleam pifton.
We have here fuppofed that the expenditure is the
atmofpheric preffure ; and fo it is if we confider it me¬
chanically. But the expenditure of which we are fen-
Jible, and which we are anxious to employ to the bell
advantage, is fuel. Suppofing this to be employed with
the fame judgment in all cafes, we are almolt intitled,
by what we now know of the produftion of fleam, to
fay that the fleam produced is proportional to the fuel
expended. But the fleam requifite for merely filling
the cylinder is proportional to the area of the pifton,
and therefore to the atmofpheric preffure. The refult
©f our inveftigation therefore is Hill juft ; but the fleam
watted by condenfation on the fides of the cyliiKler does
not follow this ratio, and this is more than what is ne-
ceffary for merely filling it. This deranges our calcu¬
lations, and is in favour of large cylinders; but this ad¬
vantage mull be in a great meafure compenfated by a
fimilar variation in the production of the fleam ; for in
fimilar boilers of greater dimenfions the fuel is lefs ad-
vantageoufly employed, becaufe the furface to which
the fuel is applied does not increafe in the ratio of the
capacity, juft as the furface of the cylinder which waftes
the fleam, • The rule may therefore be confided in as
pretty exaCt.
37 It is a fatisfadory thing to obferve thefe refults
Tne:e re_ agree very well with the molt fuccefsful praftice. By
with the many changes and trials engineers have eftablilhed ma-
mon fuc- xims of conltruftion, which are pi-obably not very far
cefsful from the heft. It is a pretty general maxim, that the
prailice. joacj 0r water ffould be ^ ol the atmofpheric preffure.
They call this loading the engine with 74- pounds on
the inch, and they fay that fo fmall a load is neceffary
on account of the imperfeCt vacuum. But we have
now leen that it is neceffary for giving a reafonable ve¬
locity of motion. Since, in this praftice, w is ma e ~
or T-^ths of P, and L Ihould he -Aths of P, and L is
— ic-l- p ; it follows, that the counter weight Ihould be
£th of P; and we have found this to be nearly the cafe
in feveral very good engines.
It muft be remarked, that in the preceding inveftiga¬
tion we introduced a quantity M to exprefs the refin¬
ances to the motion of the engine. This was done in
order to avoid a very troublefome invettigation. The
refitlances are of fuch a nature as to vary with the ve¬
locity, and moll of them as the Iquare of the velocity.
This is the cafe with the refiftance arifing from the mo¬
tion of the water through the piltons of the pumps, and
that arifing from the friction in the long lift during the
working ftroke. Had we taken the diredt method,
which is fimilar to the determination of the motion thro’
a medium which refills in the duplicate ratio of the ve¬
locity, we mult have ufed a very intricate exponential
calculus, which few of our readers would have the pa¬
tience to look at.
But the greateft part of the quantity m fuppofes a
snotion already known, and its determination depends
] S T E
on this motion. We mull now Ihow how its different Steam-
component parts may be computed. Engine.
1. What arifes from the inertia of the moving parts
is by far the moll contiderable portion of it. To ob-Rcffilance
tain it, we muft find a quantity of matter which, when to tfae mo-
placed at the end of the beam, will have the fame mo-tion.of the
mentum of inertia with that of the whole moving parts inen^l'|econi''
their natural places. Therefore (in the returning llroke)i U C “
add together the weight of the great pifton with its
rod and chains; the pit pump-rods, chains, and any
weight that is attached to them ; the arch-heads and
iron-work at the ends of the beam, and ^ths of the
weight of the beam itfelf; alfo the plug-beam with its
arch-head and chain, multiplied by the Iquare of its di-
ftance from the axis, and divided by the fquare of half
the length of the beam ; alfo the jack-head pump-rod,
chain, and arch-head, multiplied by the fquare of its di-
ftance from the axis, and divided by the fquare of the
half-length of the beam. Thefe articles added into one
fum may be called M, and may be fuppofed to move
with the velocity of the end of the beam. Suppofe this
beam to have made a fix-foot ftroke in two feconds,
with an uniformly accelerated motion. In one fecond
it would have moved li feet, and would have acquired
the velocity of three feet per fecond. But in one fe¬
cond gravity would have produced a velocity of 32 feet
in the fame mafs. Therefore the accelerating force
which has produced the velocity of three feet is nearly
M .
A-th of the weight. Therefore — is the firft confti-
tuent of m in the above inveftigation. If the obferved
velocity is greater or lefs than three feet per fecond, this
value muft }6e increafed or diminifhed in the fame oro-
portion.
The fecond caufe of refiftance, viz. the immerfion of
the pump rods in water, is eafily computed, being the
weight of the water which they difplace.
The third caufe, the friftion of the piftons, &c. is
almoft infignificant, and muft; be difeovered by experi¬
ment.
The fourth caufe depends on the ftrufture of the
pumps. Thefe pumps, when made of a proper ftrength,
can hardly have the perforation of the pifton more than
a fourth part of the area of the working barrel ; and
the velocity with which the water paffes through it is
increafed at leaft ^th by the contraction (fee Pump).
The velocity of the water is therefore five times great¬
er than that of the piiton. A pifton 1 2 inches diame¬
ter, and moving one foot per fecond, meets with a re¬
finance equal to 20 pounds ; and this increafes as the
fquare of the diameter and as the fquare of the velocity. "
If the whole depth of the pit be divided into feveral
lifts, this refiftance muft be multiplied by the number of
lifts, becaufe it obtains in each pump.
Thus we make up the value of m ; and we muft ac¬
knowledge that the method is ftill indireCl, becaufe it
fuppofes the velocity to be known.
We may obtain it more eafily in another way, bat
ftill with this circumftance of being indireCl. We found
that/> was equal to V L.m, and confequently m — y-.
-Lj
Now in any engine L and p can always be had ; and
unlefs p deviates greatly from the proportion which, we
determined to be the belt, the value of m thus obtained
will not be very erroneous.
It
Steam-
Engine
39
Obferva-
tions con-
cernirg
fomething
prefu^.’.ed
in the in-
veftiga-
tion.
40
“he mo¬
tion affec¬
ted by t
cticum-
ftance that
defer ves
pat ticuiar
eonfidera-
tioc.
' S T E f 757
It was farther prefumed In this inveftigation, that the
motions both up and down were uniformly accelerated ;
but this cannot be the cafe when the reiiftances increafe
with the^ velocity. This circumitance makes very little
change in the working-ftroke, and therefore the theo¬
rem which determines the heft relation of P to L may
be confided in. The refinances which vary with the
velocity in this cafe are a mere trifle when compared
with the moving power y. Thefe rehftances are, ift,
The ftrangling of the water at the entry and at the
ftanding valve of each pump. This is about 37 pounds
for a pump 1 2 inches diameter, and the velocity one
foot per fecond, increafing in the duplicate ratio of the
diameter and velocity; and, 2d, The friftion of the
water along the whole lift. This for a pump of the
fame fize and with the fame velocity, lifting 20 fathoms,
is only about 2 ‘ pounds, and varies in the lituple pro¬
portion of the diameter and the depth, and in the du¬
plicate proportion o! the velocity. The refiftance ari-
ung rrom inertia is greater than in the returning ftroke;
becaufe the M in this cafe muft contain the momentum
of the water both of the pit-pumps and the jackhead-
pump : but this part of the refiflance does not affecf
the umrorm acceleration. We may therefore confide
in the propriety of the formula y = And we may
obtain the velocity of this ftroke at the end of a fecond
with great accuracy as follows. Let 2 ? be the veloci¬
ty communicated by gravity in a fecond, and the velo¬
city at the end of the firft fecond of the fleam pifton’s
Steam-
Engiiic.
defcent will be fomewhat lefs than ^2 g; where M ex-
preffes the inertia of all the parts which are in motion
during the defcent of the fleam piflon, and therefore in¬
cludes L. Compute the two refinances juft mentioned
for this velocity. Call this r. Then^— 2 ^ will
give another velocity infinitely near the truth.
But the cafe is very different in the returning ftroke
and the proper rat.o of / to L is not afcertained with
the lame certainty : for the moving force /> is not fo
great in proportion to the refiftance ™ ; and therefore
the acceleration of the motion is confiderably affeded
by it, and the motion Itfelf is confiderably retarded, and
in a very moderate time it becomes fenfibly uniform:
for it is preci.vly iimilar to the motion of a heavy body
failing through the air, and may be determined in the
manner kid down in the article Resistance of Fluids
viz. by an exponential calculus. We fhall content our-
fdves here with faying, that the reiiftances in the pre-
fent cafe are fo great that the motion would be to all
fenfe umrorm before the piftons have defeended 4d of
their fttoke, even although there were no other circum-
ftance to affea it.
But this motion is affefted by a circumftance qffte
unconnecled with any thing yet confidered, depending
on conditions not mechanical, andfo uncertain, that we
are not yet able to afeertain them with any precifion •
yet they are of the utmoft importance to the good per¬
formance and improvement of the engine, and therefore
delerve a particular confideration.
The counter weight has not only to pufh down the
pump rods, but alio to drag up the great piftdn. This
it cannot do unkfs the fleam be admitted into the cy-
1 S T E
Imder If the fleam be no ftronger than common air,
it cannot enter the cylinder except in confequence of the
pi on s being dragged up. If common air were admit¬
ted into the cylinder, fome force would be required to
drag up the pifton/in the fame manner as it is required
to draw up the pifton of a common fyringe; for the
air would rufh through the fmall entry of the cylinder
m the fame manner as through the fmall nozzle of the
iyrmge^ Some part of the atmofpheric preffure is em-
p oyed m driving m the air with fufficient velocity to
hi! the fyringe, and it is only with the remainder that
the admitted air preffes on the under furface of the fy-
rmge. Iherefore fome of the atmofpheric preffure on
Uj upper furface is not balanced. This is felt by the
hand which draws it up. The fame thing muft happen
in tiie fteam-engine, and fome part of the counter weight
is expended m drawing up the fteam-pifton. We could
tell how much is thus expended if we knew the dtnfity
of the fleam; for this would tell us the velocity with
which its elafticity would caufe it to fill the cylinder,
if we fuppofe it 12 times rarer than air, which it cer¬
tainly is, and the pifton rifes to the top of the cylinder
in. two feconds, we can demonftrate that it will ente-
with a velocity not Ids than 1400 feet per fecond, where-
as 500 feet is enough to make it maintain a denfity ths
of that of fleam in equihbrio with the air. Hence it
offows that its elafticity will not be lefs than * ?thS of
e e afticity of the air, and therefore not more thand-th
ftcamUpiftonWC1Sht Wil‘ ^ “P'"ded “ drawin2 UP the
But all this is on the fuppofiti m that there is an un¬
bounded fupply of fleam of undiminifhed elafticity This
is by no means the cafe. Immediately before opening
the fleam-cock, the fleam was iffuing through the fafe-
ty-valve and all the crevices in the top -of the boiler,
and (,n good engmes) was about ^th ftronger or more
elaLic than air. I his had been gathering during fome.
thing more than the defcent of the pifton, vi2. i,?abo*
hree feconds. 1 he piflon rifes to the top ia about two.
Itconds; therefore about twice and a half as much fteom
as fills the dome of the boiler is now fhared between the
oner and cylinder. I he dome is commonly about fix
kmes more capacious than the cylinder. If therefore no
cam 1., condtnfed in the cylinder, the denfitv of the
earn, when the pifton has reached the top, muft be a-
put r|ths of its former denfity, and ilill mote elaflic than
an. Tut as much fleam is condenfed by the cold cy-
hnder, its elaflicity muft be lefs than this. We cannot
tell how much lefs, both becaufe we do not know how
much ,s thus condenfed, and becaufe by this diminution
of its preffure on the furface of the boiling water, it muft
be more copioufly produced in the boiler; but an atten-
mltion^Tr011 ", Wil1 §ive US fome infor-
mation. i he moment the fteam-cock is opened we have
a itrong puff of fleam through the fnifting valve At
this time, therefore, it is (till more elaftic than air - but
aiter this, the fnifting valve remains font during the
whole rife of the pifton, and no fleam any longerVues
through the fafety-valve or crevices; nay, the whole
dome of the boiler may be obferved to fink 41
thJifthefef?S-glVeuabUndant Pr°0t that ^elafticity ofc^oftJe
the fleam during the afeent of the pifton is greatlyV du-
minifhed, and therefore much of the counted wei-fot is thc af'
expended in dragging up the fteam-pifton in oppofitior/T 0t the
to the unbalanced par, of the «mo,PLric preS! IV «.
motion
-Engini,
41
t-low to
know the
sn the cy
linder.
S T E t 7
ttiotion of the tetiirnlng ftroke is therefore fo much <!e-
ranged by this foreign and inappreciated tircumftance,
that it wo aid have been quite ufelefs to engage in the
intricate exponential inveft-igatidn, and we mull lit down
contented with a lei's perfed adjuftmCfit of the counter
wtioht and weight of water.—Any perfori who attends
to the motion of a {team-engine will perceive that the
defeent of the pump-rods is fo far from being accelera¬
ted, that it is nearly uniform, and frequently it is fenfi-
bly retarded towards the end. We learn by the way,
that it is of the utmoil importance not only to have a
quick produdion of fteam, but alfo a very capacious
dome, or empty fpace above the water in the boiler. In
engines where this fpace was but four or five limes the
capacity of the cylinder, we have always obferved a very
denfible check given to the defeent of the pump-rods
after having made half their ftroke. This obliges us to
employ a greater counter weight, which diminilhes the
column of water, or retards the working ftroke; it alfo
obliges us to employ a ftronger fteam, at the nfk of
burfting the boiler, and increafes the expence of fuel.
It would be a moft defirable thing to get an exad
knowledge of the elafticity of the fteam in the cylinder;
tlafticity of and this is by no means difficult, lake a long glafs
the ftcatn tube exa&ly calibered, and clofe at the farther end. Put
a fmall drop of fome coloured fluid into it, fo as to ftand
at the middle nearly.—Let it be placed in a long box
filled with water to keep it of a conftant temperature.
Let the open end communicate with the cylinder, with
a cock between”. The moment the fteam-cock is open¬
ed, open the cock of this inftrument. The drop will
be puftied towards the clofe end of the tube, while the
fteam in the cylinder is more elaftic than the Sir, and it
will be drawn the other way while it is lefs elaftic, and,
by a fcale properly adapted to it, the elafticity of the
fteam correfponding to every pofition of the pifton may
be difeovered. The fame thing may be done more ac¬
curately by a barometer properly conftru£led, fo as to
prevent the ofcillations of the mercury.
It is equally neceflary to know the ftate of the cylin¬
der during the defeent of the fteam-pifton. We have
jk.luvy Lthitherto fuppofed P to be the full prefiure of the atmo-
ftate < f thefphere on the area of the pifton, fuppofing the vacuum
cylinder ^clow it to be complete. But the infpeftion of our
table of elafticity (hows that this can never be the cafe,
becaufe the cylinder is always of a temperature far above
3 2°. We have made many attempts to difeover its tem¬
perature. We have employed a thermometer in clofe con-
tad with the fide of the cylinder, which foon acquired a
fteady temperature : this was never lefs than I45c. We
have kept a thermometer in the water which lies on the
pifton: this never funk below 1350. It is probable that the
evlinder within may be cooled fomewhat lower; but for
this opinion we cannot give any very fatisladory reafon.
Suppofe it cooled down to 120°; this will leave an elaf-
ticity which would fupport three inches of mercury. We
cannot think therefore that the unbalanced prellure of
the atmofphere exceeds that of 27 inches of mercury,
which is about 13 jd pounds on a fquare inch, or io| on
a circular inch. And this is the value which we (hould
employ in the equation P = L + y. This queftion may
be decided in the fame way as the other, by a barometer
conne&ed with the infide of the cylinder.
And thus we {hall learn the ftate of the moving forces
in every moment of the performance, and the machine
aniJJ then be as open to our examination as any water or
Steam-
Engine.
43
NeceiTary
alfo to
know the
during the
defeent of
the pifton,
] • S T E
horfe mill ; and till this be done, or fomething equiva¬
lent, we can only guels at what the machine is adually
performing, and we cannot tell in what particulars we
can lend it a helping hand. We are informed that
Meftrs Watt and Boulton have made this addition to
fome of their engines ; and we are perfuaded that, from
the information which they have derived from it, they
have been enabled to make the curious improvements
from which they have acquired fo much reputation and
profit. _ 44
There is a circumftance of which we have as yet ta- Quantity
ken no notice, viz. the quantity of cold water inje&ed. cold ws.
Here we confefs ourfelves unable to give any precife in-^T^*
ftruftions. It is clear at firft fight that no more than J
is abfolutely neceflary fhould be injefted. It muft ge¬
nerally be fupplied by the engine, and this expends part
of its power. An excefs is much more hurtful by cool¬
ing the cylinder and pifton too much, and therefore
wafting fteam during the next rife of the pifton. But
the determination of the proper quantity requires a
knowledge, which we have not yet acquired, of the
quantity of heat contained in the fteam in a latent
form. As much water muft be injetted as will abforb
all this without riling near to the boiling temperature-
But it is of much more importance to know how far
we may cool the cylinder with advantage; that is,
when will the lofs of fteam, during the next rife of the
pifton, compenfate for the diminution of its elafticity
during its prefent defeent ? Our table of elafticities
{hows us, that by cooling the cylinder to 120°, we
{fill leave an elafticity equal to Tlsth of the whole power
of the engine; if we cool it only to 14°? we leave
an elafticity of |th; if we cool it to a blood-heat, we
leave an elafticity of ^th. It is extremely difficult to
choofe among thefe varieties. Experience, however, in¬
forms us, that the heft engines are thofe which ufe the
fmalleft quantities of injedfion water. We know an
exceedingly good engine having a cylinder of 30 inch¬
es and a fix-foot ftroke, which works with fomething
lefs than 4th of a cubic foot of water at each injedlion;
and we imagine that the quantity {hould be nearly in
the proportion of the capacity of the cylinder. Def-
aguliers obferved, that a very good engine, with a cy¬
linder of 32 inches, worked with 300 inches of wa¬
ter at each injedlion, which does not much exceed -^th
of a cubic foot. Mr Watt’s obfervations, by means of
the barometer, muft have given him much valuable in¬
formation in this particular, and we hope that he will
not always withhold them from the public. 4S
We have gone thus far in the examination, in orderThis exa-
feemingly to afeertain the motion of the engine when nnnation,
lo:ided°and balanced in any known manner, and in
der to difeover that proportion between the moving may diredt*
power and the load which will produce the greatefttheatten-
quantity of work. The refult has been very unfatis-tion to the
factory, becaufe the computation of the returning ftroke
is acknowledged to be beyond our abrhties. But it bas(tances.
given us the opportunity of diredting the reader’s atten¬
tion to the leading circumftances in this inquiry. By
knowing the internal ftate of the cylinder in machines
of very different goodnefs, we learn the connedtion be¬
tween the ftate of the fteam and the performance of the
machine; and it is very polfible that the reiult of a
full examination may be, that in fituations where fuel
is expenfrve, it may be proper to employ a weak fleam
which will expend lefs fuel, although lefs work is per¬
formed
S T E
Steam-
Engine.
46
An erro-
foimed by it. We {hali fee this confirmed in the clear-
t eft manner in fome particular employments of the new
' engines invented by Watt and Boulton.
In the mean time, we fee that the equation which we
gave from the celebrated Abbe Boffut is in every re-
fpect erroneous even for the purpofe which he had in
view. We alfo fee that the equation which we fubfti-
tuted in its place, and which was intended tor determi¬
ning that proportion between the counter-weight and
the moving force, and the load which would render the
working ftroke and returning ftroke of equal duration,
is alfo erroneous, becauie thefe two motions are ex¬
tremely different in kind, the one being nearly uniform,
and the other nearly uniformly accelerated. X'his being
fuppofed true, it fhouid follow that the counter weight
fhould be reduced to one half; and we have found
tliis to be very nearly true in fome good engines which
we have examined.
We fkall add but one obfervation more on this head,
oeous max-The praftical engineers have almbft made it a maxim,
Iwoml' £that the two mo^o»s are of equal duration. But
tions are of^ie °.nty rea‘'on which we have heard lor the maxim, is,
equal dura- that it is aukward to fee an engine go otherwife. But
tion. we doubt exceedingly the truth g/ this maxim, and,
without being able to give any accurate determination,
we think that the engine will do more work if the
working fboke be made flower than the returning ftroke.
Suppofe the engine fo conftruefted that they are made in
equal times ; an addition to the counter weight will ac¬
celerate the returning ftroke and retard the working
flroke. But as the counter-weight is but fmall in pro¬
portion to the unbalanced portion of the atmofpheric
preffure, which is the moving force of the machine, it
is evident that this addition to the counter weight muft
bear a much greater proportion to the counter weight
than it does to the moving force, and muft therefore ac¬
celerate the returning ftroke much more than it retards
the working ftroke, and the time of both ftrokes taken
together muft be diminifhed by tin’s addition and the
performance of the machine improved ; and this muft
be the cafe as long as the machine is not extravagantly
loaded. The belt machine which we have feen, in re-
ipeft of performance, raifes a column of water whofe
weight is very nearly|dsof the prelfure of the atmofphere
on the pifton, making 11 ftrokes of fix feet each/>er mi¬
nute, and the working ftroke was almoft twice as flow
as the other. This engine had worked pumps of 12
inches, which were changed for pumps of 14 inches, all
other things remaining the fame. In its former ftate it
made from 1 2x to 13 j ftrokes per minute, the working
ftroke being confiderably flower than the returning
ftroke. The load was encreafed, by the change of the
pumps, nearly in the proportion of 3 to 4. This had
retarded the working ftroke ; but the performance was
evidently increafed in the proportion of 3 X1 3 to 4X 11,
or of 39 to 44. About 300 pounds were added to the
counterweight, which increafed the number of ftrokes
to more than 1 2 per minute. No fenfible change could
be obferved in the time of the working ftroke. The
performance was therefore increafed in the proportion
of 39 to 48. We have therefore no hefitation in faying,
that the feemly equality of the two ftrokes is a facrifice
to fancy. I he enginees who obferves the working
flroke to be flow, fears that his engine may be thought
feeble and unequal to its work j a fimilar notion has long
I 759 3
S T E
S team-
Engine.
milled him in the conflnuftion of water-mills, efpecialfy
of overfhot mills; and, even now, he is fubmkting
with hefitation and fear to the daily corredlion of ex¬
perience.
It k needlefs to engage more deeply in fcientific cal¬
culations in a fubjeft where fo many of the data are to
very imperfeftly underftood, 47
We venture to recommend as a maxim of conftruftion The load
(iuppofing always a large boiler and plentiful fupoly of"f w.ork
pure fleam unmixed with air), that the load of work be beS thar
not lefs than 1 o pounds for every fquare inch of the «o pound-. ‘
■pilton, and the counterweight fp proportipned that thef°r every
time of the returning ftroke may not exceed -fds of that<qaare inch
of the working ftroke. A feripus objection may begjf0 F'
made to this maxim, and it deferves mature confidera-
tion. Such a load requires the utmoft care pf the ma¬
chine, that no admiflion be given to the common air ;
and it precludes the poffibility of its working in cafe
the growth of water, or deepening the pit, fhould make
a greater load abfolutely neceffary. Thefe conftdera-
tions muft be lert to the prudence of the eno-inneer.
I lie maxim now recommended relates only to the belt
actual performance of the engine. „
. before quitting this machine, it will not be amifs to Rule! for
give tome eafy rules, fandtioned by fuccefsful pradl-ice, comPutu){j"
for computing its performance. Thefe will enable anyj.hc Per-
artift, who can go through fimple calculations, to fuitofThe"00
the fize of his engine to the talk which it is to per-tteam-en-,
form. . ginc.
! he circumfiance on which the whole comoutation
muft be founded is the quantity of water which muft
be drawn in a minute and the depth of the mine; and
ttie pei formanee which may be expected from a good
engine is at leaft 12 flrokes per minute of fix feet each,
working agaipfl a column of water whofe weight is
equal to half of the atmofpheric preffure on the fleam-
piilon, or rather to 7j^4 pounds on every fquare inch of
its furface.
It is mod convenient to eftimate the quantity of wa¬
ter in cubic feet, or its weight in pounds, recollecting
that a cubic foot of water weighs 62 f pounds. The
depth of the pit is ufually reckoned in fathoms of fix
feet, and the diameter of the cylinder and pump is ufu¬
ally reckoned in inches.
Let QJdc the quantity of water to be drawn per
minute in cubical feet, and f the depth of the mine in
fathoms; let c be the diameter of the cylinder, andp
that of the pump ; and let us fuppofe the arms of the
beam to be of equal length.
_ To find the diameter of the pump, the area of
the pifton in fquare feet is />2X——The leno-th
144 45
of the column drawn in one minute is 12 times 6 or 72
feet, and therefore its folid contents is tfX.— 
J44
cubical feet, or /^Xo^a7 cubical feet. This muft be
equal to Qj therefore />2 muft be 77—777^ or nearly
°>3927
QX2f. Hence this practical rule; Multiply the cu¬
bic feet of water which muft be drawn in a minute by
2\, and extract the fquare root of the product; this
will be the diameter of the pump in inches.
Thus fuppofe that 58 cubic feet muft be drawn every
minute; 58 multiplied by 2t gives 145, of which the
fquare-
S T E
[ 760 1
S T E
Steam-
Engine.
fquare root is 12, which is the required diameter of the
PumP-
2. To find the proper diameter of the cylinder.
The pifton is to be loaded with 7,64 pounds on every
fquare inch. This is equivalent to fix pounds on a cir¬
cular inch very nearly. The weight of a cylinder of wa¬
ter an inch in diameter and a fathom in height is 2xl7
pounds, or nearly 2 pounds. Hence it follows that
6 c2 mull be made equal to 2fp2, and that c‘ is equal to
2/P* f fP*.
—> °r to y
Hence the following rule: Multiply the fquare of
the diameter of the pump-pifton (found as above) by
the fathoms of lift, and divide the produft by 3, the
fquare root of the quotient is the diameter of the cy¬
linder.
Suppofe the pit to which the foregoing pump is to
. 24X144
be applied is 24 fathoms deep; then ^  gives
1152, of which the fquare root is 34 inches very
nearly.
This engine conftru&ed with care will certainly do
the work.
Whatever is the load of water propofed for the en¬
gine, let 10 be the pounds on every circular inch of the
fteam-pifton, and make , and the fquare root
will be the diameter of the fteam-pifton in inches.
Steam.
Engine,
To free the pra&ical engineer as much as pofiible from all trouble of calculation, we fubjoin the following
Tjblk of the Dimenfions and Power of the Steam Engine, drawn up by Mr Beighton in 1717, and fully verified
by practice fince that time. The meafure is in Englifti ale gallons of 282 cubic inches.
49.
Mr Beiffh-
ton’s table
of the di-
men firms
and power
of the
(team-en¬
gine.
Diana.
of
pum;
Inch.
12
I I
IO
9
84
8
l\
7t
7
6t
6
5^
5
4^
4
Holds
in one
yard.
Gall.
M,4
12,13
I 0,02
8,1 2
7,26
6,41
6,01
3,66
4>91
4.23
3,61
3’13
2,51
2,02
1,6
Draws hy
a 0 feet
ftroke.
Gall.
28,8
24,26
20,04
16,24
14,52
12,82
12,02
11,32
9,82
8,46
7.2
6.2
5>°
4,04
3,2
Weighs
in one
yaid.
l.b. avoir
146
123,5
102
82,7
73,9
65,3
61.2
57.6
50,0
43
36.7
31.8
25.5
20.5
16.2
At 16
flrokes
per min.
Gall.
462
338
32°
259,8
232.3
203', 2
>92>3
i8i,i
i57,f
135.3
115,5
99.2
80.3
64,6
51,2
Ditto 1 j-)jr|.0 per
1,1 h(,gf- hmir.
heads.
Hd.jGal : Hcl. Gall.
The depth to be drawn in yards
7.21
6.20
5-5
4-7
3-43
3.16
3*2
2-55
2.31
2.9
1.52
1.36
i*7
1,1
0.51
440.
369-33
304.48
247.7
221.15
195.22
182.13
172.30
149 40
128.54
110.1
94-3°
66.61
60.60
48.51
15
iT 84
17
*5i
14
!3t
I2f
I 2
4 1 I
IOj.
10
20
19!
18
i6£l
i5i
>4*
14
13i
r3
12
11
10
25
24
22
20
18
•7i
i6f
15
15
14
13
12
11
to
3° 35
264-284
264
23I
21 +
20
18+19
<7ii8|
i6i 18
l5il64
14 l5i
13 14
12 13
11 n
10 |i 1
I 9
40 45 50 60,70 8c 90
3°i32+
28 :29
254U7
23 24+
21i23
20+214
* 9? 21
19 j20
I8l!l9
16418
15^16
•4
l3
11-3:12
10 1
l3?
34t
3'i
284
25
24
23
22
214
204
z9
‘7 '
'5l
14
[3f
nt
37440
344 3 7
3I4 34
28 |3o4
264281
25 |27
244 26
234
22
20
19
•7
15
14
12
25
24
22
204
l9
10-t
15
13*
43t
391
36
33
3i
29
28
27
254
23
22
20
184
1 6
14
384
35
324
29x
28 J
27
24x
23'
2 1
19-1
17
55
The firft part of the table gives the fize of the pump
fuited to the growth of water. The fecond gives the
fize of the cylinder fuited to the load of wate-. If the
depth is greater than any in this table, take its fourth
part, and double the diameter of the cylinder. Thus if
1 50 hogfheads are to be drawn in an hour from the
depth of ioo fathoms, the laft column of part firft gives
for 149.40 a pump of 7 inches bore. In a line with
this, under the depth of 50 yards, which is ^th of too
fathoms, we find 204, the double of which is 41 inches
for the diameter of the cylinder.
It is almoft impoffible to give a general rule for
ftrokes of different lengths, &c. but any one who pro-
fefies the ability to eredi an engine, fhould furely know
as much arithmetic as wall accommodate the rule now
given to any length of ftroke.
We venture to fay, that no ordinary engineer can
tell a priori the number per minute which an engine
will give. We took 1 2 ffrokes of fix feet each for a
ilandard, which a careful engineer may eafily accom-
plifh, and which an employer has a right to expeft, the
engine being loaded with water to half the preffure of
the atmofphere : if the load be lefs, there is fome fault—
an improper counter weight, or too little boiler, or
leaks, &c. &c.
Such is the ftate in which Newcomen’s fteam-engine ^ ^ ^
had continued in ufe for 60 years neglefted by the phi-ra!^v
lofopher, although it is the moft curious objeft which thod of
human ingenuity has yet offered to his contemplation, converting,
and abandoned to the efforts of the unlettered artift.
Its ufe has been entirely confined to the railing of water. tjon jnt0 a
Mr Keane Fitzgerald indeed publifhed in the Philofophi- rontinued
cal Tranfadtions a method of converting its recipiocating rotatory
motion into a continued rotatory motion by employing m°tion.
the great beam to work a crank or a train of wheel-work.
As the real action of the machine is confined to its work¬
ing ftroke, to accomplifh this, it became neceffary to
connedt with the crank or wheeled work a very large
and heavy fly, which fhould accumulate in itfelf the
whole preffure of the machine during its time of adtion,
and therefore continue in motion, and urge forward
the working machinery while the fleam engine was go¬
ing through its inadtive returning broke. This will
be the cafe, provided that the refiftance exerted by the
working machine during the whole period of the work¬
ing and returning ffroke of the fteam-engine, together
8 with
Steam-
Engine.
JT
An impor¬
tant addi¬
tion ;
S T E [ -7
with the fri&ion of both, does not exceed the whole
^ preflure exerted by the fleam-engine during its work¬
ing ftroke; and provided that the momentum of the
fly, arifing from its great weight and velocity, be very
great, fo that the reflftance of the work during one return¬
ing ftroke of the fleam-engine do not make any very
fenfible diminution of the velocity of the fly. This is evi¬
dently poflible andeafy. The fly may be made of any
magnitude ; and being exadly balanced round its axis,
it will foon acquire any velocity confiftent with the mo¬
tion of the fleam-engine. During the working ftroke of
the engine it is uniformly accelerated, and by its ac¬
quired momentum it produces in the beam the movement
of the returning ftroke; but in doing this, its momen¬
tum is fliared with the inert matter of the fleam-engine,
and confequently its velocity diminiflled, but not entire¬
ly taken away. The next working ftroke therefore,
by prefling on it afrefh, increafes its remaining velo¬
city by a quantity nearly equal to the whole'that it
acquired during the firft ftroke. We fay nearfy, but
not quite equal, becaufe the time of the iecond working
ftroke muft be fliorter than that of the firft, on account
of the velocity already in the machine. In this mariner
the fly will be more and more accelerated every fucceed-
ing ftroke, becaufe the preffure of the engine during
the working ftroke does more than reftore to the fly
the momentum which it loft in producing the returning
movement of the fteam-engine. Now fuppofe the
working part of the machine to be added. The acce¬
leration of the fly during each working ftroke of the
fteam-engine will be lefs than it was before, becaufe the
impelling preffure is now partly employed in driving the
working machine, and becauie the fly will lofe more of
its momentum during the returning ftroke of the fteam-
engine, part of it being expended in driving the work¬
ing machine. It is evident, therefore, that a time will
come when the fucceffive augmentation of the fly’s velo¬
city will ceafe ; for, on the one hand, the continual acce¬
leration diminifhes the time of the next working ftroke,
and therefore thetime of a&ionof the accelerating power.
The acceleration muft diminifh in the fame proportion ;
and on the other hand, the refiftance of the working
machine generally, though not always, increafes with its
velocity. The acceleration ceafes whenever the addi¬
tion made to the momentum of the fly during a work¬
ing ftroke of the fteam-engine is juft equal to what it
lofes by driving the machine, and by producing the re¬
turning movement of the ftearh-engine.
This muft be acknowledged to be a very important
addition to the engine, and though fufficiently obvious,
it is ingenious, and requires coniiderable fldll and ad-
drefs to make it effeftive (b).
The movement of the working machine, or mill of
whatever kind, muft be in fome degree hobbling or
Vol. XVI [.Part II.
*>1
]
S T E
unequal, But this may be made quite mfenfible, by fna« Sreaw.
king the fly exceedingly iar^e, and difpofing the great- , £llglrte-
eft part of its weight in the rim. By thefe means its mo¬
mentum maybe made fo great, that the whole-force
required for driving the mill and producing the return¬
ing movement of the engine may bear a very fmall pro¬
portion to it- The diminution of its velocity will then
be very trifling.
No counter weight is neceffary here, becaufe the re¬
turning movement is produced by the inertia of the
fly- A counter weight may, however, be employed,
and fhould be employed, viz. as much as will produce
the returning movement of the fteam-engine. It will
do this better than the fame force accumulated in the
fly; for this force muft be accumulated in the fly by
the intervention of rubbing parts, by which fome of it
is loftand it muft be afterwards returned to the en¬
gine with a firtrilar lofs. But, for the fame reafon, it
would be improper to make the counter weight alfo
able to drive the mill during the returning ftroke. St
By this contrivance Mr Fitzgerald hoped to render But feldoni
the fteam-engine of moft extenfive ufe; and he, or others ^ never
allociated with him, obtained a patent excludinp- anadoPted'
others from employing the)fteam-engine for tuminer a
crank. They alfo publifhed propofals for erecting mills
of all kinds driven by fteam-engines, and ftated very
fairly their powers and their advantages. But their pro¬
pofals do not feem to have acquired the confidence of
the public; for we do not know of any mill ever having
been ere&ed under this patent. 0
The great obftacle to this extenfive ufe of the fleam-Thereat
engine is the prodigious expenfe of fuel. An en gine etPenfc
having a cylinder of four feet diameter, working nightfad
and day, confumes about 3400 chaldron (London) of
good coals in a year. ''
This circumfiance limits the ufe of fteam-engines ex-Limfitthe
ceeaingiy. L o draw water from coal-pits, where they ufe of
can be flocked with unfaleable fmall coal, they are
universal employment: alfo for valuable mines, for8meS‘
iupplying a great and wealthy city with water, and a
few other purpofes where a great expence can be borne,
they are very proper engines; but in a thoufand cafes
where their unlimited powers might be vaftly ferviceable
the enormous expenfes of fuel completely excludes
them. We cannot doubt but that the attention of en¬
gineers was much direded to every thing that could pro-
mife a diminution of this expenfe. Every one had his
particular noftrum for the conftru&ion of his furnace
and fome were undoubtedly mdre fuccefsful than others’
m l?1 ™Ce ,Wf not yet Efficiently advanced : It was not
tili Dr black had made his beautiful difeovery of latent
heat, that we could know the intimate relation between
the heat expended in boiling off a quantity of water
and the quantity of fleam that is produced.
5 ^ Much
(b) V e do not recoiled at prefent the date of this propofal of Mr Fitzgerald ; but in 1781 the Abbe Arnal
canon of Alais m Languedoc entertained a thought of the fame kind, and propoied it for working 1^1’
in the inland navigations ; a fcheme which has been fuccefsfully pradifed (we are told) in AmenVa
iher, a major of engineers in the Auftrian fervice, has carried the thing much farther and ant,lied it t ' ^
fadures ; and the Aube Chamber of Mines at Vienna has patronized the proied • [See / i / T”11’
1 7 V ‘ B,Ut theff fc!lCmeS are.lonS Pofterior to Mr Fitzgerald’s patent, and are evenlater than the eredSfi oTft
machines driven by fleam engines which have been ereded by Meffrs Watt and Boulton We think ft ^ n
^becaufc *is very u,uai foc ™ wr
Steam-
Engine,
S T E [7^2
Much about the time of this difcovery, viz. 1763,
Mr fames Watt, elfabliflied in Glai'gow in the com-
” mercial line, was amufing himfelf with repairing a
working model of the fteam-engine which belonged to
the philofophical apparatus of the univertity.^ Mr Watt
was a perfon of a truly philofophical mind, eminent¬
ly converfant in all branches of natural . knowledge,
and the pupil and intimate friend of Dr Black. In
the courfe of the above-mentioned amufement many
curious fa£ls in the production and condenfation of
*,in_u»».,;> fleam occurred to him; and among others, that remark-
that (team a^je fa£t which is always appealed to by Dr Black as
contains an the pr0of of the {mmenfe quantity of heat which is
Quantity of contained in a very minute quantity of water in the
D * r r in* fl  WTU^tPV* IQ
1
S T E
55
Mr Watt
^ifcovers
heat
In his at¬
tempts to
find out a
way to
hu(band
this heat,
5?
Difcover
method f
condenfj
form of elaftic fleam. When a quantity of water is
heated feveral degrees above the boiling point in a clofe
digefter, if a hole be opened, the fleam ruflres out with
prodigious violence, and the heat of the remaining wa¬
ter is reduced, in the courfe of three or four feconds,
to the boiling temperature. The water of the fleam
which has iffued amounts only to a very few drops;
and yet thefe have carried off" with them the whole ex-
cefs of heat from the water in the digefter.
Since then a certain quantity of fleam contains fo
great a quantity of heat, it mull expend a great quan¬
tity of fuel ; and no conftru&ion of furnace can pre¬
vent this. Mr Watt therefore fet his invention to work
to difcover methods of hufbanding this heat. The cy¬
linder of his little model was heated almoft in an inftant,
fo that it could not be touched by the hand. It could
not be otherwife, becaufe it condenled the vapour by
abftrafling its heat. But all the heat thus communica¬
ted to the cylinder, and wafted by it on furrounding
bodies, contributed nothing to the performance of the
engine, and muft be taken away at every injeflion, and
again communicated and wafted. Mr Watt quickly
underftood the whole procefs which was going on with¬
in the cylinder, and which we have confidered fo mi¬
nutely, and faw that a very coniiderable portion of the
fleam mutt be wafted in warming the cylinder. His
firft attempts were made to afcertain how much was
thus wafted, and he found that it was not lefs than
three or four times as much as would fill the cylinder
and work the engine. He attempted to diminilh this
wafte by ufing wooden cylinders. But though this
produced a feniible diminution of the wafte, other rea-
ibns forced him to give them up. He then cafed his
metal cylinders in a wooden cafe with light wood afhes
between. By this, and ufing no more injeflion than
was abfolutely neceffary for the condenfation, he redu¬
ced the wafte almoft one half. But by ufing fo fmall a
quantity of cold water, the infide of the cylinder was
hardly brought below the boiling temperature ; and
there confequently remained in it a fleam of very con-
fiderable elaftlcity, which robbed the engine of a pro¬
portional part of the atmofpherical preflure. He law
that this was unavoidable as long as the condenfation
was performed in the cylinder. The thought ftruck
a him to attempt the condenfation in another place. His
firft experiment was made in the fimpleft manner. A
theUe in^ globular veflel communicated by means of a long pipe
at a little
diftance
fiom the
cylinder,
ot one inch diameter with the bottom of his little cy¬
linder of four inches diameter and 30 inches long.
This pipe had a flop-cock, and the globe was immerfed
in.a veftel of cold water. When the pifton waa at the top,
Sfcam''
Engine,
5?
And re-
and the cylinder filled with ftrong fleam, he turned the
cock. It was fcarcely turned, nay he did not think
it completely turned, when the fides of his cylinder
(only ftrong tin-plate) were crufhed together like an
empty bladder. This furprifed and delighted him. A
new cylinder was immediately made of brafs fufficiently
thick, and nicely bored. When the experiment was
repeated with this cylinder, the condenfation was fo ra-
pid, that he could not fay that any time was expended in
it. But the molt valuable difeovery was, that the vacuum
in the cylinder was, as he hoped, almoft perfeft. Mr
Watt found, that when he ufed water in the boiler pur¬
ged of air by long boiling, nothing that was very fenlibly
inferior to the prefiure of the atmofphere on the pifton
could hinder it from coming quite down to the bottom
of the cylinder. This alone was gaining a great deal,
for in moft engines the remaining elafticity of the fleam
was not lefs than f th of the atmofpherical preflure, and
therefore took away f th of the power of the engine.
Having gained this capital point, Mr Watt found
many difficulties to ftruggle with before he could get^ves^
the machine to continue its motion. The water pro- difficulties
duced from the condenfed fleam, and the air which was^^^’
extricated from it, or which penetrated through un-
avoidable leaks, behoved to accumulate in the con- ment by
denfing veffel, and could not be voided in any way fimi- means of
lar to that adopted in Newcomen’s engine. He tookPumPs*'
another method : He applied pumps to extraft both,
which were worked by the great beam. The contri¬
vance is eafy to any good mechanic ; only we mufl ob-
ferve,that the pifton of thewater-pump muft be under the
furface of the water in the condenfer, that the water
may enter the pump by its own weight, becaufe there is
no atmofpherical prelfure there to force it in. We mufl
alfo obferve, that a confiderable force is necefiarily ex¬
pended here, becaufe, as there is but one ftroke for rare¬
fying the air, and this rarefaflion muft [be nearly com¬
plete, the air-pump muft be of large dimenfions, and,
its pifton muft aft againft the whole preffure of the at¬
mofphere. Mr Watt, however, found that this force
could be eafily fpared from his machine, already fo much
improved in refpeft of power.
Thus has the fleam-engine received a very confider-
able improvement. The cylinder may be allowed t°tionso'n~th«
remain very hot; nay, boiling hot, and yet the con-advantage*
denfation be completely performed. The only elaftic of thefe dit-
fleam that now remains is the fmall quantity in the pipe^overies*
of communication. Even this fmall quantity. Mr Watt
at laft got rid of, by admitting a fmall jet of cold water
up this pipe to meet the fleam in its paffage to the con¬
denfer. This both cooled this part of the apparatus
in a fituation where it was not neceflary to warm it
again, and it quickened the condenfation. He found
at laft that the fmall pipe of communication was of iu
felf fufficiently large for the condenfation, and that no
feparate veffel, under the name of condenfer, was necef¬
fary. This circumftance fhows the prodigious rapidity
of the condenfation. We may add, that unlefs this
had been the cafe, his improvement would have been
vaft.lv diminilhed; for a large condenfer would have
required a much larger air-pump, which would have
expended much of the power of the engine. By thefe
means the vacuum below the pifton is greatly improved:
for it will appear clear to any perfon who underftands
the fubjeft, that as long as any part of the condenfer is
Steam*
Engine.
60
Mr Watt
makes the
pifton de-
feend by
S T E [ 7
kept of a low temperature, it will abftraft and con-
denfe the vapour from the warmer parts, till the whole
acquires the elafticity correfponding to the coldeft part.
By the fame means much of the wafte is prevented, be-
caufe the cylinder is never cooled much below the boil-
ing temperature. Many engines have been ere&ed by
Mr Watt in this form, and their performance gave uni-
verfal fatisfadtion.
We have contented ourfelves with giving a very
flight defeription without a figure of this improved en¬
gine, becaufe we imagine it to be of very eafy compre-
henfion, and becaufe it is only a preparation for ftill
greater improvements, which, when underftood, will
at the fame time leave no part of this more fimple form
unexplained.
During the progrefs of thefe improvements Mr Watt
made many experiments on the quantity and denfity of
,7 the fteam of boiling water. Thefe fully convinced him,
the forte ofthat although he had greatly diminifhed the wafte of
fteam. fteam, a great deal yet remained, and that the fteam
expended during the rife of the pifton was at leaft three
times more than what would fill the cylinder. The
caufe of this was very apparent. In the fubfequent
defeent of the pifton, covered with water much below
the boiling temperature, the whole cylinder was ncceffa-
rily cooled and expofed to the air. Mr Watt’s fertile
genius immediately fuggefted to him the expedient of
employing the elafticity of the fteam from the boiler
to impel the pifton down the cylinder, in place of the
preffure of the atmofphere; and thus he reftored the
engine to its firft principles, making it an engine really
moved by jleam. As this is a new epoch in its hiftory,
we fhall be more particular in the defeription $ at the
fame time ftill reftr idling ourfelves to the eflential cir-
cumftances, and avoiding every peculiarity which is
to be found in the prodigious varieties which Mr Watt
Jias introduced into the machines which he has eredled,
every individual of which has been adapted to local cir-
cumftances, or diverfified by the progrefs of Mr Watt’s
improvements.
Plate .Let A (fig. 9.) reprefent the boiler. This has re-
eeccLxxvm.ceived great improvements from his complete acquain-
61 tance with the procedure of nature in the produdlion of
©Ahema- fteam. In fume of his engines the fuel has been placed
chine after In t^ie midft °f the water, furrounded by an iron or
thefe ini- copper veffel, while the exterior boiler was made of
provementswood, which tranfmits, and therefore waftes the heat
added very Aowly. In others, the flame not only plays round
the whole outfide, as in common boilers, but alfo runs
along feveral flues which ate condudled through the
midft of the water. By fuch contrivances the fire is
applied to the water in a moft extenfive furface, and for
a long time, fo as to impart to it the greateft part of
its heat. ; o fkilfully was it applied in the Albion Mills,
that although it was perhaps the largeft engine in the
kingdom, its unconfumed frnoke was inferior to that of
a very imall brew-houfe. In this fecond engine of Mr
Watt, the top of the cylinder is flint up by a ftrong
metal plate g h, in the middle of which is a collar or box
of leathers k l, formed in the ufual manner of a jack-
head pump, through which the pifton rod P D, nicely
turned and pohflied, can move up and down, without
allowing any air to pafs by its fides. From the dome
of the boiler proceeds a large pipe B C I Q Q^, which,
after reaching the cylinder with itshorizontalpart BC,
63 ] S T E
defeends parallel to its fide, fending off two branches,
vi%. I M to the top of the cylinder, and O N to its
bottom. At I is a puppet valve opening from be¬
low upwards. At L, immediately below this branch,
there is a fimilar valve, alfo opening from below upwards.
The pipe defeends to Q^, near the bottom of a large
ciftern c d e j\ filled with cold water conftantly renew¬
ed. The pipe is then continued horizontally along the
bottom of this ciftern (but not in contadl), and" ter¬
minates at R in a large pump S T The pitton S has
clack valves opening upwards and its rod 8 j, paflincr
through a collar of leathers at T, is fufpended by a
chain to a fmall arch head on the outer arm of the beam.
There is a valve R in the bottom of this pump, as ufual,
which opens when preffed in the direction QJR, and
fhuts again ft a contrary preffure. This pump delivers
its contents into another pump X Y, by means of the'
fmall pipe t X, which proceeds from its top. This fe¬
cond pump has a valve at X, and a clack in its pif-
ton Z as ufual, and the pifton rod Z 2 is fufpended
from another arch head on the outer arm of the beam.
The two valves I and L are opened and ftiut by means
of fpanners and handles, which are put in motion by a
plug frame, in the fame manner as in Newcomen’s en.
gine.
Laftly, there may be cbferved a crooked pipe abo>
which enters the upright pipe laterally a little above (W
Fhis has a fmall jet hole at 0 ; and the other end u, which
is confiderably under the furface of the water of the
condenfing ciftern, is covered with a puppet valve vy
whofe long (talk v u rifes above the water/and may be
railed or lowered by hand or by the plug beam. The
valves R and X and the clacks in the piftons 8 and Z
are opened or fhut by the preffures to which they are
immediately expofed.
This figure is not an exadl copy of any of Mr Watt’s
engines, but has its parts fo difpoled that all may come
diltindlly into view, and exadlly perform their various
fun&ions. It is drawn in its quiefeent pofition, the
outer end of the beam preponderating by the counter
weight, and the pifton P at the top of the cylinder,
and the piftons 8 and Z in their loweft fituations.
In this fituation let us fuppofe that a vacuum is (by
any means) produced in all the fpace below the pifton,
the valve I being fhut. It is evident that the valve R
will alfo be fhut, as alfo the valve v. Now let the valve
I be opened. The fteam from the boiler, as elaftic as
common air, will rufti into the fpace above the pifton,
and will exert on it a preflure as great as that of the
atmofphere. It will therefore prefs it down, raife the
outer end of the beam, and caufe it to perform the
fame work as an ordinary engine.
When the pifton P has reached the bottom of the
cylinder, the plug frame fhuts the valve I, and opens
L. By fo doing the communication is open between
the top and bottom of the cylinder, and nothing hin¬
ders the fteam which is above the pifton from going along
the paffage M L O N. The pifton is now equally af-
fedled on both fides by the fteam, even though a part of
it is continually condenfed by the cylinder, and in the
pipe I O Nothing therefore hinders the pifton
from being dragged up by the counter weight, which
adts with its whole force, undiminifhed by any remain¬
ing unbalanced elallicity of fteam. Here therefore this
form of the engine has an advantage (and by no means
5 D2 a
Steam*
Engine.
S T E r
fiteam- a (mall one) over the common engines, in which a great
Engine, part of the counter weight is expended in overcoming
   ' unbalanced atmofpheric preffure.
Whenever the pifton P arrives at the top of the cy¬
linder, the valve 1. is (hut by the plug frame, and the
valves I and “u are opened. All the fpace below the
pifton is at this time occupied by the fleam which came
from the upper part of the cylinder. This being a lit¬
tle wafted by condeufation, is not quite a balance for
the preflure of the atmofphere. i'here!ore, during
the afcent of the pifton, the valve R was fhut, and
it remains fo. When, therefore, the valve v is opened,
the cold water of the ciftern mull fpout up through the
hole o, and condenfe the fleam. Te this mull be added
the coldnefs of the whole pipe O Q_S. As fall as it is
condenfed, its place is fupplied by fleam from the lower
p#r.t of the cylinder. We have already remarked, that
this fuccefiiye condenfation is accomplifhed with ailo-
nilhing rapidity. In the mean time, fleam from the
boiler preffes on the upper furface of the pifton. It
mull therefore defeend as before, and the engine mull
perform a fecond working ftroke.
But in the mean time the injection water lies in the
bottom of the pipe O R, heated to a coniiderable de¬
gree by the condenfation of the fleam ; alfo a quanti¬
ty of air has been difengaged from it and from the
water in the boiler. How is this to be difeharged
This is the office of the pumps ST and X Y. The
capacity of ST is very great in proportion to the fpace
in which the air and water are lodged. When, therefore,
the pifton S has got to the top of its courfe, there mufl
be a vacuum in the barrel of this pump, and the water
and air mull open the valve R and come into it. When
the pifton S comes down again in the next returning
ftroke, this water and air gets through the valve of the
pifton ; and in the next working flroke they are dif-
charged by the pifton into the pump X Y, and raifed by
its pifton. The air efcapes at Y, and as much of the
water as is neeefiary is delivered into the boiler by a
fmall pipe Y £ to fupply its wafte. It is a matter of indif¬
ference whether the piftons S and Z rife with the outer
or inner end of the beam, but it is rather better that
they rife with the inner end. They are otherwife drawn
here, in order to detach them irom the reft and ffiow
them more diftinctly.
Such is Mr Watt’s feepnd engine. Let us examine
its principles, that we may fee the caufes of its avowed
and great fuperiority over the common engines.
We have already feen one ground of fuperiority, the
full operation of the counter weight. We are autho¬
rized by careful examination to fay, that in the com¬
mon engines at lead one-half of the counter weight is
tlie full ope- expended in counteracting an unbalanced prclfure of the
ration of air on the pifton during its afcent. In many engines,
the counter which are not the woril, this extends to -3 th of the whole
6i
Caufes of
its fuperio
tity over
common
engines are
764 ] S. T E
experiments on the production of fleam had given him a
pretty accurate knowledge of its denlity ; and he found
himfelf authorized to fay, that the quantity of fleam ^
employed did not exceed twice as much a& would fill the
cylinder, fo that not above one-half was unavoidably
wafted. But before he could bring the engine to this
degree of perfection, he had many difficulties to over¬
come : He inclofed the cylinder in an outer wooden
cafe at a fmali diftance from it. This diminilhed the
expence of heat by communication to furrounding bo¬
dies. Sometimes he allowed the fleam from tire boiler
to occupy this interval. This undoubtedly prevented
all dilfipation from the inner cylinder ; but in its turn it
diffipated much heat by the outer cafe, and a very Rn-
fible condenfation was obferved between them. This
has occafioaed him to omit this cii cumftance in fome of
his beft engines. We believe it was omitted in the
Albion Mills.
The greateft difficulty was to make the great pifton
tight. The old and effectual method, by water lying
on it, was inadmiffible. He was therefore obliged to
have his cylinders moft nicely bored, perfedly cylindri¬
cal, and finely polifhed; and he made numberlefs trials
of different foft fubftances for packing his pifton, which
fhould be tight without enormous friction, and which
ffiould long remain fo, in a fituation perfectly dry, and
hot almofl to burning.
After all that Mr Watt has done in this refpedt, he
thinks that the greateft part of the wafte of it earn which
he ftill perceives in his engines arifes from the unavoid¬
able efcape by the lides of the pifton during its de-
feent.
But the faCt is, that an engine of this conftruCtion,
of the faxne dimenfions with a common engine, making
the fame number of ftrokes of the fame extent, does
not confume above one-fourth part of the fuel that is
confumed by the beft engines of the common form. It
is alfo a very fortunate circumftance, that the perform¬
ance of the' engine is not immediately deftroyed, nor in¬
deed fenfibly diminifhed, by a fmall want of tightnefs
in the pifton. In tfie common engine, it air get in, in
this way, it immediately puts a flop to the work ; but
although even a confiderable quantity of fleam get paft
the pifton during its defeent, the rapidity of condenfa¬
tion is fuch, that hardly any diminution of preffure can
be obferved, and the wafte of fleam is the only incon¬
venience.
Mr Watt’s penetration foon difeovered another moft
Steam*
Engine.
64
Another
Weight,
63
And great
laving oi
beam.
preflure. This is evident from the examination of the
engine at Montrelais by Boflut. This makes a very
great counter weight neceflary, which exhaufts a pro¬
portional part of the moving force.
But the great advantage of Mr Watt’s form is the
almoft total annihilation of the wafte of fleam by con¬
denfation in the cylinder. The cylinder is always boil¬
ing hot, and therefore perfectly dry. This muft be evi¬
dent to any perfon who underftands the fubjeCl. By the
time that Mr Watt had completed his improvements, his
valuable property of this engine. When an engine of va;u;.(,]c
the common f orm is ereCled, the engineer muft make an property
accurate eftimate of the work to be performed, andufit
muft proportion his engine accordingly. He mufl be
careful that it be fully able to execute its talk ; but its
power muft not exceed its load in any extravagant de¬
gree. This would produce a motion which is too ra¬
pid, and which, being alternately in oppofite directions,
would occafion jolts which no building or machinery
could withftand. Many engines have been {battered by
the pumps di awing air, ora pump-rod breaking; by
which accideats the fleam-pifton defeends with fuch ra¬
pidity that every thing gives way. But in moft ope¬
rations of mining, the talk of the engine increafes, and
it muft be fo conttruCled at firft as to be able to bear
this addition. It is very difficult to manage an engine
that is much fuperior to its talk; and the eafieft way is,
to
S T E
Steam-
Engine
6* .
Is, that it
can always
he exactly
fitted to
the load
which hap-
pens to be
cnic.
66
One incon
.venience
v 67
Remedied
in iome
degree.
68
But the re¬
medy at¬
tended
with fome
djfiicuiues
„ 69
Winch Mr
Watt’s fet -
tile genius
comp'etc !y
ftniovcs.
tb 'have it almoft full loaded, and to work it only during
a few hours each day, and allow the pit water to ac¬
cumulate during its repofe. This increafes the firft coft,
and wattes fuel during the inadtion of the engine.
But this new engine can at all times beexaftly fitted
(at leaft during the working ftroke) to the load of
work that then happens to be on it. We have only to
adminifter fleam of a proper elafticity. At the firft
eredfion the engine may be equal to twice its talk, if
the fleam admitted above the cylinder be equal to that
of common boiling water ; but when once the ebullition
is fairly commenced, and the whole air expelled from all
paits of the apparatus, it is evident, that by damping
the fire, fleam of half this elafticity may be continually
fupplied, and the water will continue boiling although
its temperature does not exceed 185° of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer. This appears by infpedting our table of
vaporous elafticity, and affords another argument for
rendering that table more accurate by new experiments.
We hope that Mr Watt will not withhold from the pub¬
lic the knowledge which he has acquired on this fubjedt.
It may very pofiibly refult from an accurate inveftiga-
tion, that it would be ad viable to work our fleam-en¬
gines with weak fleams, and that the diminution of
work may be more than compenfated by the diminution
of fuel. It is more probable indeed, and it is Mr
Watt’s opinion, that the contrary is the cafe, and that
it is much more economical to employ great heats. At
any rate, the decifion of this queftion is of great im¬
portance for improving the engine ; and we fee, in the
mean time, that the engine can at all times be fitted fo
as to perform its talk with a moderate and manageable
motion, and that as the talk increafes we can increafc
the powei of the engine.
_ But the method now propofed has a great inconve¬
nience. While the fleam is weaker than the atmofphere,
there is an external force tending to fqueeze in the fides
and bottom of the boiler. This could not be refilled
when the difference is confiderable, and common air
would rufh in through every crevice o* the boiler and
foon choke the engine : it mull therefore be given up.
But the fame effect will be produced by diminilhing
the paffage for the fteam into the cylinder. For this
purpofe, the puppet valve by which the fteam enters the
cylinder was made in the form of a long taper fpigot,
and it was lodged in a cone of the fame lhape ; confe-
quently the paffage could be enlarged or contradled at
pleafure by the diftance to which the inner cone was
drawn up.
In this way feveral engines were conftrufted, and the
general purpofe of fuiting the power of the engine to its
tafk was completely anfwered ; but (as the mathemati-
cal reader will readily perceive) it was extremely diffi¬
cult to make this adjuftment precife and conftant. In
a great machine like this, going by jerks, it was hardly
poffible that every fucceffivc motion of the valve fnould
be precifely the fame. This occafioned very fenfible ir¬
regularities in the motion of the engine, which increafed
and became hazardous when the joints worked loofe by
long uie.
Mr Watt’s genius, always fertile in refources, found
out a complete remedy for all thefe inconveniences.
Making the valve of the ordinary form of a puppet
clack, he adjufted the button of its flaik or tail lo that
it fliould always open full to the feme height. He then
r 765 3
s r E
regulated the ptns of the plug-frame, in fuch a manner Steam
that the valve fliould fhut the moment that the piffon EnKine-
had deicended a certain proportion (fuppofe one-fourth,' ~v
one-third, one-half, &c.) of the cylinder. So far the
cylinder was occupied by fteam as elaftic as common
air. In preffing the pifton farther down, it behoved
the fleam to expand, and its elafticity to diminilh. It
is plain that this could be done in any degree we pleafe,
and that the adjuftment can be varied in a minute, ac¬
cording to the exigency of the cafe, by moving the plug
In the mean time, it muft be obferved, that the pref-
fure on the pifton is continually changing, and confe-
quently the accelerating force. The motion therefore
will no longer be uniformly accelerated: it will ap¬
proach much fafter to uniformity ; nay, it may be re¬
tarded, becaufe although the preffure on the pifton at
the beginning of the ftroke may exceed the refiftance
of the load, yet when the pifton is near the bottom the
refiftance may exceed the preflure. Whatever may be
the law by which the preflure on the pifton varies, an
ingenious mechanic may contrive the connedlmg ma¬
chinery in fuch a way that the chains or rods at the
outer end of the beam fhall continually exert the fame
preffure, or fhall vary their preffure according to any
law he finds moft convenient. It is in this manner that
the watchmaker, by the form of the fuzee, produces an
equal preffure on the wheel-work by means of a very
unequal adlion of the main-fpring. In like manner, by
making* the outer arch heads portions of a proper fpu* l
inftead of a circle, we can regulate the force of th£
beam at pleafure.
Thus we fee how much more manageable an en¬
gine is in this form than Newcomen’s was, and alfo
more eafily inveftigated in refpeft of its power in its va¬
rious pofitions. The knowledge of tin's laft ciicum-
ftance was of mighty confequence, and without it no
notion could be formed of what it could perform. This
fuggefted to Mr Watt the ufe of the barometer com¬
municating with the cylinder ; and by the knowledge
acquired by thefe means has the machine been fo much
improved by its ingenious inventor.
We muft not omit in this place one deduction made
by Mr Watt from his obfervations, which may be call¬
ed a difeovery of great importance in the theory of the
engine. , <
Let ABCD (fig. 10.) reprefent a fe&ion of the cy- Adi£wery
hnder of a fleam-engine, and EF the furface of its pi-of Mr
fton. Let us fuppofe that the fteam was admittedWatt of
while EF was in contad with AB, and that as foon asSreat 1IT1\
it had prefftd it down to the fituation EF the fteam [fag theory*
cock is lliut. 1 he fleam will continue to prefs it down, of the err¬
and as the fleam expands its prefture diminiffies. Wegiue•
may exprefs its preffure (exerted all the while the pi¬
fton moves from the fituation AB to the fituation EF)
by the line EF, If we fuppofe the elafticity of the
fteam propoitional to its denlity, as is nearly the
cafe with air, we may exprefs the preffure on the pi¬
fton in any other poikion, fuch as KL or DC, by K/
and Dr, the ordinates of a rectangular hyperbola F l c,
of which AE, AB are the affymptotes, and A the
centre. The accumulated preffure during the motion
of the pifton from EF to DC will be expreffed by the
area El c DE, and the preffure during the whole mo¬
tion by the area ABF cJL>A,
Now
S T E r 766
atceni* New it is well known tlmt the area £F e DE is
Engine. equai t0 ABFE multiplied by the hyperbolic loga-
   ' AD
= L.
AD
and the whole area ABF
rithm ^E>
( ADn
c DA is — ABFE X \x + L. /•
Thus let the diameter of the pifton be 24 inches,
and the preffure of the atmofphere on a fquare inch be
J4 pounds ; the prefTure on the pifton is 6333 pounds.
Let the whole ftroke be 6 feet, and let the fteam be
flopped when the pifton has defcended 18 inches, or 1,5
feet. The hyperbolic logarithm of is 1,3862943.
Therefore the accumulated preflure ABF c DA is =:
6333 X 2,3862943, = 15114 pounds.
As few profeflional engineers are pofTefied of a table
of hyperbolic logarithms, while tables of common lo¬
garithms are or fhould be in the hands of every perfon
who is much engaged in mechanical calculations, let
the following method be praftifed. Take the common
logarithm of an(l multiply it by 2,3026 ; thepro-
. , . ad
duft is the hyperbolic logarithm of
The accumulated preflure while the pifton moves
from AB to EF is 6333 X 1, or Amply 6333 pounds.
Therefore the fleam while it expands into the whole
cylinder adds a preflure of 8781 pounds.
Suppofe that the fteam had got free admiflion during
the whole defeent of the pifton, the accumulated pref¬
fure would have been 6333 X 4, or 25332 pounds.
Here Mr Watt obferved a remarkable refult. The
fteam expended in this cafe would have been four times
greater than when it was flopped at 5th, and yet the
accumulated preflure is not twice as great, being nearly
•jds. One-fourth of the fteam performs nearly j-ths of
the work, and an equal quantity performs more than
twice as much work when thus admitted during -|th of
the motion.
This is a curious and an important information, and
the advantage of this method of working a fteam-engine
increafes in proportion as the fteam is fooner flopped;
but the increafe is not great after the fleam is rarefied
four times. The curve approaches near to the axis,
and fmall additions are made to the area. The ex-
penfe of fuch great cylinders is confiderable, and may
fometimes compenfate this advantage.
Jjet the fteam be flopped at Its performance is mult.
T - - 1,7
T 2,1
i - - 2,4
f * * 2,6
* - - M
t 3.
■S' * - 3,2
See. See.
It is very pleafmg to obferve fo many unlooked-
for advantages refulting from an improvement made
with the foie view of leflening the wafte of fleam by
condenfation. While this purpofe is gained, we learn
how to hufband the fteam which is not thus wafted.
The engine becomes more manageable, and is more
.eafily adapted to every variation in its talk, and all its
powers are more eafily computed.
1 S T E
The aftive mind of its ingenious inventor did not Steam-
flop here : It had always been matter of regret that <
one-half of the motion was unaccompanied by any v
work. It was a very obvious thing to Mr Watt, that
as the fteam admitted above the pifton prefled it down,
fo fteam admitted below the pifton prefled it up with
the fame force, provided that a vacuum were made on
its upper fide. This was eafily done, by connedling
the lower end of the cylinder with the boiler and the
upper end with the condenfer.
Fig. II. is a reprefentation of this conftru&ion ex- Plate
a6lly copied from Mr Watt’s figure accompanying his cccclxxis.
fpecification. Here BB is a fedlion of the cylinder, ?!
furrounded at a fmall diftance by the cafe 1111. The ^efcvrirPtl011
fe&ion of the pifton A, and the collar of leathers which Watt’s
embraces the pifton rod, gives a diftinft notion of itsfteam-cn-
conftrudlion, of the manner in which it is conne£ledSin*: iu
with the pifton rod, and how the packing of the pifton mr°vAm*
and collar contributes to make all tight. ftatc.
From the top of the cylinder proceeds the horizon¬
tal pipe. Above the letter D is obferved the feat of
the fteam valve, communicating with the box above it.
In the middle of this may be obferved a dark (haded
circle. This is the mouth of the upper branch of the
fteam pipe coming from the boiler. Beyond D, below
the letter N, is the feat of the upper condenfing valve.
The bottom of the cylinder is made fpherical, fitting the
pifton, fo that they may come into entire contadl. An¬
other horizontal pipe proceeds from this bottom. A-
bove the letter E is the feat of the lower fteam valve,
opening into the valve box. This box is at the extre.
mity of another fteam pipe marked C, which branches
off from the upper horizontal part, and defeends ob¬
liquely, coming forward to the eye. The lower part
is reprefented as cut open, to (how its interior confor¬
mation. Beyond this iteam valve, and below the letter
F, may be obferved the feat of the lower conden¬
fing valve. A pipe defeends from hence, and at a fmall
diftance below unites with another pipe GG, which
comes down from the upper condenfing valve N.
Thefe two edudlion-pipes thus united go downwards,
and open at L into a re&angular box, of which the
end is feen at L. This box goes backward from the
eye, and at its farther extremity communicates with
the air-pump K, whofe pgfton is here reprefented in
fedlion with its butterfly valves. The piiton deHvers
the water and air laterally into another re&angular box
M, darkly fhaded, which box communicates with the
pump I. The pifton-rods of this and of the air-pump
are iufpended by chains from a fmall arch head on the
inner arm of the great beam. The lower part of the
edu£lion-pipe, the horizontal box L, the air-pump K,
with the communicating box M between it and the
pump I, are all immerfed in the cold water of the con¬
denfing ciflern. The box L is made flat, broad, and
lhallow, in order to increafe its furface and accelerate
the condenfation. But that this may be performed
with the greateft expedition, a fmall pipe H, open be¬
low (but occafionally flopped by a plug valve), is infert-
ed laterally into the edudiion-pipe G, and then divides
into two branches; one of which reaches within a foot
or two of the upper valve N, and the other approaches
as near to the valve F.
As it is intended by this conftruttion to give the pi¬
fton a ftrong impulfe in both directions, it will not be
2 proper
Sfeam-
Enginc.
S T E [ ^67
proper to fufpend its rod by a chain from the great
_ beam ; for it mult not only pull down that end of the
beam, but alfo pufh it upwards. It may indeed be
fufpended by double chains like the piftons of the en¬
gines for extinguifhing fires; and Mr Watt has accor¬
dingly done fo in fome of his engines. But in his draw-
ing from wnich this figure is copied, he has communi¬
cated the force of the pillon to the beam by means of
a toothed rack 00, which engages or works in the
toothed fedtor Q^_on the end of the beam. The rea¬
der will underftand, without any farther explanation,
how the impulfe given to the pilton in either direftion
is thus tranfmitted to the beam without diminution.
The fly XX, with its pinion Y, which alfo works in
tha toothed arch QC^j may be fuppofed to be removed
for the prefent, and will be confidered afterwards.
We {hall take the prefent opportunity of deferibing
Mr Watt’s method of communicating the force of the
fleam-engine to any machine of the rotatory kind.
VV reprefents the rim and arms of a very large and
heavy metalline fly. On its axis Is the concentric
toothed wheel U. There is attached to the end of the
great beam a ftrong and ftiff rod TT, to the lower end
of which a toothed wheel W is firmly fixed by two
bolts, fo that it cannot turn round. This wheel is of
the fame fize and in the fame vertical plane with the
wheel U ; and an iron link or ftrap (which cannot be
feen here, becaufe it is on the other fide of the two
wheels) conneds the centres of the two wheels, fo that
the one cannot quit the other. The engine being in
the pofition reprefented in the figure, fuppofe the fly to
be turned once round by any external force in the dir
redion of the darts. It is pkin, that fince the toothed
wheels cannot quit each other, being kept together by
the link, the inner half (that is, the half next the cylin¬
der) of the wheel U will work on the inner half of the
wheel W, fo that at the end of the revolution of the
fly the wheel W muft have got to the top of the wheel
U, and the outer end of the beam mull be raifed to its
highelt pofition. The next revolution of the fly will
bring the wheel W and the beam conneded with it to
their firfl pofitions ; and thus every two revolutions
of the fly will make a complete period of the beam’s re¬
ciprocating movements. Now, inftead of fuppofing the
fly to drive the beam, let the beam drive the fly. The
motions muft be perfedly the fame, and the afeent or
defeent of the piften will produce one revolution of
the fly.
A fide view of this apparatus is given in fig 12.
marked by the fame letters of reference. This fhows
the fituation of parts which were fore-fhortened in fig.
I I. particularly the defending branch C of the fteam
pipe, and the fituation and communications of the two
pumps K and I. 8, 8 is the horizontal part of the fteam
pipe. 9 is a part of it whofe box is reprefented by the
dark circle of fig. 11. D is the box of the fteam
clack, and the little circle at its corner reprefents the
end of the axis which turns it, as will be deferibed af¬
terwards. N is the place of the upper edudion valve.
A part only of the upper edudion-pipe G is reprefent¬
ed, the reft being cut off, becaufe it would have covered
the defending fteam pipe CC. When continued
down, it comes between the eye and the box E of the
lower fteam valve, and the box F of the lower educ¬
tion valve.
] . S T E
Let u, now trace the operation of this machine
through all its fteps. Recurring to fig. 11. let us fup.
pofe that the lower part of the cylinder BB is exhauft-
ed of all tlaftic fluids; that the upper fteam valve D and
the lower edudion valve F are open, and that the lower
fteam valve E and upper edudion valve N are (hut. It is
evident that the pifton muft be preffed toward the bottom
of the cylinder, and muft pull down the end of the work¬
ing beam by means of the toothed rack 00 and fedor
QC^caufing the other end of the beam to urge for-
ward the machinery with which it is conneded. When
the pifton arrives at the bottom of the cylinder, the
valves D and F are (hut by the plug frame, and e’ and
N are opened. By this laft paffage rhe fteam gets into
the edudion-pipe, where it meets with the injedion
water, and is rapidly condenfed. The fteam from the
boiler enters at the fame time by E, and preffing on
the lower fide of the pifton, forces it upwards, and by
means of the toothed rack 00 and toothed fedor QQ
forces up that end of the working beam, and caufes the'"
other end to urge f*rward the machinery with which
it is conneded : and in this manner the operation of the
engine may be continued for ever.
T. he injedion water is continually running into the
edudion-pipe, becaufe condenfation is continually go-
ing on, and therefore there is a continual atmofpheric
preffure to produce a jet. The air which is difenga-ed
from the water, or enters by leaks, is evacuated only
during the rife of the pifton of the air-pump K. When
this is very copious, it renders a very large air-pump
neceffary; and in fome fituations Mr Watt has been
obhged to employ two air-pumps, one worked by each
arm of the, beam. This in every cafe expends a very
confiderable portion of the power, for the air-pump is
always working againft the whole preffure of the atmo-
fphere.
It is evident that this form of the engine, by main¬
taining an almoft conftant and uninterrupted impul-
fion, is much fitter for driving any machinery of conti¬
nued motion than any of the former engines, which
were inadive during half of their motion, ‘it does not
however, feem to have this fuperiority when employed
to draw water : But it is equally fitted for this talk.
Let the engine be loaded with twice as much as would
be proper for it if a (ingle ftroke engine, and let a fly
be conneded with it. Then it is plain that the power
of the engine during the rife of the fteam pifton will
be accumulated in the fly; and this, in conjundion with
the power of the engine during the defeent of the fteam
pifton, will be equal to the wTole load of water.
In fpeaking of the fteam and edudion valves, wefaid
that they were all puppet valves. Mr Watt employed
cocks, and alfo Hiding valves, fuch as the regulator or
fteam-valve 1 . he old engines. But he tound them
always lofe their tightnefs after a (hort time. This is
not furprifing, when we confider that they are always
perfedly dry, and almoft burning hot. He was therefore
obliged to change them all for puppet clacks, which
when truly ground and nicely fitted in their motions
at firft, are not found to go out of order by any length,
of time. Other engineers now un-iverfally ufe them in
the old form of the fleam-engine, without the fame
reafons, and merely by fervile and ignorant imitation.
/he way in which Mr Watt opens and fhuts thefe
valves is as follows. Fig. 13. reprefents a clack with
its*
Steam-
Engine.
s T E [
Siam. Jts feat and bos. Suppofe it one of the eduftion valves.
Engine. W H is part of the pipe which introduces the iteam> an
 >  GO is the upper part of the pipe which communicates
with the condenfer. At E E may be obferved a piece
more faintly fhaded than the furroundmsr parts. I hi3
is the feat of the valve, and is a brafs or bell-metal ring
turned conical on the oatfide, fa as to fit exactly into a
conical part of the pipe GG. Thefe two pieces are
fitted by grinding; and the cone being of a long taper,
the ring flicks fhmly in it, especially after having been
there for fome time and united by ruft. The clack it-
felf is a ftrong brafs plate D, turned conical on the
cd-re, fo as to fit the conical or floping inner edge ot
the feat Thefe are very nicely ground on each other
with emery. This conical joining is much more obtufe
than the outer fide of the ring; fo that although the
joint is air-tight, the two pieces do not flick ftrongly
together. The clack has a round tad DG, which is
freely moveable up and down in the hole of a crofs
piece FF On the upper fide of the valve is a ftrong
piece of metal DC firmly joined to it, one fide of
which is formed into a toothed rack. A is the fection
of an iron axle which turns in holes in the oppolite
fides of the valve-box, where it is nicely fitted by
grinding, fo as to be air-tight. Collets of thick
leather,' well foaked in melted tallow and rofin, are
fcrewed on the outfide of thefe holes to prevent all in-
grefs of air. One end of this axis projefts a good way
without the box, and carries a fpanner or handle, which
is moved by the plug-frame. To this axis is fixed a
ftrong piece of metal B, the edge of which is formed
into an arch of a circle having the axis A in its centre,
and is cut into teeth, which work in the teeth of the
rack DC. K is a cover which is fixed by fcrews to
the top of the box H J J H, and may be taken off in
order to get at the valve when it needs repairs.
From this defcription it is eafy to fee that by turn¬
ing the handle which is on the axis A, the feclor B
muft lift up the valve by means of its toothed rack D C,
till the upper end of the rack touch the knob or but¬
ton K. Turning the handle in the oppofite diredion
brings the valve down again to its feat.
• This valve is extremely tight. But in order to open
it for the paffage of the fleam, we muft exert a force
equal to the preffure of the atmofphere. This in a large
engine is* a very great weight. A valve of fix inches
diameter fuftains a preffure not lefs than 400 pounds.
But this force is quite momentary, and hardly impedes
the motion of the engine ; for th@ inftant the valve is de¬
tached from its feat, although it has not moved the
1 ooth part of an inch, the preffure is over. Even this
little inconvenience has been removed by a delicate
thought of Mr Watt. He has put the fpanner in fuch
a pofition when it begins to raife the valve, that its me¬
chanical energy is almoft infinitely great. Let Q_R
(fig, 14.) be part of the plug-frame defcending, and P
one of its pins juft going to lay hold of the fpanner N O
moveable round the axis N. On the fame axis is ano¬
ther arm NM conne&ed by a joint with the leader
ML, which is conne&ed alfo by a joint with the fpan-
iier L A that is on the axis A of the fe&or within the
■valve-box. Therefore when the pin P pufhes down
the fpanner NO, the arm N M moves fide wife and pulls
,4own the fpanner A L by means of the conne&ing rod.
Things are fo difpofed, that when the cock is fhut, L M
] s T E
and M N are in one ftraight line. The intelligent me- Steam*
chanic will perceive that, in this pofition, the force of Eng me.
the lever O N M is infuperable. It has this further ad- *
vantage, that if any thing Ihould tend to force open the
valve, it would he ineffedual; for no force exerted at
A, and tranfmitted by the rod L M, can pofiibly pulh.
the joint M out of its pofition. Of fuch importance is it
to pra&ical mechanics, that its protefforsfhouldbeperiona
of penetration as well as knowledge. Yet this circum-
ftance is unheeded by hundreds who have fervilely copied
from Mr Watt, as may be feen in every engine that 13
puffed on the public as a difcovery and an improvement.
When thefe puppet valves have been introduced into the
common engine, we have not feej one inftance where this
has been attended to ; certainly becaufe its utility has not
been obferved : and there is one fituation where ir is of
more confequence than in Mr Watt’s engine, viz. in the
injeftion-cock. Here the valve is drawn back into a box,
where the water is fo aukwardly difpofed round it that
it can hardly get oilt of ks way, and where the preffure
even exceeds that of the atmofphere. Indeed this par¬
ticular fubftitution of the button-valve for the cock is
moft injudicious.
We poftpohed any account of the office of the fly
X X (fig. 11.), as it is not of ufe in an engine regulated
by the fly V V. The fly X X is only for regulating
the reciprocating motion of the beam when the fleam is
not admitted during the whole defeent of the pifton.
This it evidently muft render more uniform, accumula¬
ting a momentum equal to the whole preffure of the full
fupply of fleam, and then fharing it with the beam
during the reft of the defeent of the pifton.
When a perfon properly fkilled in mechanics and Review of
chemiftry reviews thefe different forms of Mr Watt’s
fteam-engine, he will eafily perceive them fufceptihle ofj J^ve-**
many intermediate forms, in which any one or more of ments.
the diftinguifhing improvements may be employed. The
firft great improvement was the condenfation in a fepa-
rate veffel. This increafed the original powers of the
engine, giving to the atmofpheric preffure and to the
counter weight their full energy ; at the fame time
the wafte of fteam is greatly diminifhed. The next im¬
provement by employing the preflure of the fteam in-
ftead of that of the atmofphere, aimed only at a ftill
farther diminution of the wafte ; but was fertile in ad¬
vantages, rendering the machine more manageable, and
particularly enabling us at all times, and without trou¬
ble, to fuit the power of the engine to its load of work,
however variable and increafing ; and brought into view
a very interefting propoiition in the mechanical theory
of the engine, viz. that the whole performance of a
given quantity of fteam may be augmented by admitting
it into the cylinder only during a part of the pifton’s
motion. Mr Watt has varied the application of this
propofition in a thoufand ways ; and there is nothing
about the machine which gives more employment to the
fagacity and judgment of the engineer. The third
improvement of the double impulte may he confidered
as the finifhing touch given to the engine, and renders
it as uniform in its action as any water-wheel. In the
engine in its moft perferit form there does not feem to
be above one-fourth of the fteam wafted by warming
the apparatus; fo that it is not po/Jibk to make it one-fourth
part more powerful than it is at prefent. The only
thing that feemsfufceptible of confiderable improvement
1 “ «
Plate CCCCLXXIX.
S T E
Steam*
Engine.
73
The only
improve¬
ment now
[7
is the crreat beam. The enormous {trains exerted on
its arms require a proportionaHlrength. This requires
a vaft. mafs of matter, not leis indeed in an engine with
a cylinder of 54 inches than three tons and a half,
moving with the velocity of three feet in a fecond,
wanting is ^u.ch muft be communicated in about half a fecond.
to ftrength- rriais mutt be brought into motion from a ftate of
enthe great reft, mull again be brought to reft, again into motion,
beam. ^nd again to reft, to complete the period of a ftroke.
This confumes much power ; and Mr Watt has not been
able to load an engine with more than 10 or 11 pounds
on the inch and preferve a fufficient quantity of motion,
fo as to make 12 or 15 fix-feet ftrokes in a fecond.
Many attempts have been made to lefien this mafs by
ufing a light framed wheel, or a light frame of carpen-
try, in place of a fohd beam, 'ihefe have generally
been conftrudled by perfons ignorant of the true feien-
tific principles of carpentry, and have fared accordinrr.
ly. Mr Watt has made fimilar attempts ; but found,
that although at firft they were abundantly ftrong, yet
after a fhort time’s employment the ftraps and bolts
with which the wooden parts were connetted cut their
way into the wood, and the framing grew loofe in the
joints, and, without giving any warning, went to pieces
111 an inftant. A folid mafly fimple beam, of fufficient
ftrength, bends, and fenfibly complains (as the carpen¬
ters exprefs it), before it breaks. In all great engines,
therefore, fuch only are employed, and in fmaller en¬
gines he fometimes ufes caft-iron wheels or pulleys; nav,
he frequently ufes no beam or equivalent whatever, but
employs the fleam pifton-rod to drive the machinery to
which the engine is applied.
We prefume that our thinking readers will not be
difpleafed with this rational hiftory of the progrefs of
thi£ engine in the hands of its ingenious and worthy in¬
ventor. We owe it to the communications of a friend,
weft acquainted with him, and able to judge of his
merits. I he public fee him always aflociated with the
no lefs celebrated mechanic and philofopher Mr Boulton
of vSoho near Birmingham (fee Soho). They have fha-
red the royal patent from the beginning; and the al¬
liance is equally honourable to both.
1 he advantages derived from the patent-right fhow
....  botl1 the Superiority of the engine and the liberal minds
rived in e- of the proprietors. They ereft the engines at the ex-
giifeT8 en- pence of the employers, or give working drafts of all
Steam-
Engine.
74
Mr Watt
■affociated
with Mr
Soulton.
. 75
Whence
their pro
fit? are de
7<?
What the
adtual per-
Forncance
of fome of
ftefe en¬
gines is.
the parts, with inftrudlions, by which any refident en-
pineei may execute the work. The emoloyers feledl
the heft engine of the ordinary kind in the kingdom,
compare the quantities of fuel expended by each, and
pay Me firs V/att ana Boulton one-third of the an¬
nual favings for a certain term of years. By this the
patentees are excitqd to do their utmoft to make the
engine perfect; and the employer pays in proportion to
the advantage he derives from it.
It may not be here improper to ftate the aanal per¬
formance of fome of thefe engines, as they have been
afcertained by experiment.
An engine having a cylinder of 31 inches in diame¬
ter, and making 17 double ftrokes per minute, performs
the work of forty horfes working night and day (for
which three relays or 1 20 horfes muft be kept), and
burns t 1,000 pounds of Staffordfhire coal per day. A
cylinder of 19 inches, making 25 ftrokes of 4 feet each
per minute, performs the work of 12 horfes working
Vo l. XVII. Tart II. 6
69 ] S T E
conftantiy, and burns 3700 pounds of coals pet day.
A cylinder of 24 inches, making 22 ftrokes of 5 feet,
hunis 55°° pounds of coals, and is equivalent to the
conftant work of 20 hories. And the patentees think
themfelves authorized by experience to fay in general,
that thele engines will raile more than 20,000 cubic
feet of water 24 feet high for every hundred weight of
good pit-coal confumed by them.
In confequence of the great fuperiority of Mr Watt’s
engines, both with refped to economy and manageable-
ne(s, they have become of rnoft extenfive ufe ; and in
every demand ^of manufa&ure on a great fcale they of¬
fer us an indefatigable fervant, whofe ftrength has no
bounds. I he greateft mechanical projed that ever en- Prn,77f 1
gaged the attention of man was 0.1 the point of being to Srainthe
executed by this machine. The States of Holland were Elaerlem
treating with Meffrs Watt and Boulton for draining theM,ierb}r .
Haerlem Meer, and even reducim-r the Zuyder Zee •thC {
and we doubt not but that it will be accomplifhed when*'”2—
ever that unhappy nation has fuflicicntly felt the diffe¬
rence between liberty and democratic tyranny. Indeed
fuch unlimited powers are afforded by this engine, that the
engineer now thinks that no talk can be propofed to him
which he cannot execute with profit to his employer. 7o
No wonder then that all claffes of engineers have The at-
turned much of their attention to this engine; and fee-temlJts t0
mg that it has done fo much, that they try to make itiTprove
d° Kill more Nrbcrlrfs atten?ts ^ "ade .o™*'
improve . r V a^t s engine ; and it would occupy a vo-general of
lume to give an account of them, whilft that accountlittlc ad'
would do no more than indulge curiofity. Our engi vanuSeS
neers by profeffion are in general miferably deficient in
that accurate knowledge of mechanics and of chemiftry
which is neceffary for underftanding this machine; and
we have not heard of one in this kingdom who can be
put on a par with the prefent patentees in this refpe<a.
Molt of the attempts of engineers have been made with
the humbler view of availing themfelves of Mr Watt’s
difeoveries, fo as to conftruft a fteam-engine fuperior to
Newcomen’s, and yet of a form fufficiently different
from Watt’s to keep it without the reach of his patent.
I his they have in general accomplifhed by performinp-
the condeniation in a place which, with a little ftretch
of fancy, not unfrequent in a court of law, may be called
part of the cylinder. ^
'The fuccefs of moft of thefe attempts has interfered ^'the
fo little with the intereft of the patentees, that they fi’c^efs oF
have not hindered the ereftion of many engines which LunjW
the law would have deemed encroachments. We think the other,
it our duty to give our opinion on this fubjeft without
referve. ^ Thefe are moft expenfive undertakings, and
few employers are able to judge accurately of the me¬
rits of a project prefented to them by an ingenious ar-
tift._ They may lee the pradicability of theYcheme, by-
having a general notion of the expanfion and condenia-
tion of fleam, and they may be milled by the ingenuity
apparent in the conftru&ion. The engineer himfelf is
frequently the dupe of his own ingenuity; and it is not
always diftionefty,' but frequently ignorance, which
makes him prefer his own invention or (as he thinks it)
improvement. It is a moft delicate engine, and requires
much knowledge to fee what does and what docs not
improve its performance. We have gone into the pre¬
ceding minute inveftigation of Mr Watt’s progrefs with
the exprefs purpofe of making our readers fully mafters
5 E of
S T E [ 77° ] S T E
Steam, of its principles, and have more than once pointed out
Engme. t^e reai improvements, that they may be firmly fixed
anci alWays ready in the mind. By bavin? recourfe to
them, the reader may pronounce with confidence on the
merits of any new conftruddion, and will not be decei-
go ved by the puffs of an ignorant or difhoneft engineer.
Exception We muft except from this general criticifm a con-
in favour ftraftion by Mr Jonathan Hornblower near Briftol, on
H rlb'ow- account of its fingularity, and the ingenuity and real
fr>° " ' f]^ill which appears in fome particulars of its conftruc-
tion. The following fhort defcription will fufficiently
explain its principle, and enable our readers to appre¬
ciate its merit.
Plate A and B (fig. 15.) reprefent two cylinders, of which
cccclsjuc. A is the largeft. A pifton moves in each, having their
■r, A1 • rods C and D moving through collars at E and t.
Defcription cyHnders may be fupplied with fleam from the
fteam-en- boiler by means of the fquare pipe G, which has a ffanch
gke. to connedl it with the reft of the fleam pipe. This
fquare part is reprefented as branching off to both cy¬
linders. c and d are two cocks, which have handles
and tumblers as ufual, worked by the plug-beam W.
On the fore-fide (that is, the fide next the eye) of the
cylinders is reprefented another communicating pipe,
whofe fe&ion is alfo fquare or reftangular, having alfo
two cocks a, b. The pipe Y, immediately under the
cock l, eftablifhes a communication between the upper
and lower parts of the fmall cylinder B, by opening
the cock b. There is a fimilar pipe on the other fide
of the cylinder A, immediately under the cock d.
When the cocks c and a are open, and the cocks ^ and
d are (hut, the fleam from the boiler has free admiffion
into the upper part of the cylinder B, and the fleam
from the lower part of B has free admiffion into the
upper part of A ; but the upper part of each cylinder
has no communication with its lower part.
From the bottom of the great cylinder proceeds the
edu<ftion-pipe K, having a valve at its opening into the
cylinder, which bends downwards, and is conne&ed with
the conical condenfer L (c). The condenfer is fixed
on a hollow box M, on which Hand the pumps N and
O for extracting the air and water ; which laft runs
along the trough T into a ciftern U, from which it is
raifed by the pump V for recruiting the boiler, being
already nearly boiling hot. Immediately under the
condenfer there is a fpigot valve at S, over which is a
fmall jet pipe, reaching to the bend of the eduAion-
pipe. The whole of the condenfing apparatus is con¬
tained in a eiftern R of cold water. A fmall pipe P
comes from the fide of the condenfer, and terminates on
the bottom of the trough T, and is there covered with
a valve Q^, which is kept tight by the water that is al¬
ways running over it. Lallly, the pump-rods X caufe
the outer end of the beam to preponderate, fo that the
quiefeent pofition of the beam is that reprefented in the
figure, the piftons being at the top of the cylinders.
Suppofe all the cocks open, and fleam coming in
copioufly from the boiler, and no condenfation goingon
in L ; the fleam muft dwve out all the air, and at laft
follow it through the valve Now fhut the valves b
and dy and open the valve S of. the condenfer. The
condenfation will immediately commence. There is Steam-
now no prefiure on the under fide ef the pifton of A, Engine. ^
and it immediately defeends. The fcommunication be- y
tween the lower part of B and the upper part of A
being open, the fleam will go from B into the fpace
left by the piflon of A. It muft therefore expand,
and its elallicity muft diminifh, and will no longer ba¬
lance the preffure of the fleam above the piflon of B.
This pifton therefore, if not with-held by the beam,
would defeend till it is in equilibrio, having fleam of
equal denfity above and below it. But it cannot de¬
feend fo far ; for the cylinder A is wider than B, and
the arm of the beam at which its pifton hangs is longer
than the arm which fupports the pifton of B: therefore
when the pifton of B has defeended as far as the beam
will permit it, the fleam between the two piftons occu¬
pies a larger fpace than it did when both piftons were
at the tops of their cylinders. Its denfity, therefore,
and its elafticity, diminifh as its bulk increafes. It is
therefore not a balance ; for the fleam on the upper fide
of B, and the pifton B, fiu//s at the beam with all the
difference of thefe preflures. The flightefl view of the
fubjeA muff fhow the reader, that as the piflons de¬
feend, the fleam that is between them will grow conti¬
nually rarer and lefs elaflic, and that both piftons will
pull the beam downwards.
Suppofe now that each has reached the bottom of its
cylinder. Shut the cock a and the eduAion cock at
the bottom of A, and open the cocks b and d. The
communication being now eftabliflied between the upper
and lower part of each cylinder, nothing hinders the
counter weight from railing the piftons to the top. Let
them arrive there. The cylinder B is at this time fill¬
ed with fleam of the ordinary denfity, and the cylin¬
der A with an equal abfolute quantity of fleam, but
expanded into a larger fpace.
Shut the cocks b and d, and open the cock a, and
the eduAion cock at the bottom of A ; the conden¬
fation will again operate, and the piilons defeend. And
thus the operation may be repeated as long as fleam is
fupplied ; and one full of the cylinder B of ordinary
fleam is expended during each working ftroke.
Let us now examine the power of this engine. It is
evident, that when both piftons are at the top of their
rtfpeAive cylinders, the aAive preffure (that is, the difi
ference of the preffure on its two fides) on the piffon
of B is nothing, while that on tire pifton of A is equal
to the full preffure of the atmolphere on its area. This,
multiplied by the length of the arm by which it is fup-
ported, gives its mechanical energy. As the piftons
defeend, the preffure on the pifton of B increafes, while
that on the pifton of A diminifhes. When both are at
the bottom, the preffure on the piflon of B is at its-
maximum, and that on the pifton of A at its mini¬
mum.
Mr Hornblower faw that this muft be a beneficial,
employment of fleam, and preferable to the praAice of
condenfing it while its full elafticity remained ; but he
has not confidered it with the attention neceffary for aL
certaining the advantage with preeifion.
Let a and b repreCent the areas of the piftons of A
and’
(c) This, however, was flopped by Watt’s patent} and the condenfatiou muft be performed as in-Newcomen’#
engine, or at leaft in the cylinder A»
Steam"
Engine.
S T E [ 77
arid B, and let « and fi be the lengths of the arms by
; which they are fupported. It is evident, that when
both pillions have arrived at the bottoms of their cylin¬
ders, the capacities of the cylinders are as a * and b p.
Let this be the ratio of m to I. Let g hi h (fig. 16.)
and Imnobt two cylinders of equal length, communi¬
cating with each other, and fitted with a pifton-rod pq,
on which are fixed two pillions a a and b b, vvhofe areas
are as m and I. Let the dillance between the piltons
be precifely equal to the height of each cylinder, which
height we {hall call h. Let x be the fpace g b or b a,
through which the pillons have defcended. Let the
upper cylinder communicate with the boiler, and the
lower cylinder with the condenfer or vacuum V.
Any perfon in the lealt converfant in mechanics and
pneumatics will clearly fee that the ftrain or prelTure
on the pillion rod pq is precisely the fame with the uni¬
ted energies of the two pillion rods of Mr Hornblower’s
engine, by which they tend to turn the working beam
round its axis.
The bafe of the upper cylinder being i, and its height
ht its capacity or bulk is \ h or h; and this exprefies
the natural bulk of the fleam which formerly filled it,
and is now expanded into the fpace bhlaam ib. The
part bh ib plainly — b — x, and the part la am is
■— m x. The whole fpace therefore is mx h — x,
•zz h m x — x, or b m — i x. Therefore the den_
fity of the fleam between the piftons is
> ]
S T E
h m — l x
Let /) be the downward prefiitre of the fleam from
the boiler on the upper pifton b b. This pifion is alfo
prefled up with a force — p by the fleam
between the piftons.
h m — ix
It is therefore, on the whole,
prefled downward with a force =: p f i — — V
' h-\-m — i x'
The lower pifton a a, having a vacuum below it, is pref-
fed downwards with a force zzp ——- ■■ ■ There-
h m — ix
fore the whole preffiire on the pifton rod downwards is
=,(,+7^=- -—4_), =,( , +
' - h A- m  i x h A. m — la;/ \
ph
=P +
'    A-x
m—l *
This then is the momentary preflure on the pifton
rod correlponding to its defeent x from its higheft pofi-
tion. When the piftons are in their higheft polition,
this prefl'ure is equal to m p. When they are in their
•loweft pofition, it is =r /> —^—. Here therefore is an
acceffion of power. In the beginning the preflure is
■greater than on a Angle pifton in the proportion of m to
i ; and at the end of the ftroke, where the preflbre is
weakeft, it is ftill much greater than the preffure on a
Angle pifton. Thus, if m be 4, the preflure at the be¬
ginning of the ftroke is 4/>, and at the end it is 2/>, al-
tooII double, and in all intermediate pofitions it is great¬
er. It is worth while to obtain the fum total of all the
accumulated preflures, that we may compare it with the
conftant preft'ure on a fingle pifton.
We may do this by confidering the momentary pref-'
r P ^
ime. p -J- ^ , as equal to the ordinate GFr
 b x
m—1
H b, or M r, of a curve Y be (fig, 10.), which has for
its axis the line GM equal to h the height of our cy¬
linder. Call this ordinate y. We have y =z p
t>h j Ph
•, and^y—/>_ —^ . rvjow it is plain that
_1— 4-x
is the ordinate of an equilateral hyperbola,
S‘esw-
Engine.
-f- x
of which p b is the power or reft angle of the ordinate
and abfeifs, and of which the abfeifs reckoned from the
, h
centre iS)^-—y -f- x. Therefore make GE = />, and
draw DEA parallel to MG, and make EA =
h _ m~~1
The curve Fi5c is an equilateral hyperbola,
having A for its centre and AD for its aflymptote.
Draw the other aflymptote AB, and its ordinate FB.
Since the power of the hyperbola is zz p h, - GEDM
(for GE =r p, and GM =r h) ; and fince all the inferi-
bed reftangles, fuch as AEFB, are equal to ph, it fol¬
lows that AEFB is equal to GEDM, and that thq
area ABFcDA is equal to the area GFrMG, which
exprelfes the accumulated preffure in Hornblower’s en-
gine.^
We can now compute the accumulated preflure very
eafily. It is evidently = /> A X ^ 1 -J- j.
The intelligent reader cannot but obferve that this is rhe'accu-
precifely the lame with the accumulated preffure of amulated
quantity of fleam admitted in the beginning, and flop-Prelf“re
ped in Mr Waft’s method, when the pifton has defcen-th.<ya?'ie
ded through the wth part of the cylinder. In con-of Mr*
fidering Mr Hornblower’s engine, the thing was pre-Watt’s en-
lented in fo different a form that we did not perceive S‘ne-
the analogy at firft, and we were furprifed at the refult.
We could not help even regretting it, becaufe it had the
appearance ot a new principle and an improvement :
and vve doubt not but that it appeared fo to the in¬
genious author ; for we have had fuch proofs of his
liberality of mind as permit us not to fuppofe that he
faw it from the beginning, and availed himfelf of the
difficulty of tracing the analogy. And as the thing
may millead others in the fame way, we have done a
fervice to the public by ffiowing that this engine, fo
coftly and fo difficult in its conftruftion, is no way fu-
perior in power to Mr Watt’s fimple method of flop¬
ping tire fleam. It is even inferior, becaufe there mult
be a condenfation in the communicating paffages. We
may add, that if the condenfation is performed in the
cylinder A, which it muft be unlefs with the permil-
fion of Watt and Boulton, the engine cannot be much
fuperior to a common engine ^ for much of the fleam
Irom below B will be condenfed between the piftons by
the coldnefs of the cylinder A; and this diminilhes the
5 E 2 down-
S T E
■r t
*3
S-H1, how¬
ever, the
engine d;f-
covers in*
genuify
and Ikill.
S4
The grest-
tft im-
jjrovemenc
is the fra¬
ming of
the work¬
ing beam.
.
The reci¬
procating
motion of
the fteam-
cngine is a
deftdf dill
to be reme
died.
downward preffure on A more than it jncreafes the
downward prefTure on B. We learn however that, by
conftnjng the condenfation to a Imall part oj ihe cyiuhhr
A, Mr Hornblower has eredted engines" clear of Mr
Watt’s patent, which are confiderably fuperior to New¬
comen’s: fo has Mr Symington. ^
We laid that there was much ingenuity and real fkill
obfervable in many particulars of this engine. 1 he
difpofition and connetlicn of the cylinders, and the
whole condensing apparatus, are contrived with peculiar
neatnefs. The cocks are very ingenious ; they are
compofed of two flat circular plates ground very true
to each other, and one of them turns round on a pin
through their centres ; each is pierced with three iec-
toral apertures, exaftly correfponding with each other,
and occupying a little lefs than one half of their fur-
faces. By turning the moveable plate fo that the aper¬
tures coincide, a large paffage is opened for the fleam ;
and by turning it f'o that the folk! of the one covers the
aperture of the other, the cock is Ihut. Such regula¬
tors are now very common in the call iron ftoves for
warming rooms.
Mr ITornblov/er’s contrivance for making the collars
for the pi lion rods airtight is alfo uncommonly inge¬
nious. This collar is in fad two, at a imall ditfance
from each other. A finall pipe, branching oft from the
main fteam-pipe, communicates with the fpace between
the collars. This fleam, being a little ftronger than
the preffure of the atmofphere, efFe&ually hinders the
air from penetrating by the upper collar; and though a
little fleam fhould get through the lower collar into
the cylinder A, it can do no harm. We fee many cafes
in whkh this pretty contrivance may be of fignal fei -
vice.
But it is in the framing of the great working beam
that Mr Hornblower’s fcientific knowledge is mo'l con-
fpicuous ; and we have no hefuation in affirming that it
is ftronger than a beam of the common form, and con¬
taining twenty times its quantity of timber. There is
hardly a part of it expofed to a tranfverfe flrain, if we
except the flrain of the pump V on the ftrutt by which
it is worked. Every piece is either pufhed or pulled
in the. diredion of its length. We only' fear that the
bolts which conned the upper beam with the two iron
bars under its ends will work loofe in their holes, and
tear out the wood which lies between them. We would
propofe to fubllitute an iron bar for the whole of this
upper beam. Tins working beam highly deferves the
attention of all carpenters and engineers. We have
that opinion of Mr liornblower’s knowledge and talents,
that we are confident that he will fee the faunefs of our
examination of his engine, and we trull to his candour
for an excufe for our criticilm.
The reciprocating motion of the fleam engine has
always been confidered as a great defed ; for though it
be now obviated by conneding it with a fly, yet, un-
lefs it is an engine of double llroke, this fly muft be an
enormous mafs of matter moving with great velocity.
Any accident happening to it would produce dreadful
effeds : A part of the rim detaching itfelf would have
the iorce of a bomb, and no building could withfland it.
Many attempts have been made to pioduce a circular
motion at once by the fleam. It has been made to
blow on the vanes of a wheel of various forms. But
the rarity of fleam is fucb, that even if none is condenfed
Engine,
S earn-
Kitchen,
72 j Q l IS
by the cold of the vanes, the impulfe is exceedingly
feeble, and the expence of fleam, io as to produce any
ferviceable impulfe, is enormous. Mr Watt, among
his firfl fpecuiations on the fleam-engine, made fome
attempts of this kind. One in particular was uncom¬
monly ingenious. It confuted of a drum turning air-'
tight within another, with cavities fo difpofed that there
was a conftant and great prefiure urging it in one direc tircu ar
tion. But no packing of the common kind could pre-motion by
ferve it air-tight with fuffieient mobility. He iucceed-^eanl
ed by immerfing it in mercury, or in an amalgam which;ULCe “ u 5
remained fluid in the heat of boiling water; but the
continual trituration foon calcined the fluid and rendered
it ufelefs. He then tried Parent’s or Dr Barker’s mill,
inclofing the arms in a metal drum, which was immer-
fect in cold water. The fleam ruflred rapidly along the
pipe which was the axis, and it was hoped that a great
reaction would have been exerted at the ends ©t the
arms ; but it was almofl nothing. The reafon feems
to be, that the greatefl part of the (team was condenftd
in the cold arms. It was then tried in a drum kept
boiling-hot ; but the itnpulfe was now very fmall in
comparifon with the expence of fleam. This mult be
the cafe.
Mr Watt has deferibed in his fpecification to the pa¬
tent office fome contrivances for producing a circular
motion by the immediate action of the fleam. Some
of thefe produce alternate motions, and are peifedlly
analogous to his double flroke engine. Others produce a
continued motion. But he has' not given fuch a de-
feription of his valves for this purpofe as can enable an
engineer to conftrnft one of them.' Fiom any guefs
that we can form, we think the machine very imperfecl ;
and we do not find that Mr Watt has ever eredled a g7
continuous circular engine. He has doubtlefs found Still the
all his atten.pts inferior to the reciprocating engine vvith “^e ^
a fly. A very crude fcheme of this kind may be feenf,r!
in the TranfaCtions of the Royal Society of Dublin rent prin-
1787. But although our attempts have hithertociples may
failed, we hope that the cafe is not yet delperate : ^ employ-
We fee different principles which have not yet betnem-
ployed. _ 88
We fhall conclude our account of this noble engine vir Watt’s
with obferving, that Mr Watt’s form fuggefts the con* engii e
llrudtion of an excellent air-pump. A large veiTeH^ "!lC
may be made to communicate with a boiler at one lide, '^ aa
and with the pump receiver on the other, and alfo with excellent
a condenfer. Suppofe this veffel of ten times the ca-air-pump,
pacity of the receiver : fill it with (team from the boiler ,
and drive out the air from it; then open its communica¬
tion with the receiver and the condenfer. T his will rarefy
the air of the receiver to times. Repeating the opera¬
tion will rarefy it too times ; the third operation will
rarefy it 1000 times*; the fourth ro,coo times, &c. All
this may be done in half a minute.
SrRAM-hitcben. Ever fince Dr Papin connived his
digeiler (about the year 1690), fchemeshave beenpro-
poied for drefling victuals by the fleam of boiling water.
A philofophicai club ufed to dine at Saltero's coftee-
houfe, Chelfea, about 30 years ago, and had their
victuals drefied by hanging them in the boiler of the
fleam-engine which raifes water for the fupply of Pi-
cadilly and its neighbourhood. They wete complete¬
ly dreffed, and both expeditioufly and with high fla¬
vour.
4 A
s T E [ 7
Knt was lattfly obtained for an apparatus for
  y—J thls PurPofe oy a tin-man in London ; we think of the
name of Tate. They are made on a much more effec¬
tive plan by Gregory, an ingenious tradeftnan in Edin¬
burgh, and are coming into very general ufe.
It is well known to the philbfopher that the fteam
° bo1 wa.ter contaius a prodigious quantity of heat,
which it retains in a latent Hate ready to be faithfully
accounted lor, and communicated to any colder body.
Every cook knows the great fcalding power of fteam,
and !s dnpofed to think that it is much hotter than
boiling water. This, however, is a miftake; for it
will raife the thermometer no higher than the water
from which it comes. But we can affure the cook, that
l' ile matie tJie ftcaiTi from the Ipout of a tea-kettle pafs
through a great body of cold water, it will be conden-
led or changed into water; and when one pound of water
has m this manner been boiled off, it will have heated
the mafs of cold water as much as if we had thrown into
h feven or eight hundred pounds of boiling hot water.
If, therefore, a boiler be properly fitted up in a fur¬
nace, and it the fteam of the water boiling in it be con¬
veyed by a pipe into a pan containing vitfuals to be
drefted, every thing can be cooked that requires no
higher degree of heat than that of boiling water : And
tins Will be done without any rifle of fcorching, or any
kind of overheating, which frequently fpoils our difhes,
and proceeds from the burning heat of air coming to
thole parts of the pot or pan which is not filled with
liquor, and is covered only with a film, which quickly
burns and taints the whole dilb. Nor will the cook
be Icorched by the great heat of the open fire that is
neceffary for drefling at once a number of dithes, nor
have his perfon and clothes foiled by the fmoke and
loot unavoidable in the cooking on an open fire. In¬
deed the whole proeefs is fo neat, fo manageable,
to open to infpedfion, and fo cleanly, that it need neither
fatigue nor offend the delicacy of the niceft lady.
We had great doubts, when we firft heard of this as
a general mode of cookery, as to its economy ; we had
none as to its efficacy. We thought that the fteam,
and confequently the fuel expended, muft be vaftly 'great¬
er than by the immediate ufe of an open fire ; but we
have feen a large tavern dinner expeditioufly dreffed in
this manner, feemingly with much lefs- fuel than in the
common method. The following fimple narration of
. fadts will fhow the fuperiomy. In a paper manufiadture
in this neighbourhood, the vats containing the pulp
into which the frames are dipped are about fix feet
diameter, and contain above 2CO gallons. This is
brought to. a proper heat by means of a fmall cockle
or furnace in the middle of the liquor. This is heat-
ed by putting in about one hundred weight of coals
about eight o clock in the evening, and continuing this
ti i .our next morning, renewing the fuel as u burns
away. This method was lately changed for a fteam
heater. A furnace, having a boiler of five or fix feet dia¬
meter and three feet deep, is heated about one o’clock
in the morning with two hundred weight of coals, and
toe water kept in bn’fk ebullition. Pipes go off from
this boiler to fix vats, fome of which are at qo feet di-
ttance. It is conveyed into a flat box or veffel in the
midit of the pulp where it condpnfes, imparting its heat
loathe fides of the box, and thus heats the furrounding
pulp, I hefe fix vats are as completely heated in three
73 1 ■ S T E
hours, expending about three hundred weight of coats, S?earn-
as they were formerly in eight hours, expending near Kitdmr*
18 hundred weight of coals. Mr Gregory, the inven-
tor o> tnis fteam heater, has obtained (in couiDany with
Mt Scott plumber, Edinburgh) a patent for the inven¬
tion ; and we are perfuaded that it will come into very
general' ufe for many iimilar pm pofes. The dyers,
hatmakers, and many other manufacturers, have occa-
fion lor large vats kept in a continual heat ; and there
feems no way fo effectual.
Indeed when we reflect ferioufly on the fubjeCt, we
fee that this method has immenfe advantages confidered
merely as a mode of applying heat. The fteam may
be applied to the veffel containing the victuals in every
part of its furface : it may even be made to enter the
veflel, and apply itfelf immediately to the piece of meat
that is to be dreffed, and this without any rilk of fcorch-
ing or overdoing.—And it will give out about of
the heat which it contains, and will do this only if
it be wanted ; fo that no heat whatever is waited
except what is required for heating the apparatus.
Experience fhows that this is a mere trifle in com¬
panion of what was fuppofed neceffary. But with
an open fire we only apply the flame and hot air to the
bottom and part of the fides of our boiling veffels : and
this application is hurried in the extreme ; for to make
a great heat, we muft have a great fire, which requires
a prodigious and inoft rapid current of air. This air
touches our pans but for a moment, imparts to them.
but a fmall portion of its heat ; and, we are perfuaded
that three-fourths of the heat is carried up the chim¬
ney,. and efcapes in pure wafte, while another great
portion beams out into the kitchen to the great an¬
noyance of the fcorched cook. We think, therefore,
that a page or two of this work will not be thrown
away in the defeription of a contrivance by which a la¬
ving may be made to the entertainer, and the providing
the plealures of his table prove a lets fatiguing talk to
this valuable corps of practical chemiils.,
Tet A reprefent a kitchen-boiler, either properly fit- pr-.w.
ted up in a furnace, with its proper fire place, aft-pit, ceccx-xna,
anc. flue, or let on a tripod on the open fi e, or built 5*
up in the general fire place. The fleam-pipe BC rifes
from the cover of this boiler, and then is led away with
a gentle afeent in any convenient direction. C reore-
fents the fedtion of this'conducting fleam-pipe. Branch-
es are taken oft from the fide at proper diftances. One
of thele is teprefented at CDE, furnifted with a cock
I), and having a taper nozzle E, fitted by grinding in¬
to a conical piece F, which communicates with anup-
right pipe GH, which is foldered to the fide of the
ftewing vefid PQRS, communicatinp- with it bv the
ftort pipe I. The veffel is fitted with a cover'OT.
having a itaple handle V. The piece of meat M is laid
on a tm plate grate KL, pierced with holes like a cullen¬
der, and Handing on three ftort feet nnn.
The fteam hom the boiler comes in by the wipe* I,
and is condenfed by the meat and by the fides of the
veffel, communicating to them all its heat. What is
not fo condenfed efcapes between the veffel and its co¬
ver. The condenfed water lies on the bottom of the
yeffel, mixed with a very fmall quantity of gravy and
fatty matter from the victuals. Frequently, inftead ot
a cover, another flew-veffel with a cullender bottom is
fet on this one, the bottom of the one fitting the mouth
of
S T E
[ 774 ]
S T E
■S'eanv of the other : and it is obferved, that when this Is done,
■Krchen. t}je jn the under veflel Is more expeditioufly and
6 ' better drefTed, and the upper di(h Is more flowly, but as
completely dewed.
This defcrlption of one dewinsr veflel may lerve to
give a notion of the whole ; only we mud oblerve, that
when broths, foups, anddifhes with made fauces or con¬
taining liquids, are to be drefied, they mult be put In¬
to a fmaller veflel, which is fet into the veflel PQRS,
and is fupported on three fhort feet, fo that there may
be a fpace all round it of about an inch or three quar¬
ters of an inch. It is obferved, that dilhes of this kind
are not fo expeditioufly cooked as on an open fire, but
as completely in the end, only requiring to be turned
•up now and then to mix the ingredients; becaufe as the
liquids in the inner veflel can never come into ebullition,
unlefs the deam from the boiler be made of a danger¬
ous heat, and every thing be clofe confined, there can¬
not be any of that tumbling motion that we obferve in
■a boiling pot.
The performance of this apparatus is for beyond any
expectation we had formed of it. In one which we ex*
amined, fix pans were dewing together by means of a
boiler lof inches in diameter, Handing on a brilk open
fire. It boiled very brifldy, and the deam puffed fre¬
quently through the chinks between the dew-pans and
their covers. In one of them was a piece of meat con-
liderably above 30 pounds weight. This required a-
bove four hours dewing, and was then very thoroughly
and equally cooked ; the outfide being no more done
than the heart, and it was near two pounds heavier than
when put in, and greatly fwelled. In the mean time,
feveral difhes had been dreffed in the other pans. As
far as we could judge, this cooking did not confume
one-third part of the fuel which an open fire would
have required for the fame effeCb
When we confider this apparatus with a little more
knowledge of the mode of operation of fire than falls
to the (hare of the cooks (we fpeak with deference),
-and confider the very injudicious manner in which the
(team is applied, we think that it may be improved fo
as to furpafs any thing that the cook can have a no¬
tion of.
When the deam enters the dew-pan, it is condenfed
on the meat and on the veffel; but we do not want it
to be condenfed on the veffel. And the furface of the
veffel is much greater than that of the meat, and conti¬
nues much colder; for the meat grows hot, and conti¬
nues fo, while the veffel, made of metal which is a
very perfeft conduftor of heat, is continually robbed of
its heat by the air of the kitchen, and carried off by
it. If the meat touch the fide of the pan in any part,
no deam can be applied to that part of the meat, while
it is continually imparting heat to the air by the inter¬
medium of the veffel. Nay, the meat can hardly be
dreffed unlefs there be a current of deam through it ;
and we think this confirmed by what is obferved above,
that when another dew-pan is fet over the fird, and thus
gives occafion to a current of deam^through its cullen¬
der bottom to be condenfed by its fides and contents,
the lower di(h is more expeditioufly dreffed. We ima¬
gine, therefore, that not lefs than half of the deam is
waded on the fides of the different dew-pans. Our fird
attention is therefore called to this circumdance, and we
widr to apply the deam more economicafljr and ffec- Steam-
tually. . Kitchen*
We would therefore condrudt the deam-k tehen in the "v—
following manner :
We would make a wooden chcd (which we (hall call
the Stew-chest) A BCD. i his (hould be made of Fig. &
deal, in very narrow (lips, not exceeding an inch, that
it may not (brink. This (hould be lined with very thin
copper, lead, or even ftrong tinfoil. This will prevent
it from becoming a conductor of heat by foaking with
deam. For further fecurity it might be fet in another
ched, with a fpace of an inch or two all round, and this
fpace filled with a compofition of powdered charcoal and
clay. This (hould be made by fird making a mixture
ot line potter’s clay and water about as thick as poor
cream : then as much powdered charcoal mud be beat
up with this as can be made to dick together. When
this is rammed in and dry, d may be hot enough on
one fide to melt glafs, and will not difcolour white pa¬
per on the other.
This ched mud have a cover L M N O, alfo of
wood, having holes in it to receive the dew-pans Fi
R. Between each pan is a wooden partition, covered
on both fides with milled lead .or tinfoil. The whole
top mud be covered with very fpungy leather or felt,
and made very flat. Each dew-pan mud have a bear*
ing or (boulder all round it, by which it is fupported,
reding on the felt, and lying fo true and clofe that no
Iteam can efcape. Some oi the pans fhould be (imple,
like the pan F, for dreffmg broths and other liquid
diflies. Others (hould be like E and G, having in the
bottom a pretty wide hole H, K, which has a pipe in
its upper fide, iifing about an inch or an inch and half
into the dew-pan. The meat is laid on a cullender
plate, as in the common way ; only there mud be no
holes in the cullender immediately above the pipe.
Thefe dew-pans mult be fitted with covers, or they may
have others fitted to their mouths, for warming iauces
or other diflies, or dewing greens, and many other fub-
ordinate purpofes for which they may be fitted.
The main-pipe from the boiler mud have branches,
(each furnifhed with a cock), which admit the deam
into thefe diviiions. At its fird entry fume will be
condenfed on the bottom and fides; but we imagine
that thefe will in two minntes be heated fo as to con-
denfe no more, or almod nothing. ihe deam will alio
quickly condenfe on the dew-pan, and in half a minute
make it boiling hot, fo that it will condenfe no more;
all the red will now apply itlelf to the meat and to the
cover. It may perhaps be advifable to allow the cover
to condenle (team, and even to waflre it. . I his may be
promoted by laying on it flannel foaked in water. Our
view in this is to create a demand for deam, and thus
produce a current through the deu7-pan, which will be
applied in its paffage to the victuals, .but we are not
certain of the neceflity of this. Steam is not like com¬
mon air of the fame temperature, which would glide
along the furfaces of bodies, and impart to them a (mall
portTon of its heat, and efcape with the reft. To pro¬
duce this effedt there muji be a current; for air hot
enough to melt lead, will not boil water, if it be kept
dagnant round the veffel. But (team imparts the ivbote
of its latent heat to any body colder than boiling water,
and goes uc farther till this body be made boiling hot.
3 h
S T E
Steam-
Xitchen.
It is a moll faithful carrier of heat, and will deliver its
_ whole charge to any body that can take it. Therefore,
although there were no partitions in the ftew-cheft, and
the fteam were admitted at the end next the boiler, if
the pan at the farther end be colder than the reft, it
will all go thither; and will, in fhort, communicate to
every thing impartially according to the demand. If
any perfon has not the confidence in the fteam which
we exprefs, he may ftill be certain that there muft be a
prodigious faving of heat by confining the whole in the
flew cheft ; and he may make the pans with entire bot¬
toms, and admit the fteam into them in the common
way, by pipes which come through the Tides of the
cheft and then go into the pan. °There will be none
loft by condenfation on the Tides of the cheft; and the
pans will Toon be heated up to the boiling temperatii’-c *
and hardly any of their heat will be wafted, becaufe the
air m the cheft will be ftagnant. The chief reafon for
recommending our method is the much greater cafe with
which the ftew pans can be fhifted and cleaned. There
will he little d iffcrence in the perfornicince.
. Na7’. even the common fteam-kitchen may be prodi-
gioufly improved by merely wrapping each pan in three
or four folds of coarfe diy flannel, or making flannel
bags of three or four folds fitted to their ihape, which
can be put on or removed in a minute. It" will alfo
greatly conduce to the good performance to wrap the
main fteam pipe in the fame manner in flannel.
We faid that this main-pipe is conduced from the
boiler with a gentle afeent. The intention of this is
that the water produced by the unavoidable condenfa-
tion of the fteam may run back into the boiler. But
the rapid motion of the fteam generally fweeps it up
hill, and it runs into the branch pipes and defeends into
the ftew-pans. Perhaps it would be as well to §ive
the main-pipe a declivity the other way, and allow all
the water to collt6t in a hot well at the farther end, by
means of a defeending pipe, having a loaded valve at
the end. This may be fo contrived as to be dole by
the fire, where it would be fo warm that it would not
check the boiling if again poured into the boiler. But
the utmoft attention muft be paid to cleanlinefs in the
v/nole of this pafiage, becaufe this water is boiled again,
and its. fteam paffes through the heart of every difh.
This circumftance forbids us to return into the boiler
what is condenfed in the ftew-pans. This would mix
the taftes and flavours of every difh, and be very difa-
greeable. All this muft; remain in the bottom of each
ftew-pan ; for which reafon we put in the pipe riling
up in the middle of the bottom. It might indeed be
allowed to fall down into the ftew cheft, and to be coh
letfted in a common receptacle, while the fat would float
at top, and the clear gravy be obtained below, perhans
fit for many fauces.
The completed: method for getting rid of this con¬
denfed fteam would be to have a fmall pipe running
along the under fide of the main conduftor, and com¬
municating with it at different places, in a manner fimi-
lar to the air difeharger on the mains of water-pipes.
In the paper manufa&ure mentioned above, each fteam-
box has a pipe in its bottom, with a float-cock, by
which the water is difeharged ;.and the main pipe being
of great diameter, and laid with a proper acclivity, the
water runs back into the boiler.
But thefe precautions are of little moment in a fteam-
t 775 I
S T E
kitchen even for a great table ; and for the general ufe
of private families, would hurt the apparatus, by ma¬
king it complex and of njee management. For a fmall
xamriy, the whole apparatus may be fet on a table four
teet long and two broad, which may be placed on caft-
ers, fo as to be wheeled out of the way when not in
ulc. If the mam condudor be made of wood, or pro-
peily cafed in flannel, it will condenfe fo little fteam
that the eook.ng table may fta-nd in the remoteft corner
of the kitchen without fenfibly impairing its perform¬
ance ; and if the boiler be properly fet up in a fmall
furnace, and the flue made fo that the flame may be ap-
phed to a great part of its furface, we are perfuaded
that three-fourths of the fuel ufed in common cookery
will be faved. Its only inconvenience feems to be the
indifpenfable neceffity of the moft anxious cleanlinefs in
the whole apparatus The moft trifling negleft in thia
will deftroy a whole dinner.
We had almoft forgotten to obftrre, that the
boiler muft be furnifhed with a funnel for fupplying
it with water. This fhould pafs through the top, and
its pipe reach near to the bottom. It will be proper
to have a cock on this funnel. There fliould alfo be
another pipe in the top of the boiler, having a valve on
the top. If this be loaded with a pound on every
fquare inch, and the fire fo regulated that fteam may¬
be obferved to puff fometimes from this valve, we may
be.certain that it is pafling through our difhes wkh fuf-
ficient rapidity ; and if we fhut the cock on the funnel,
and load the valve a little more, we fhall caufe the fteam
to blow at the covers of the ftew-pans. If one of thefe
be made very tight, and have a hole alfo furnifhed with
a loaded vaive, this pan becomes a digefter, and will
d.flolve bones, and do many things which are imprao
ticable in the ordinary cookery.
Si quid novifti reSiius iftis,
tmPerit >—Sl non,.his ut ere no/Iris.
o EA1 11ES or Soap-earth, a genus of the mag^
nefian order of earths. Of this genus there are ieveral
fpecies, for which fee Mineralogy. According to
the analyfis of Bergman, 100 parts of fteatites contain So
of ilex, 17 of mild magnefia, 2 of argillaceous, earth,
and nearly j of iron in a femioxidated ftate.
This fubftance may be formed into a pafte with water,
lufnciently du&ile to be worked on the potter’s wheel •
and by expofure to a great heat it is hardened fo as to -
itrike lire with fteeL It has alfo the property of Ful-.
ht.R s Earth in cleanfing cloths from grtafe : but it does
not diffufe in water fo well as clays do and when dU
geited with vitriolic acid, it does got form alum, as clays
do’ but */alt.fimilar to Epfom fait. From its foftnels
and dudihty it may be eafily formed into pots for the
\ ^,d def e * has got name of /apis oilaris.
oi EAl OMA, a kind of eneyfted tumor, confiftiW
of a matter like fuet or lard, Toft, without pain, and.
without difcolounng the /kin.
STEEL, iron united with carbone. See Iron
Steel has properties diftind from thofe of iron, which
render it ofTuperior value. From its- higher degree of
hardne/s it. admits a finer polifh and affumes a brighter
colour. When, tempered, it poffeffes a higher degree of
elalticity, and is alfo more fenorous. It is more weak.
y atti acted by the loadftone, it receives more flowly the
magnetic power, but it preferves it longer. When ex-
poled to a moift air, it does not contrad ruft fo eafily as
iron,.
Steam-
Kitchen
II
Steel.
S T E [ 77
St'e!. iron. It is alfo heavier, increaiing in weight,- according
     to Chaptal, one hundred and feventieth part. M. Kin-
man has p-iven as the remit of feveral accurate experi¬
ments on different kinds of fteel the following fpecihc
gravity 7,795, while he makes dudfile iron 7,700, and
crude iron 7,251. . ' . ^
All iron is convertible into fleet by expofing it to a
certain decree of heat for a certain time alonur with a
quantity of charcoal. Chemifts differ in opinion con¬
cerning the nature and effefts of this proceis. Some
fay that ileel is produced by absorbing a quantity o.
caloric or heat in a latent date, as the older chenuits
had laid it w’as formed by abforbing phlogiilon. La-
voiiier feems to have afcribed the qualities of it del to a
flight degree of oxidation, others to a combination with
plumbago or black lead, and others to a union with
carbone. In agreeing with thofe who fay the forma¬
tion of fteel is owing to carbone, we do not differ effem-
tklly from thofe who attribute it to plumbago ; for
the art of chemiftry has now found that thefe fub-
llances are very nearly allied. Plumbago is^ a true
charcoal combined with a little iron. xhe orilliant
charcoal of certain vegetable fubftances, more efpccially
when formed by diftillatron in clofe veflels, poffeffes all
Chaptal's the characters of plumbago. The charcoal of animal
Clem'firfubllances poffefles chara£lers ft 111 more peculiarly reiem-
v<-l. ii. ppng it. Like it they are difficult to incinerate, they
i1'347* leave the fame impreffion on the hands and upon paper;
they likewife contain iron, and become converted into
carbonic acid by combuftion. When animal fubitances
sre diftilled by a ftrong fire, a very fine powder fublimes,
which attaches itfelf to the inner part of the neck of the
retort, and this fubflance may be made into excellent
black lead pencils.
There are two ways of making fteel, namely', by fu-
iion and by cementation. The firfl way is ufed to con¬
vert iron into fteel immediately from the ore, or from crude
or call-iron. By the fecond way, bar-iron is expofed
to a long continued heat furrounded by charcoal.
Each of thefe ways has advantages peculiar to itfelf;
but the fame caufes in fadt predominate in both, for
both kinds of fteel are produced by heat and charcoal.
The only difference between the two methods is this;
in making fteel by fuilon the charcoal is not f® equally
defended from the accefs of air as in the other way. .
Swedenborgius has given the following defeription
of the method ufed in Dalecarlia for making fteel from
call-iron. The ore from which the crude iron to he
converted into fled is obtained is of a good kind. It is
black, friable,' and compofed of many fmall grains, and
it produces very tough iron. The converfion into fteel
is made upon a forge-hearth, fomething fmaller than
common. The fides and bottom are made of call-iron.
The tuyere is placed, with very little inclination, on one
of the fide-plates. The breadth of the fire-place is
fourteen inches ; its length is greater. The lower part
of the tuyere is fix inches and a half above the bottom.
In the interior part of the fire-place there is an oblong
opening for the flowing of the fuperfluous fcorire. he
workmen firft put fcoriae on the bottom, then charcoal
mid powder of charcoal, and upon thefe the call-iron
run or cut into fmall pieces. They cover the iron with
more charcoal, and excite the fire. When the pieces
of iron are of a red white, and before they begin to
snelt, they flop the bellows, and carry the mafs under a
6 ] - s T E
large hammer, where they break it into pieces of three Pted.
or four pounds each. The pieces are again brought to
the hearth, and laid within reach of the workman, who
plunges feme of them into the fire, and covers them
with coal. The bellows are made to blow flowly till
the iron is liquefied- Then the fire is increafed ; and
when the fufion has been long enough continued, the
fcorise are allowed to flow out; and at that time the
iron hardens. The workman adds more of the pieces
of crude iron, which he treats in the fame manner ; and
fo on a third and a fourth time, till he obtains a mafs off
fteel of about a hundred pounds, which is generally
done in about four hours. This mafs is raifed and
carried to the hammer, where it is forged, and cut in-
tc four pieces, which are farther beat into fquare bars
four or five feet long. When the fteel is thus forged,
it is thrown into water that it may be eafily broken ;
for it is yet crude and coarfe-grained. The fteel is then
carried to another hearth fimilar to the former, and
there broken in pieces. Thefe pieces are laid regularly
in the fire-place, firft two parallel, upon which feven or
eight others are placed acrofs ; then a third row acrofs
the fecond, in fiich a manner that there is fpace left be¬
tween thofe of the fame row. The whole is then
covered with charcoal, and the fire is excited. In about
half or three quarters of an hour the pieces are made hot
enough, and are then taken from the fire, one by one, to
the hammer, to be forged into little bars from half a
foot to two feet long, and while hot are thrown into
water to be hardened. Of thefe pieces fixteen or
twenty are put together fo as to make a bundle, which
is heated and welded, and afterwards forged into bars
four inches thick, which are then broken into pieces of
convenient length for ufc.
The method of converting iron into fled by cemen¬
tation is a very Ample procefs. It confifts folely in ex-
pofing it for a certain time to a ftrong degree of heat,
while clofely covered with charcoal and defended from
the external air. The furnaces employed for convert¬
ing iron into fteel (fays a manufadlurer of this metal) are
of different fixes ; fome capable of converting only three
or four tons weight, while others are capacious enough
to contain from feven to eight or ten tons. The out-
fides of thefe furnaces rife up in the form of a cone, or
fugar-loaf, to the height of a very confiderable number
of feet. In the infide, oppofite to each other, are
placed two very long chefts, made either of ftone, or
of bricks capable of bearing the ftrongeil fire ; which
is placed between the two chefts. The bars of iron,
after the bottom is furnifhed wiih a neceffary quantity
of charcoal duft, are laid in Jiratum fuper Jirotum, with
intermediate beds of the charcoal duft, to inch a height
of the chells as only to admit of a good bed at top ;
which is then ail covered over, to prevent the adrmffion
of the common air ; which, could it procure an entrance,
would greatly injure the operation. The iron being
thus fituated, the fire is lighted ; which is fome time
belove it can be raifed to a fufficient degree of heat to
produce any confiderable effeft. After which it is con¬
tinued for fo many days as the operator may judge pro¬
per ; only now and then drawing out what they call a
proof bar. This is done by openings fit for the pur-
pofe at the ends of the cheil, which are eafily and with
expedition flopped up again, without occafioning any
injury to the contents lelt behind. When the opera-
S T E t 777 ] S T E
tor apprehends the converfion is fhfficiently completed,
the fire is fuffered to go out, and the furnace, with its
contents, is left gradually to cool. This may take up
feveral days : after which the furnace is difcharged, by
taking out the bars of fteel and the remainder of the
charcoal dull.
There is a manufa&ory eftaldifhed in the parifh of Cra-
mond, about five miles from Edinburgh, in which this
method is praftifed with great fuccefs. Great quanti¬
ties of fteel are made there, which we have reafon to be¬
lieve is of as excellent a quality as any that can be pro¬
cured from other countries.
When the charcoal is taken out, it is found as black
as before it was introduced into the furnace, unlefs by
accident the external air has got admittance. The
bars preferve their exterior form only ; the furface fre¬
quently exhibits a great number of tumors or blifters,
whence they are called bliflered Jleel.
The hardnefs of fteel is much increafed by temper¬
ing. This confifts in heating it to a red heat, and
then plunging it fuddenly into cold water. If it be al¬
lowed to cool flowly, it ftill preferves its du&ility; or if
it be heated again after being tempered, it lofes its
hardnefs, and again becomes duftile. In heating fteel
for tempering it, the moft remarkable circumftance is,
the different colours it affumes, according to the degree
of heat it has received. As it is gradually heated, it
becomes white, then yellow, orange, purple, violet, and
at laft of a deep blue colour.
According to Reaumur, the fteel which is moft heat¬
ed in tempering is generally the hardeft. Hence it is
believed, that the more violent the heat to which fteel
is expofed, and the more fuddenly it is plunged into
cold water, the harder the fteel will be. Rinman,
again, has deduced a conclufion diredtly oppofite, that
the fteel which is naturally hardeft demands the leaft de¬
gree of heat to temper it. Different methods have
been propofed to determine what degree of heat is moft
proper ; but the eafieft method is to take a bar of fteel,
fo long, that while one end is expofed to a violent heat,
the other may be kept cold. By examining the inter¬
mediate portions, it may be found what degree of heat
has produced the greateft hardnefs.
By tempering, fteel is faid to increafe both in bulk
and in weight. Reaumur fays, that a fmall bar fix
inches long, fix lines broad, and half an inch thick, was
increafed at leaft a line in length niter being tempered
to a reddifh white colour ; that is, fuppofing the dilata¬
tion proportional in all dimenfions increafing at the
rate of 48 to 49. Iron alfo expands when heated; but
when the heat paffes off, it returns to its former dimen¬
fions. That the weight of fteel is alfo augmented by
tempering, has been found by experiment. Rinman ha¬
ving weighed exadtly in an hydroftatic balance two
kinds of fine fteel made by cementation, and not tem¬
pered, found their denfity to be to that of water as
7,991 to 1 ; after being tempered, the denfity of the
one was 7>5535 and that of the other 7,708. M. de
Morveau took three bars juft of a fize to enter a certain
caliber 28 lines long, and each fide tw’o lines broad; one
of the bars was loft iron, and the two others were taken
from the fame piece of fine fteel. In order to commu¬
nicate an equal degree of heat to each, in an earthen
veffel in the midft of a wind furnace, the bar of foft
iron and one of the bars of fteel were thrown into
Vol. XVII. Fart II.
cold water; the other bar of fteel was cooled ftowly over
feme pieces of charcoal at a diftance from the furnace.
The bar of iron and the one of fteel that was allowed
to cool flowly paffed eafily into the caliber again ; but
the bar of tempered fteel was lengthened alinoil one-
ninth of a line.
There is no doubt but tempering changes the grain;
that is, the appearance of the texture of a piece of fteel
when broken. This is the mark which is ufually ob-
ferved in judging of the quality of fteel, or of the tem¬
pering which fuits it heft. The tempered bar is bro-
ken in feveral places after having received different de¬
grees of heat in different places. What proves com¬
pletely the effeift of heat upon the grain, at leaft in
fome kinds of fteel, is, that a bar of fteel expofed to all
the intermediate degrees of heat, from the fmalleft fen-
fible heat to a red heat, is found to increafe in finenefs of
grain from the flightly heated to the Itrongly heated
end. The celebrated Rinman has made many experi¬
ments on the qualities of fteel expofed to different de¬
grees of heat in tempering, but particularly to three
kinds, viz. fteel heated to an obfeure red, to a bright
red, and to a red white. Hard brittle fteel, made by
cementation, and heated to an obfeure red and temper¬
ed, exhibited a fine grain, fomewhat fhining, and was of
a yellow white colour. When tempered at a bright
red heat, the grain was coarfer and more fhining ; when
tempered at a red white heat, the grain was alio coarfe
and fhining.
With a view to determine how far fteel might be
improved in its grain by tempering it in different ways,
M.. de Morveau took a bar of bliftered fteel, and broke
it into four parts nearly of the fame weight. They
were all heated to a red heat in the fame furnace, anil
withdrawn from the fire at the fame inftant. One of the
pieces was left at the fide of the furnace to cool in the
air, the fecond was plunged into cold water, the third
into oil, and the fourth into mercury. The piece of
fteel that was cooled in the air refifled the hammer a
long time before it was broken ; it was neceffary to
notch it by the file, and even then it was broken with
difficulty. It (bowed in its frafture a grain fenfibly
more fine and more Alining than it was before. The
fecond piece, which had been plunged into water, broke
eafily : its grain wag rather finer than the firrt, and al-
moft of the fame white colour. The third piece, which
was tempered in oil, appeared very hard when tried by the
file; it was fcarcely poffible to break it. Its grain was
as fine, but not quite fo bright, as that which was tem¬
pered in water. The fourth piece, which was dipped
into mercury, was evidently fuperior to all the reft in
the finenefs and colour of the grain. It broke into
many fragments with the firft ftroke of the hammer,
the fra&ures being generally tranfverfe.
M. de Morveau was not altogether fatisfied with
thefe experiments, and therefore thought it neceffary to
repeat them with finer fteel. He took a bar of fteel
two lines fquare, fuch as is ufed in Germany for tools
by engravers and watchmakers; he divided it into four
pieces, and treated them in the fame way as he had
done the bliftered fteel. The firft piece, which was
cooled in the air, it was very difficult to breakthe
frafture appeared in the midft of the grain very fine,
but white and fhining. The fecond, which was tem¬
pered in water, was broken into three fragments at the
5 F firft
S T E L 778 ] S T E
Sfetl, ^ blow ; its <rrain was perfeftly equal, of a grey afh-
Stee -y - . colour> and of remarkable finenefs.' One of its iides was
N" ”" v ~ n polifhed, and a drop of the nitrous acid which was pour¬
ed upon it left a black fpot, but not deep. But when a
drop of the fame acid was poured on the middle of the
fradture, after it had been equally polifhed, it left a black
fpot much deeper. The third piece, which was plun¬
ged in oil, bent as eafily as the piece which was cooled
in the air ; the file made an imprtffion on it with diffi¬
culty ; it was ntcdfary to break it with a vice : its grain
was inferior in finenefs to the fecond, but it was of a
darker colour. The fourth, which was tempered in
mercury, exhibited a grain of an intermediate finenefs
between the fecond and the third. From thefe experi¬
ments, it appears that ileel may be hardened by tem¬
pering it, not only with water, but with any other liquid
which is capable of accelerating its cooling.
Steel may be unmade, or reduced to the ftate of
iron, by a management fimilar to that by which it is
made, that is, by cementation. But the cement ufed
for this purpofe mull be compofed of fubftances en¬
tirely free from inflammable matter, and rather ca¬
pable of abforbing it, as calcareous earth or quicklime.
By a cementation with calcareous earth, continued
during eight or ten hours, {feel is reduced to the
flate of iron. After it has been tempered, it may be
again untempered, and foftened to any degree that we
think proper ; for which purpofe we have only to heat
it more or lels, and to let it cool flowly. By tifis me¬
thod we may foften the hardeft-tempered fteel.
S-TFt.L-Botv Tenants. See Tenure.
Salt of Steel. See Chemistry, n0 697.
SrEEL-Tarcl, is one of the molt ancient prefents
which fcience has made to fociety ; and though long in
defuetude in this country, is in moll nations of the
world the only mftrument for afeertaining the weight
of bodies. What is tranfiated. balance in the Penta¬
teuch, is in faff fteelyard, being the word ufed by the
Arabs to this day for their inftrument, which is a fteel¬
yard. It is in common ufe in all the Afiatic nations.
It was \X\z Jlatera of the Greeks and Romans, and feems
to have been more confided in by them than the ba¬
lance ; for which reafon it was ufed by the goldfmiths,
while the balance was the inftrument of the people. —
Non aurlfitis Jlatera fedpopulari trutina exammare. Cic.
de Or. 238.
The fteelyard is a lever of unequal arms, and, in its
moft perfebi form, is conftm£fed much like a common
Plate balance. It hangs in fheers E (fig. 1.) refting on the
®cccLxxxi. nail C, and the fcale E for holding the goods hangs by
a nail D on the ihort arm BC. The counter weight
P hangs by a ring of tempered fteel, made fharp in the
infide, that it may bear by an edge on the kng arm
CA of the fteelyard. The under edge of the centre
nail C, and the upper edge of the nail D, are in the
ftraight line formed by the upper edge of the long arm.
Thus the three points of fufpenfion are in one ftraight
line. The needle or index of the ftegjyard ia perpen¬
dicular to the line of the arms, and plays between the
iheers. The fhort arm may be made io malfive, that,
together with the icale, it will balance the long arm un¬
loaded. When no goods are in the fcale, and the coun¬
ter weight with its hook are removed, the fteelyard ac-
-quires a horizontal pofition, in confequence of its centre
x>f gravity being below the axis of fufpenfion. The
rules for its accurate conftnuftion are the fame as for S'cel-yard,
a common balance. * ■—y 4
I he inftrument indicates different weights in the fol¬
lowing manner : The diftance CD.of the two nails is
conlidered as an unit, and the long arm is divided into
a number o^ parts equal to it; and thele are fubdivided
as low as is thought proper: or in general, the long
arm is made a feale or equal parts, commencing at the
edge of the nail C; and the fhort arm contains fome de¬
termined number of thoi'e equal parts. Suppofe, then,
that a weight A of ? o pounds is put into the fcale L.
The counterpoife P muft be of fuch a weight, that,
when hanging at the divifion to, it fltall balance this
weight A. Now let any unknown weight W be put
into the fcale. Slide the hook of the counterpoile
along the long arm till it balances this weight. Suppofe
it then hanging at the divifion 38. We conclude that
there is 38 pounds in the fcale. This we do on the
authority of the fundamental property of the lever,
that forces a&ing on it, and balancing each other, are
in the inverfe proportion of the diftances from the ful¬
crum to their lines of diredftion. Whatever weight the
counterpoife is, it is to A as CD to 10, and it is to
the weight W as CD to 38 ; therefore A is to the
weight W as 10 10,38, and W is 38 pounds: and
thus the weight in the fcale will always be indicated
by the divifion at which it is balanced by the counter-
poift.
Our well informed readers know that this fundamen¬
tal property of the lever was difeovered by the renown¬
ed Archimedes, or at leaf! firft demoiiftrated by him ;
and that his demonftration, befides the defeat of being
applicable only to commenfurable lengths of the arms,
has been thought by metaphyftcians of the firft note to
proceed on a poftulate which feems equally to need a
demonftration. It has accordingly employed the ut-
moft refinement of the firft mathematicians of Europe
to furnifh a demonftration free from obje&ion. Mr
D’Alembert has given two, remarkable for their inge¬
nuity and lubtlety ; Foncenex has done the fame ; and
Profeft'or Hamilton of Trinity-college, Dublin, has gi¬
ven one which is thought the leaft exceptionable. But
critics have even obje&ed to this, as depending on a.
poftulate which fhould have been demonitrated.
Since we publiihed the volume containing the article
Mechanics, there has appeared (Phil. Trani. 1794)
a demonftration by Mr Vince, which we think unexcep¬
tionable, and of fuch fimplicity that it is aftoniihiirg
that it has not occurred to any perfon who thinks on
the fubjedt. Our readers will not be difpleafed with
an account of it.
Let AE (fig. 2.) be a mathematical lever, or in¬
flexible ftraight line, refting on the prop A, and fup-
ported at E by a force afting upwards. Let two equal
weights b and d be hung on at B and D, equidiftant
from A and E. Preifures are now exerted at A and
E ; and becaufe every circumftance of weight and di¬
ftance is the fame, the preffure at E, arifing from the
affion of the weight b on the point B, muft be the fame
with the preflure at A, arifing from the adtion of the
weight d on the point D ; and the preflure at E, oc-
cafioned by the weight d, muft be the fame with the
preffure at A, occalioued by the weight b. This muft,
be the cafe wherever the weights are hung, provided
that the diftance AB and DE. are equal. Moreover,
S T E r 779 1 ST
S«el-yarcl. the fum of the preffures at A and E is unqueftlonably ed by fmaH differences of weioht
equal to the fum of the Weights, becaufe the weights r ' r '  * -
are fupported folely at A and E. Let the two weights
be hung on at C the middle point; the preffure at E
E
point
is Hill the fame. Therefore, in general,*the preffure
excited at the point E, by two equal weights hanging
at any points B and D, is the fame as if they were hung
on at the middle point between them : but the pref-
*nre excited at L is a juft meafure of the effort or ener«
£7 °f the weights b and d to urge the lever round the
point A. It is, at leaft, a meafire of the oppofite force
which muft be applied at E to fuftain or balance this
preffure. A very faftidious metaphyfician may ftill fay,
that the demonftration is limited to a point E, whofe
diftance from A is twice AC, or = AB + AD. But
it extends to any other point, on the authority of a po-
flulate which cannot be refufed, viz. that in whatever
proportion the preffure at E is augmented or diminifh.
ed, the preffure at this other point muft augment or di-
minifh in the fame proportion. This being proved, the
general theorem may be demonftratedin all proportions
of diftance, in the.manner of Archimedes, at once the
'moft limple, perfpicuous, and elegant of all.
We cannot help obferving, that all this difficulty
f and it is a real one to the philofopher who aims at ren¬
dering mechanics a demonftrative fcience) has arifen
from an improper fearch after fimplicity. Had Archi¬
medes taken a lever as it really exifts in nature, and
coniidered it as materia/, confifting of atoms united by
cohefion; and had he traced the intermediate preffures
by whofe means the two external weights are put in
©ppofition to each other, or rather to the fupport given
to the fulcrum; all difficulty would have vanifhed. (See
what is faid on this fubjedt in the article Strength of
Timber, See.)
i he quantity of goods which may be weighed by
this inftrument depends on the weight of the counter-
poife, and on the diftance CD from the fulcrum at
which the goods are fufpended. A double counter-
poife hanging at the fame diviiion will balance or indi¬
cate a double quantity of goods hanging at D ; and
any counterpoife will balance and indicate a double quan-
iity of goods, if the diftance CD be reduced to one-
half. Many fteelyards have two or more points of
mfpenfion D, to which the fcale may occafionally be at¬
tached. Fig. 6. of Plate XCI Vol. If. reprefents one
of thefe. It is evident, that in this cafe the value or
indication of the diviftons of the long arm will be diffe¬
rent, according to the point from which the fcalc is
iufpended. Ihe fame diviiion which would indicate
20 pounds when CD is three inches, will indicate 30
pounds when it is two inches. As it would expofe to
chance of miftakes, and be otherwife troublefome to
make this 1 eduction, it is ufual to make as many divi¬
ded feales on the long arm as there are points of lufpen-
ffon D on the fhort aim ; and each fcale having its
own numbers, all trouble and all chance of miftake is
avoided.
But the range of this inftrument is not altogether at
the pleafure of the maker. Befides the inability of a
flender beam to carry a great load, the divifions of the
fcale anlwermg to pounds or half-pounds become very
minute when the diftance CD is very ftiort; and the
balance becomes lei's delicate, that is, lefs fenftbly affedt-
    This is becaufe in Steel yard*
fuch cafes the thicknefs which it is neceffary to give v1 ““1n*
the edges of the nails does then bear a fenlible propor¬
tion to the diftance CD between them ; fo that when
the balance inclines to one fide, that arm is fenlibly
Shortened, and therefore the energy of the prepondera¬
ting weight is leffened.
We have hitherto fuppofed the fteelyard to be in
equilibrio when not loaded. But this is not neceffary,
nor is it ulual in thofe which are commonly made!
The long arm commonly preponderates confiderably.
This makes no difference, except in the beginning of
the fcale. The preponderancy of the long arm is equi¬
valent to fome goods already in the fcale, fuppofe four
pounds. Therefore when there are really 10 pounds
in the fcale, the counterpoife will balance it when hang¬
ing at the divifion 6. This divifion is therefore rec¬
koned 10, and the reft of the divifions are numbered ac¬
cordingly.
. A feientific examination of the fteelyard will con-
yince us that it is inferior to the balance of equal arms
m point of fenfibility: But it is extremely compendi¬
ous and convenient; and when accurately made and at¬
tentively ufed, it is abundantly exa& for moft commer¬
cial purpofes. We have feen one at Leipzig which has
been in ufe fince the year 1718, which is very fenlible
to a difference of one pound, when loaded with nearly
thiee tons on the fhort arm ; and we faw a wagg n
loaded with more than two tons weighed by it in about
fix minutes.
*1 he fteelyard in common ufe in the differerit coun¬
tries of Europe is of a conftrudtion ftill limpler than
what we have deferibed. It confffts of a batten of
hard wood, having a heavy lump A (fig. 3.) at one
end, and a fwivel-hook B at the other. The goo^s to
be weighed are fufpended on the hook, and the whole
is carried in a loop of whip-cord C, in which it is Aid
backward and forward, till the goods are balanced by
the weight of the other end. The Weight of the goods
is elhmated by the place of the loop on a fcale of divi-
fions in harmonic progreflion. They are marked (we
prefume) by trial with known weights.
The chief ufe that is now made of the fteelyard in
thefe kingdoms is for the weighing of loaded waggons
and carts. For this it is extremely convenient, and.
more than fufficiently exaft for the purpofe in view.
We fhall deferibe one or two of the moft remarkable ;
and we fhall begin with that at Leipzig already men!
tioned. J
This fteelyard is reprefented in fig. 4. as run out,
and juft about to be hooked for lifting up the load.
I he fteelyard itfelt is OPQ^, and is about 12 teet long.
The fhort arm PQ^has two points of fufpenfion r and ft
and the ftirrup which carries the chains for holding the
load is made with a double hook, inftead of a double
eye, that it may be eaiily removed from the one pin to
the other. For this purpofe the two hooks are con-
nefted above by an hafp or ftaple, which goes over the
arm of the fteelyaid like an arch. Phis is repreiented
in the little figure above the fteelyard. The fufpenfion
is ftiifted when the fteelyard is run in under cover, by
hooking to this ftaple the running block of a Imall
tackle which hangs in the door through which the
fteelyard is tun out and in. I his operation is eafy,
5 F 2 but
S T E
Steel yard, bat neceffary, becaufe the ftimtp, chain?,
flage on which the load is placed, weigh lome hun¬
dreds.
The outer pin £ is 14 inches,- and the inner one c js
fcven inches, diftant from the great nail which refts in
the iheers. The other arm is about ic4 feet long,
formed with an obtufe edge above. On the inclined
plane on each fide of the ridge is drawn the fcale of
weights adapted to the inner pin c. The fcales corre-
fponding to the outer pin 3 are drawn on the upright
fides. The counterpoife Hides along this arm, hang¬
ing from a faddle-piece made of brafs, that it may not
contract ruft. The motion is made eafy by means of
rollers. This is necefiary, becaufe the counterpoife is
greatly above a hundred weight. This faddle-piece has
like two laps on each fide, on which are engraved ver¬
nier fcales, which divide their refpe£live fcales on the
arm to quarters of a pound. Above the faddle is an
arch, from the fummit of which hangs a little plum¬
met, which fhows the equilibrium of the fteelyard to
the weigher, becaufe the fheers are four feet out of the
houfe, and he cannot fee their coincidence with the
needle of the fteelyard. Laftly, near the end of the
long arm are two pins d and e, tor iufpending occafion-
ally two eke weights for continuing the fcale. Thefe
are kept hanging on adjoining hooks, ready to be lifted
on by a little tackle, which is alfo hooked immediately
above the pins d and e.
The fcales of weights are laid down on the arm as
follows. Let the eke-weights appropriated to the pins
d and c be called D and E, and call the counterpoife
C. Although the ftirrup with its chains and ftage
weigh fome hundreds, yet the length and fixe of the
arm OP gives it a preponderancy of 300 pounds.
Here, then, the fcale of weights muft commence. The
counterpoife weighs about 125 pounds. Therefote,
1. When the load hangs by the pin b> 14 inches
from the centre, the diftance from one hundred to ano¬
ther on the feale is about 11 inches, and the firll fcale
(on the fide of the arm) reaches from 300 to 1200.
In order to repeat or continue this, the eke-weight E
is hung on the pin e, and the counterpoife C is brought
Lack to the mark 300 ; and the two together balance
1100 pounds hanging at b. Therefore a fecond fcale is
begun on the fide of the arm, and continued as far out
as the firft, and therefore its extremity marks 2000 ;
that is, the counterpoife C at 2000 and the eke-weight
E at f balance 2000 hanging at b.
2. To continue the fcale beyond aoco, the load mull
be hung on the inner pin c. The eke-weight E is
taken off, and the eke-weight D is hung on its pin
d. The general counterpoife being now brought dole
to the Iheers, it, together with the weight D at ba¬
lance 2000 pounds hanging at c. A fcale is therefore
begun on one of the inclined planes a-top, and conti¬
nued out to 4000, which falls very near to the pin d,
each hundred pounds occupying about five inches on
the arm. To complete the Icale, hang on the eke-
weight E on its pin e, and bring back the counterpoife
to the fheevs, and the three together balance 3800
hanging at c. Therefore when the counterpoife is
now Hid out to 4000, it muft complete the balance with
5800 hanging at c.
It required a little confideration to find out what
proportion of the three weights C; P3 and E, would
[ 780 i s t E
and the make the repetitions of the fcale extend as far as pof- Steel yard,
fible, having very little of it exprefi'ed twice, or upon ~ "*■
two fcales, as is the cafe here- We fee that the (pace
orrefponding to a fingle pound is a very fenfible quan¬
tity on both fcales, being one-ninth of an inch on the
firft two fcales, and one twentieth on the laft two.
This very ponderous machine, with its maffy weights,
cannot be eafily managed without fome afiiftance from
mechanics. It is extremely proper to have it fufeep-
tible of motion out and in, that it may be protected
from the weather, which would foon deftroy it by ruft.
The contrivance here is very effedfual, and abundantly
Ample.
When the fteelyard is not in ufe, it is fupported at
one end by the iron-rod F, into which the upper end
of the fheers is hooked. The upper end of this rod has
a ftrong hook E, and a little below at a it is pierced
with a hole, in which is a very ftrong bolt or pin of
tempered fteel, having a roller on each end clofe to the
rod on each fide. Thefe rollers reft on two joifts, one
of which is reprefented by M N, which traverfe the
building, with juft room enough between them to al¬
low the rod F to hang freely down. The other end O
of the fteelyard refts in the bight of a large fiat hook
at the end of a chain W, which hangs down between
the joifts, and is fupported on them by a frame with
rollers H. This is connefted with the rollers at G,
which carry the fheers by means of two iron-rods, of
which one only can be feen. Thefe connetft the two
fets of rollers in fuch a manner that they mnft always
move together, and keep their diftance invariable. This
motion is produced by means of an endlefs rope HI
ZLKVH palling over the pulleys I and K, which turn
between the joifts, and hanging down in a bight be¬
tween them. It is evident that by pulling on the part
LZ we pull the frame of rollers in the direction GH,
and thus bring the whole into the houfe in the pofitioir
marked by the dotted figure. It is alfo plain, that by
pulling on the part LK we force the roller frame and
the whole apparatus out again.
It remains to (how how the load is raifed from the
ground and weighed. When the fteelyard is run out
for ufe, the upper hook E juft enters into the ring D,
which hangs from the end of the great oaken lever
BCA about 22 feet long, turning on gudgeons at C
about 5 feet from this end. From the other end A
defeends a long iron-rod SR, which has one fide formed
into a toothed rack that is a&ed on by a frame of
wheel-work turned by an endlefs ferew and winch
Therefore when the hook E is well engaged in the
ring D, a man turns the winch, and thus brings down
the end A of the great lever, and raifes the load two
or three inches from the ground. Every thing is now
at liberty, and the weigher now manages his weights
on the arm of the fteelyard till he has made an equi¬
librium.
We need not deferibe the operation of letting down
the load, difengaging the fteelyard from the great
lever, and bringing it again under cover. The whole
of this fervice is performed by two men, and may be
done in fucceffion by one, and is over in five or fix mi-
The moft compendious and economical machine of
this kind that we have feen is one, firft ufed (we have
heard) for weighing the riders of race-horfes, and af¬
terwards
STE [7S1] STE
Steel-yard, terwards applied to the more reputable fervice of weigh-
ing loaded carriages.
Fig. 5. is a plan of the machine. KLMN is the
plan of a re£langular box, which has a platform lid or
cover, of fize fuflicient for placing the wheels of a cart or
waggon. The box is about a foot deep, and is funk
into the ground till the platform cover is even with the
furface. In the middle of the box is an iron lever fup-
ported on the fulcrum pin i formed like the nail of
balance, which refts with its edge on arches of hardened
fteel firmly fattened to the bottom of the box. This
lever goes through one fide of the box, and is furniih-
ed at its extremity with a hard fteel pin / m, alfo
formed to an edge below. In the very middle of the
box it is croffed by a third nail of hardened fteel g />,
alfo formed to an edge, but on the upper fide. Thefe
three edges are in one horizontal plane, as in a well
made balance.
In the four corners A, A', E', Ej °f the box are
firmly fixed four blocks of tempered fteel, having their
upper furfaces formed into fpherical cavities, well polic¬
ed and hard tempeped. ABCDE reprefents the upper
edge of an iron bar of confiderable ftrength, which refts
on the cavities of the fteel blocks in A and E, by means
or two hard fteel ftuds projecting from its under edge,
and formed into obtufe angled points or cones. Thefe
points are in a ftraight line parallel to the fide KN of
the box. The middle part C of this crooked bar
is faced with hard-tempered fteel below, and is there
formed into an edge parallel to AE and KN, by which
it refts on the upper edge of the fteel pin g h which is
in the lever. In a line parallel to AE, and on the up¬
per fide of the crooked bar ACE, are fixed two ftuds or
points of hardened fteel B and D projecting upwards
above half an inch. The platform-cover has four fiiort
feet like a ftool, terminated by hard fteel ftuds, which
are (haped into fpherical cavities and well poliftied.
With thefe it refts on the four fteel points B, B ,D',D.
The bar ACE is kneed in fuch a manner vertically,
that the points.A, B, D, E and the edge C are all in
a horizontal plane. Thefe particulars will be better un-
derftood by looking at the elevation in fig. 6. What
has been faid of the bar ACE muft be underftood as
alfo faid of the bar A C' E'.
Draw through the centre of the box the line a b c
perpendicular to the line AE, BD. It is evident that
the bar ACE is equivalent to a lever a b c, having the
fulcrum or axis AE retting with its extremity C on the
pin h g and loaded at b. It is alfo evident that a C is
to a b ^ the load on this lever to the preffure. which it
exerts on the pin ^Z^and that the fame proportion fubfifts
between the whole load on the platform and the pref¬
fure which it exerts on the pin g h. It will alfo appear,
on an attentive confideration, that this proportion is na-
wife deranged in whatever manner the load is placed on
the platform. If very unequably, the two ends of the pin
r h may be unequally preffed, andjthe lever wrenched and
ftrained a little; but the total preffure is not changed.
If there be now pkeed a balance or ftetlyard at
the fide LK, in fuch a manner that one end of it may
be directly above the pin / m in the end of the lever
EOF, they may be connedted by a wire or {lender rod,
and a weight on the other arm of the balance or fteel-
yard may be put in equiiibrio with any load that can
be laid on the platform. A fmall coanterpoife being
6
firft hung on to balance the apparatus when unloaded, Sfefl-vard3
any additional weight will meafure the load really laid Steele-
on the platform. If a £ be to a c as 1 to 8, and EO ’ ~ *
to E F alfo as 1 to 8, and if a common balance be
ufed above, 64 pounds on the platform will be balanced
by one pound in the fcale, and every pound will be ba¬
lanced by -jth of an ounce. This would be a very con¬
venient partition for moft purpofes, as it would enable us
to ufe a common balance and common weights to com¬
plete the machine : Or it may be made with a balance
of unequal arms, or with a fteelyard.
Some have thought to improve this inflrument by
ufing edges like thofe of the nails of a balance, infiead
of points. But unlefs made with uncommon accuracy,
they will render the balance very dull. The fmall de¬
viation of the two edges A and E, or of B and D,
from perfect parallelifin to KN, is equivalent to a broad
furface equal to the whole deviation. We imagine
that, with no extraordinary care, the machine may be
made to weigh within of the truth, which is ex-
aft enough for any purpole in commerce.
It is neceffary that the points be attached to the
bars. Some have put the points at A and E in the
blocks of fteel faftened to the bottom, becaufe the cavi¬
ty there lodged water or dirt, which foon deftroyed
the inftrument with ruft. But this occafions a change
of proportion in the firft lever by any fhifting of the
crooked bars; and this will frequently happen when
the wheels of a loaded cart are puttied on the platform.
The cavity in the fteel ftud fhould have a little rim
round it, and it fhould be kept full of oil. In a nice
machine a quarter of an inch of quickfilver would effeftu-
ally prevent all thefe inconveniences.
The fimpleft and moft economical form of this ma¬
chine is to have no balance or fecond fteelyard ; but
to .make the firft fteelyard EOF a lever of the firft
kind, viz. having the fulcrum between O and F, and
allow it to projeft far beyond the box. The long or
outward arm of this lever is then divided into a fcale of
weights, commencing at the fide of the box. A coun-
terpoife muft be chofen, fuch as will, when at the begin-
ning of the fcale, balance the fmalleft load that will
probably be examined. It will be convenient to carry
on this fcale by meanamf eke-weights hung on at the
extremity of the lever, and to ufe but one moveable
weight. By this method the divifions of the fcale
will have always one value. The belt arrangement is
as follows : Place the mark O at the beginning of the
fcale, and let it extend only to 100, if for pounds ; or to
112, if for cwts.; or to jo, if for ftones ; and let the
eke-weights be numbered 1, 2, 3, &c. Let the
lowed: weight be marked on the beam. 'Phis is al¬
ways to be added to the weight fhowa by the opera¬
tion. Let the eke-weights ftand at the end of the
beam, and let the general counterpoife always hang at
O. When the cart is put on the platform, the end of the
beam tilts up. Hang on the heavieft eke-weight that is
not lufficient to prefs it down. Now complete the ba¬
lance by fliding out the counterpoife. Suppofe the
conftant load to be 312 lb. and that the counterpoife
ftands at 86, and that the eke-weight is 9 ; we have the
loadrr 986-1-3 1 2,= 1 298 lbs.
STEELE (Sir Richard), was born about the year
1676 in Dublin ; in which kingdom one branch of the
family was poffcfled of a confiderable eftate in the
S T E r ^2 1 s T E
Steel, county of Wexford. His father, a counfellor at law
in Dublin, was private fecretary to James duke of
f Ormond ; but he was of Englifh extraction : and his
i fon, while very young, being carried to London, he
put him to fchool at the Charter-houfe, whence he was
removed to Merton College in Oxford. Our author'
Jeft the univerfrty, which he did without taking any
degree, in the full refolution to enter into the army.
This ftep was highly difpleafing to his friends; but
the ardour of his paffion for a military life rendered
him deaf to any other propofal. Not being able to
procure a better ftation, he entered as a private gen¬
tleman in the horfe guards, notwithftanding he there¬
by loll the fuccefiion to his Irilh eftate. However, as
he had a flow of good-nature, a generous opennefs
and franknefs of fpirit, and a fparkling vivacity of wit,
thefe qualities rendered him the delight of the foldiery,
and procured him an enlign’s commiffion in the guards.
In the mean time, as he had made choice x>f a profefl
lion which fet hirti free from all the ordinary reftraints
in youth, he fpared not to indulge his inclinations in
the wildell excefles. Yet his gaieties and revels did
not pafs without fome cool hours of refle&ion ; it was
in thefe that he drew up his little treatife intitled
The Chriftian Hero, with a defign, if we may believe
himfelf, to be a check upon his paflions. For this
purpofe it had lain fome time by him, when he print¬
ed it in 1701, with a dedication to Lord Cutts, who
had not only appointed him his private fecretary, but
procured for him a company in Lord Lucas’s regiment
of Fuflleers.
The fame year he brought out his comedy called The
Funeral, or Grief a la mode. This play procured him the
regard of King William, who refolved to give him fome
eflential marks of his favour; and though, upon that
prince’s death, his hopes were difappointed, yet, in the
beginning of Queen Anne’s reign, he was appointed to
the profitable place of gazetteer. He owed this poll
to the friendlhip of lord Halifax and,the earl of Sun¬
derland, to whom he had been recommended by his
fchool-fellow Mr Addifon. That gentleman alfo lent
him an helping hand in promoting the comedy called
The Tender Hujband, which Was a£led in 1704 with
great fuccefs. But his next play, The Lying Lover,
had a very different fate. Upon this rebuff from the
llage, he turned the fame humorous current into ano¬
ther channel 5 and early in the year 1709, he began to
publilh the Tatler s which admirable paper was under¬
taken in concert with Dr Swift. His reputation was
perfe£Uy eftablilhed by this work ; and, during the
courfe of it, he was made a commiffioner of the llamp-
duties in 171c. Upon the change of the miniftry the
fame year, he joined the duke of Marlborough, who
had feveral years entertained a friendlhip for him; and
upon his Grace’s difmiflion from all employments in
1711, Mr Steele addrefl'ed a letter of thanks to him
for the fervices which he had done to his country.
However, as our author lb’ll continued to hold his
place in the llamp-office under the new adminillration,
he forbore entering with his pen upon political fub-
jqfts ; but, adhering more clofely to Mr Addifqn, he
dropt the Tatler, and afterwards* by the affillance
chiefly of that Heady friend, he carried on the fame
plan much improved, under the title of The Speclator.
The fuccefs of this: paper v/as equal to that of the for-
mer; which ertcouraged him, before the clofe of it, to Steel*,
proceed upon the fame deligrt in the charafter of the
Guardian. .This was opened in the beginning of the
year and was laid down in Oflober the fame
year. But in the courfe of it his thoughts took a
llronger turn to politics: he engaged with great warmth
againft the miniftry j and being "determined to profe-
cute his views that way by procuring a feat in the
houfe of commons, he immediately removed all oblta-
cles thereto. For that purpofe he took care to pre¬
vent a forcible difmiffion from his poll in the llamp.of¬
fice, by a timely refignation of it to the Earl of Oxford;
and at the fame time gave up a penfion, which had been
till this time paid him by the queen as a fervant to the
late prince George of Denmark. This done, he wrote
the famous Guardian upon the demolition of Dunkirk,
which was publilhed Aug. 7. 1713} and the parlia¬
ment being difiblved next day, the Guardian was foon
followed by feyeral other warm political trafts againft:
the adminillration. Upon the meeting of the new par¬
liament, Mr Steele having been returned a member for
the borough of Stockbridge in Dorfetfhire, took his
feat accordingly in the houfe of commons 5 but was ex¬
pelled thence in a few days after, for writing the clofe
of the paper called the Englifhman, and one of his poli¬
tical pieces intitled the Cnfis. Prefently after his ex-
pullion, he publiflred propofals for writing the hiltory
of the duke of Marlborough : at the fame time he alfo
wrote the Spinjler ; and, in oppofition to flu* Examiner,
he fet up a paper called the Reader, and continued pub-
lilhing feveral other things in the fame fpirit till the
death ol the queen. Immediately after which, as a re¬
ward for thefe fervices, he was taken into favour by
her fucceflbr to the throne, king George I. He was
appointed furveyor of the royal llables at Hampton-
Court, governor of the royal company of comedians,
put into the cotrimiflion of the peace for the county
of Middlefex, and in 1715 received the honour of
knighthood. In the firlt parliament of that king, he
was chofen member for Boroughbridge in Yorklhire j
and, after the fuppreftion of the rebellion in the north,
was appointed one of the commiflioners of the forfeited
eftates in Scotland. In 1718, he buried his fecond
wife, who had brought him a handfome fortune and a ~
good ellate in Wales; but neither that, nor the ample
additions lately made to his income, were fuflicient to
anfwer his demands. The thoughtlefs vivacity of his
fpirit often reduced him to little fhifts of wit for its
fupport; and the projed of the Fifti-pool this year
owed its birth chiefly to the proje&or’s neceflities.
This veflelwas intended to carry fifh alive, and with¬
out wafting, to any part of the kingdom: but not¬
withftanding all llis towering hopes, the fcheme proved
very ruinous to him ; for after he had been at an im-
menfe expence in contriving and building his veflel,
befidcs the charge of the patent, which he had pro¬
cured, it turned out upon trial to be a mere projed.
His plan was to bring fahnon alive from the coalt of
Ireland ; but thefe fi(h, though fupplied by this contri¬
vance with a continual flream of water while at fea,
yet uneafy at their confinement, fhattered themfelves to
pieces againfl the fides of the pool; fo that when they
were brought to market they were worth very little.
The following year he oppofed the remarkable peer,
age bill in the houfe of commons } and, during the
5 courfe
Steeld.
1
T E
S T E [ *78^
l&* fj weIrEEPlLEf’ T 3Tni^ Crcaed «encra1^ 6n tKe
effe ftj, i the i„fta„ce of the lord “• h“M‘h' Steeples
did his utmoft to prevent fo great a lofs • and finrlim- the* r ft re or^ t'‘eu ^orrn, either fpires or towers:
every direft avenue of approach to his * royal mafter conirlll aie UC- as.^'enc^ continudiy di min idling either
effectually barred againft hi^n by his powerful adver r ' / ^ ^ P)riamidaiJy 5 the latter are mere parallelo-
fary, h£ had tccourf^ the meZd of ^ P PSTEE R AGn^h^T
puhhc, m; hopes .that his counts would teach the (hip „e« befow the^aS/ck^o^hfhl0 h^
ear of his fovereign, though in an indired courfe, by
that canal. In this fpirit he formed the plan of a pe¬
riodical paper, to be publifhed twice a-week, under the
title of the Theatre ; the frrft number of which came
out on the 2d of January 1719-20. In the mean time,
the misfortune of being out of favour at court, like
other misfortunes, drew after it a train of more. Du¬
ring the courfe of this paper, in which he had affumed
the feigned name of Sir John Edgar, he was outrage-
cuOy attacked by Mr Dennis, the noted critic, in a
veiy abufive pamphlet, intitleJ The Chamber and Con¬
duit of Sir John Edgar. To this infult our author
made a proper reply in the Theatre.
WWle he was ftrugglirig with all his might to fave
himfelf from rum, he found time to turn his pen againft
the mifehievous South-Sea fcheme, which had nearly
brought the nation to ruin in 1720 ; and the next year
he was reftored to his office and authority in the plav ffimdd gr8 £ wat^r- bee Helm—The helmfmau
houfc in Drury.Lane. Of this it was not W bSi the and f l7 '’** ^ T™** of tlle h“d *
he made an additional advantage, by kringin'fhis ce the coiirfe is ’ mo0n,’ or lais ’ becaufe, although
lebtated comedy called the Jicwr "mon ,h“ the vibrtionVof^; ’T^ ** T A*
( age whete.it was aded with prodigious iJcf io ctived as the fallie 0^^ dv" T /“ l-ckly per-
that the receipt there muff have been very confiderable left „ft,; i v • ,• s lea<^ to tlie right or
befides the profits accruing by the fale of the copv, additional ^ / .^0t. immediately reftrained, will acquire
and apurfe of ccol. given to hL by the kffiVto whom X T ^ ^ mftant ot'^tion, and
he debated it.' ^ ^ t0 -
plies, about the year following, being reduced to the turn her hen 1 ?PPllcatlo« of which will operate to
utmoft extremity/he fold his ilwe fog the pky houfo ; -The phrafes3 ufod T„ t ^ courfe.
and loon after commenced a layv-fuit with the managers, to the relation of the wind tT her ion*7
.SettSrir ^ ‘Tr T" T AsSir £X
concution, he was rendered altogether incapable of re¬
trieving the lofs, by being feized with a paralytic dif-
order, which greatly impaired his undcrlianding. In
thefe unhappy circumhances, he retired to his leat at
I.anguanor near Ca«ermarthen in Wales, where he paid
the lad debt to nature on the lift of September 1729,
and was privately interred, according to his own de¬
fire, in the church of Caerniarthen. Among his pa¬
pers were found the manuferipts of two plays, one
called The Gentlemen, founded upon the eunuch of
Terence, and the other inti tied The School of Asian
both nearly finifhed.
Sir Richard was a man of undiffembkd and extern
five benevolence, a friend to the friendlefs, and, as far
as his circumftances would permit, the father of every
orphan. His works are chafte and manly. He was
a rtranger to the molt diftant appearance of envy or
malevolence ; never jealous of any man’s growing re¬
putation ; and fo far from arrogating any praife to
himfelf from his conjunaion with Mr Addifon, that
he was the firft who defired him to diftinguiffi his pa¬
pers. His greateIt error was want of economy : how¬
ever, he was certainly the moll agreeable, and (if we
-may be allowed the expreffion) the moll innocent rake
that ever trod the rounds of diffipation-
Ihip’s courfe farther to the right; the feeondVto
guide her farther to the left 5 and the lail is defigned
to keep her exaaiy in the line whereon ffie advances
according to the courfe preferred. The excefs of the
hrit and fecond movement is called hard-a-port, and
hard-a-Jlnrboard; the former of which gives her the
gieatdt poffible inclination to the right, and the latter
an equal tendency to the left.-If, on the contrary, the
wind is foul or leant, the phr?.fes are luf, thus, and no
nearer: the hrlt of which is the order to keep her dole
to the wind ; the i.econd, to retain her in her prefent
ktuation ; and the third, to keep her fails full.
J.n a foip or war, the exereife of fleering the Ihip [t
ulualiy divided amongil a number of the moll expert
fodors, who attend the helm in their turns ; and are ac¬
cordingly called tmoneers, from the French term ttmo-
nter which frgmfks “ helmfman.” The fteerage is
ccmflant y foper.fed by the quarter-maflers, who alfo
attend the helm by rotation. In merchant, (hips every
leaman takes his turn in this fervice, being diredted
there,n by the mate of the watch, or fome other officer,
— , t,ie iakt>’ of a ft’P’ and all contained therein, de-
pends m a great meafure on the lleerage or effeds of
ie helm, the apparatus^ by which it is managed ffiould
often be diligently examined by the proper officers. In¬
deed,
_r , 1 , . ft  me uuiie-neaa
° .the g^at cabin where the fteerfman Hands, in molt
mips of war. See Steering.
STEERING, in navigation, the art of direding
tire fhjp s way by the movements of the helm • or of
applying its efforts to regulate her courfe when foe ad-
vances.
The perfedion of fleering confifls in a vigilant at¬
tention to the motion of the fhip’s head, fo as to check
every deviation from the line of her courfe in the firfl
initant of its motion ; and in applying as little of the
power of the helm as poffible. By this ffie will run
more uniformly in a flraight path, as declining lefs to
the right and left; whereas, if a greater effort of the
ielm is employed, it will produce a greater declination
from the courfe, and not only increafe the difficulty
of fleering, but alfo make a crooked and irregular
„r , the water- See Helm—The helmfman
S T E
‘Stem.
'Steganlum deed) a negligence itt this important duty appears al-
moft unpardonable, when the fatal effedts which may re*
full from it are duly conhdered.
STEGANIUM. See Slate.
STEGANOGR APHY, the ail of fecret writing,
or of writing in ciphers, known only to the perfons cor-
refponding. See Cipher.
STELLARIA, Stichwort, in botany : A genus
of plants belonging to the clafs of decandria, and order
of trigynia ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the 22d order, Caryopbyllea. The calyx is pentaphyl-
lous and fpreadmg. There are five petals, each divided
into two fegments. The capfule is oval, unilocular,
and polyfpermous. There are nine fpecies, the nemo-
rum, dichotoma, radians, holoftea, graminea, ceraftoides,
undulata, biflora, and arenaria. Three of thefe are Bri-
tifh plants, i. Afcmorttw?, broad-leaved ftichwort. The
italks are about a foot or eighteen inches high, and
branched in a panicle at the top. 1 he leaves are heart-
fliaped, and of a paler green on the under than on the
upper fide ; the lower ones being fupported by foot-
ftalks which are hairy and channelled ; the upper ones
are feffile. The calyx is ereft, fomewhat hairy and
white on the margins. The petals are bifid almoft to
the bafe. There is a fmall ne&arium between the
longer ilamina and the calyx. —2. Hotojlea, greater
ilichwort. The Italks are about two feet long; the
petals are nearly twice the length of the calyx, and di¬
vided half-way to the bafe. It is common in woods
and hedges.—3. Graminea, lefs ftichwort. The Item
is near a foot high. The leaves are linear and entire,
and the flowers grow in loofe panicles. It is frequent
in dry paftures. There is a variety of this fpecies call¬
ed bog Jlichiuort, with fmooth, oval, fefiile leaves, and
few leaves, which grows often in wet marfhy places.
The ftalk is quadrangular ; the petals fcarcely longer
than the calyx, and bifid to the bafe.
STELLATE, among botanifts, exprefles leaves
which grow not lefs than fix at a joint, and are arran¬
ged like the rays of a ftar.
STELLERA, German Groundsel, in botany:
A genus of plants belonging to the clafs of oElandria,
and order of monogynta ; and in the natural fyftem ar¬
ranged under the 31ft order, VeprecuU. There is no
calyx. The corolla is quadrifid. The ftamina are very
ftiort. There is only one feed, which is black. The fpe¬
cies are two in number, pafferina and chamaejafme.
STELLIONATE, in the civil law, a kind of crime
committed by a fraudulent bargain, where one of the
parties fells a thing for what it is not; as if I fell an
eftate for my owm which belongs to another, or convey
a thing as free and clear which is already engaged to
another, or put off copper for gold, &c.
STEM, in botany, that part of a plant arifing out
of the root, and which fullains the leaves, flowers,
[ 784 ] s T E
fruits, &c. By waffling and rubbing the ftcmj of
trees, their annual increafe is promoted ; for the me¬
thod of doing which, fee the article Tree. t
Stem of a Ship, a circular piece of timber into which
the two fides of a fhip are united at the fore end :
the lower end of it is ftarfed to the keel, and the
bowfprit refts upon its upper end. The ftem is form¬
ed of one or two pieces, according to the iize of the
veffel; and as it terminates the fhip forward, the ends
of the wales and planks of the fides and bottom are let
into a groove or channel, in the midft of its furface,
from the top to the bottom ; which operation is called
rabiting. The outfide of the ftem is ufually marked
with a fcale, or divtfion of feet, according to its per¬
pendicular height from the keel. The intention of
this is to afeertain the draught of water at the fore¬
part, when the fhip is in preparation for a fea-voyage,
&c. The ftem at its lower end is of equal breadth and
thicknefs with the keel, but it grows proportionally
broader and thicker towards its upper extremity. See
Ship-Bull ding.
STEMMATA, in the hiftory of infefls, are three
fmooth hemifpheric dots, placed generally on the top
of the head, as in moft of the hymenoptera and other
claffes. The name was firft introduced by Linnaeus.
STEMODIA, in botany : A genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of didynamin, and order of angio-
fpermia; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
40th order, Perfonatce. The calyx is quinquepartite $
the corolla bilahiated ; there are four ftamina ; each of
the filaments are bifid, and have two antherae. The
capfule is bilocular. There is only ©ne fpecies, the ma-
ritima.
STEMPHYLA, a word ufed by the ancients to
exprefs the hufks of grapes, or the remains of the
prefiings of wine. The fame word is alfo ufed by fomc
to exprefs the remaining mafs of the olives, after the
oil is prefi'ed out.
STEMPHYLITES, a name given by the ancients
to a fort of wine preffed hard from the hulks.
STEMPLES, in mining, crofs bars of wood in the
ftiafts which are funk to mines.
In many places the way is to fink a perpendicular
hole, or {haft, the fides of which they ftrengthen from
top to bottom with wood-work, to prevent the earth
from falling in : the tranfverfe pieces of wood ufed to
this purpofe they call Jiemptes, and by means of thefe
the miners in fome places defeend, without ufing any
rope, catching hold of thefe with their hands and feet.
STEMSON, in a fhip, an arching piece of timber
fixed within the apron, to reinforce the fcarf thereof,
in the fame manner as the apron fupports the fcarf of
the ftern. In large Ihips it is ufually formed of two
pieces.
Stem
II
Sremfon,
S T E ':t a-
■
Plate CCC CLXXXT
^ (3.
<7
S TE-EIA AKD.
'SO. ^
[ 7*5 3
S T E N O G
CHAP. I.
rpHE art of ftenography, or fhort writing, was
known and praftiied by moft of the ancient civi¬
lized nations. The Egyptians, who were diftinguifhed
for learning at an early period, at firft expreffed their
words by a delineation of figures called hieroglyphicsy
A more concife mode of writing feems to have been
afterwards introduced, in which only a part of the
fymbol or pifture was drawn. This anfwered the
purpofe of ftiort-hand in fome degree. After them
the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans *, adopted
L ertiuf,' d^rent methods of abbreviating their words and fen-
Plutarch) tences, fuited to their refpedtive languages. The ini-
tials, the finals, or radicals, often ferved for whole
words; and various combinations of thefe fometimes
formed a fentence. Arbitrary marks werelikewife em¬
ployed to determine the meaning, and to affifl lesn-
bility ; and it feems probable that every writer, and
every author of antiquity, had fome peculiar method
of abbreviation, calculated to facilitate the expreflion of
' bis own fentiments, and intelligible only to himfelf.
It is alfo probable, that fome might by thefe means
take down the heads of a difcourfe or oration; but few,
very few, it is prefumed, could have followed a fpeaker
through all the meanders of rhetoric, and noted with
precilion every fyllable, as it dropt from his mouth,
in a manner legible even to themfelves.
To arrive at fuch confumniate perfedtion in the art
was referred for more modern times, and is Hill an ac-
quiiition by no means general.
In every language of Europe, till about the clofe of
the 16th century, the Roman plan of abbreviating (viz.
fubftituting the initials or radicals, with the help of ar-
bitraries, for words) appears to have been employed.
Till then no regular alphabet had been invented ex-
prcfsly for ftenography, when an Englifh gentleman of
the name of Willis invented and publifhed one (b). His
plan was foon altered and improved, or at leaft pretend¬
ed to be fo. One alteration iucceeded another ; and at
intervals, for a feries of years paft, fome men of inge¬
nuity and application have compolied and publilhed
Vol. XVII. Part II.
R A P H Y (a).
fyftcms of ftenography, and doubtlefs have themfelves
reaped all the advantages that attend it. But among
the various methods that have been propofed, and the
different plans that have been adopted by individuals,
none has yet appeared fortunate enough to gain gene¬
ral approbation ; or proved fufficientiy Ample, clear,
and concife, to be univerfally ftudicd and praAifed.
Some lyftems are replete with unmeaning fymbok,
perplexing arbitraries, and ill-judged contraaions;
which render them fo difficult to be attained by a com¬
mon capacity, or ordinary application, that it is not
to be wondered at if they have funk into negleA, and
are now no longer known (c). Other fyftems, by being
too prolix, by containing a multiplicity of charaAers,
and thofe charaAers not Ample or eafily remembered,
become ineffeAual to the purpofe of expedition, and are
only fuperior in obfcurity to a common hand. Some,
again, not only rejeA all arbitraries and contraAions,
but even prepolitions and terminations; which laft, if
not too lavififty employed and badly devifed, highly
.contribute to promote both expedition and legibility;
and though they reduce their charaAers to fewer than
can poflibly exprefs the various modifications of found,
yet they make nearly one half of them complex. In
the difpofition of the vowels, there is the greateft per¬
plexity in moft fyftems. A dot is fometimes fubftitu-
ted for all the vowels indifcriminately, and the judgment
is left to determine which letter out of fix any dot is in¬
tended to exprefs ; or a minute fpace/ is allotted them ;
fo that unlefs they be arranged with mathematical pre-
cifion they cannot be diftinguifhed from on? another ;
but fuch a minute attention is inconfiftent with the
nature of fhort-hand, which fhould teach us to write
down in a fhort time, as well as in fmall bounds, what
we wifli to preferve of what we hear. Nor is the plan
of lifting the pen and putting the next confonant in
the vowel’s place, in the middle of words, lefs liable to
objeAions; or that of reprefenting all the vowels by
diitinA charaAers, being obvioufly ill calculated for
facility and difpatch, and confequently inadmifiible into
any ufeful iyftem.
It is to be confeffed, that the perion'who nrft pro-
J G pofed
(a) The value of ftenography is not unknown to the learned; and the care and fuccefs with which it has been
lately cultivated in thefe kingdoms will, in all probability, foon render it an objeA of general attention. No
one, however, appears to us to have fimplified and improved the art fo much as Dr Mavor, author of Unmerfal
Stenographyy who has liberally permitted us to preient our readers with a complete view of his fcheme. To
ftrofe who wifti to become proficients in Short-writing, we earneftly recommend his entire publication (print-
•ed for Cadell and Davis, Strand, London), which in many fchools of the firft reputation now forms a deferved
clafs'book.
(b) Mr Locke fays, a regular method of Ihort-writing feems to be known and praAifed only in Britain. This
js not now the cafe; and indeed there is no reafon to doubt whether charaAers may not be invented to exprefs
the various founds, or letters, employed in any language, either ancient or modern.
(c) A lift of writers on ftenography. Mr Addy, Aldridge, Angell, Annet, Blandemore, Bloffet, Botley,
Bridges, Byrom, Coles, Crofs, Dix, Everardt, Ewen, Facey, Farthing, Gibbs, Graeme, Gurney, Heath, Holdf-
worth, Hopkins, Jeake, Labourer, Lane, Lyle, Macauley, Mafon, Mavor, Metcalfe, Nicholas, Palmer, Rich,
Ridpath, Shelton, Steele, Tanner, Taylor, Thickneffe, Tiffen, Webfter, Wefton, Williamfon, Willis, 1J. D
and Willis, &c.
STENOGRAPHY. Chap. II.
pofed the omiffion of vowels in_ the middle of words
(d), which it is obvious are not wanted, and invented
letters, which could be conne&ed as in a runninsr hand
without lifting the pen in the middle of the word, made
a real improvement on the works of his predecefi'ors.
But, in fine, moft fyftems, either in their plan or execu¬
tion, labour ilnder fome capital defe&, attended with
circumftances highly difcouraging to ihe learner, and
which in a great meafure defeat the end of their in¬
vention, by being too complicated to be learned with
eafe and remembered with accuracy, or to be pradlifed
with the expedition which is requifite ; and fo difficult
to be deciphered, that a man can fcarcely read what he
hasjuft written.
To obviate thefe defefts ; to provide again!! prolixity
and concifenefs, which might occafion obfcurity ; to ex¬
hibit a fyftem founded on the fimplell principles, which
might be eafily learned and read, and yet be capable of
the utmoft expedition—were the motives that gave rife
to the prefent attempt.
This method will be found different from any yet
publiihed, and fuperior to all in the difpofition of the
vowels and the facility of arranging them ; the confu-
fion in placing which feems to detradl from the merit
of the bet! performances on the fubjed! ; and it may
be affirmed, without oftentation, that charadlers Ampler
in their, form, and more per fed! in their union, have not
been applied to the art of ftenography.
As well as it could be determined, the Ample!! charac¬
ters are appropriated to the letters moll ufually em¬
ployed : indeed, as far as poffible, thofe which are com¬
plex have been rejedted ; but as it was an objedt always
kept in view that the writing ftould be on a line, a few
are admitted into the alphabet for that reafon.
The charadlers for the double and triple confonants
are the eafiell that could be invented, confillent with
perfpicuity (e) ; for care has been taken to provide
again!! all obfcurity which might arife by adopting
letters too fimilar in their formation ; and with re-
Ipedl to the prepofitions and terminations, thofe which
occur moll frequently are exprened by the fim^lelf cha-
ladfers, which will be found perfedtly eafy in their appli¬
cation.
The arbitraries are few in number (f), and the arbi¬
trary abbreviations, as they are entirely from the letters
of the alphabet, and chofen from fome thoufands of
words in common ufe, will well repay the learner for
an hour's trouble in committing them to memory.
The laft chapter lays down a fcheme of abbreviation,
comprifed in a few rules, perfedlly eafy to be underftood
and pradlifed by proficients.in this art, which we hope
'will anfwer the expedlation of the author, and will be
found free from the perplexity complained of in many
fyftems where abbreviation is admitted. The principal
rules are new, are fo eafy, fo extenfive in their ufe, and
fo confiftent with expedition and legibility, if applied
with judgment, that they alone might fuffice. The
learner is however advifed by no means to adopt any
of them, till experience has convinced him that they may
be ufed without error or injury to legibility. All ab¬
breviating rules are fuited to thofe only who have made
fome progrefs in the ftenographic art; for although
they certainly promote expedition in a wonderful
manner, and afford the greateft eafe to a proficient,
yet a learner, as expedition is not his fir!!, though his
ultimate view, fhould admit of nothing that in the
leal! renders the reading difficult.
CHAP. II.
The Englifh alphabet confifts of twenty-fix letters JThegeneral
fix of which are vowels, a, <?, i, o, u, andy; and theprinciplesof
other twenty confonants, b} c, h,j, /, m, H,^enogra-
/>, y, r, s, v, w, x, and z.
This alphabet, as is obferved by the be!! grammari¬
ans that have written on the language, is both defe&ive
and redundant in expreffing the various modifications of
found *. ' • *
Cuftom or prejudice has affigncd fome letters a place, *
\yhen others would with much more propriety ex- f>'r;r/?/e
prefs the fame found: and to this may be added, thatGrJro/
feveral letters, fometimes in one word, feem to be ad- Sberidin's
mitted for no other reafon than to perplex a young be-^"'"
ginner or a foreigner, as an obftruftion to true pronun- ‘/U
ciatiem, and to add to the apparent length of the word,
when they are entirely quiefcent and ufelefs. That this-
is the genius of the orthography of our language muft
be perceived by the moft fuperficial obferver; but na
modern tongue is abfolutely free from the fame ex¬
ceptions. In particular, the French has a great
number of dormant letters, which, it is obvious, render
the pronunciation more difficult and perplexing to
learners (g).
But as it is neither our bufmefs nor our intention to
propofe a mode of fpelling different from that in com¬
mon life, when applied to printing or long-hand writing
(fince feveral innovators in orthography have fallen into
contempt, and their plans have been only preferved as
beacons to warn others of the folly of endeavouring to
fubvert ellabliffied principles §) ; we {hall only obferve, p ^
that in ftenography, where the moft expeditious and^^xT 4
concife method is the be!!, if confiftent with perfpicuity, nia'miary*
the following Ample rules are ftudioufly to be regarded
and praftifed.
Rule I. All quiefcent confonants in words ar£ to-
be
(d) Mr Byrom rejei£led vowels entirely in the middle of words, as others before him had only done partially...
Without critically examining the executive part of his performance, which is very defe&ive, it muft be owned,,
that it is above the reach o! human ingenuity to exceed his general plan j which ior ever muft be the bafts of
every future rational fyftem.
(e) Thofe for th and ch may be either made upright or Hoping to the right.
( f ) Thefe are not by any means preferibed; they may be employed or not according to the fancy of the
learner.
(g) The Latin and Greek claim a juft fuperiority over every modern tongue in this refpedl. In them no
confufion or doubt can arife from the manner of fpelling j and the reader can fcarcely be wrong (unlefs yi quaiw
tity) in founding all the letters he fees.
\
S T E N O G
Rules for
the confo-
ttems.
| Vide
Plate
CCCCLXXXU.
3
F:rft rule
Chap, II.
be dropped; and the orthography to be dire&ed only
by the pronunciation : which being known to all, will
render this art attainable by thofe who cannot fpell
with precifion in long hand.
Rule II. When the abfence of confonants, not en¬
tirely dormant, can be ealily known, they may often be
omitted without the leaft obfeurity.
Rule III. T wo or fometimes more confonants may,
to promote greater expedition, be exchanged for a fingle
one of nearly fimilar found; and no ambiguity as to the
meaning enfue (h).
Rule IV. When two confonants of the fame kind
or fame found come together, without any vowel be¬
tween them, only one is to be expreffed; but if a vowel
or vowels intervene, both are to be written : only ob-
ferve, if they are perpendicular, horizontal, or oblique
lines, they m.uft only be drawn a lize longer than ufual;
and charafters with loops mull have the fize of their
heads doubled [|.
Might is to be written nv.t, fight_/?/, machine
exemplifi- enough enuf> laugh Inf, prophet profet, phyfics ffh,
ed. through thro', foreign foren, fovereign foveren, pfaXmfam,
receipt refrt. Write rite, wright r't, ifland Hand, knavery
navery, temptation temtalion, knife nife, flick jiik, thigh
thi, honour onour, indictment inditement, acquaint aquaint,
"If chaos kaos, &c.
Second rule Strength Jlrenth, length tenth, friendfhip frenJJjip,
exemplifi- connedt contk, commandment comanment, conjunct con-
junt, humble humle, lumber turner, flumber/turner, number
numer, exemplary exemlary, &c.
Rocks vox, adts aks or ax, fadts fake or fax, diftridts
dijtriks or dijtrix, affedts afeks or afex, afflidts ajliks or
ajlix, conquer konkr, See.
Letter leter, little titte, command comand, error eror,
terror teror. Sec. But in rememler, moment, Jtjter, and
fuch like words, where two confonants of the fame name
have an intervening vowel, both of them muft be writ¬
ten. «
Thefe four rules, with their examples, being care¬
fully confidered by the learner, will leave him in no
doubt concerning the difpofition and management of
the confonants in this fcheme of fiiort-writing ; we (hall
therefore proceed to lay down rules for the application
of the vowels with eafe and expedition.
Rule?for Rule I. Vowels, being only limple articulate founds,
the vowels though they are the connedtivee of confonants, and em¬
ployed in every word and every fyllable, are not necef-
fary to be inferred in the middle of words; becaufe the
confonants, if fully pronounced, with the afliftance of
connedtion, will always difeover the meaning of a word,
and make the writing perfedlly legible.
RuleII If a vowel is not ftrongly accented in the
• Incipient fyllable of a word, or if it is mute in the final,
it is likewife to be omitted; becaufe the found of the
incipient vowel is often implied in that of the firft con-
fonant, which will confequently fupply its place.
Rule III. But if the vowel conilitutes the firft; or
laft fyllable of a word, or is ftrongly accented at its
beginning or end, that vowel is continually to be writ¬
ten. -
787
Cd,
Third rule
exemptifi.
/ed.
; 6
Fourth rula
exemplifi¬
ed.
R A P H Y.
Rule IV. If a word begins or ends with two or
more vowels though feparated, or when there is a coa¬
lition of vowels, as in dipthongs and tripthongs ; only
one of them is to be expreffed, which muft be that
which agrees beft with the pronunciation.
Rule V. In monofyllables, if they begin or end
with a vowel, it is always to be inferted, unlefs the
vowel be e mute at the end of a word.
Such are the general principles of this art; in. vindi¬
cation and fuppott of which it will be needlefs to offer
any arguments, when it is confidered that brevity and
expedition are the chief objefts, if conliftent with legi¬
bility; and the fubfequCnt fpecimens in the orthography
recommended will, we hope, be fufficient to fhow that
there is no real deficiency in the laft mentioned parti¬
cular. g
He who md us mil be etrnl, grt, nd mnptnt. It is ■’PednKm
ur dty, as rfnl bngs, to frv, lv, nil oby hm. — A mn tht0^iemoc*°
wd avd blm, fhd be frkmfpk in al hs axns, nd ndvr wth|’n
al hs mt to pis evry bdy.—I wd nt frm any knxns wthphy. *
a mn who hd no rgrd fr hmslf; nthr wd I blv a mn who
hd ons tld me a li.— Onr is of al thngs the mftdfklt to
prfrv ntrnfhd ; nd whn ons mpchd, Ik the chftty of a
wmn, nvr fhns wth its wntd Iftr.—Wth gd mnrs,
kmplfns nd an efy pit adis, mny mk a fgr in the wrl,
whs mntl ablts wd fkrlly hv rsd thm abv the rnk of a
ftmn. — Idlns is the prut of a thfnd msfrtns, wch ar nvr
fit by the ndltrs: it is a pn nd a pnfhmnt of itslf, nd
bfngs wnt nd bgry in its trn.7—Vrtu is the frit thng tht
fhd be rgrdd ; it is a rwrd of itslf; mks a mn rfpktbl
hr, nd wl mk hm etrnly hpy hrftr.—Prd is a mft prnfs
psn, wch yt ws plntd by hvn in ur ntr, to rs ur emlsn
to imtt grt nd wrthy krktrs or axns, to xt in us a si fr
wht is rt nd gft, nd a Idbl ndgnfn gnft oprfrs nd wrkrs '
of any knd of nkty; in fhrt, to mk us st a prpr vlu upn
urflvs, nd dfps a wrthls flo, hu evr xltd. Ths fr prd is
a vrtu, nd my gftly be kid a grtns of fl. Bt prd, Ik
othr pfns, gnrly fxs upn rug obgks, or is apld in rng
prprfns. Hu kmn is it to fe a rtch whm evry vs hs
rndrd mfrbl, nd evry fly kntmtbl, vlng hmllf on hs hi
brth, nd bftng ths ilftrs nffttrs, of whm lie nhrts
nthng bt the ntn or ttl! nfftrs who if thy nu hm, wd
dfn thr dpndnt wth kntmt. But al prd of ths frt is
fly, nd evr to be avdd.
CHAP. III.
As the whole of this art depends upon a regular me¬
thod and a Ample alphabet, we have not only'endea-
voured to eftablifh the former on fatisfadtory principles,
but have been careful to appropriate, according to the
comparative frequency of their occurrence, fuch charac¬
ters for the letters as, after repeated trials and altera¬
tions, were conceived to be the beft adapted for dif-
patch.
The ftenographic alphabet confifts of 18 diftindl cha-gtenogra-
rafters (viz. two for the vowels and the reft for thephic alpha-
confonants), taken from lines and iemicircular curves ;^et*
the formation and application of which we ftiall now
explain, beginning with the vowels.
For the three firft vowels, a, e, and t, a comma is ap-
5 G 2 propriated
(h) By this rule likewife q and in the middle of words, but never in the beginning, may be exchanged
for k and/, when they admit of an eafier conneftion with the following charafter, or will make tire writing ap¬
pear neater.
IO
Uaes.
ii
Circles.
ia
Curves
lines.
S T
propriated in different portions ;
three, o, u, and r, a point. The comma and point,
when applied to a and o, is to be placed, as in Plate
CCCCLXXXII. at the top of the next charadter ; when
for e and u, oppoiite to the middle ; and when for i and
y, at the bottom.
This arrangement of the vowels is the moil fimple
and diftindl that can eafily be imagined. Places at the
top, the middle, and the bottom of characters, which
make three different pofitions, are as eafily diftingmfhed
from one another as any three feparate characters could
be ; and a comma is made with the fame facility as a
point.
Simple lines may be drawn four different ways ; per¬
pendicular, horizontal, and with an angle of about 45
degrees to the right and left. An alcending oblique
line to the right, which will be perfectly diilinCt from
the reft when joined to any other character, may like-
wife be admitted. Thefe characters being the iimplefl
in nature, are affigned to thofe five confonants which
moil frequently occur, viz. /, r, t, c hard or /, and c foft
or s.
Every circle may be divided with a perpendicular and
horizontal line, fo as to form likewile four diftinCt cha¬
racters. 'i hefe being the next to lines in the iimplicity
of their formation, we have appropriated them for b> </,
I?, and w.
an(j The characters expreffmg nine of the confonants are
all perfeCtly diftinCt from one another ; eight only re¬
main which are neediul, viz. f, g or j, h, /, q, v, w,
and x. To find characters for which we muft have re-
courfe to mixed curves and lines. The characters which
we have adopted are the fimpleft in nature after thofe
already applied, admit of the eafieft joining, and tend
to preferve lineality and beauty in the writing.
It muft be obferved that we have no character for c
when it has a hard found, as in cajlle ; or foft, as in
city ; for it naturally takes the found of k or j, which
in all cafes will be fufficient to fupply its place.
R likewife is reprefented by the fame character as /;
only with this difference, r is written with an afcending
itroke(i), and/ with a defeending ; which is always
to be known from the manner of its union with the
following character j but in a few monolyllables where
r is the only eonfonart in the word, and confequenlly
Hands alone, it is to he made as is fhown in the alpha¬
bet tor diftinCtion’s fake.
Z, as it is a letter feldom employed in the Englifti
language, and only a coarfer and harder expreffion of j,
muft be fupplied by r whenever it occurs j as for Zede-
kiah write Sedtkiah, &c.
CHAP. IV.
The prepofitions and terminations in this fcheme are .
fo fimple, that the greateft benefit may be reaped from
ENOGRA PHY. Chap. IV.
and for the other them, and very little trouble required to attain them ;
... - . t . , *3
as the incipient letter or the incipient confonant of all f°,r
the prepofitions and of feveral of the terminations is ^4 fermT*
ufed to exprefs the whole. But although in Plate nations,1'**
CCCCLXXXII. fufficient fpecimens are given of the
manner of their application, that the learner of lefs in¬
genuity ©r more flow perception may have every affift-
ance, we have fubjoined the following directions.
Rule!. The prepolition is always to be written
without joining, yet fo near as plainly to fhow what
word it belongs to ; and the bell way is to obfeive the \
fame order as if the whole was to be connected.
Rule II. A prepofition, though the fame letters
that conftitute it may be met with in the middle or end
of a word, is never to be uled, becaufe it would expofe
to obfcurity.
Rule III. Obferve that the prepofitloa omni is ex-
preffed by the vowel 0 in its proper pofition ; and for
untt, anta, ante, by the vowel a, which the radical part
of the word will eafily diftinguiftt from being only fimple
vowels.
The firft rule for the prepofitions is (allowing fuch
exceptions as may be feen in the Plate) to be obferved
for the terminations; and alfo the fecond mutatis mutan~
dh ; except that wheneverfyst cious> tious, and
ces occur, they are to be.expreffed as direCled in the
fourth rule for the confonants, whether in the begin¬
ning, middle, or end of words ( k ).
Rule iy. ihe terminative charaCler for tion, fion,
cion, chin, tian, is to be expreffed by a fmall circle joined,
to the neareft letter, and turned to the right ; and the
plurals tions, fions, cions, dans, thins, tience, by a dot on-
the fame fide.
Rule V. The terminative charaCler for ing, is to be
expreffed likewife by a fmall circle, but drawn to the-
left hand ; and its plural ings by a dot (l).
Rule VI. The plural fign s is to be added to the
terminative characters when neceffary.
Rule VII. The feparated terminations are never to
be ufed but in polyfyllables or words «f more fyllables
than one.
Theie rules duly obferved will point out a method as
conctfe and elegant as can be delired, for expreffing the
moft frequent and longeft prepofitions and terminations
in the Engliih language. If it ffiould be thought ne¬
ceffary to increafe their number by the addition of
others, it will be an eafy matter for any one of the leaft
difcernment to do fo, by proceeding on the principles
before laid down.
CHAP. V.
*4;
Though a more concife method of writing, or more Rules fo?
numerous abbreviations, may not be indifpenfably ne-abbrevia*
cefl'ary, if the foregoing diredions be praClifed for
coniiderable time, yet contractions will be found ex¬
tremely
(1) The character for h, when lineality requires it, may be made from the bottom and inverted (fee Plate
CCCCLXXXII.) And often Z> may be omitted entirely, or a vowel may be fubftituted in its Head, without any
injury to legibility, it being rather a breathing than letter.
( k) But in a few words where three horizontal characters meet, it will be better to exprefs theJis, See. by the
femielliptical character in Plate CCCCLXXXII. oppofite tious.
( l) In horizontal characters, by the left hand is meant the top, and by the right the fpace below the letter (fee
Hy joined^ Plate CCCCLXXXII.) Ir all other characters the right aud left pofttions will naturally be known.
Chap
•v« S T F. N O G
tremely ureful and convenient to thofe who have attain,
ed a proper knowledge of the fubjeft, and lead to a
greater degree of expedition, at the fame time that they
dimmilh the labour of writing. It has been obferved in
the mtroduftion, that abbreviations are only to be em-
pJoyed by proficients in this art; becaufe expedition is
not the hrft, though the ultimate, objeft in view: and
that an ealy legibility is of the utmoft confequence to
the learner; which, however, cannot be preferved, if
m jT-tS t0° ^°0n t^0^C ver^ ru^es wh>ch in time will
attord him the greateft eale when applied with judge*
ment. J 6
The following (hort and praAical rules will be found,
we hope, fully adequate to every purpofe for which they
were intended, and are far fuperior in the facility of
their application to any which we have feen.
Rule I. 1 he ufual abbreviations in long-hand are al¬
ways to be followed; as Mr for Mafter, M. D. for Doc¬
tor of Phyfic, and Abp. for Archbilhop, &c.
• i LE, S'Mhn-itives, adjeAives, verbs, and parti-
•ciples, when the fenfe will dire A to the meaning are
to be exprefied by their initial confonant with the di-
itinguifhmg marks exhibited in Plate CCCCLXXXII.
viz. a fubllantive muft have the dot exaAly over its ini¬
tial confonant ; an adjeAive mull have a dot under it;
a verb is to be exprefled by a comma over its initial con-
ionant; and a participle by a comma under(M). Thefe
being the four principal parts of fpeech will be fuffi-
cient; and an adept will never be at a lofs to know
when he can with fafety apply this rule to them
Rule III. Io render the writing more legible, the
iait letter of the wmrd may be joined to the firft, and
the proper mark applied.
Rule I V. The conftituent or radical part of words,
Specially if they are long, will often ferve for the whole,
or fometimes the firft fyllable; as, xve ought to mode-
rate our by our circum.; a man’s man. commonly
lhape his for. 3
Rule V. All long words without exception may
have their prepofitions or terminations expreffed by the
incipient conlonant of fuch prepofition or termination.
Rule VI. When there is a great dependence be¬
tween the parts of a fentence, the initial letter will often
Juffice ; as L. is the capital of Great B.; the eldeft S.
of the king of Great B is ftyled prince of IV. Every
one, it is prefumed, will allow this to be perfeAly le.
giblc in long.hand, then why may it not in ftenogra-
phy r “
Rule VII. The terminations and hfs maybe
omitted; zs fait hfulnefs is only to be written faithful;
f^ardnef, forward ; heedlefs, heed; fuller nncfsjlub-
Rule VIII. The fecond and third perfons of verbs,
ending in eth and ejl, may be exprefted by , ; as, he
loves, thou teaches ; inftead of he loveth, thou teache/i :
or even without j ; as, he love, &c.
Rule IX. Words may often be entirely omitted,
and yet no ambiguity enfue ; as, In beginning God crea-
R A P H Y.
ted heaven and earth, for In the beginning‘God created
the heaven and the earth.
Rule X. When there is an immediate repetition of
a fentence or word, a line is to he drawn under the fen-
tence or word to be repeated ; as, Amen, Amen, is to
written Amen ; but if any words intervene before a
word or fentence is to be repeated, the line muft be
drawn as before, and a a or mark of omiffion placed
where the repetition ftiould begin ; as, Is it jujl the in-
nscents foould he condemned A reviled ? ~ ’
iH
The Contents of the Stenographic Plates.
Fair ictus’s Reply to Pyrrhus.
• rAs Poverty, you have indeed, Sir, been rightly Phte
in.ormed. My whole eftate confifts in a houfe of but ccccLxxxn-s
mean appearance, and a little fpot of ground, from
which by my own labour I draw my fupport. But if
y any means you have been perfuaded to think, that
this poverty makes me Ids confidered in my country,
or in any degree unhappy, you are extremely deceived.
J have no reafon to complain of fortime, file fupplies me
wah all that nature requires ; and if I am without fu*
perfluities I am alfo free from the defire of them.
With thefe I confefs I fhould be more able to fuccour
the necemtous, the only advantage for which the weal-
r he enVI’ed; but 35 fma11 as PoMons are,
I can Itill contribute fomething fo the fupport of the
ftate and the affiftance of my friends. With regard to
honours my country places me, poor as I am, upon a
eve with the richeft: for Rome knows no ouaiifica-
tions for great employments but virtue and ability She
appoints me to officiate in the moft auguft ceremonies
of religion ; fiie entrufts me with the command of her
armies; ffie confides to my care the moft important ne¬
gotiations. My poverty does not leffen the weight and
influence of my counfels in the fenate ; the Roman
people honour me for that very poverty which yotr con-
hder as a difgrace ; they know the many opportunities
1 have had in war to enrich myfdf without incurring
cenfure; they are convinced of ray difmterefted zeal
'for their profpenty ; and if I have any thing to com¬
plain of in the return they make, it is only the excefs
of their applaufe. What value then can I fet upon
your gold and filver! What king can add any thing to
my fortune 1 Always attentive to difeharge the duties
incumbent on me, I have a mind free from felf-reproach,
and I have an honeit fame. JDodfley,s Preceptor..
Letter to a Friend againjl vuajle of ’Time.
. Converfe often with yourfelf, and neither lavifii your
time, nor fuffer others to rob you of it. Many of our
hours are ftolcn from us, and others pais infenfibly away;,
but of both thefe lofies the moft fhameful is that which
happens through our own negleA. If we take the
trouble to obferve, we fhall find that one confiderable
part of our life is fpent in doing evil, and the other in
doing
„ ^The (!?t or comiy being placed thus will never occafion them to be miftaken for vowels, beeaufe the-
over o/under.h2 °"e “ 0tteri whefelS thc milrk for Par,s of %eE<:h conftantly be placed atafily
79° S T E N O G
doinef nothing, or in doing what we fliould not do. We
don’t feem to know the value of time, nor how precious
a day is ; nor do we conhder that every moment brings
us nearer our end. Reflecl upon this, I entreat you,
and keep a ftrift account of time. Procraftination is
the moil dangerous thing in life. Nothing is properly
ours but the. inftant we breathe in, and all the left is
nothing ; it is the only good we pofTefs; but then it is
fleeting, and the firft comer robs us of it. Men are fo
weak, that they think they oblige by giving of trifles,
, and yet reckon that time as nothing for which the moll
grateful perfon in the world can never make amends.
Let us therefore confider time as the moft valuable of
all things ; and every moment fpent, without fome im¬
provement in virtue or fome advancement in goodnefs,
as the greateft fublunary lofs.
St Paul’s Speech before dgrip pa, and Fejlus.
I think myfelf happy, king Agrippa, that I (hall an-
fwer for myfelf this day before thee, touching all things
whereof I am accufcd of the Jews : efpecially becaiife
1 know thee to be expert in all cuftoms and queftions
which are among the Jews, wherefore I befeech thee to
hear me patiently. My manner of life from/lny youth,
- which was at firlt among mine own nation at Jerufalem,
know all the Jews, which knew me from the begin¬
ning (if they would teftify), that, after the flraiteft fe&
of our idigion I lived a Pharilee. And now I (land
and am judged for the hope of the promife made by
Crod unto our fathers : unto which promife our twelve
tribes inftantly ferving God day and night hope to
come ; for which hope’s fake, king Agrippa, I am ac-
cufed of the Jew's. Why fliould if be thought a thing
incredible with you, that God (hould raife the dead,
when God himfelf has given aifurance of it unto all
men, in that he hath raifed Chrift from the dead ? As
for my own part, moil noble Feilus, I own I once ve¬
rily thought that even l myfelf ought t© do many things
contrary to the name of Jefus of Nazareth. Which
thing I alfo did in Jerufalem. I punifhed the faints
oft in every fynagogue, and compelled them to blaf-
pheme; and being exceedingly mad againft them, I
perfecuted them even unto ftrange cities. In purfuit
of which, as t went to Damascus, with authority and
commiflion from the diiefpriells: At mid-day, O king,
I faw in the way a light from heaven, above the bright-
neis of the fun, Alining about me, and them which jour¬
neyed with me. And when we were all fallen to the
earth, I heard a voice fpeaking unto me, and faying in
the Hebrew tongue, haul, Saul, why perfecuteft thou
me? It is hard for thee to kick againil the pricks.
And I faid, Who art thou, Lord ? And he faid, I am
Jefus whom thou perfecuteft. But rife, and fliand up¬
on thy feet: for I have appeared unto thee for this pur-
pofe, to make thee a minifter and a witnefs both of
thefe things vyhich thou haft feen, and of thofe things
in which I will appear unto thee. Whereupon, O king
/^gr|ppa, 1 was not difobedient to the heavenly vifion;
but fliewed rirft unto them of Damafcus, and at Jerul
ialem, and throughout all the coafts of J udea, and then
to the Gentiles, that they ftiould repent and turn to
God. For thefe caufes the Jews caught me in the
tempJe and went about to kill me. Having therefore
btained help of God, I continue unto -this day, vvit-
wg both to fmall and great, faying none other things
R A . p H Y- Chap, v;
than thofe which the prophets and Mofes did fay fheuld
come ; That Chrift ftiould fuffer, and that he fliould L-
the firft that fhould rife from the dead, and ftiould fliow
light unto the people, and to the Gentiles. This is the
real truth : Believe me, T am no peftilent fellow, nor
mover of {edition ; but always endeavour all that lies
in me to preserve a confcience void of offence towards
God and towards man : nor can the Jews prove the
things v,'hereof they now accufe me. Neither am I,
Feftus, befides myfelf; but fpeak thus freely before the
king, becaufe he knows thefe things to be fadl ; yea, I
am fully perfuaded the king knows them all to be fad;
for they were not done in a corner. King Agrippa,
believeft thou the prophets? I know that thou believeil.
And would to God that not only thou but alfo’all that
hear me this day, were altogether fuch as I am except
thefe bonds. Holmes’s Rhetoric.
Pope to Atterlury,
Once more I write to you as I promifed, and this
once I fear will be the laft; the curtain will foon be
drawn between my friend and me, and nothing left but
to wifh you a long good night ; may you enjoy a ftate
of repole in this life not unlike that fleep of the fold
which feme have believed is to fucceed it, where we lie
utterly forgetful of that world from which we are gone,
aixl ripening for that to which we are to go. If you
retain any memory' of the paft, let it only image to
you what has pleafed you heft ; fometimes prefent a
dieam of an abfent friend, or bring you back an agree¬
able converfation. But, upon the whole, I hope you
will think lefs of the time paft than the future ; as the
former has been lefs kind to you than the latter infal¬
libly will be. Do not envy the world your ftudies:
1 hey will tend to the benefit of men, againft whom
you can have no complaint ; I mean, of all pofterity :
and, perhaps, at your time of life, nothing elfe is worth
your care. What is every year of a wife man’s life
but a cenfure or critic on the paft? Thofe whofe date is
the fhorteft, live long enough to laugh at one half of it:
The boy defpifes the infant, the man the boy, the phi-
lofopher both, and the Chriftian all. You may now be¬
gin to think your manhood was too much a puerility ;
and you will never fuffer your age to be but a fecond
infancy. I he toys and baubles of your childhood
are hardly now more below you than thofe toys of
our riper and our declining years ; the drums and rat¬
tles of ambition, and the dirt and bubbles of avarice.
At this time, when you are cut off from a little fociety,
and made a citizen of the world at large, you fhould
bend your talents not to ferve a party, or a few, but all
mankind. Your genius fliould mount above that mill,
in which its participation and neighbourhood with earth
hath long involved it: To fhine abroad, and to heaven,
ought to be the bufinefs and the glory of your prefent
fituation. Remember it was at fuch a time that the
greateft lights of antiquity dazzled and blazed the moft;
in their retreat, in their exile, or in their death. But *
why do I talk of dazzling or blazing? it was then that
they did good, that they gave light, and that they be¬
came guides to mankind. Thofe aims alone are wor¬
thy of fpirits truly great, and fuch I therefore hope
will be yours. Refentnient indeed may remain, per¬
haps cannot be quite extinguifhed, in the nobleft minds;
but revenge will never harbour there: Higher principles
than
Plate CCCCLXXXll
a-- £■ O' /> /P'00 a^‘ — /> 2 >• /• j>_ j — ^
'l —a-’<r>'cO /
^ ‘ a ^ exKAl’HY
J. ju
KlBJUCJUS' :^/, yf> /J77fRHUS.
', 1 ^ t^\ ' o-' 'o <? '^-r5/ ^ '7 > "] k-L O 'Z* O ^ OJ ^
7 -f 0 t^Q- --C ^ Q_ c c^ ^1 kfc
Z ^>0 ^ r\ Lu / <_» v_; 3-7- tg ./.^p XO^ y ^ W uu j ^
Q-^k 2° ^ ^ ty Kj Q- ,0 r— i -~Q-r ? 0 z • Q_7. Q- I rL/ c f-) ^
— Z°Cr/' $ 1 —v l u--i_ I»' hr^-- ^ i p? / I c ^ ,.s^ p _ y.
2 S 1 1 "^' ° 1 ° r-^o^Q^l. ^-^1 IX>N ^7
g’^./-1 ^ ax%;-cr/'^ C, CT-i- v^py'Z | 'o-, ^\n ir-,
~^r~Q '3-^j 6 '~v~~[_ ° '— / ° 6 vs-j_ | <^i v I u7—• ^/ rN
/vi. ^ /r-i ^ ° ^ v^z. w | -t^ |/V p Lro • ■/' <rvc ^ .
t^>" V f\ 1^- I vyA^^-ivv^
-7 ■ - ^ V-%pj <i- ,<TS jJ \^o SJ f r\|- ’* I cZ-o ^ ^ 07. c ^
,n .g cj ^ 7 \ \, j ^ | '^_ ^1 ^ ^ .
1 o>0 <1^’ Q- /fA CT~^ x^r\^
1^
JLET TER &c. © <■ _-j_ ^ ,9% p s'-es ^ \/Z -o | /rv-'.0 /•/"
/ 2 0 ^ '“ S ° V ^ ^ I ^ Z'd- — f <_ <^- ? '/ o ^7 ^/Q. ,—
''■' 1^ I t-^"'~ 6 av>5 f •• ■'-'•>£ ^0/6- — 3>CT3o|\^3o/o av.,
r- 6°^| \x \ <57. O ys J' f. fr—'y- O'}r- vr> \ , r-> C» _
J^/ •/ CO ^/ - '-Vi • '-' y —v\ Cj 0 ^\OLo 1 ^ 2?<T-r' cf ^ 6~y/
S- ‘" V
a - fyl’S'S ! / \ P7 - O I -1’. 0-) C-S Cl-^v>
I qv'"i Vv .<_ — 0 y'^ y •— -—\ f f f J. c ° ^ .1 Ay f m o
.. 1_ 1 /-» cPb- ^ c l r~4 ^ V^> K ,. / O <T) 0/
I u ^ ^ r- VJ 0^1-/ _^‘Trw)0 ^ _ J ^ X-/...
'- v ^ e L I j A. A Ails
ST Pauls Si-kec u.
, Qr^^\ V? r.Z f ^/Soo, o\ 0 / cr^ c \ /T / c
^ 7 S-vJ^ *—/ I o-f—7?9a f I ^ ^ ^To i.Q_ o/v_^_0-
^ -x^-^OcP tfa^y/lcr^. -•^^lb^Q.f^Lb_rav| -^^o/
’^-’ u.o-TPOO^..!^ /^ g Co- iy'/ M- H <-
^ ^ JL5°" 0 -^o/ ^ ^(P, cpof
sur-.fcrtPs-l ) ^ c- Z Z1 ^ ’-^o/ a_l 3
„..o ^ ^ o ^ 0 \_ • 0. "'-r_ <rtf(-<T^, ^in rv.S y//to 00^0
^1 u.</, L-Oocr^S / ^^6^3
'ffVI k, <r^ M’ “cc-^ ^^0 —,. ,r-v1 I o v^o 0.1^.
f~L® 3 V—' 0 I' Y '-tn ' k\^—0 I-V O o'^5 o.
° ^ ‘ ^ 'f, ‘T' ^ H O VJ -° W Ur- -7 x *—r ^r-^f’U I
— £>•■{' t \'crvn | ^ O, -)<- 7 Y/ o> /'—,_ Ov^-U F p~^
l.^ ", cr v-(- /^..L / <A.f ’^-S-,'~u-'i 0 ^ S\— (‘v 0 L f^>>—,
v_/ 0 v^>
Pope a- Atterbury.
^r/'S 1 • " , ^N-jC- C 'cp Q_X/ Cl^| I VL / _c -w Z- O oZ,
C| / r<- ^ ^ f^o I7. 0,5-% C^_ |
■^ol 0^-/ f'-*°--r-/<s^ ^^..n^-r-pio-/^ vC
"/e, ('/V.^I-7 S-^- ^'^’Oo^ZeP-^-^c^y
S •e<V.^/'qko/k^C,V„/a^rc^^^|.Cl^/c/j,S
^!_7* ^ ~^f/ ^ H ^>3-, 0 <x> •ffvri^-r'.. </’'r^ •fNJO/^vi^/?Cc,l^
0<io ^-^/.v/^-,yo-----Cy^/H; I wp-/<^^
0:Z:O//C y_/ ^ /^IC.i^^!
•T"-' \£t.y-"/ <CS Ho^//-C
i L o/-£ ^ ,00-02 ° ’2, ^I^£0 ’0-^/o£ h-v•/ ) 0 a.y —, u
/ ’# 'i f fl’C \ V^' <— ^ ■ °St o'0 ^ Q-r' c,- R on
°> // v^o cr> <j[_, l I <r^ ff o l^i<r .. H ^_}rT~^ o c^ i ^
,<7l')r' ^ ^l)^0<r.kJ.y^5'-uoyi^)ucr>»-o^ ? /CC^J
) — z"ynr<r^-Q_i3 ^^yh-i
p VJ !| avj C -/,/ 0 V'y'^wo ~3 *1 !~ 'o-v/z C-O I
Crvr- (p, O ‘Hr- |(— a- V/ /,— <~U cr- j a-' ! S/) ° f '^'•'Lrv k
0' a'- S-^-^ <M.O|\CZ <r-c / (C<a-x.,<7QL7 \ C0-^..
^ H 2/ w W~ ^‘^'XJ'1 VO/a-T^'-T* fZ/fZr>Q
,0V £ OUUUUUUULH
^ ^ ^ -1 A,-li c I ^Ol cr^r D. ^-x/rx,
wz-v^-^A^ >/
(Zs>lr~{jh<^ff(^fKj(^^\^/i'^pr^.o ^*<VJ\A
//C
1 0 ^- ’-^ -vmJX''r'/. < e ■■■ '-fi-^M'
4^V R ^ „ ,0 -Oy -t, c VI C^,/-y> Cj-
Vo/,0r-|a^y Hr>l.
|’(ft.r'l/3v^rNv i _
y°ci ^1 (*j w. Y(W'^—
- Z 7 !, A •’*•> .V /’/,/. ' /!■;.'•: <, / /nil .
Chap. V. S T E N O G
than thofe of the firft, and better principles than thole
of the latter, will infallibly influence men whofe
thoughts and whofe hearts are enlarged, and caufe them
to prefer the whole to any part of mankind, erpectally
to fo fmall a part as one’s fzngle felf. Believe me, my
JjOrd, I look upon you as a fpirit entered into another
life, as one juft upon the edge of immortality, where
the pafiions and affections mult be much more exalted,
and where you ought to defpife all little views and all
mean retrofpeCls. Nothing is worth your looking back;
R A P H Y.
and therefore look forward, and make fas you can) the
world look after you; but take care it be not with
pity, but with elleem and admiration. I am, with the
greateft fincerity and pafiion for your fame as well as
happinefs, your, &c.
i he above molt charming and moll affeCtionate let¬
ter was written about a month before Atterbury bi-
fhop of Rochefter was fent into banifliment, and is uni-
verfally admired.
79*
Stentoro
phonic
! I!
Stephens,
S T E
STEN FOROPHONIC tu^e, a fpeaking trumpet;
thus called from Stentor, a perfon mentioned by Plomer.
See Trumpet.
bl EP, in a fhip, a block of wood fixed on the decks
or bottom of a fhip, and having a hole in its upper fide,
fitted to receive the heel of a maft or capftern. The
fteps of the main and foremafts of every fhip reft upon
the kelfon, to which they are firmly fecured by knees,
bolts, or fpike-nails. I he ftep of the mizen-maft ufually
refts upon the lower deck.
S 1 EPHANIUM, in botany : A genus of the mo-
tiogynla order, belonging to petitandna clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 47th or¬
der, Stellate. 1 he calyx is monophyllous, turbinated,
and quinquepartite ; the corolla is monopetalous, fun-
nel-fhaped, having its tubes curved and ventricofe : the
pericarpium is a bilocular berry containing two feeds,
flattened on one fide and round on the ether. This
genus is nearly allied to that of Pfychotria. There is
only one fpecies, viz. Guianenfe, a native of the warmer
parts of America.
S 1 EPHANOPPIORUS, in antiquity, the chief
prieft of Pallas, who prefided over the reft. It was
ufual for every god to have a chief prieft ; that of Pal¬
las was the Stephanophorus juft mentioned, and that of
Hercules was called Dadouchus.—Stephanophorus was
alfo a prieft that aflifted the women in the celebration of
the feftival I hefmophoria.
STEPHANUS (Byzantinus), an able grammarian,
who lived in the 5 th or 6th century. He wrote a Dic¬
tionary, in which he made a great number of obferva-
tions, borrowed from mythology and hiftory, which
fhow'ed the origin of cities and colonies, of which we
have nothing remaining out a mean abridgment by
Hermolaus the grammarian ; but from that work the
learned have, received great light; and Sigonius, Ca-
faubon, Scahger, Salmafius, &c. have employed them-
felves in illuftrating it.
STEPHEN, king of England. See England,
n° 108, &c.
Stephen, or St Stephen’s Day, a feftival of the Chri-
ftian church, ebferved on the 26th of December, in
memory of the firft martyr St Stephen.
S r EPHENS, a family of printers defervedly cele¬
brated .1 hey flourifhed at the revival of learning,,
and contributed a great deal towards difpelling the cloud
cf ignorance which had fo long overfhaclowed Europe.
Some of the cl tffics before, the 16th century were in a
great meafure loft, and all of them were exceedingly
corrupted. By their abilities and indefatigable induftry.
theie defeats were fupplied,and the learned were furnifh-
S T E
ed with beautiful and con-eft editions of the Greek and StcDhen-
Roman authors. Thus the world was not only fupplied
with an inexhauftible fund of amufement and inftruftion
in thefe ancient writings; but it is to the ardour which
they infpired, and to the model of elegance wftiichthey
difplayed, that the prefent advanced ftate of literature
is in a great meafure owing.
■ Henry Stephens, the firft of thefe illuftrious men,
was born in France, foon after the dilcovery of print¬
ing,, perhaps about the year 1465. He fettled as a
pi inter at Paris, and was probably patronized by Louis
XII. A great proportion of the books which he pub-
lifhed were Latin They are printed in the Roman
letter, and are not inelegant, though fome of them
abound rather too much in contraftions. He died about
the year 1520, and left behind him three fons, Francis,
Robert, and Charles. Plis widow married Simon de
Colines (Coknaus in Latin), who thus got poffeffion
of Henry’s printing-houfe, and continued the profeffion
till his death,
Ot f rang is, the eldeft fon, little more is known
than that he carried on bufinefs along with his father-in-
law Colinaeus, and that he died at Paris in 1 ^50.
Robert Stephens, the fecond fon, w^as born in 1503.
In his youth he made great proficiency in the Roman,
Greek, and Hebrew languages, and at the age of 19
had acquired fo much knowledge, that his father-in-law
entrufted him with the management of his prefs. An
edition.of the. New Teftament was publiftied under his
infpeftion, which gave great offence to the Paris divines,
who accufed him of herefy, and threatened to prevent
the fale of the book. Soon after he began bufinefs him-
felf, and married Perrete the daughter of Jodocus Ra¬
dius,. a printer and an author. She was a woman of
learning, and underftood Latin, which indeed wras the
neceffary confequence of her fituation. lier hufband
always entertained a number of learned men as correftors
of the prefs : Being foreigners, and of different nations,
they made ufe of no other language but Latin ; which
Perrete being accuftomed to bear, w^as able in a fliort time
not only to uuderftand, but even tofpeak-with tolerable
eafe.
In 1531 he publifiied his Latin “ Thefaurus a
v/ork of great importance, which he laboured at for tw-o
years. The mark which he put upon all his books was
a tree branched, with a man looking upon it, and thefe
words noli ahum fapere, to which he fometimes-added
fed time. In 15.39, Francis I; made him his printer,
and ordered a new fee of elegant types to be founded
for him. His frequent editions of the New Teftament -
gave great offence to the doftors of the Sorbonne, who
2' v ' accufedi
'c which
Many
S T E [ 792
Stephen*, accnfed- him of herefy for his annotations, and infifted
Upon the fupprefiion of fome of his books. Although
Henry the French king in fome meafure protected him,
theperfecutionof thefe divines rendered him fo unhappy,
not to mention the expence and lofs of time which an
almoft conltant attendance at court unavoidably occa-
iioned, that in 1552 he abandoned his country and went
to Geneva. Here he embraced the Protellant religion,
and thus juflilxed in fome meafure the lulpicions of his
theological enemies. It has been affirmed by feveral
writers that he carried along with him the royal types,
and the moulds alfo in which they were call ; but it is
certain that he never afterwards made ufe of thofe types.
Befides, is it poffible that the author of fo daring a
theft could have been not only prote&ed in Geneva, but
even courted and honoured by the molt eminent men of
the age ? Is it credible that Inch a crime could have been
concealed for 60 years; or that Henry, the fon and heir
of the perpetrator, would have enjoyed the favour of
the French king, if Robert Stephens had adted fuch a
fhameful part ? If he was burnt in effigy at Paris, it was
not for theft, but for having changed his religion. Af¬
ter his arrival at Geneva, he publifhed an account of the
difpute between him and the Paris divines, which does
as much honour to his abilities as his ‘Thefaurus does
to his learning. He died in 1559, after a life of
the moft extraordinary indultry. The books o
he was the editor were not fewer than 360.
of them were ancient claffics in different languages. Se
veral were accompanied with annotations which he
colledted, and all of them were corrected by collating
manuferipts. He was fo anxious to attain perfect ac¬
curacy, that he ufed to expofe his proofs-in public, and
reward thofe who difeovered a miftake. His books con-
fequently were very correct. It is faid that his New
Teffament, called 0 Mirtficam (becaufe the preface begins
with thefe words), has not a fingle fault.
It was Robert Stephens who firft divided the New
Teftament into verfes during a journey between Paris
and Lyons. The advantages of thU improvement are
fully counterbalanced by its defects. It has deftroyed
the unity of the books, and induced many commenta¬
tors to confider every verfe as a diilinft and independent
aphorifm. To this in fome meafure is to be aferibedthe
many abfurd interpretations and creeds that have been
forced out of that book.
By his laft will his eftate was left exclufively to fuch
of his children as fhould fettle at Geneva. He left be¬
hind him three fons, Henry, Robert, and Francis.
Charles Stephens, the third fon of Henry, was,
like the reft of his family, familiarly acquainted with
the learned languages. 1 his recommended him to La¬
zarus de^Baif, who made him tutor to his fon, and in
1540 carried him along with him to Germany. He
fludied medicine, and pradiifed it with fuccefs in France.
He did not, however, forfake the profeffion of his fami¬
ly, but exercifed it in Paris, where he became the editor
of many books remarkable for neatnefs and elegance.
He wrote above thirty treatifes on different fubje&s,
particularly on botany, anatomy, and hiltory. He died
in 1564.
Robert Stephens, the fon of Robert the firft of
that name, did not accompany his father to Geneva,
;but continued to profefs the Catholic religion, and to
] s T E
refide at Parts. His letter was remarkably beautiful.—. Srephens,
He was made king’s printer, and died about 1589. -y—
His brother Francis was alfo a printer. He em¬
braced the Proteftant religion, and refided at Geneva.
Henry Stephens, the remaining fon of Robert,
was born at Paris in 1 528. He became the moft learn,
ed and moft celebrated of all his family. From his very
birth almoft he gave proofs of uncommon abilities, and
difplayed an ardent paffion for knowledge. The Medea
of Euripides, which he faw a£ted while at fchool, firft
kindled his love for poetry, and infpired him with the
defire of acquiring the language in which that tragedy
is written. He xntreated his father not to condemn him
to ftudy Latin, which he already underftood from con*
verfation, but to initiate him at once into the knowledge
of Greek. His father willingly granted his requeft ;
and Henry applied with fuch vigour, that in a Ihort
time he could repeat the Medea by heart. He after-
wards ftudied Greek under Peter Danefxus, who was tu¬
tor to the Dauphin, and finally heard the ledlures of
Tufanus and Turnebus. He became eager at an early
age to underftand aitrology, and accordingly attended
a profeffor of that myfterious art ; but he was not long
in difeovering its abfurdity. At 19 he began his tra¬
vels, which he undertook in order to examine foreign
libraries, and to become acquainted with learned men. He
fpent two years in Italy, and returned into France com¬
pletely matter of Italian, and bringing along with him
copies ot feveral icarce authors, particularly a part of
Anacreon, which before was thought loft.
He found his father publilhing an edition of the New
Teftament, to which he prefixed fome Greek verfes.—
Soon after, he vifited England and the Netherlands,
where he met with John Clement, an Englilhman, to
whom he was indebted for the remaining odes of Ana¬
creon. During this journey he learned the Spanifh lan¬
guage, which was very much fpoken at that time in the
Low Countries.
Whether Henry accompanied his father to Geneva or
not is uncertain ; at leaft he muft have returned imme¬
diately to France, for we find him foon after eftabliffied
at Paris, and publiftiing the odes of Anacreon. In
1554 he went to Rome, and thence to Naples. This
journey was undertaken at the requeft, and in the
fervice, of the French government. He was difeovered,
and would have been arretted as a fpy, had he not by
his addrefs and Ikill in the language of the country been
able to pafs himfelf for a native of Italy. On his re*
turn to France he aflumed the title of printer to Ulric
Fugger, a very rich and learned German nobleman, who -
allowed him a confiderablepenfion.
In 1560 he married a relation, as is generally fuppo-
fed, of Henry Scrimigeour, a Scotch nobleman, with
whom he was intimately acquainted. She was a woman,
as he himfelf informs us, endowed with the nobleft
fpirit and the moft amiable difpoiitions. Her death,
which happened in 1566, brought on a difeafe that
had twice attacked him before. It was a difguft at all
thofe purfuits which had formerly charmed him, an aver-
fion to reading and the fight of books. It was pro¬
bably occafioned by too conttant and fevere an applica¬
tion to literary purfuits. In 1572 he publifhed his
Thefaurus Lingua Grcectc, one of the greateft works, per¬
haps, that ever was executed by one man, if we confr-
1 der
See SV.t-
Jiul.i,
S T E [ 793
Ster hens, rfer the wretched materials which more aniient diftiona-
» 1 ries could furnilh, if we conf’der the lize and perfe&ion
of the work, and the immenfe labour and learning which
mult have been employed in the compilation. This
work had been carried on at a greater expence than he
could well bear. He expected to be reimburfed by the
fade of the book, but he was unfortunately difapooint-
ed. John Scapula, one of his own fervants, extracted
from it whatever he thought would be moil ferviceable
to Undents, and publiihed it beforehand in 4to. By
this a£t of treachery Henry was reduced to poverty.
About this time he was much beloved by Henry III.
of France, who treated him fo kindly, and made him
fuch flattering promifes, that he rehded frequently
at Court. But thefe promifes were never fulfilled,
owing to the civil wars which foon after diitradted
France, and the unfortunate death of king Henry him-
felf. During the remainder of his life his fituation was
very unfettled. We find him fometimes at Paris, fome-
times in Geneva, in Germany, and even in Hungary.
He died at Lyons in 1598, at the age of 70. He was
fond of poetry from his very infancy. ' It was a cuitom
of his to compofe verfes on horfeback, and even to write
■them, though he generally rode a very mettlefome fteed.
His 7 hefaurus was his great work, but he was alfo the
authorof feveral other treatifes. His poems are numerous*.
His Apology for Herodotus is a witty fatire on the
Roman Catholics. His Concordance to the New Tel-
tament mult have been a laborious work, and has de*
fervedly endeared him to every Chriftian who wifhes to
acquire a rational and critical knowledge of the Scrip¬
tures. The number of books which he publifhed,
though tewer than his father, was great, and fuperior in
elegance to any thing which the world had then feen.
A great proportion of them were Greek ; he was the edi¬
tor, however, of many Roman and even of fome eaftern
writings. His Greek claflics are remarkably corredt ;
the principal of them are Homer, Anacreon, zEfchylus,
Maximus Tyrius, Diodorus Siculus, Pindar, Xenophon,
Thucydides, Herodotus, Sophocles, Diogenes Laertius,
Plutarch, Plato, Apollonius Rhodius, iEiciiynes, Ly-
lias, Callimachus, Theocritus, Herodian, Dionylius
Hallicarnaflenfis, Dion Caffius, liberates, Appian, Xi-
philin, &c. His temper in the latter part of his life is
reprefented as haughty and fevere, owing probably to
his difappointments. He left behind him a fon and two
daughters, one of whom was married to the learned
Ifaac Calaubon, •
Paul Stephens, the fon of Henry, continued his
father’s profeffion at Geneva. Pie was a man of learn¬
ing, and wrote tranflationsof feveral books, and publifh¬
ed a confiderable number of the ancient claffics ; but his
editions poffefs little of his father’s elegance. He died
in 1627, at the age of 6c, after felling his types to
oneChouet a printer—His fon Antony, the laft printer
of the family, abandoned the Protdlant religion, and re¬
turned to France, the country of his anceftors. He re¬
ceived letters of naturalization in 16x2, and was made
printer to the king; but managing his affairs ill, he was
reduced to poverty, and obliged to retire into an hofpi-
tal, where he died in 1674, miferable and blind, at the
age of 8c.
Stephens’s Medicine for the Stone, See Alkali,
17.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
Statenra-
risuu
II
SrerlLg.
1 S T E
STERCORARIANS, or S rER.coRANisT.sv form¬
ed from Jitrcm “ dung,” a name which thofe of the
Romifh church anciently gave to Inch as held that the
holt was liable to digeliion, and all its confequences,
like other food.
SPLRCULTA, in botany : A genus of plants be¬
longing to the clals of monaeciu, and order of monocle lphia ;
and in the natural fyftem under the 38thorder, tricocce/e.
The male calyx is quinquepartite ; there is no corolla,
but there are 17 filaments. I he female calyx is quin*
quepartite ; there is no corolla ; the germen is placed
on a pdlar, and the capfule is quinquelocular, and many-
feeded. There are three fpecies, the balanghas, fee-
tida, and platanifohurn, all foreign plants.
STEREOGRAPHIC projection, is the projec¬
tion of the circles of the fphere on the plane of lome
one great circle, the eye being placed in the pole of that
circle. See Projkction of the Sphere.
S 1 EREOME FRY, STt^f^cTpioq formed of npt c
johd, and meafure, that part of geometry whjch
teaches howto meafure folid bodies, i. e. to find the fo-
lidity or folid contents of bodies; as globes, cylinders,
cubes, veffels, {hips, &c.
SPEREOTOMY, formed from rE/>!»r, and
feflion, the art or aft of cutting folids, or making fec-
tions thereof; as walls and other membranes in the pro¬
files of architefture.
S i ER1LI 1 \ , barrennefs, In oppofitiou to fertiliry.
It has been afferted by many authors, that all monfters
produced by a mixture of different fpecies of animals,
inch as mules, are barren ; but this does not hold uni-
verfally, even with the mule, which is the in fiance moft
generally adduced. See Mule.
Sterility in women fometimes happens from a mifear-
riage, or violent labour injuring fome of the genital
parts; but one of the moil frequent caufes is the lup-
preffion of the menftrual flux.—There are other caufts
anfjng from various difeafes incident to thofe pars ; by
which the uterus may be unfit to receive or retain the
male feed ; from the tulxe fallopiance being too fhort,
or having loft their ereftive power ; in either of which
cafes no conception can take place ;—from univerfal de¬
bility and relaxation ; or a local debility of the genital
fyftem ; by which means, the parts having loft their
tone or contraftile power, the femen is thrown off im¬
mediately pojl coitum ;—from imperforation of the va-
gma, the uterus, or the tuba, or from difeafed ovas, &c.
Hence medical treatment can only avail in cafes arifing
from topical or univerfal debility ; in correcting irregu¬
larities of the menftrual flux, or in removing tumors,
cicatrices, or conflriftions of the paffage, by the art of
furgery.
STERIS, in botany: A genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of pentandria, and order of digynia. The
calyx is quinquepartite ; the corolla wheehfhaped ; the
berry is unilocular, and many-feeded. There is only
one fpecies, the javana, a foreign plant.
STERLING, an epithet by which genuine Englifh
money is diftinguiftied. It is unneceffary to mention
the various conjeftures of antiquaries about the origin
and meaning of this appellation. The moft probable Henry's
opinion feems to be this, that fome artifts from Ger- HiJiory f
many, who were called EJierlings, from the fituation yo\U
their country, had been employed in fabricating our hi. p. J41,
5 H money,
t
S T E [ 704 1 S T E
Sf«rn, money, which confifted chiefly of filver pennies ; and
t ■St<rn?- [ that from them the penny was called an ejlerling, and
* our money efierling orJierhng money.
STERN, the pofterior face of a fliip ; or that part
which is reprefented to the view of a ipeftator, placed
on the continuation of the keel behind. The (tern is
terminated above by the taffarel, and below by the coun¬
ters ; it is limited on the lides by the quarter-pieces, and
the intermediate fpace comprehends the galleries and
windows of the different cabins. See Quarter oj a
kh'ip. Ship, and Ship-building.
SrERN-Fafl, a rope uied to confine the flern of a
fhip or boat to any wharf or jetty-head, &c.
Stern-Mo/I, in lea language, ufually denotes that
part of a fleet of fhips which is in the rear, or larthelt
a-ftern, as oppofed to head-moft.
Stern-PnJ}, a long ftraight piece of timber eredfed
©n the extremity of the keel, to fuitain the rudder and
terminate the Ihip behind.
This piece, which is exprefled by B in the pieces of
t,he hull, Plate CCCCLIV. fig. 1. ought to be well fe-
cured and fupported ; becaufe the ends of all the lower
planks of the fhip’s bottom are fixed in a channel, cut
on its furface ; and the whole weight of the rudder is
fuftained by it.
SrERN-Sheets, that part of a boat which is contained
between the ftern and the aftmofi or hindmoft ieat of
the rowers. It is generally furnifhed with benches to
accommodate the pafiengers. See Boat.
STERNA, the Tern; a genus of birds arranged
under the order of palmipedes. The marks of this ge¬
nus are a ftraight, flender, pointed bill, linear nofirP.s, a
flender and fharp tongue, very long wings, a fmall back
toe, and a forked tail. There are 25 fpecies, according
to Dr Latham ; the cafpia, cayana, furinamenfis, tuli-
ginofa, africana, llolida, philippina, fimplex, nilotica,
boyfii, ftriata, vittata, fpadicea, pifcata, hirundo, pa-
naya, cinerea, alba, minuta, finenfis, auflralis, metopo-
leucos, fiffipes, nigra, and obfcura. Three of thefe
©nly aie found in Great Britain ,■ the hirundo, minuta,
and fiflipes.
1. The hirundo, common tern, or great fea-fwallow,
weighs four ounces one-quarter; the length is 14 inches;
the breadth 30 ; the bill and feet are of a fine crim-
fon ; the former tipt with black, flraight, flender, and
fharp-pointed ; the crown, and hind part of the head,
black ; the throat, and whole underfide of the body,
white ; the upper part, and the coverts ot the wings, a
fine pale grey. The tail conlrfts of 12 feathers ; the
exterior edges of the three outmoft are grey, the reft
white ; the exterior on each fide is two inches longer
than the others : in flying, the bird frequently clofes
them together, fo as to make them appear one flender
feather.
Latlam's This is a very common fpecies ; frequents our fea-
Synopfis, coafts and banks of lakes and rivers during the fummer,
Toi. vji. kut moft common in the neighbourhood of the fea. It
is found alfo in various parts of Europe and Afia, ac¬
cording to the feafon ; in the fummer as far as Green¬
land and Spitzbergen, migrating in turn to the fouth of
Auftria and Greece. It lays three or four eggs about
the'’'month of June, of a dull olive colour, an inch and
three quarters in length, marked with irregular black
fpots, intermixed with fome others of a fmaller fize, and
Jefe bright; the little end is almoft free from any mark¬
ings. Thefe are laid among the grafs or mofs. The Sterna,
young are hatched in July, and quit the neft very foon ciLfcr'1«-
after. They are carefully fed by their parents, and fly' y
in about fix weeks. I ids bird appears to have all the
adions on the water which the fwallow has on land,
fkimming on the iurface, and leizing on every infect
which comes in its way ; befides which, the moment it
fpies a fi.fti in the water, it darts into that element, and
feizing its prey arifes as quickly to the place from
which it dippe’d.
Thefe birds are alfo found in America; come into
New England in May, and go away in autumn, and are
called there the mackartl gull. At Hudfon’s Bay they
are known by the name of black-head. \ hey are obferved
to lay their eggs in fmall hollows on the fhore, iometimes
lined with a few leaves. They are often found in great
numbers on the ifletsin the middle o: the rivers, and a^e
thought good eating. The natives of Hudlon’s Bay call
them Kenouch ene on keajh. They are bold, not fea-’ing
mankind, and in the time of incubation will attack any
one, irequently darting down fo as to touch a perionV
hat, without his giving the leaft offence.
2. The minuta, or fmaller fea-fwallow, (called by Lin¬
naeus la'us mmuta), weighs only two ounces five grains;,
the lenoth 8 inches and a half; the breadth 19 and a
half. The bill is yellow, tipt with black ; the forehead
and cheeks white ; from the eyes to the bill is a black
line ; the top of the head and hind part black ; the breaib
and under fide ot the body clothed with feathersfo clofely
fet together, and ot fuch an exquiiite rich glofs and fo fine
a white, that no Fatin can be compared to it: the back and
wing's of a pale grey : the tail fhort, lefs forked than
that of the former, and white: the legs yellow : the
irides dufky.—Thefe two fpecies are very delicate, and
feem unable to bear the inclemency of the weather on
our fhores during winter, for we obierve that they quit
their breeding places at the approach of it, and do net
return till fpripg. The manners, haunts, and food of
this fpecies are the fame with thole of the former ; but
they are far lefs numerous.
3. 1 he fijfipes, or black tern, is of a middle fize be?
tween the iirft and fecond ipecies. The ulual length is
10 inches ; the breadth 24 ; the weight two ounces and
a half The head, neck, breaft, and belly, as far as the
vent, are black ; beyond is white ; the male has a white
foot under its chin ; the back and wings are of a deep
aih colour : the tail is fhort and forked; the exterior
feather on each fide is white ; the others afh-coloured r.
the legs and feet o! a dufky red. Mr Ray calls this a
cloven-footed gull, as the webs are deprefled in the mid¬
dle, and form a crefcent. Thefe birds frequent frtfh
waters, breed on their banks, and lay three Imall eggs
of a deep olive colour, much fpotted with black. They
are found during fpiing and fummer in vait numbers in
the Fens of Lincolnfhire, make an inceffant noife, and
feed on flies as well as water infebfs and fmall filh. Birds
of this Ipecies are feen very remote 'rom land. Kalm
law flocks of hundreds in the Atlantic Ocean, midway
between England and America, and a later voyager faw
one 240 leagues from the Lizard, in the fame ocean.
STERNE (Laurence), an Englifli writer of a very
peculiar caft, was born at Clomwell, in the fouth of Ire¬
land, on 24th November 1713. His father Roger Sterne
was the grandfon of Sterne archbifhop of Yoik, wha
has been fuppofed, we know not upon what grounds,.
to
S T E r 79
Sreme to have been the author of the excellent book intitled
l! “ The Whole Duty of Man.” Laurence inherited no-
St-ernn. thing of his anceftor’s manner of writing, but rather re-
. y^ fembled Rabelais, whofe wit he carried with him even
into the pulpit.
In 1722 he was fent to fchool at Halifax in York-
jfhire, where he continued till 1732, when he was remo¬
ved to Jefus College in Cambridge. How long he re-
fided in college, or what progrefs he made in literature
or fcience, is not known : his works difplay rather na¬
tive genius than profound erudition. Upon quitting
the univerfity he went to York, and being in orders was
prefented to the living of Sutton by the intercft of his
uncle Dr Sterne, a prebendary of that church. In 1741
he married, and was foon afterwards made a prebendary
of York, by the interefl alfo of his uncle, who was then
upon very good terms with him ; but “ quickly quarrel¬
led with him (he fays), and became his bittereft ene¬
my, becaufe he would not be a party man, and write
paragraphs in the newfpapers.” By his wdfe’s means
he got the living of Stillington, but remained near 20
years at Sutton, dding duty at both places. He was
then in very good health, which, however, foon after
forfook him ; and books, painting, fiddling, and (hoot¬
ing, were, as he tells us, his amufements.
In 1760, he went to London to publifh his two
firft volumes of “ Triltram Shandy and was that
year prefented to the curacy of Coxwold. In 1762 he
went to France, and two years after to Italy, for the
recovery of his health ; but his health never was reco¬
vered. He languiflred under a confumption of the
lungs without the flighteft depreffion of fpirits, till
1768, when death put a period to his terreilrial exitl-
ence.
The works of Sterne are very generally read. They
confift of, x. The Life and Opinions of Triftram Shan¬
dy ; 2. Sermons ; 3. A Sentimental Journey ; 4. Let¬
ters, publifhed fince his death. In every ferious page,
and in many of much levity, the author writes in praife
of benevolence, and declares that no one who knew him
could tuppofe him one of thofe wretches who heap mis¬
fortune upon misfortune : But we have heard anecdotes
of him extremely well authenticated, which proved that
it was eafier tor him to praife this virtue than to
praftife it. His wit is univerfally allowed ; but many
readers have perfuaded themfelves that they found wit
in his blank pages, while it is probable that he intend¬
ed nothing but to amufe himlelf with the idea of the
fage conjectures to which thefe pages would give occa-
fron. Even his originality is not fuch as is generally
fuppofed by thofe fond admirers of the Shandean man¬
ner, who have prefumed to compare him with Swirt,
Arbuthnot, and Butler. He has borrowed both mat¬
ter and manner from various authors, as every reader
may be convinced by the learned, elegant, and candid
comments on his woiks publifhed by Dr Farrier, in the
fourth volume of the Memoirs of the Literary and Fhi-
lofophical Society of Manchefter.
STERNOCOSTALES, commonly called the mu/-
culi triangulares Jlerniy in anatomy, are five pairs of
fiefhy planes, difpofed more or lets obliquely on each fide
the fternum, on the infides of the cartilages of the ie-
cond, third, fourth, fifth, and fixth true ribs.
STERNO-hyoidjeus, in anatomy. See Table of
the Mujcles, under the article Anatomy.
; 1 S T E
STERNOMANTIS, in antiquity, a defignatlonStfrnoman-
given to the Delphian prieftefs, m >re ufually called Py- ^j8
thia.—Sternomantis is alfo ufed for any one that had steward,
a prophefying demon within him. '...--y—
STERNOMASTOIDiEUS, a mufcle. S e Table
of the Mufclesy under Anatomy.
STERNOTHYRCIDEUS, a mufcle. See Table
of the Mufclesy under Anatomy.
STERNUM. See Anatomy, n° 37.
STERNUTATIVE, or Sternutatory, a medh’
cine proper to produce fneezing. See Sneezing.
STETIN, or Stettin, a feaport town of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and capital of
Hither Pomerania, with the title of a duchy, and a
caftle. It had long a famous fchool, which the wars of
Germany never difturbed. The ancient dukes of Po¬
merania refided here ; and it was taken by the eleftor
of Brandenburg in 1676, but given to Sweden by the
treaty of Nimeguen. In 1713 it fubmitted to the al¬
lies ; and then the faid eleftor was put in pofleflion again
of this important place, which is a bulwark to the
Marche of Brandenburg ; and the fortifications have
been greatly improved. It is now a flourilhing place,
and carries on a confiderable trade. It is feated on the
river Oder, 72 miles north of Francfort, and 70 north
by call of Berlin. E. Long. 14. 38. N. Lat. 53. 35.
The duchy is 125 miles in length, and borders upon
Mecklenburg, and partly upon Brandenburg. The
breadth is from 17 to 25 miles, and it is divided by
the river Oder into two parts.
STEW, a fmall kind of fifh pond, the peculiar ufe
of which is to maintain fifh, and keep them in readinefs
for the daily ufe of the family, &c.
Stews (from the French ejluves, i. e. therm*, bal¬
neum ), thofe places which were permitted in Eng¬
land to women of profeffed incontinency, and that for
hire would proflitute their bodies to all cqmers; fo call
ed, btcaufe dilfolute perfons are wont to prepare them
felves for venereous a£is by bathing; and hot baths were
by Homer reckoned among the effeminate fort of plea-
fures. Thele ftews were fuppreffed by King Hen. VIII.
about the year 1546.
STEWARD [fenefcal/us, compounded of the Saxon
fleda, i. e. “ room;” or flead and <weard, “ a ward” or
“keeper”), an officer appointed in another’s dead or
place, and always taken for a principal officer within his
jurifdi&ion. Of thefe there are various kinds. The
greateft officer under the crown is the lord high-fteward
of England, an office that was anciently the inheritance
of the earls of Eeicefter, till forfeited by Simon de
Mountfort to King Henry III. But the power of this
officer is fo very great, that it has not been judged fafe
to truft it any longer in the hands of a fubjedl, except¬
ing only pro hac vice, occafionally : as to officiate at a
coronation, at the arraignment of a nobleman for high-
treafon, or the like. During his office, the Reward
bears a white ftaff in his hand ; and the trial, &c. end¬
ed, he breaks the Raff, and with it his commiffion ex¬
pires. There is likewife a lord Reward of the king’s
houfehold, who is the chief officer of the king’s court,
has the care of the king’s houle, and authority over all
the officers and fervants of the houfehold, except fuch
as belong to the chapel, chamber, and Rable.
Steward, an officer in a fliip of war, appointed by
the purler to diRribute the different fpeciea of provi-
5 H a Rons
s. T. E [ 796 1 S T E
StawarJ. fions to the officers'and crew ; for which purpofe he is are therein the judges both of law and fa&, and the ^e^rd. ^
 ,   Jarniffied'with a mate and proper affillants. high-tteward has a vote with the red in right of h.s v
' Court of the Lord High Stevakd of Great Britain, is peerage. But m the court of the lord high-fteward,
a court inftituted for the trial of peers indifted for trea- which is held in the recefs of parliament, he is the foie
fon or felony, or for mifprifion of either. The office of judge of matteis of law, as the lords triors are in matters
this ^eat magiftrate is very ancient, and was formerly of fa& ; and as they may not interfere w.th him in re-
hereditary, or’at lead held for life, or dum bene fe gejft- gulating the proceedings of the court, fo he has no
rli. but now it is ufually, and hath been for many cen- right to intermix with them m giving any vote upon: -
turies pad, granted pro hue vice only; and it hath been the trial. Therefore, upon the convfolion and attain-
the condant pra&ice (and therefore feems now to have der of a peer for murder in full par.iament, it hath been
become neceffary) to grant it to a lord of parliament, holden by the judges, that in cale the day appointed in
elfe he is incapable to try fuch delinquent peer. When the judgment for execution ffiould lapfe betore execu-
fuch an indictment is therefore found by a grand jury tion done, a new time of execution may be appointed
of freeholders in the King’s-bench, or at the affixes be- by either the high court of parliament during its fit-
fore the judices of oyer and terminer, it is to be removed ting, though no high-deward be exithng, or, m the re-
by a writ of certiorari into the court of the lord high- cels of parliament, by the court of King’s bench, the
deward, which has the only power to determine it. A record being removed into that court,
peer may plead a pardon before the court of King’s- It has been a point of fome controverfy, whether the
bench, and the judges have power to allow it, in order bidiops have now a right to fit in the court of thelord-
to prevent the trouble of appointing an high-fieward high-fteward to try indictments of treaton and milpti-
merely for the purpofe of receiving fuch plea : but he lion. Some incline to imagine them included under
may not plead in that inferior court any other plea, as the general words ot the datute of King William “ au
guilty or not guilty of the indictment, but only in this peers who have a right to fit and vote in parliament;
court ; becaufe, in confequence of fuch plea, it is pof- but the expreffion had been much clearer, if it had been
fible that judgment of death might be awarded againd “ all lords,” and not “ all peers for though bifhops,
him. The king, therefore, in cafe a peer be indifted of on account of the baronies annexed to then bifhopncs,
treafon, felony, or mifprilion, creates a lord high-fleward are clearly lords of parliament, yet their blood not be-
TJulfove's pr0 hac vice by commiffion under the great feal; which ing ennobled, they are not umvertally allowed to be
Comment*!- rec{tes ^be indi&ment fo found, and gives his Grace peers with the temporal nobility: and peinaps this
«ri„,Yvl. iv r to recdve and try k jecumUm legem et confuetudi- word might be inferted purpotely with a view to ex-
nem dn<rli<e. Then when the indiftment is regularly re- elude them. However, there is no indance of their fit-
moved Irv writ of certiorari, commanding the inferior ting on trials for capital offences, even upon impeach-
coutt to certify it up to him, the lord high-deward di- ments or iudi&ments in full parliament, much led in the
refts a precept to a fergeant at arms, to fummon the court we are now treating of ; for indeed they ufually
lords to attend and try the indifted peer. i his pre- withdraw voluntarily, but enter a proced, declaring
cept was foimerly iffued to fummon only 18 or 20 fe- their right to day. It is obfervable, that in the nth
lefted from the body of the peers; then the number chapter of the conditutions of C larendon, made in par-
came to be indefinite; and the cudom was for the lord- liament nth Hen. II. they are exprefsly excufed, 1a-
high-deward to fummon as many as he thought proper ther than excluded, from fitting and voting m trials,
(but of late years not lefs than 23) ; and that thofe when they come to concern life or limb : epfeopt, juut
lords only fhould fit upon the trial; which threw a exteri bar ones, debent inCreJfe judicus cum bar ambus, quouf
tuondrous weight of power into the hands of the crown, que pervematur ad diminut 'wnem membrorum vel ad mor-
and this its great officer, of felefting only fuch peers as tern. And Becket’s quarrel with the king hereupon
the then predominant party ffiould mod approve of. was not on account of the exception (which was agree-
And accordingly, when the earl of Clarendon fell into able to the canon law), but of the general rule, that
difgrace with Charles li. there was a defign formed to compelled the biffiops to attend at all. And the deter-
prorogue the parliament, in order to try him by a fe- mination of the houfe of lords in the earl of Dauby s
left number of peers ; it being doubted whether the ✓cafe, which hath ever dnee been achered to, is coffio-
whole houfe could be induced to fall in with the views nant to thefe conditutions ; “ that the lords Ipiritual
of the court. But now, by datute 7 W. III. c. 3. up- have a right to day and fit in court in capital cafes, till
on all trials of peers for treafon or mifprifion, all the the court proceeds to the vote of guilty or not guilty,
oeers who have a right to fit and vote in parliament It mud be noted, that this retolution extends only to
ffiall be fummoned at lead 20 days before fuch trial, to trials in full parliament ; for to the court of the loid
apoear and vote therein ; and every lord appearing ffiall high-fteward (in which no vote can be given, but mere-
vote in the trial of fuch peer, fird taking the oaths of ly that of guilty or not guilty), no brffiop, as fuch, ever
allegiance and fupremacy, and fubferibing the declara- was or could be fummoned: and though the datute of
don againd popery. King William regulates the proceedings in that court,
During the leffion of patliament, the trial of an in- as well as in the court of parliament, yet it never in-
difted peer is not properly in the court of the lord high- tended to new-model or alter its conditution; and con-
fteward, but before the court lad mentioned of our lord fequently does not give the lords Ipiritual any right, in
the king in parliament. It is true, a lord high deward cafes of blood, which they had not before. And what
is always appointed in that cafe to regulate and add makes their exclufion more reafonable is, that they have
weight to the proceedings : but he is rather in the na- no right to be tried themfelves in the court of the lord
ture of a fpeaker pro tempore, or chairman of the court, high-deward, and therefore furely ought not to be
thau the judge of it j for the colleftive body of the peas judges there. For the privilege of being thus tried
a depends
S T E
Sfeward,
S>ewu! r.
depends upon nobility of blood rather than a feat in the
( houfe, as appears from the trials of popilh lords, of lords
under age, and (lince the union) of the Scotch nobility,
though not in the number of the fixteen ; and from the
trials of females, fuch as the queen confort or dowager,
and of all peereffes by birth ; and peereffes by marriage
alio, unlefs they have, when dowagers, difparaged them-
felves by taking a commoner to their fecond hufband.
S t £ iy a n o of the C hi/tern Hundreds. See Chil term
H undreds.
STEWART (Dr Matthew), was in 1717 born at
Rothfay in the ille of Bute, of which pariili his father
was the minifter. Being intended for the church, he
went through the ufualcourfe of a grammar-fchool edu¬
cation, and was in 1734 received: as a Undent into the
univerfity of Glafgow. There he had the happinefs of
having for his preceptors in moral fcience and in mathe¬
matics the celebrated profelfors Hutchefon and Simfon
by the latter of whom he was inftru&ed in what may
not improperly be called the arcana of the ancient geo¬
metry.
Mr Stewart’s views making it neceffary for him to
remove to Edinburgh, he was introduced by Dr Sim¬
fon to Mr Maclaurin, that his mathematical tludies
Account of might fuffer no interruption ; and he attended the lec-
r 797 1
S T E
Br Stetv.rt tures of that great mailer with fuch advantage as might
in the b.Jrn-1 exoe&ed from eminent abilities. direAed hv t-hf?
burgh Phi
lofcphical
(rran]ac¬
tions, v >
by Mr
i'lyfair.
be expe&ed from eminent abilities, diredled by the
judgment of him who made the philofophy and geo¬
metry of Newton intelligible to ordinary capacities.
'• Mr Stewart, however, had acquired, from his intimacy
with Dr Simfon, fuch a predilettion for the ancient
geometry, as the modern analyfis, however powerfully
recommended, could not leflen ; and he kept up a re¬
gular correfpondence with his old mailer, giving him an
account of his progrefs and his difeoveries in. geometry,
and receiving in return many cut ions communications
refpeCting the Loci Plant and the porifms of Euclid.
See Porism and Simson.
While the fecond invention of porifms, to which more
genius was perhaps required than to the firft difeovery
of them, employed Dr Simfon, Mr Stewart purfued the
fame fubjedt in ?. different and new direction. In doing
fo, he was led to the difeovery of thofe curious and in-
terefting propolitions which were publifhed under the
title of Gene>al Theorems in 174^’ They were given
without the demonftrations ; but did not fail to place
their dilcoverer at once among the geometers of the
firft rank. They are for the moil part porifms, though
Mr Stewart, careful not to anticipate the difeoveries of
his friend, gave them no other name than that of theo¬
rems..
Our author had before this period entered into the
church and obtained, through the patronage of the
duke of Argyle and the earl of Bute, the living of
Rofeneath, a retired country paiifh in the weft of Scot¬
land : but in 1 747 he was eledled to the mathematical
chair in the univerfity of Edinburgh, which had become
vacant the year before by the death- of Mr Maclaurin.
The duties of this office gave a turn fomewhat different
to his purfuits, and led him to think of the moft fimple
and elegant means of explaining thofe difficult propo-
fitions which were hitherto only accefilble to men deep¬
ly verfed in the modern analyfis. In doing this, he was
purfuing the objedf which of all others he moft ardent¬
ly wifiied to attain, viz. the application of geometry to
fuch problems as the algebraic calculus alone had been
thought able to refolve. His folution of Kepler’s pro-
blem was the firfl fpecimen of this kind which he gave
to the world ; and it was‘impofiible to have produced
one more to the credit of the method he followed, or of
the abilities with which he applied it. On this problem
the utmoft refources of the mtegral calculus had been,
employed. But though many excellent folutions had
been given, there was none of them at once direff in
its method and fimple in its principles. Mr Stewart
was fo happy as to attain both thefe obje&s ; and his
folution appeared in the fecond volume oi the Effays of
the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh for the year
1736. In the firft volume of the fame collection there
are fome other propoiitions of Mr Stewart’s, which are
an extenfion of a curious theorem in the fourth book of
Pappus. They have a relation to the fubjed of po-
rifms, and one of them forms the 91ft of Dr Simfon’s
Reiteration. 1 hey are befides very beautiful propo-
fitions, and are demonftrated with all the elegance and
limplicity of the ancient analyfis.
The profecution of the plan which he had formed -
of introducing into the higher parts of mixed mathe¬
matics the ftrict and iimple form of ancient demonftra-
tion, produced the Tracis Phyfical and Mathematical*
which were publi/hed in 1761, and the EJfay on the Surds
Dijlance, which was publifhed in 1763. In this lalfc
wotkit is acknowledged that he employed geometry on
a tafk which geometry cannot perform ; but while it is
granted that his determination of the fun’s diftance is
by no means free horn error, it may fafely be afferted
that it contains a great deal which will always intereft
geometers, and will always be admired by them. Few
errors in fcience are redeemed by the difplay of fo much,
ingenuity, and what is more fingular, of fo much found
realoning. The inveftigation is everywhere elegant,
and will probably be long regarded as a fpecimen of the
moft arduous inquiry which has been attempted by mere
geometry.
The Sun’s Dijlance was the laft work which Dr
Stewart publifhed; and though he lived to fee feveral
animadverfions on it made public, he declined entering
into any controverfy. PIiH difpofition was far from po¬
lemical ; and he knew the value of that quiet which a
literary man fttould rarely fuffer his antagouifts to in¬
terrupt. He ufed to fay, that the decilion of the
point in queftion was now before the public ; that if
his inveftigation was right it would never be overturned,
and that if it was wrong it ought not to be defended.
A few months before he publifhed the eftay juft men¬
tioned, he gave to the world another work, intitled
Propojitiones Gcomet 1 icx More Veterum Demonjhat*. This
title, it is faid, was given to it by Dr Simfon, who re¬
joiced in the publication of a work fo well calculated
to promote the ftudy of the ancient geometry. It con-
fifts of a feries of geometrical theorems for the moft
part new; inveftigated firft by an analyfis, and after¬
wards fynthetically demonftrated by the inverfion of the
fame analyfis.
Dr Stewart’s conftant ufe of the geometrical analy¬
fis had put him in pofteffion of many valuable propoii-
tions which did not enter into the plan of any of the
works that have been enumerated. Of thefe not a few.
have.
Stewart.
 , J
S T I [798
Stew rt have found a place in the writings ofDr Stmfon, where
they will f#r ever remain to mark the f'riendfhip of
thefe two mathematicians, and to evince the efteerp
which Dr Simfon entertained for the abilities of his
pupi!- .
Soon after the publication of the Sun's Di/lance, Dr
Stewart’s health began to decline, and the duties of his
office became burdenfome to him In the year 1772
he retired to the country, where he afterwards fpent the
greater part of his life, and never refumed his labours
in the univerfity. But though mathematics had now
cealed to be his bufinefs, they continued to be his amufe-
ment till a very few years before his death, which hap¬
pened on the 23d of January 1785, at the age of 68.
The habits of ftudy, in a man of original genius,
are obje<P:s of curiolky, and defei ve to be remembered.
Concerning thofe of Dr Stewart, his writings have
made it unr.ecdfary to remark, that from his youth he
had been accuifomed to the moft intenfe and continued
application. In confequence of this application, added
to the natural vigour of his mind, he retained the me¬
mory of his difcoveries in a manner that will hardly be
believed. He rarely wrote down any of his invetliga-
tions till it became necefiary to do fo for the purpofe of
publication. When he difcovered any propofition, he
would put down the enunciation wrh great accuracy,
and on the fame piece of paper would conftrudt very
neatly the figure to which it referred. To thefe he
trufted for recalling to his mind at any future period
the demonilration or the analyfis, however complicated
st might be. Experience had taught him, that he
might place this confidence in himfelf without any dan¬
ger of difappointment; and for this fingular power he
was probably more indebted to the adlivity of his in¬
vention than the mere tenacioufnefs of his memory. Tho’
be was extremely fludious, he read few books, and veri¬
fied the obfervation of M. D’Alembert, that of all the
men of letters, mathematicians read leaf! of the writings
of one another. His own inveftigations occupied him
fufficiently ; and indeed the world would have had rea-
fon to regret the mifapplication of his talents, had he
employed in the mere acquifition of knowledge that
time which he could dedicate to works of invention.
Stewart, in Scots law. See Law, N°clviii. 5.
STEWARTIA, in botany : A genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of monode/ph'ia, and order of poly an-
dria ,* and in the natural fyflem ranging under the 37th
order, Columnifera. The calyx is fimple; the ftyle is
fijanple, with a quinquefio ftigma; the apple is without
juice, quinquelobed, monofpermous, burfting open with
a fpring five ways. There is only one fpecies, the ma-
laLodendron, which is a foreign plant.
STIBADIUM, among the Romans, a low kind of
table couch or bed of a circular form, which fucceeded
to the triclinia, and was of different fixes, according to
the number of guefts they were defigned for. They
were called hexaclina, oRachna, or enneachna, according
as they held fix, eight, or nine guefts, and fo of any
other number.
STIBIUM, a name for Antimony.
STICHOS, a name given by the old writers to a
peftoral confeftion, the principal ingredient of which
was the heib marrubium or horehound.
STICKLEBACK, in ichthyology. See Gaste-
AOSTEUS.
]
s t r
Foot-STICKS, in printing, flips of wood that lie Foot-ftick*
between the foot of the page and the chafe, to which II
they are wedged faftby the quoins, to keep the form firm, Sm1, ,
in conjunftion with the fide flicks, which are placed at ~ v
the fide of the page, and fixed in the f ame manner by
means of quoins.
S FIFFLE, or great muscle, in the manege, is
the part of the hind leq of a horfe which advances to¬
wards his belly. This is a moft dangerous part to re¬
ceive a bio at upon.
STIGM A, a brand or impreffion with a hot iron ; a
mark of infamy. See Stigma r izing.
StiGma, in botany, the fummit or top of the ftyle,
accounted by the fexualifts the female organ of genera¬
tion in plants, which receives the fecundating dull of
the tops of the ftamina, and tranfmits its vapour or ef¬
fluvia through the ftyle into the heart of the feed-bud,
for the purpofe of impregnating the feeds.
STUIM.vTrS, in natural hiftory, the apertures in
different parts of the bodies of infedls communicating
with the tracheae or air-veffels, and ferving for the of¬
fice of refpivation.
Stigmata, in antiquity, certain marks impreffed on
the left fhoulders of the foldiers when lifted.
Stigmata, were alfo a kind of notes or abbrevia¬
tions, confifting only of points, difpofed various ways ;
as in triangles, fqUares, croffes, &c.
Stigmata, is alfo a term introduced by the Fran-
cifcans, to exprefs the marks or prints of our Saviour’s
wounds, faid to have been miraculoufly impreffed by
him on the body of their feraphic father St Francis.
STIGMATIZING, among the ancients, was in-
fliftedupon flaves as a punifhment, but more frequently
as a mark to know them by : in which cafe, it was
done by applying a red-hot iron marked with certain
letters to their fore-heads, till a fair impreffion was made;
and then pouring ink into their furrows that the in-
fcription might be the more confpicuous.
Soldiers we>e branded in the hand with the name or
charafter of their general.
After the fame manner, it was cuftomary to fligma-
tize the worfhippers and votaries of fome of the gods.
The ma ks uied on thefe occafions were various; fome-
times they contained the name of the god, fometimes
his paiticular enfign, as the thunderbolt of Jupiter, the
trident of Neptune, the ivy of Bacchus, &c. or they
marked themlelves with fome myftical number, whereby
the god’s name was defcribed. To thefe three ways of
ftigmatizing St John is fuppofed to refer (Rev. chap,
xiii. ver. 16, 17.). Theodoret is of opinion, that the
Jews were forbidden to brand themfelves with ftigmata,
becaufe the idolaters, by that ceremony, ufed to con¬
fect ate themfelves to their falfe gods.
Among fome nations, ftigmatizing was confidered
as a diftinguifhing mark of honour and nobility In
Thrace, as Herodotus tells us *, it was pra&ifed by none * Bib. v.
but perfons of credit, nor omitted by any but perfons
of the meaneft rank. The ancient Britons are alfo laid
to have imprinted on the bodies of their infants the i
figures of animals, and other marks, with hot irons.
STIL de grain, in the colour trade, the name of a
compofition ufed for painting in oil or water, and is
made of a decoftion of the lycium or Avignon berry,
in alum-water, which is mixed with whiting into a
pafte, and formed into twilled flicks. It ought to be
3 choCea
Stilago
Stiiling-
s T I [ 799 ] S T I
chofen of a fine gold yellow, very fine, tender, and Fri¬
able, and free from dirt.
STILAGO, in botany ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of gynandna, and order of triandria.
There is one female. The calyx is monophyllous, and
almoft three-lobed. There is no corolla, and the berry
is globular. There is only one (pecies, the bunius.
STILBE, in botany ; a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of polygamic., and order ot diacla The
exterior calyx of the hermaphrodite flower is triphyl-
lous ; the interior is quinquedentate and cartilaginous.
The corolla is funnel-fhaped and quinquefid. There
are four ftamina ; and there is one feed in the interior
calyx calyptrate. The female flower is fimilar, has no
interior c?.lyx nor fruit There are three fpecies, the
pinaftra, ericoides, and cornua, all foreign plants.
STILE. See Style.
STILL, the name of an apparatus ufed in chemi-
ftry and in the dilfillation of ardent fpirits. See Che-
m i str \ - Index at 1 Jijldlation and Still.
SriLL-Bottoms, in the diflillery, a name given by the
traders to what remains in the ftill after working the
wafh into low wines. Thefe bottoms are procured in
the greateft quantity from the tnalt-wafh, and are of fo
much value to the diftiller in the fattening of hoos, &c.
that he often finds them one of the moft valuable arti¬
cles of the bufinefs
STILLINGFLEET (Edward), bifhop of Wor-
cefter, was the fon of Samuel Stillingfleet gentleman,
and was born at Cranborn in Dorfetfhire in *635. He
was educated at St John's College, Cambridge ; and
having received holy orders, was, in 1657, prefented
to the re£!ory ot Sutton in Nottinghamfhire. By
publifhing his Origines Sacra, one of the ablefl defences
of revealed religion that has ever been written, he
foon acquired fuch reputation, that he was appointed
preacher of the Rolls Chapel; and in January 1665
was prefented to the reftory of St Andrew’s, Hol-
born. He was afterwards chofen letturer at the
Temple, and appointed chaplain in ordinary to king
Charles II. In 1668 he took the degree of doftor
of divinity ; and war. foon after engaged in a difpute
with thofe of the Romiih religion, by publifhing his
difconrfe concerning the idolatry and fanaticifm of the
church of Rome, which he afterwards defended again ft
feveral antagonifts. In 1680 he preached at Guild¬
hall chapel a feimon on Phil. iii. 26. which he pub-
lilhed under the title of The Mif Jnef of Separation ; and
this being immediately attacked by feveral writers, he
in 1683 publifhed his Unreafonablcnefs of Separation.
In 1 685 appeared his Origines Britannica, or the Anti¬
quities of the Britifh Chuich, in folio. During the
reign of king James II. he wrote feveral tratfs againft
popery, and was prolocutor of the convocation, as he
had likewife been under Charles II. After the Revo¬
lution he was advanced to the bifhopric of Worcefter,
and was engaged in a difpute with the Socinians, and*
alfo with Mr Locke ; in which laft conteft he is gene¬
rally thought to have been unfuccefsful- Pie died at
Weftminfter in 1699, an<^ was interred in the cathedral
of Woreefter, where a monument was erected to his
memory by his fon. Dr Stillingfleet wrote other works
befldes thofe here mentioned, which, with the above,
have been reprinted in 6 vols. folio.
S.tii,lingex.eet (Benjamin), an ingenious natura-
lift, was grandfon of the preceding. His father Ed¬
ward was fellow of St John’s College in Cambridge, ,
F. R. S. M. D and Grefham profeflTor of phyfic : but
marrying in 1692, he loft his lucrative offices and his
father’s favour ; a misfortune that affefted both him-
felf and his pofterity. However, going into orders,
he obtained, by his father’s means, the living of New¬
ington-Butts, which he immediately exchanged for
thofe of Wood Norton and Swanton in Norfolk. He
died in 1708.
Benjamin, his only fon, was educated at Norwich
fchool, which he left in 1720, with the character of
an excellent fcholar. He then went to Trinity-Col¬
lege in Cambridge, at the requeft of Dr Bentley, the
mailer, who had been private tutor to his father, do--
meftic chaplain to his grandfather, and much indebted
to the family. Here he was a candidate for a fellow-
ihip, but was reje&ed by the mailer’s influence. This
was a fevere and unexpe&ed drfappointment, and but
little alleviated afterwards by the Doftor’s apology, that
it was a pity that a gentleman of Mr Stillingflcet’s parta
fhould be buried within the walls of a college.
Perhaps, however, this ingratitude of Dr Bentley
was not of any real differvice to Mr Stilling fleet. By
being thrown into the world, he- formed many ho¬
nourable and valuable connexions. He dedicated fome
tranflations of Linnaeus to the late lord Lyttleton,-,
partly, he fays, from motives of private refpeft and
honour. Lord Barrington gave him, in a very po¬
lite manner, the place of the mailer of the barracks
at Kenfmgton ; a favour to which Mr Stiil’ngfleet,.
in the dedication of his Calendar of Flor* to that
nobleman, alludes with equal politenefs, * as well as
with the warmeft gratitude. His Calendar of Flora
was formed at Stratton in Norfolk in the year 1755,
at the hofpitable feat of his very worthy and ingenious
friend Mr Mariham, who had made feveral obferva-
tions of that kind, and had communicated to the public
his curious obfervations on the growth of trees. But
it was to Mr Wyndham of Felbrig in Norfolk .that
he appears to have had the greateft obligations : he
travelled abroad with him, fpent much of his time at
his houfe, and was appointed one of his executors (Mr
Garrick was another), with a coniiderablfe addition to
an annuity which that gentleman had fettled, upon him
in his lifetime.
Mr Stillingfleet’s genius feems, if we may judge from
his works, to have led him principally to the ft tidy of
natural hiftory; which he profecuted as an ingenious
philofopher, an ufetul citizen, and a good man. In
this walk of learning he mentions, as his friends, Dr
Watfon, Mr (afterwards Dr) Solander, Mr HudfoR^
Mr Price of Foxley, and fome others ; to whom may
be added the ingenious Mr Pennant. Nor can wa
omit the flattering mention which the late Mr Gray
makes of him in one ot his letters, dated from London
in 1761 : “ I have lately made aa acquaintance with
this philofopher, who lives in a garret here in the win¬
ter, that he may fupport lome near relations who de¬
pend upon him. He is always employed, confequent-
ly (according to my old maxim) always happy, always
cheerful, and ieems to me a very worthy honeil man.
His prefent fcheme is to fend forne perlbns, properly
qualified, to refide a year or two in Attica, to maka
themfelves acquainted with the climate, produ&ions,
and
Seining'-
fleet.
—V—<
\
StHIing-
flect
II
Stilpo.
s t r [800
and natural blllory of the country, that tee may under-
{land Arillotle, Theophraftos, &c. who have been hea¬
then Greek to ns for fo many a^es; and this he has got
propofed to lord Bute, no unlikely perfon to put it m
execution, as he is himfelf a botamft.
Mr Stillinofleet published a volume of mifcellaneoua
trafts, which is in much elteem, and does great honour
to his head and heart. They are chiefly tranfktions of
fome eflays in the Amcenltates AcademiCd, publifhed by
I-innseus, interfperfed with fome obfervations and ad¬
ditions of his own. In this volume he fiiows alio a
tafte for claffical learning, and entertains us with fome
-elegant poetical effufions of his ov;n. But his Eflay on
Converfation, publilhed in the firft volume of Dodfley’s
Collection of Poems, entitles him to a diftinguilhed rank
among our Englifh poets. This poem is addrefled to
Mr Wyndham, with all that warmth of friendlhip which
■diflinguiflres Mr Stilling fleet. As it is chiefly didac¬
tic, it does not admit of fo many ornaments as fome
compofitions of other kinds. Elowever, it contains
much good fenfe, (hows a conflderable knowledge of
mankind, and has feveral paflages that in point of har¬
mony and eafy verfification would not difgrace the wri¬
tings of our moft admired poets. Here more than once
Mr Stillingfleet (hows himfelf ftill fore for Dr Bentley’s
cruel treatment of him ; and towards the beautiful and
moral clofe of it (where it is fuppofed he gives us a
iketch of himfelf) feems to hint at a-mortification of a
more delicate nature, which he is faid to have lullered
from the other fex. _ .
To tVfe difappointments it was perhaps ov/ing that
Mr Still in ;fleet neither married nor went into orders.
His London refideuce was at a faddler’s in Piccadilly ;
where he died in 1771, aged above 70, leaving feveral
valuable papers behind him. He was buried in St
James’s church, without the flighteft monument of his
having exifted.
STILLINGIA, in botany ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of motuzcla, and to the order of wo-
nodelphia. The male calyx is hemifpherical and multi¬
florous. The corolla is tubulous, and erofe or gnawed.
The female calyx is uniflorous and inferior. The co¬
rolla is fuperior. The ftyle is trifid, and the capfule
^.hree-uranied. There is only one fpecies, the ivlvatica.
STILYARD. See SrREL-Tard.
STILPO, a celebrated philofopher of Megara, flou-
rifhed under the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes. In his
youth he had been addiAed to licentious pleafures, from
which he religioufly refrained from the moment that he
ranked himfelf among philofophers. When Ptolemy
Soter, at the taking of Megara, offered him a large turn
of money, and requefted that he would accompany him
into Egypt, he accepted but a fmall part of the offer,
and retired to the Hand of Algina, whence, on Ptole¬
my’s departure, he returned to Megara. That city be¬
ing again taken by Demetrius the fon of Antigonus,
and the philofopher required to give an account of any
effeAs which he had loft during the hurry of the plun¬
der, he replied, that he had loft nothing ; for no one
could take from him his learning and eloquence. So
great was the fame of Stilpo, that the mod eminent
philofophers of Athens took pleafure in attending upon
his difeourfes. His peculiar dodlrines were, that Ipe-
cies or univerfals have no real exiltence, and that one
1
S IT I
thing cannot be predicated of another. With refped Stilobatom
to the former of thefe opinions, he feems to have taught St;J]uig
the fame dodtrine with the fedt afterwards known by ,"  *
the appellation of Nominalijis. To prove that one
thing cannot be predicated of another, he faid, that
goodnefs and man, for inftance, are different things, which
cannot be confounded by afferting the one to be the
other : he argued farther, that goodnefs is an univerfal,
and univerfals have no real exittence; confequently,
iince nothing cannot be predicated of any thing, good¬
nefs cannot be predicated of man. Thus, whilft. this Enfield't
fubtle logician was, through his whole argument, pre-
dicating one thing of another, he denied that any one vo(y*
thing could be the accident or predicate of another.
If Stilpo was ferious in this realoning ; if he meant any
thing more than to expofe the fophiftry of the fchools,
he mull be confeffed to have been an eminent mailer of
the art of wrangling ; and it was not wholly without
reafon that Glycera, a celebrated courtezan, when ihe
was reproved by him as a corrupter of youth, replied,
that the charge might be juitly retorted upon himfelf,
who fpent his time in filling their heads with fophiftical
quibbles and ufelefs fubtleties. In ethics he feems to
have been a Stoic, and in religion he had a public and
a private doArine, the former for the multitude, and
the latter for his friends. He admitted the exiftence
of a fupreme divinity, but had no reverence for the Gre¬
cian fuperftitions.
STILOB ATUM, in architeAure, denotes the body
of the pedeltal of any column.
STILTON, a town of England, in the county of
Huntingdonfhire, 7 i miles from London, fouth-vveft
of Yaxley, on the Roman highway from Caffor to
Huntingdon, called Ermins-Jl' eet, fome parts of which,
in this neighbourhood, appear ftill paved with ftone.
This place is famous for cheefe which is called Englijh
Parmefan, and is brought to table full of mites or mag¬
gots. For making Stilton cheefe, we have, the follow¬
ing receipt in the firft volume of the Repojitory of Arts
and Manufactures :
“ Take the night’s cream, and put it to the morning’s
new milk, with the rennet; when the curd is come, it
is not to be broken, as is done with other cheefes, but
take it out with a foil difh altogether, and place it in a
lleve to dram gradually; and as it drains, keep gradu¬
ally preffing it till it becomes firm and dry ; then place
it 113 a wooden hoop ; afterwards to be kept dry on
boards, turned frequently, with cloth binders round it,
which are to be tightened as occafion -requires, and
changed every day until the cheefe become firm enough
to fupport itfelf; after the cloth is taken off, the cheefe
is rubbed every day all over, for two or three months,
with a brufh ; and if the weather be damp or moift
twice a-day ; and even before the cloth is taken off, the
top and bottom are well rubbed every day.”
STIMULANTS, in medicine, fubftances which in-
creafe the aAion of certain parts of the body. In par¬
ticular, they quicken the motion of the blood, increate
the aAion of the muicular fibres, and affeA the nervous
fyftem. .
STIMULI, in botany ; a fpecies of armature or
offenfive weapon, with which fome plants, as settle,
caffada, acalypha, and tragia, are furnifhed. Their
ufe, fays Linnueus, is by their venomous punAures to
Sting
[I.
Stiria,
Falcontr,
JV1 a rine
JDiciienary
S T I
kffn off naked animals that would afmroach to hurt
them.
SI ING, an apparatus in the bodies of certain in-
feds, in form of a little fpear, ferving them as a wea¬
pon of offence.
Sting-Ray, in ichthyology. See Raia.
STINK-pot, an earthen jar or fhell, charged with
powder, grenadoes, and other materials of an offen-
live and fnffocating fmell. It is frequently ufed by pri¬
vateers, in the weftern ocean, in the attack of an enemy
™ he dehgns to board ; tor which purpofe it is fur-
m.hed with a iigb.t fufe at the opening or touch-hole,
oee 15o /TR.DT n g.
STINT, a fpecies of the Tringa.
S FIFA, I1 eather Grass, in botany : A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of tiiand'ia, and order of
dtgynia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
4th order, Gramma. The calyx is bivfelved. The ex¬
terior val ve of the corolla is terminated by an awn : the
bafe is jointed.
There are nine fpecies, the pennata, juncea, capillata,
anltcJIa, tenacitfima, avenacea, membranacea, argue ns
and fpicata. Of thefe one only is Britifh, the tennuta
or common feather grafs. The beards are feathered
Ihe plant nies to the height of ro inches, grows on
mountains, and flowers in July or Auguft.
among the Romans, fignifies the fame
^ith tribute ; and htnet fiiptnclarit were the fame with
trtbutarii.
‘Stipend, in Scots law. See Law, £ chx. 12.
- ^ ^ IP'JLA, in botany, one of the fulcra or props of
plants, defined by Linnaeus to be a fcale, or fmall leaf,
rationed on each fide the bafe of the footftalks of the
flower and leaves, at their firit appearance, for the pnr-
pofe of fuppoi t. Elmgren reftricts it to the footftalks
of the leaves only.
STIPULATION, in the civil law, the ad of fti.
pulating,. that is, of treating and concluding terms
*nd conditions to be inferted in a contrad. Stipula¬
tions were anciently performed at Rome, with abun¬
dance of ceremonies ; the firif whereof was, that one
party fhould interrogate, and the other anfwer, to give
his confent, and oblige himfdf. By the ancient Ro-
man law, nobody could ifipulate but for himfdf; but
as the TabeUiones were public fervants, they were al¬
lowed to ftipulate for their mafters ; and the notaries
Succeeding the labelliones have inherited the fame pri¬
vilege. r
t 801 ]
S T I
OTnci '!eW>t ’? at hm,,' !'1 cWmnpy. StM'njf.
rr, ’. ^.Ver doubling their heads about foreign affairs
The chief town is Gnitz. 0 airs-
a-,t0WU Scodand> bunted on the
me Perth, 3j miles north-weft of Edinburgh, in
W. Long .5. 59. R Lat. 56. 6. It is alfo called
ttiuff Iff fr°m the former of which Boe'
f v' he oLlr". "ame Sterlin* becaufe,
a A he, Olbeit, a Saxon prince, alter the overthrow of
e Scots, effabhfhed a mint there. The name of
Strive/ing is faid to have been derived from the frequen¬
cy o ftnfes or conflicts in the neighbourhood. The
town contains about 4000 inhabitants, it has a ma-
nmadure of tartans and flialloons, and employs about
30 looms in that of carpets. The great ftreet is very
bioad. In it is the tolbooth, where is kept the ftand’-
aid for the wet meafures of Scotland. The other ftreets
are narrow and irregular.-Stirling is in miniature a re-
femblance of Edinburgh ; being built on a rock of the
fame form, with a fortrefs on the fummit. The ori-""
gin of the caftle is unknown. The rock of Stirling
was ftrongly fortified by the Piets, amongft whom arl
clutedhire and feveral other ufeful arts had made a con-
fiderable progrefs As it lay in the extremities of their
kingdom, the poffeffion of it was the occafion of fre-
quent contefts betwixt them and their neighbour the
bcots and Northumbrians ; each of whole dominions
did, for fome time, terminate near it.
When the Scots, under Kenneth II. overthrew the
r idtifh empire near the middle of the ninth century,
they endeavoured to obliterate every memorial of that
people. I hey not only gave new names to provinces
and towns, but, with all the rage of barbarians, demo-
lifhed many magnificent and ufeful edifices which had
been reared up by them, and this fortrefs among the
reft. It was, however, foon rebuilt, though upon an
occafion not very honourable to the Scots.
Upon the death of Kenneth II. in 855, his brother
IJonald V. mounted the throne of Scotland. In the
beginning of his reign the kingdom was invaded by
Olbrecht and Ella, two Noithumbrian princes, when v
uniting their forces with the Cumbrian Britons, and a
number of Pi&s, who upon their expulfion from their
native country had taken refuge in England, advanced
to Jedburgh, where Donald encountered them ; and
STIRIA a province of Germany, i„ the circle of f ^
□tlna, with the t,t e of a duchy. It is bounded on fed them by a hattv march diwli .xT
Auftria, with the title of a duchy.. It is bounded on
?he north by the archduchy of Aaftria, on the eaft by
Hungary, on the fouth by Carfiiola, and on the weft
by Carinthia and the archbiihopric of Saltlburg ; being
125 milts in length and 17 in breadth. It is faid to
contain 22 cities, 95 towns, 338 caftles, 15 convents,
and 200,000 inhabitants. I hough it is a mountain¬
ous country, yet there is a great deal of land fit for til-
lap-e. and the foil ic v .
fierce and bloody battle, obtained a complete
viiiory: out, having taken up his ftation in Berwick,
m lupine fecurity, the Northumbrians, informed of the
r 4 . , _ cumv lay, iiirpn-
fed tliem by a hafty march, difperfed them, and made a
pruoner of the king. Purfuing the advantage they had
gained, they marched northward, and fubdued all be¬
fore them to the Frith of Forth and the town of Stir¬
ling. But the forlorn fituation of the Scots* without a
king and without an army, obliging them to fue for
peace, they obtained it, upon condition that they fhould
pay a fum of money for the ranfom of the king, and
, T U 7" V,c‘c lb a «rtar aeal nt tor til- pay a fum of money for the ranfom of  1
hgc, and the foil is Co good, that the inhabitants never yield up all their dominions mion the foiith t\t g’rT
ZZC. ,”..ra"tACOrn- 11 «■ very good Forth to the co^ueZ ? ^ °f ^
iron ; whence the arms made there are in great efteem.
The women differ greatly from the Auftrians, and are
very plain and downright. They have all fwellings on
trieir throats, called bronchoce/es. The men are alfo very
Ample, and are very zealous worfhippers of the Virgin
V©t. XVII. Part ll. h
. Northumbrians taking poffeffion of the territo¬
ries ceded to them by this treaty, rebuilt the caftle of
Stirling, and planted it with a ftrong garrifon, in or-
der to preferve their new conquefts, upon the frontiers
ot which it was fit anted. Oar authorities alfo inform
5 I us,
s T I r 802 1 S T < l
Stirling us, that they ere&ed a ftone bridge 07er the Forth,
upon the fummit of which a crofs was raifed’, with the
following infcription in monkilh rhyme.
Anglos a Scotis ftparat crux ijla remotis ;
Armis bic Jlant Bruti, Scoti Jlant hicy cruce tuti.
Which is thus tranflated by Bellenden.
I am free marche, as paffengeris may ken,
To Scottis, to Britonis, and to Inglifmen.
None of the ancient Englilh hiftorians mention this
conqueft. The whole ftory, as well as the infcription,
wears much of a monkifh garb ; yet its authenticity is
not a little confirmed by the arms of the town of Stir¬
ling, upon which is a bridge, with a crofs, and the laft
line of the above Latin diftich is the motto round it.
We muft not, however, imagine* that in thofe times
that fort refs bore any refemblance to the prefent ftruc-
ture, which is adapted to the ufe of fire-arms. Its
f.ze and form probably refembled thofe caflles which,
under the feudal conftitution, the Engliih and Scottifh
barons ufed to ereft upon their eftates for dwelling-
houfes; and which, in thofe barbarous ages, they found
neceffary to fortify for their defence, not only againft
foreign invaders, but often againft the attacks of their
own neighbours. It is direftly fuch a Gothic figure as
this which reprefents the Cajlrum Strlvclenfe upon the
arms of Stirling.
This fortrefs, after it had continued in the poflefiion
of the Northumbrian Saxons about 20 years, was, to¬
gether with the whole country upon the fouth fide of
the Forth, reftored to the Scots, upon condition of their
afiiiiing the Saxons againft their turbulent invaders the
Danes. Upon the arms of Stirling are two branches
of a tree, to reprefent the Nemus Strivtknfe; but the fi-
tuation and boundaries of that foreft, which was pro¬
bably a wing of the Caledonian, cannot be afcertained.
Upon the fouth of Stirling, veftiges of a foreft are ft ill
difcernible for feveral miles. Banks of natural timber
Hill remain in the cafllc park, at Murray’s wood, and
rear Nether Bannockburn ; and flumps of trees, with
much brufhwood, are to be feen in all the adjacent
fields.
When Kenneth III. received intelligence of the
Danes having invaded his dominions, he appointed the
cafile of Stirling to be the place of rendezvous for his
army ; and he marched from thence to the battle of
Loncarty, where he obtained a vidlory over thofe ro¬
vers, in the end of the 10th century.
In the 12th century, this caftle is fpoken of as a
place of great importance, and one of the ftrongeft for-
treffes in the kingdom.' Inn 74, a calamity, not unu-
fual amongft the Scottifh monarchs, befel William, who
at that time occupied the throne. He was taken pri-
foner in an unfuccefsful expedition which he made into
England ; and, after having been detained 1 2 months
in captivity, was releafed, upon ftipulating to pay a
large fum of money for his ranfom ; and, until pay¬
ment thereof, delivering into the hands of the Enghfh
the four principal fortrefles in the kingdom, which in
thofe days were Stirling, Edinburgh, Roxburgh, and
Berwick. This was the firft great alcendant that Eng¬
land obtained over Scotland ; and indeed the moft im¬
portant tranfaftion which had paffed between thefe king¬
doms from the Norman conqueft-,
Though the Scottilh monarchs, in their frequent per- Stirling,,
ambulations through the kingdom, often vifited Stirling, -—y-—
and held their courts for fome time in the caftle; yet it
did not become a royal refidence till the family of Stu¬
art mounted the throne, and it was from different princes
of this family that it received its prefent form. It was
the place of the nativity of James II.; and, when raifed
to the throne, he frequently kept his court in it. It is
well known to have been the place where that prince
perpetrated an atrocious deed, the murder of William
earl of Douglas, whom he ftabbed with his own hand.
The royal apartments were at that time in the north-
weft corner of the caftle, and are now the refidence of
the fort major. The room where the murder w^as com¬
mitted Hill goes by the name of Douglas's room. See
Scotland, ny 304, 305.
James III. contradling a fondnefs for the caftle on
account of its pleafant fituation, made it the chief place
of his refidence, and added feveral embellifhments to it.
He built within it a magnificent hall, which in thofe
days was deemed a noble ftrufture, and is ftill entire.
It now goes by the name of the parliament-houfe^ having
been defigned for the accommodation of that fupreme
court. It was covered with an oaken roof of exqui-
fite workmanfhip, which, though very little decayed,
was a few years ago removed to make way for one
of more modern ftrufture. James alfo erefted a college
oi fecular priefts iu the caftle, which he called the chapel-
royal, and which proved one caufe of his own ruin. As
the expences neceffary for maintaining the numerous of.
ficers of fuch an inftitution were conliderable, he annex¬
ed to it the revenues of the rich priory of Coldingham
in the Merfe, which at that time happened to become
vacant. This priory had for a long time been holden
by perfons connefted with the family of Heme; and
that family, confidering it as belonging to them, ftrong-
ly oppofed the annexation. The difpute feems to have
lafted feveral years; for one parliament had paffed a vote,
annexing the priory to the chapel-royal, and a fubfequent
one enafted a ftatute prohibiting every attempt that was
contrary or prejudicial to that annexation.
James V. was crowned in the caftle of Stirling; and
the palace, which is the chief ornament of it, was the
work of that prince. This is a ftately and commodi¬
ous ftrucfture, all of hewn (tone, with much ftatuary
work upon it. It is built in form of a fquare, with a
fmall court in the middle, in which the king’s lions are
faid to have been kept; and hence it ftill goes by the
name of the lions den. The palace contains many large
and elegant apartments ; the ground-ftory is now con¬
verted into barrack-rooms for the foldiers of the garri-
fon ; the upper affords a houfe for the governor, with
lodgings for fome of the fubaltern officers.
Oppofite to the palace, upon the north, ftands an
elegant chapel, which was built by James VI. for the
baptiim of his fon prince Henry in 15 94. In this
chapel is preferved the hulk of a large boat, which
that whimfical monarch caufed to be built and placed
upon carriages, in order to convey into the caftle the
provifions for that folemnity.
A ftrong battery, with a tier of guns pointing to the
bridge over the Forth, was ere&ed during the regency
of Mary of Lorraine, mother to queen Mary. It is call¬
ed the French battery, probably becaufe conftru&ed by
engineers of that nation. The laft addition was made
to
S T I
Stirling,
Stirling-
iTiire.
to the fortifications in the reign of queen Anne. For¬
merly they reached no farther than the old gate, upon
»which the flag-ftafF now hands': but in that reign they
were confiderably enlarged upon the fide towards the
town; and barracks, which are bomb-proof, with feve-
ral other conveniences for a liege, were ere&ed.
. UPon the fouth fide of the caille lies a park inclofcd
w ith a ftone-wall, called the king's park, and near to the
foot of the rock on which the caftle hands, lay the
ro}al gaidens; veftiges of the walks and parterres, with
a few flumps of fruit-trees, are hill vifible ; but by long
negleft, and the natural wetnefs of the foil, the place is
now little better than a marfh. In the gardens is a
[ 803 j
S T O
by part of I^ennox and Clydefdale; on the eaft, by
Clackmannanfhire, the river Forth, and part of Lothi¬
an ; on the fouth-eah, by Lothian ; and on the north,
by Monteith. f he face of the country is open and
agreeable, divti fified by hill and dale, well watered with
hreams and rivers ; the principal of which is the Forth,
nfmg m the neighbourhood of a high mountain called
Ben-Lomond, running eaftward, forms the frith of
Edinburgh. The fouthern part is hilly, affording plenty
of game, and paflurage for fheep, horfes, and black cattle.
1 he eaftern part is fertile, producing plentiful harvefts
of corn, and great abundance of coal. Lead-ore is found
in different parts of the fhire; and the rivers abound with
Sn'rntp
11
Stock,
mount of earth in form of a table, with benches of pike, trout,^and falmon.
earth around it, where, according to tradition, the STIRRUP, in the manege, a reft or fupport for the
court fometimes held feta-champetres. In the caftle- horfeman’s foot, for enabling him to mount and for
lull is an hollow, comprehending about an acre of keeping him firm in, his feat.
wnTd’ havIn^rall fhe apP^rance of an artificial Stirrups were unknown to the ancients. The want
work^which was ufed for joufts, tournaments, and of them in getting upon horfeback was fupplied by an¬
other feats of chivalry.
Northward of the caftle lies the Govan, or perhaps
more properly the Cowling hill (a) ; in the middle of
lity or art. Some horfes were taught to ftoop to^ take
their riders up;.but the riders often leapt up by the help
of their (pears, or w-ere aflifted by their Haves, or made
__ri * * r 11 . ,, , rrv / Vr , wcic cuuucu uy tneir naves, or 1
d M / r T,Unt Ca erd Hur y Haaky' uPon which ufe of Adders for the purpofe. Gracchus tilled
duke iVIurdoch and his two fnne ~ ~ n 1 • . . . _
. t t—   —the
highways with ftones, wliich were intended to ani'wer
the fame end. 'I’he fame was alfo required of the fur-
veyors of the roads in Greece as part ot their duty.
Menage ebferves, that St Jerome is the firft author
who mentions them. But the paffage alluded to is not to
be found in his epiftles ; and if it were there, it would
prove nothing, becaufe St Jerome lived at a time when
duke Murdoch and his two fons were executed for trea-
fonable praftices in the reign of James I.
The profpea from the caftle is moft delightful, as
well as extenfive, being greatly beautified, ‘ efpecially
upon the eaft, by the windings of the Forth ; which
are fo many, that though the diftance by land from
Stirling to Alloa is, in a ftraight line, not quite fix .     ^
miles, it is faid to be 24 by water. As this river ge- ftirrups are fuppofed to have been invented*, "and after
nerally runs upon plain ground, it rolls its ftream in fo the ufe of faddles. Montfaucon denies the authenticity
f ow and filent a manner, that what Sihus Italicus faith of this paffage ; and, in order to account for the igno-
ot the i icinus is applicable to it, if, inftead of lutrenti in ranee of the ancients with regard to an inftrumeut fo
that poet, we fhould for once read lutofo ; for the clay- ufeful and fo eafy of invention, he obferves, that while and
banks, together with the tide, which flows above Stir- cloths and houfings only were laid upon the horfes backs, /LyL„-
on which the riders were to fit, ftirrups could not have/’'!6, v°l* *■’
been ufed, becaufe they could not have been faftenedp‘6i*
with the fame fecurity as upon a faddle. But it is more
'm, 1 ij-i- , n, - probable, that in this inftance, as in many others the
I he lordfhip and caftle of Stirling were a part of the progrefs of human genius and invention's uncertain
ufual dowry of the queens of Scotland, at leaft after the and How, depending frequently upon accidental can
family of Stuart came to the throne, in which they were fes. & ^ 71 ueniai cau
Stirrup of a Ship, a piece of timber put upon a fliipL
keel, when fome of her keel happens to be beaten off,
and they cannot come conveniently to put or fit in a
rpr- f / g , . , , r „ nfw Picce; then they patch in a piece of timber, and
us 01;trers hath been the feene of many tranfac- bind it on with an iron, which goes under the fliip’s
tions. Being by its fituation confidered as a key to keel, and comes up on each fide of the fiiip, where1 it
the northern parts of the kingdom, the poffeffion of it is nailed ftrongly with fpikes ; and this they call a itir-
hath been always efteemed of great importance to thofe rup
who fought to be matters of Scotland. It was undoubt¬
edly a place of ftrength when the art of war by ordnance
was in its infancy; but though it refilled the utmoft ef¬
forts of the rebels in 1 746, it could not now hold out
three days if belieged by an army of a few thoufand
men conduced by an engineer of knowledge and inte-
grity.
STIRLINGSHIRE, a county of Scotland, of
which Stirling is the capital. It extends 20 miles in
length and 12 in breadth; being bounded on the well
ung, render the Forth perpetually muddy
f rix credos labi, ripis tam mitis opacis
Somniferam ducit lutofo gurgite lyinpham.
invefted at their marriage.
Robert lord Erlkine was appointed governor of the
caftle by king David II. and the office continued in that
family till 1715
^ fOBAiUS (John), a laborious Greek writer, who
lived at the end of the fourth century, compofed many
works, of which there are only his Colledtions remain¬
ing, and even thefe are not as he compofed them; many
things being inferted by later authors. This work con¬
tains many important fentiments collefted from the an¬
cient writers, poets, and philofophers.
STOCK, in gardening, &c. the ftem or trunk of a
tree. What flock is molt proper lor each kind of Iruit,
ought as well to be confidered and known, as what ioil
5 1 2 is
(a) So called from the wailings and lamentations (in Scotchgowlmgs) that were made for Duke Murdoch.
S T G
[ 804 j
1 U
Stfidt, 15 moft fuitable to trees; for on thefe two tilings the fu-
atockholm. ture vigour of trees, and the goodnefs of fruit, equally
•at—v depend, The beft way for thofe who intend to plant,
is to raife their own docks, by which they will be better
allured of what they do ; but if they fliould buy their
trees of nurferymen, they fhould diligently inquire
upon what ftocks they vrere propagated- See Graft¬
ing.
Stock, in trade. See Catital StocL
Stock-Broker. See Broker and Stocks.
Stock-Dow, in zoology. See Cold mb a.
Stock-fobbing, the art or myllery of trafficking in
the public ftocks or funds. See Fund and Stock-Job¬
bing.
Stock GWy-flon'erymhotBr\y. SeeCheiranthus.
STOCKHOLM, the capital of Sweden, is fituated
in the province of Upland, in E. Long. 19. 30. and N.
Lat. 59. 20. Its foundation is by the beft Swediffi
writers generally attributed to Birger Jarl, regent of
the kingdom about the middle of the 13th century du¬
ring the minority of his fon Waldemar, who had been
railed to the throne by the ftates of the kingdom ; but
it was not before the laft century that the royal refidence
was transferred from Upfala to this city.
'lhis capita], which is very long and irregular, occu¬
pies, befide two peninfulas, feven fmall rocky Hands,
fcattered in the Masler, in the dreams which iffue from
that lake, and in a bay of the gulf of Bothnia. A va¬
riety of contrafted and enchanting views are formed by
numberlefs rocks of granite riling boldly from the fur-
face of the water, partly bare and craggy, partly dotted
with houfes, or feathered with wood. The harbour is
an inlet of the Baltic: the water is clear as cryftal, and
of fuch depth that Ihips of the largeft burthen can ap¬
proach the quay, which is of conliderable breadth, and
^ lined with fpacious buildings and ware-houfes. At the
"j, /, vo . « extremity of the harbour feveral ftreets rife one above
another in the form of an amphitheatre; and the palace,
a magnificent building, crowns the fummit. Towards
the fea, about two or three miles from the town, the
harbour is contraifted into a narrow ftrait, and, winding
among high rocks, difappears from the fight; and the
profpedl is terminated by diftant hills, overfpread with
foreft. It is far beyond the power of words, or of the
pencil, to delineate thefe lingular views. The central
Hand, from which the city derives its name, and the
Ritterholm, are the handfomeft parts of the town. Ex¬
cepting in the fuburbs, where the houfes are of wood
painted red, the generality of the buildings are of ftone,
or brick ftuccoed white. The royal palace, which Hands
in the centre of Stockholm, and upon the higheft fpot
of ground, was begun by Charles XL : it is a large
quadrangular ftone edifice, and the ftyle of archite&ure
is both elegant and magnificent.
It is the habitation not only of the royal family, but
alio of the greater part of the officers belonging to the
houtehold. It likewife comprehends the national or fu-
preme ceurt of juftice, the colleges of war, chancery,
treafury, and commerce ; a chapel, armoury, library,
and office for the public records ; but the greater num¬
ber of inferior officers and fervants belonging to the
court, are, with the foot guards, quartered on the
burghers. The caftle, and all the ftately edifices in
the kingdom, are covered with copper. The palace of
the nobility, in winch this order fits during the feffion
of the diet, is an elegant building adorned on tire out* Stockholm,
fide with marble ftatues and columns, and on the infide Stocking,
with painting and fculptnre. This and three other pa- '
laces Hand on the banks of the lake, and are built on
the fame model, fo as to cornpofe an uniform piece of
architecture. rT,he hank, built at the expence of the
city, is a noble edifice, and joins with many fumptuous
houfes belonging to the nobility in exhibiting a fplendid
appearance. The houfes of the burghers are generally
built of brick in the city ; but in the fuburbs they arc
commonly made up of timber, and therefore very fubjeCt
to conflagrations. Thefe houfes are often framed in Fin¬
land, according to the plan and dimenfions preferibed:
whence they are tranfported in pieces to Stockholm
by water, and there fet up by the carpenters. Thefe
wooden habitations, if kept in proper repair, will laft
30 or 40 years, and are deemed warmer, neater, and
more healthy, than thofe of brick or ftone. To prevent
the danger of ionflagrations, the city is divided into 12
wards. In each of thefe there is a matter and four af-
fiftants, who forthwith repair to the place where the fire
breaks out; and all porters and labourers are obliged to
range themfelves under the mafter of the ward to which
they belong. A fire-watch patroles the ftreets by night,
to give warning or affiftance as it may be wanted ; and
a centinel is maintained in the fteeple of every church,
to toll the bell on the fir ft appearance of any fuch acci¬
dent. i he police of Stockholm is entirely fubjedted
to the regulations of the grand governor, affifted by a
deputy and bailiff of the caftle. This city is the ttaple
of Sweden, to which all the commodities of the king¬
dom are brought for exportation, and where almoft all
the imports from abroad are depofited. The port or
haven formed by the lake Maeler is large enough to
contain 1000 fail of fhipping ; and furnifhed with a key
or wharf about an Engliih mile in length, to which the
veffels may lie with their broadfides. The greateft in¬
conveniences attending this lituation are, the diftance
from the fea, which is not within lefs than 10 miles of
the town ; the want of tides; and the winding of the
river, which is remarkably crooked. It opens into the
Baltic; and the entrance, which is dangerous and rocky,
the Swedes have fecured with two fmall forts: within,
it is perfe&Iy fafe and commodious. The northern fu-
burbs are remarkable for the king’s gardens, and for the
great number of artifans who have chofen their habita¬
tions in this quarter. In the fouthern fuburbs the Muf-
covite commodities are fold ; and here is a magnificent
exchange where the merchants daily aflemble.
STOCKING, that part of the clothing of the leg
and foot which immediately covers and fereens them
from the rigour of the cold. Anciently, the only ftock-
ings in ufe were made of doth, or of milled fluffs fewed
together ; but fince the invention of knitting and wea¬
ving ftockings of filk, wool, cotton, thread, &c. the ufc
of cloth ftockings is quite difeontinued. Dr Howel,
in his Hiftory of the World (vol. ii. p. 222.) relates,
that queen Elizabeth, in 1501, was prefented with 3
pair of black knit filk ftockings by her filk-wo-
man, and thenceforth fhe never wore cloth ones any
more. The fame author adds, that king Henry VIII.
ordinarily wore cloth hofe, except there came from
Spain, by great chance, a pair of filk ftockings. His
fon, king Edward VI. was prefented with a pair of
long Spanifh filk ftockings by Sir Thomas Grefham,
and
S T O [ 805 ] S T O
Storting, ancj the prefent was then much taken notice of. Hence
Stock?. j*t fhould feem, that the invention of knit filk ftockings
* "' originally came from Spain. Others relate, that one
"William Rider, an apprentice on London bridge, fee¬
ing at the houfe of an Italian merchant a pair of knit
worded ftockings from Mantua, took the hint, and
made a pair exactly like them, which he prefented to
William earl of Pembroke, and that they were the firft
of that kind worn in England, anno 1564.
The modern ftockings, whether woven or knit, are
formed of an infinite number of little knots, cdXltdJiitcbes,
loops, or mtjhes, intermingled in one another.
Knit ftockings are wrought with needles made of
pulifhed iron, or brafs wire, which interweave the
threads and form the melhes the docking confifts of.
At what time the art of knitting was invented it is
perhaps impoffible to determine, though it has been
ufually attributed to the Scots, as it is faid that the
firft works of this kind came from Scotland. It is
added, that it was on this account that the company
of ftocking-knitters, eftabliftied at Paris 1527, took for
their patron St Fiacre, wLo is faid to have been the
fon of a king of Scotland. But it is moft probable that
the method of knitting ftockings by wires or needles
was firft brought from Spain.
Woven ftockings are generally very fine; they are
manufadlured on a frame or machine made of polilhed
iron, the ftrufture of wrhich it is needlefs to defcribe, as
it may be feen in almoft every confiderable town in
Great Britain. The invention of this machine is, by
Mr Anderfon, attributed to William Lee, M. A. of
St John’s College, Cambridge, at a period fo early as
1589. Others have given the credit of this invention
to a Undent of Oxford at a much later period, who, it
is faid by Aaron Hill*, was driven to it by dire neceffi-
• See An This young man, falling in love with an inn-keep-
tiTm and er’s daughter, married her though (he had not a penny,
Progmfi of and he by his marriage loft a fellowftiip. They foon
the Be^ch Oil fei[ into extreme poverty ; and their marriage produ-
Invention, cjn^ tke confequences naturally to be expected from it,
j c‘ V° the amorous pair became miferable, not fo much on ac-
' 5' count of their fufferings, as from the melancholy dread
of what would become of their yet unborn infant.
Their only means ot fupport were the knitting of ftock¬
ings, at which the woman was very expert: “ But
fitting conftantly together from morning to night, and
the fcholar often fixing his eyes, with ftedfaft obferva-
tion, on the motion ol his wife’s finger’s in the dexte¬
rous management of her needles, he took it into his
imagination, that it was not impofiible to contrive a
little loom which might do the work with much more
expedition. This thought he communicated to his wife,
and joining his head to her hands, the endeavour fuc-
ceeded to their wifti. Thus the ingenious ftocking-
loom, which is fo common now, was firft invented; by
which he did not only make himfelt and his family hap¬
py, but has left his nation indebted to him for a benefit
which enables us to export filk ftockings in great quan¬
tities, and to a vaft advantage, to. thole very countries
from whence before we uCed to bring them at conlider*
able lofs in the balance of our traffic.”
STOCKS, or Public Funds in England. By the
word Jlock was originally, meant a particular furn of
aoaey contributed to the eftablifhmg of a fund to enable
a company to carry on a certain trade, by means of Stocks,-
which the perfon became a partner in that trade, and , StQcktoni
received a ftiare of the profit made thereby, in proper- T
tion to the money employed. But this term has been
extended farther, though improperly, to fignify any
fum of money which has been lent to the government,
on condition of receiving a certain interefl till the money
is repaid, and which makes a part of the national debt.
As the fecurity both of the government and of the
public companies is efteemed preferable to that of any
private perfon, as the (locks are negotiable and may be
fold at any time, and as the intereft is always pun&ual-
ly paid when due ; fo they are thereby enabled to
borrow money on a lower intereft than what could be
obtained from lending it to private perfons, where there
mull be always fame danger of lofing both principal
and inteveft.
But as every capital ftock or fund of a company is
raifed for a particular purpofe, and limited by parlia¬
ment to a certain fum, it necefl'arily follows, that when
that fund is completed, no ftock can be bought of the
company ; though (hares already purchafed may be
transferred from one perfon to another. This being
the cafe, there is frequently a great difproportion be¬
tween the original value of the (hares and what is given
for them when transferred : for if there are more buyers
than fellers, a perfon who is indifferent about felling
will not part with his (hare without a confiderable pro¬
fit to himfelf; and on the contrary, if many are dif-
pofed to fell, and few inclined to buy, the value of
fuch (hares will naturally fall in proportion to the
impatience of thofe who want to turn their ftock into
fpecie.
A ftock may likewife be affefted by the court of
chancery ; for if that court (hould order the money,
which is under their diredlion, to be laid out in any par¬
ticular ftock, that ftock, by having more purchafers,
will be raifed to a higher price than any other of the
like value.
By what has been faid, the reader will perceive how-
much the credit and intereft of the nation depends on
the furport of the public funds. While the annuities
and intereft for money advanced is there regularly paid,
and the principal infured by both prince and people
(a fecurity not to be had in other nations), foreigners
will lend us their property, and all Europe be intereft-
ed in our welfaie; the paper of the companies will be
convened into money and merchandile, and Great
Britain can never want cath to carry her fchemes into *
execution. See the article Fund.
Stocks, a frame eretttd on the (bore of a river or
harbour, whereon to build (hipping. It generally con¬
fifts of a number of wooden blocks, ranged parallel to>
each other, at convenient diftances, and with a gradual
declivity towards the water.
Stocks, a wooden machine to put the legs of offenders
in, for fecuring diforderly perfons, and by way of pu-
nifhment in divers cafes, ordained by ftatute, dec.
STOCKTON upon Tees,- a handfome town in
the county of Durham, about 16 miles fouth of the
city of Durham. It is now a port of confiderable
trade ; though, at the Reftoration, it was a defpicable
village, the bed houfe in which could hardly boaft of
any thing better than clay-walls and a thatched roof. -
J & About
S T O [ 8c6 ] S T O
About 40 years ago it fent out in one year 75 veflels
for the port of London ; and the tiade is much increa-
fed fince.
STOEBE, bastard ETHIOPIAN, in botany: Agenus
cf plants belonging to the clafs offyngenejia, and order
of po/ygamia fegregata ; and in the natural fyftem ran¬
ging under the 49th order, compofit<r.. The calycle is
viniflorous ; the corollets are tubular and hermaphro¬
dite ; the receptacle is naked, and the pappus is fea¬
thery. There are nine fpecies, the aethiopica, ericoi-
des, proftrata, gnaphaloides, gomphrenoides, fcabra,
reflexa, rhinocerotis, and difticha ; all plants of foreign
growth.
STOICS, the name given to a fedt of Grecian phi-
Jofophers, from Srea, “ the porch in Athens,” which
the founder of the feft chofe for his fchool. For the
peculiar tenets of thisfedl, fee Metaphysics, Chap. IV.
Part 3. M^ral Philosophy, n0 8. and Zeno.
STOLBERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and territory of Thuringia,
cf which it is the capital place. It is feated between
two mountains, 5 8 miles north-weft of Leipfic. E. Long.
11. 8. N. Lat. 5 f. 42.
STOLE, a facerdetal ornament worn by the Romifh
parilh-priefts above their furplice, as a mark of fuperiori-
ty in their refpe&ive churches ; and by other priefts
over the alb, at celebrating of mafs, in which cafe it
goes acrofs the ftomach ; and by deacons, over the
left-fhoulder, fcarf-wife : when the prieft reads the
gofpel for any one, he lays the bottom of his ftole on
his head. The ftole is a broad fwath, or flip of fluff,
hanging from the neck to the feet, with three croffes
thereon. ,
Groom of the Stole, the eldeft gentleman of his Ma-
jefty’s bed-chamber, whofe office it is to prefent and
put on his majefty’s firft garment, or fliirt, every
morning, and to order the things in the cham¬
ber.
STOMACH, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° 91.
STOMACHIC, medicines that ftrengthen the fto¬
mach and promote digeftion, &c.
Stomachic corroboratives are fuch as ftrengtben the
tone of the ftomach and inteftines; among which are
carminatives, as the roots of galangals, red gentian, ze-
doary, pimpinella, calamus aromaticus, and arum. Of
barks and rinds, thofe of canella alba, faffafras, citrons,
Seville and China oranges, See. Of fpices, pepper,
ginger, cloves, cinnamon, cardamums, and mace.
STONE (Edmund), a diftinguifhed felf-taught ma¬
thematician, was born in Scotland ; but neither the place
nor time of his birth are well known ; nor have we
any memoirs of his life, except a letter from the Che¬
valier de Ramfay, author of the Travels of Cyrus, in a
letter to father Caftel, a Jefuit at Paris, and publifhed
in the Memoirs de Trevoux, p. 109, as follows: “ True
genius overcomes all the difadvantages of birth, fortune,
and education ; of which Mr Stone is a rare example.
Borrra fon of a gardener of the duke of Argyle, he ar¬
rived at eight years of age before he learnt to read.—
By chance a fervant having taught young Stone the
letters of the alphabet, there needed nothing more to
difeover and expand his genius. He applied himfelf
to ftudy, and he arrived at the knowledge of the moft
fublime geometry and analyfls, without a mafter, with¬
out a conduftor, without any other guide but pure
genius.
“ At 18 years of age he had made thefe confidera*
ble advances without being known, and without know¬
ing himfelf the prodigies of his acquifitions. The duke
of Argyle, who joined to his military talents a general
knowledge of every fcience that adorns the mind of a
man of his rank, walking one day in his garden, faw
lying on the grafs a Latin copy of Sir Ifaac Newton’s
celebrated Ptincipia. He called fome one to him to
take and carry it back to his library. Our young gar¬
dener told him that the book belonged to him. ‘ To
you ?* replied the Duke. ‘ Do you underftand geo¬
metry, Latin, Newton l' I know a little of them, re¬
plied the young man with an air of fimplicity ariiing
from a profound ignorance of his ov/n knowledge and
talents. The Duke was furprifed ; and having a taiic
for the fciences, he entered into converfation with the
young mathematician : he afleed him feveral queftions,
and was aftoniflied at the force, the accuracy, and the
candour of his anfwers. ‘ But how, faid the Duke,
came you by the knowledge of all thefe things ?’ Stone
replied, ‘A fervant taught me, ten years fmee, to read:
does one need to know any thing more than the 24
letters in order to learn every thing elfe that one wiflres?’
The Duke’s curiofity redoubled—he fat down upon a
bank, and requefted a detail of all his proceedings in
becoming fo learned.
“ I firft learned to read, faid Stone : the mafons
were then at work upon your houfe: I went near
them one day, and I faw that the architect ufed a rule,
compaffes, and that he made calculations. I inquired
what might be the meaning and ufe of thefe things ;
and I was informed that there was a fcience called
Arithmetic : I purchafed a book of arithmetic, and I
learned it.—I was told there was another fcience called
Geometry : I bought the books, and I learnt geometry.
By reading I found that there were good books in
thefe two fciences in Latin : I bought a diftionary, and
I learned Latin. I underftood alfo that there were
good books of the fame kind in French : I bought a
diftionary, and I learned French. And this, my lord,
is what I have done: it feems to me that we may
learn every thing when we know the 24 letters of the
alphabet.”
This account charmed the Duke. He drew this
wonderful genius out of his obfeurity ; and he provided
him with an employment which left him plenty of time
to apply himlelf to the fciences. He difeovered in
him alfo the fame genius for mufle, for painting, for
architecture, for all the fciences which depend on cal¬
culations and proportions.”
“ I have feen Mr Stone. He is a man of great
fimplicity. He is at prefent fenfible of his own know¬
ledge ; but he is not puffed up with it. He is poffei-
fed with a pure and diftintercited love for the mathe¬
matics, though he is not folicitous to pals for a ma¬
thematician ; vanity having no part in the great labour
he fuftains to excel in that fcience. He defpifes for¬
tune alfo ; and he has folicited me twenty times to re-
queft the duke to give him lefs employment, which
may not be worth the half of that he now has, in order
to be more retired, and lefs taken off from his favourite
ftudies. He difeovers fometimes, by methods of his
8 own,
Stone.
S T o
Stone.
[' 807 ]
_ own* truths which others have difcovered before him.
He is charmed to find on thefe occafions that he is not
a fir ft inventor, and that others have made a greater
Progrefs than he thought. Far from being a plagiary,
he attributes ingenious Solutions, which he gives to cer¬
tain problems, to the hints he has found in others, al¬
though the connexion is but very diftant,” &c.
Mr Stone was author and tranflator of feveral ufefiil
works; viz. 1. A New Mathematical Di&ionary, in
1 vol 8vo, firft printed in .726. 2. Fluxions, in 1
vol. f vo, 1730. The Direft Method is a tranflation
roiri t le French, of Hofpital s Analyfe des Infiniments
Fetits ; and the Inverfe Method was fupplied by Stone
himfelf. 3. The Elements of Euclid, in 2 vols. 8vo,
1731. A neat and ufeful edition of thofe Elements,
with an account of the life and writings of Euclid, and a
defence of his elements againft modern objeftors. Beiide
other Imaller works. Stone was a fellow of the Royal
Society, and had inferted in the Philofophical Tranf-
actions (vol. 41, p 218) an “ Account of two fpecies
1,nes of the 3d order, not mentioned by Sir liaac
Newton or Mr Stirling.”
Stone (Jerome), the fon of a reputable feaman, was
born in the panfh of Scoonie, in the county of Fife
North Britain. His father died abroad when he was
but three years of age, and his mother, with her youncr
family, was left in very narrow circumftances. Jerome^
like the reft of the children, having got the ordinary
ichool education, reading Englifti, writing, and arith¬
metic, betook himfelf to the bufinefs of a travelling
chapman But the dealing in buckles, garters, and
Inch imall articles, not fuiting his fuperior genius, he
foon converted his little ftock into books, and for feme
years went through the country, and attended the fairs
as an itinerant bookfeller. There is great reafon to be¬
lieve that he engaged in this new fpecies of traffic,
more with a view to the improvement of his mind than
for any pecuniary emolument. Formed by nature for
literature, he poffcfled a peculiar talent for acquiring
languages with amazing facility. Whether from a de¬
lire to underftand the Scriptures in their original lan
S T o
OfPn,ati01 Athe Co!!ege by the mafter of the fchool
as r? kAd f<rca J UJher’ Mr Stone was recommended
as the belt qualified for that office; and about two or
three years after, the matter being removed to Perth,
AtlmH0n\ hl tile f r °f his Grace the of
Atholl, who had conceived a high opinion of his abili¬
ties, was appointed his fucceflbr.
an ^ ^ t0 rDunkeM» he entertained but
an unfavourable opinion of the Gaelic language, which
he confidered as n°thing better than a barbarous inarti¬
culate gibbenfli; but being bent on inveftigating the
origin and defeent of the ancient Scots, he fuffered not
his prejudices to make him negleft the ftudy of their
primitive tongue. Having, with his ufual affiduity and
fnccefs, maftered the grammatical difficulties which he
encountered, he fet himfelf to difeover fomething of the
true genius and chai after of the language. He colleft
ed a number of ancient poems, the produftion of Liffi
or Scottiffi bards, which, he faid, wete daring, innocent
pafiionate, and bold. Some of thefe poems were tranf!.
Uted into Englifti verfe, which feveral perfons now alive
have feen in manufeript, before Mr Macpherfon pub-
hfhed any of his tranflations from Offian.
He died while he was writing and preparing for the
prefs a treatife, intitled, “ An Inquiry into the Origi!
P e-^atl°ri a,nd Languafe .of the ancient Scots,
ch Conjeftures about the Primitive State of the Cel¬
tic and other European Nations an idea which could
not have been conceived by an ordinary genius. In this-
treatife he proves that the Scots drew their original, as
wed a;, their language, from the ancient Gauls. Had
. Ir .ne I!ved to findh this work, which difeovers great-
ingemuty unmenfe reading, and indefatigable induftry,
it would have thrown light upon the dark and early pe-
nods of the Scottifh hiftory, as he opens a new and plain
path for leading us through the unexplored labyrinths
of antiquity But a fever put an end to his life/his la¬
bours, and his ufe.'ulnefs, m the year 1757, being then
only in the 30th year of his age. He left, in nianu-
cnp ., a much efteemed and well-known allegory, inti-
^ & b";
guages, or from being ,'nforfned .h« thde lan^goa publiLd andTn f r'“'f-' ^ 
the parents of many others, he began his philolo'ncal be a laftin r * ' rePn"ted hnce his death,, and will
purfuits with the 'ftudy of the Hebrew It vruf >ldge:
tongues ; and, by a wonderful effort of genius and ap- this extraordinarv charafter th^ K / °rnarnent of
plication, made himfelf fo far matter of thefe, without to his acred mother wh ! ? th.at ,hePaid a Plous regard
any kind of affiftance, as to be able to interpret the rece ved^n , 1 ’ r farv,ved him two years, and
Hebrew Bible and Greek Tellament into Englilh L f"*0" ^ Datcfcrf. of Athott
TuZ 'tnffbletot clld mltTg" ^ ia
to and Hands at the foot of feme high cliffs, in a fmall bay
with a rooky bottom, opening a. little in one part, fo
that fmall veffels may find admittance, but only at hiob
water. A mW .1 • 1 i_
o   1.14^ rwuuwichigc ui at leait
grammar of that language, he made application
the pariffi fchoolmafter for his afiiftance. Some time
afterwards, he was encouraged to profecute his ftudies
at the Univerfity of St Andrew’s. An unexampled
proficiency in every branch of literature recommended
nm to the eft.eem of the profeffors ; and an uncommon
fund of wit and pleafantry rendered him, at the fame
time, the favourite of all his fellow ftudents, fome of.
whom fpeak of him to this day with an enthufiaftic de¬
gree of admiration and refpeft. About this period
lome very humorous poetical pieces of his compofition
were publifhed in the Scots Magazine. Before he had
finilhed hi# third fefiion, or term, at St Audtew’s, on an
water. A pier laps over this harbour from the north
fide to fecure them after their entrance. The town con¬
tains about 800 inhabitants. The manufaftures are fail-
cloths and Ofnajiurghs, knit worfted and thread ftock--
mgS.
SI ONES, in natural hiftory, bodies which are infi->
pid, not duftile, nor inflammable, nor foluble in water^
But as this is the definition given of earths by chemilts
arid naturahfts, we mull refer the reader to the articles.
Earth, and Mineralogy, Part IL. clafs 1. for a
view.
S T O r 8c8 ] S T O
Sana view of the claffification of Hones. Here we will only reply it i« only a fmgle faft, and that it ie atojetlier Stereo
*—v  make a few obfervations concerning their natural hi- unphilofophical to deduce a general fyflem from a fingle
flory. fail. ^
As philofophers have perplexed themfelves much In the fecotid place, this protuberancy of the charae-
about the origin and formation of the eaith (a fubjedt ters is very improperly called vegetation, for it is not
certainly far beyond the ken of the human tHtelledl, at produced by a procefs in any refpect like the vegetation
lead if vve believe that it was made by the Almighty of a plant. Vegetation luppofea veffels containing
power of God), fo they have alfo propofed theories to fluids and growth by expanfion ; but who ever heard
explain the origin of {tones. When philofophers limit of vefiels in a done, of fluids moving in them, or of the
their inquiries within the boundaries of fcience, where different parts expanding and fweliing like the brancli
thev are led by the fober and fafe conduit of obferva- or trunk of a tree ? Even the fad which Tournefort
lion and experiment, their conclufions may be folid and mentions proves nothing. He does not pretend to fay,
may be ufeful •, but when, throwing experiment and that the rock itfelf is increafing, but only that a few
obfervation a fide, they rear a theory upon an airy no- fmall hollows are filled with new deny matter, which
thing, or upon a fingle detached fad, their theories will rifes a little above the furrounding furface of the r ck.
vanifh before the touch of true philofophy as a roman- This matter evidently has been once liquid, and at length
tic palace before the rod of the enchanter. Sometimes has congealed in the channel into which it had run.—
from whim, or caprice, or vanity, they attempt to con- But is not this eafily explained by a common procefs,
found every thing : They wifh to prove that the foul the formation of daladites ? When water charged with
is mere matter, that plants are animals, and that foffils calcareous matter is expofed to the adion of air, the
are plants, and thus would baniih two fubdances, fpirit water evaporates, and leaves the calcareous earth be-
and* dead matter, entirely from the world; as if the hind, which hardens and becomes like a done.
Author of Nature were aduated by fordid views of Having thus examined the principal fad upon which
parfimony in the works of creation, though we evidently M. Tournefort founds his theory, it is unnecedary to
fee that a generous profunon is one of the charaderif- follow him minutely through the red of his fubjedt.—
tic marks of thefe works. We leave the talk of con- He compares the accretion of matter in the labyrinth
founding the different clafles of being to thofe philo- to the confolidation of a bone when broken, by a callus
fophers whofe minds are too contraded to coinpre- formed of the extravafated nutritious juice. This ob-
bend a great variety of being at one view, or who pre- fervation is thought to be confirmed, by finding that
fer novelty to every thing die. We content ourfelves the projeding matter of the letters is whitifh and the
with the old opinion, that the foul is a fpiritual fubftance; rock itfelf greyifh. But it is eafy to find companions,
that plants are plants, and that dones are dones. The difficulty, as Pope fays, is to apply them. The re-
We have been led into thefe remarks by finding that femblance between the filling up of the hollow of a
iome philorophers fay that denes are vegetables ; that done, and the confolidation ox a broken bone by a cal-
they grow and increafe in fize like a plant. This lus, we confefs ourfelves not philofophers enough to fee.
theory, we believe, was fird offered to the world by Were we writing poetry in bad tade, perhaps it might
M.'I'ournefort, in the year i 702, after returning from appear. The circumllance, that the prominent matUr
bis travels in the ead. " It was founded on a curious of the letters is whitifh, while the rock is greyifh, we
fad. In furveying the labyrinth of Crete, he ob- flatter ourfdves drengthens our fuppoiition that it con-
ferved that the names which vifitors had engraved fids of a depofition of calcareous matter. Upon the
upon the rock were not formed of hollow but of pro- whole, we conclude, v/e hope logically, that no fuch
minent letters like baffo relievos. He fuppofes that theory as this, that dones are vegetables, can be drawn
thefe letters were at fird hollowed out by knives ; that from the fuppofed fad refpeding the labyrinth. We
the hollows have fince been filled up by the growth of have to regret, that the account which we have feen of
the done ; and henee he concludes that dones vegetate, the fubjed is fo imperfed, that we have not fufficient
We wifh we were fully affured of the fad that the let- materials for a proper invedigation. Tournefort has
ters were at fird hollowed, before we attempt to ac- not even told us of what kind of done or earth the ac¬
count for their prominency. But even allowing the fup- cretion confids; yet this Angle information would pro-
rofition to be true that they were at fird hollow, we bably have decided the queftion (a).
Artificial
(a) To give a more didind notion of Tournefort’s theory, we ffiall fubjoin his conclufions : From thefe ob-
fervations (he fays) it follows, that there are dones which grow in the quarries, and of confequence that are
fed ; that the fame juice which nourifhes them ferves to rejoin their parts when broken; juft as in the bones of
animals, and the branches of trees, when kept up by bandages ; and, in a word, that they vegetate. 1 here is,
then (he fays), no room to doubt but that they are organized ; or that they draw their nutritious juice from
the earth, 't his juice mull be fird filtrated and prepared in their furface, which may be here edeemed as a
kind of bark ; and hence it mud be conveyed to all the other parts. It is highly probable the juice which fill¬
ed the cavities of the letters was brought thither from the bottom of the roots ; nor is there any more difficulty
in conceiving this than in comprehending how the lap ffiould pafs from the roots of our largtd oaks to the
very extremities of their higheft branches. Some dones, then (he concludes), mud be allowed to vegetate and
grow like plants: but this is not all; (he adds), that probably they are generated in the fame manner ; at lead,
that there are abundance of dones whofe generation is inconceivable, without fuppofmg that they come from a
kind of feeds, wherein the organical parts of the {tones are wrapped up as thole of the larged plants are in
their feeds. ' ,
Stone.
[
* Lib. ii.
<£.69.
f Lib. iii
’c. 3-
Plate
«:cccj.kxii
£g. 7.
Hcrlafe,
chap. iv.
P iSx.
S T O
1 Artificial Stonb. See Stucco.
Elafiic Stone. See FJaftic Miznvz
Philofophtr's Stone. See Phuosophke’s Stows.
Precious Stones. See Gem.
Pochin? Stone, ov Lo?an, a ftone of a prodigious
fize ioe^aiypoded, that it would rock or fhako with
the fmallefl force Of thefe Hones the ancients give us
fame account. Phny lays, that at Harpafa, a town of
■ r , ’ ^erf W.a^ a1rock of fucfl a wonderful nature, that
if touched mt% the finoer it would fhake, but Could
not be moved from its place with the whole force of the
body . Ptolemy Hepheftionmentionsf a gygonian ftone
near the ocean, which was agitated when ftruck by the
fta k or an afphodel, but could not be removed bv a
great exertion of force The word feems to
ftone 1 5 f°r fisn;fies motitans, the rocking-
Many rocking ftones are to be found in different
parts of this ifland ; fome natural, others artificial, or
placed m their pohtion by human art. In the parifh of
v.t ljcven’ Corn Wall, there is a promontory called Call
tie Treryn. On the weftern fide of the middle group,
near the top, lies a very large ftone, fo evenly poifed
that any hand may move it from one fide to another •
yet it is fo fixed on its bafe, that no lever nor any me’
chanical force can remove it from its prefent fituation.
It is called the Lo^anjlone, and is at fuch a height from
the ground that no perfon can believe that it was raifed
to its prefent pofition by art. But there are other rock¬
ing ftones.. which are fo fitaped and fo fituated, that
there can be no doubt but they were ereded by human
ftrength. Of this kind Borlafe thinks the great Quoit
or Kam-Uhau, in the parifh of Tywidnek, to be. It
is 39 feet in circumference, and four feet thick'at a
medium, and Hands on a fingle pedeftal. There is alfo
a remarkable ftone of the fame kind in the ifland of St
Agnes in Scilly. The under rock A is 10 feet 6
inches high, 47 feet round the middle, and touches the
ground with no more than half its bafe. The upper
rock C refts on one point only, and is fo nicely balanced,
that two or three men with a pole can move it. It Is
ei. ht feet fix inches high, and 47 in circumference. On
the top there is a bafon D hollowed out, three feet ele¬
ven inches in diameter at a medium, but wider at the
brim, and three feet deep. From the globular fhape of
this upper ftone, it is highly probable that it tfas round¬
ed by human aft, and perhaps even placed on its pedef¬
tal by human ftrength. In Sithney parifli, near Hel¬
lion, in Cornwall, ftood the famous logan, or rocking
ftone, commonly called Men Amber, q. d. Men an Bar,
or the top-Jlone. It was eleven feet by fix and four high,
and fo nicely poifed on another ftone that a little child
could move it, and all travellers who came this way de-
lired to fee it. But Shrubfall, Cromwell’s governor of
Pendennis, with much ado caufed it to be undermined,
to the great grief of the country. There are fome
marks of the tool on it, and, by its quadrangular fnape,
it was probably dedicated to Mercury.
i hat the rocking ftones are monuments eredfted by
the Druids cannot be doubted ; but tradition has not
uiformed us for what purpofe they were intended. Mr
Poland thinks that the Druids made the people believe
that they alone could move them, and that by a mira¬
cle ; and that by this pretended miracle they condemned
Voc. XVII. Part II,
809 ] S T O
or acquitted tlie accufed, and brought criminals to con.
tels what could not otherwife be extorted from them.
Plow far this conjecture is right we ftiall leave to thofe
ZdJermin?^ ^ ^ knovvkd£e of antiquities
. SoAo^ Stone, a kind of ftone remarkable for emit-
tmg an agreeable found when ftruck, and much ufed
m China for making mnfical inftruments which they call
ring. 1
Ihe various kinds of fonorous ftones known in
China difter coniiderably from one another in beauty,
and m the ftrength and duration of their tone • and
what is very iurpnfing, is, that this difference cannot
be d.icovered either by the different degrees of their
hardnefs, weight, or finenefs of grain, or by any other
qualities which might be fuppofed to determine it.
borne ftones are found remarkably hard, which are ve¬
ry fonorous ; and others exceedingly foft, which have
an excellent tone ; fome extremely heavy emit a very
fweet found ; and there are others as light as pumice-
itone which have alfo an agreeable found.
The chemifts and naturalifts of Europe have never
yet attempted to dlfcover, whether fome of our ftones
may not have the fame properties as the fonorous ftones
ot the extremities of Afia. It however appears,
that the Romans were formerly acquainted with a fo-
norous ftone of the clafs of hiang-che. Pliny (fays
the Abbe du Bos, m his Reflections on Poetry and
Painting, when fpeaking of curious Hones) obferves that
the ftone called chalcophonas, or brazen found, is black *
and that, according to the etymology of its name, it
lends forth a found much refembling that of brafs
when it is ftruck. The paffage of Pliny is as follows :
Lhalcophonas nigra ejt ; fed elf a aris tinmtum reddit.
Some fonorous ftones were at length fent into France,
and the late Duke de Chaulnes examined them with par¬
ticular attention. The following are fome of his obferva-
turns: “The Academy of Sciences, Mr Rome de Lifle,
and feveral other learned mineralogifts, when allied
if they were acquainted with the black ftone of which
the Chinefe king was made, for anfwer cited the paf¬
fage of Pliny mentioned by Boethius de Bott, Linnae¬
us, and in the Diaionary of Bomare, and added what
Mr Andcrfon fays in his Natural Pliftory of Iceland
refpeamg a bluilh kind of ftone which is very fono¬
rous. As the black ftone of the Chinefe becomes of a
bluilh colour when filed, it is probably of the fame fpe-
cies. _ None of the reft who were eonfulted had ever
leen it. The Chinefe ftone has a great refemblance at
firft fight to black marble, and like it is calcareous 5
but marble generally is not fonorous. It alfo external.
ly refembles touchftone, which is a kind of hafaltes, and
the baialtes found near volcanos ; but thefe two ftones
are vitrifications.”
The duke next endeavoured to procure fome infor¬
mation from the ftone-cutters. They all replied, that
blue-coloured marble was very fonorous, and that they
had feen large blocks of it which emitted a very ftrong
found j but the duke having ordered a king to be con-
flrucfted of this kind of ftone, it was found that it did
not poflefs that property. By trying the black marble
in I landei s, a piece was at length found which emitted
an agreeable found : it was cut into a king, which is al-
tnoft as fonorous as thofe of China. Aifthcie obferva-
5 K tioiw
Stot&.
STO [ 3io ] STO
S»onr. tions mve us reafon to believe that the ftones of which before made. The white kind, which afterwards be*
u—^ the kl° „ are {ormed are nothing elfe but a black kind came, and for many fucceeding years continued, the
of marble the conftituent parts of which are the fame ftaple branch of pottery, is faid to nave owed its origin
as thofe of the marble of- Europe, but that fome dif- to the following accident. A potter, Mr Aftbury,
ference in their organization renders them more or lefs travelling to London, perceived fomething amifs with
fonorous one ^‘8 ^or^e’s eyes> an hoftler at Duoitable faid he
0>S™;Zstonf (lapis fuillus), ox fetid Jlone, fo called could foon cure him, and for that purpofe put a com-
from its exceffively fetid fmell, calcareous earth im- mon black flint ftone into the hre. The potter obfer-
oregnated with petroleum. It is found, I. Solid, ving it, when taken out, to be of a fine white, immedi-
with the particles fcarcely vifible, of a black co- ately conceived the idea of improving lf1S ware by the
lour as the marble does in Flanders, and in the pro- addition of this material to the whited clay he could
vince of Tudand in Sweden. 2. With vifible grains of procure : accordingly he fent home a quantity of the
a black!;b brown colour, found likewife in fome places flint ftones of that country,. where they are plentiful
of Sweden. 5. With coarfe fcales, found alfo in Swe- among the chalk, and by. mixing them with tobacco-
den Great part of the limeftones found in England P'Pe clay, produced a white ftone-ware much fuperior
belong to this clafs, and emit a very fetid fmell when to any that had been leen before.
ftrnck violently, but it foon goes off in the fire. Some or the other potters foon difcovered the fource
Stone Marrow. See Clay, fpecies 4. of thJs Superiority, and did not fail to follow his ex-
SroNE-lVare, a fpecies of pottery fo called from its ample. For a long time they pounded the flint ftones
hardnefs SeeDfLFT-lVare, Porcelain, and Pottery, in private rooms by manual labour in mortars ; but raa-
Clay is ?. principal ingredient in pottery of all kinds ny of the poor workmen fuffered feverely from the daft
which has the oroperty of hardening in the fire, and of of the flint getting into their lungs, and producing
receiving and preferving any form into which it is dreadful coughs, confumptions, and other pulmonary
moulded. One kind of clay refills the moft violent diforders. Thefe difafters, and the increafed demand
aftion of the fire after being hardened to a certain de- for the flint powder, induced them to try to grind it
gree, but is incapable of receiving a fufficient degree by mills of various conflrudlions ; and this method being
of hardnefs and folidity. A fecond kind affumes a found both effeaual and fate, has continued in praftice
hardnefs refembling that of flint, and fuch a compaa* ever fince. With thefe improvements, in the begin-
refs that veffels made of it have a gloffy appearance ning of the prefent century, various articles were pro-
in their frafture refembling porcelain. Thefe two duced for tea and coffee equipages. Soon aftei at-
fpecies owe their peculiar properties of refifting heat tempts were made to furnifh the dinner table alio; and
without melting, to fand, chalk, gypfum or ferrugi- before the middle of the century, utenlils for the tabic
nous earth, which they contain. A third fpecies of clay were manufa&ured in quantity as well tor exportation
begins to harden with a moderate fire, and melts en- as home confumption.
tirely with a ftrong fire. It is of the fecond fpecies But the fait glaze, the only one then in ufe for this
that'ftone-ware is made. purpofe, is in its own nature fo imperfeft, and the
The moft famous manufadlory of ftone-ware, as well potters, from an injudicious competition among them-
as of other kinds of pottery, is at Burflem in Stafford- felves for cheapnefs, rather than excellence, had been fo
fliire. This can be traced with certainty at lead two inattentive to elegance of form and neatnefs of work,
centuries back ; but of its firft introduaion no tradi- manfhip, that this ware was rejeded from the tables of
tion remains. In 1686, as we learn from Dr Plot’s perfons of rank; and about the year 1760, a white
Natural Hiftory of Staffordlhire publifhed in that year, ware, much more . beautiful and better glazed than
Anderfons oniy the coarfe yellow, red, black, and mottled wares, ours, began to be imported in confiderable quantities
Commerce, ma(je thjs cotmtry. an(j only materials from France.
employed for them appear to have been the different I his inundation of a foreign manufa&ure, fo much
coloured clays which are found in the neighbourhood, fuperior to any of our own, mnft have had very bad
and which form fome of the meafures or ilrata of the effeds upon the potteries of this kingdom, if a new one,
coal-mines. Thefe coarfe clays made the body of the ftill more to the public tafte, had not appeared foon af-
ware, and the glaze was produced by powdered lead- ter. In the year 17^3’ Mr Jofiah Wedgwood, who
ore, fprinkled on the pieces before firing, with the ad- had already introduced feveral improvements into this
dition of a little manganefe for fome particular colours, art, invented a fpecies of earthen ware for the table
The quantity of goods manufadured was at that time quite new in its appearance, covered with a rich and
fo incoijfiderable, that the chief fale of them, the Doc- brilliant glaze, bearing fudden alternations of heat and
tor fays, was “ to poor crate-men, who carried them cold, manufadured with eafe and expedition, and con-
on their backs all over the country.” fequently cheap, and having every requifite for trie
About the year 1690, . two ingenious artifans from purpofe intended. To this new manufadure the queen
Germany, of the name of Eller, fettled near Burflem, was pleafed to give her name and patronage, com-
and carried on a fmall work for a little time. They manding it to be called Queen’s ware, and honouring
brought into this country the method of glazing ftone- the inventor by appointing him her majefty’s potter,
ware, by calling fait into the kiln while it is hot, and The common clay of the country is ufed for the
fome other improvements of lefs importance ; but find, ordinary forts ; the finer kinds are made of clay frora
ing they could not keep their fecrets to themlelves, they Devonfhire and Dorfetfhire, chiefly from Biddeford ;
left the place rather in difguft. From this time vari- but the flints from the 1 hames are all brought rough
ous kinds of ftone-ware, glazed by the fumes of fait in by fea, either to Liverpool or Hull, and fo by bur..
the manner above-mentioned, were added to the wares ton. There is no conjecture formed of the original rea~
6 "
Stone.
Stone,
Stone¬
henge,
^ ^ ^ r 3 s t o
are mixed in the requiiite proDortions The flJnd i ° n i^V,! uPPer/.end ot the Adytumis the
are bought firft by the people about the’ ennntr ^ l altar, a large flab ol blue coarfe marble, 20 inches thick,
The mixture is theu laid in large quantities on kilns to "vTIT TwS Upnght,S’ ^ POl,t a-n<i aI,ar'is
wssmmm&Mi
mmm'BszsMs
There are 300 houfes which are calculated to em- were raifed on the outiide of the treneh tw u ' ‘
F_1T.Upr,an fvera«,e’ ha“ds or «ooo Hones with two fmaller within parallel ,0 them ^
'Gough's edi
Sion of
Cambden's
Britannia,
vol. i.
p. 107-
in the whole ; but of all the variety of people that
work in what may be called the preparation for the
employment of the immediate manufacturers, the total
number cannot be much fhort of 1 c,ooo, and it is in-
creafing every day. Large quantities are exported to
j-ermany, Ireland, Holland, Ruflia, Spain, the Eall
Indies, and much to America; fome of the fineft forts
to France.
Stone in the Bladder. See Medicine, n° 400. Sur-
cekt-Index{ and Alkali, n° 17, 18, 19.
Stone, in merchandize, denotes a certain weight
for weighing commodities. A Hone of beef at Lon¬
don is the quantity of eight pounds : in Herefordihire
12 pounds : in the North 16 pounds. A ftone of glafs
is five pounds ; of wax eight pounds. A ftone of wool
(according to the ftatute of 11 Hen VII.) is to weigh
14 pounds; yet in fome places it is more, in others
lefs; as in Gloucefterfhire 15 pounds ; in Herefordihire
J2 pounds. Among horfe-courfers a ftone is the weight
of 14 pounds.
The reafon of the name is evident. Weights at firft
were generally made of ftone. See Deut. xxv. 13. where
the word 32n} tranflated weighty properly fignifies a.Jlone.
SroNE-Cbatter, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
SIONEHENGE, a celebrated monument of anti¬
quity, Hands in the middle of a flat area near the fum-
mit of a hill fix miles diftant from Salisbury. It is in-
clofed by a circular double bank and ditch near 30 feet
broad, after crofiing which we afcend 30 yards before
we reach the work. The whole fabric conlifted of two
. circles and two ovals. The outer circle is about 108
feet diameter, conlifting when entire of 60 ftones, 30
uprights and 30 impofts, of which remain only 24 up-
rights, 17 Handing and 7 down, 34 feet afunder, and~8
impofts. Eleven uprights have their 5 impofts on them
by the grand entrance. Thefe ftones are from 13 to 20
feet high. The lefler circle is fomewhat more than 8
feet from the infide of the outer one, and confifted of
40 lefler ftones (the higheft 6 feet), of which only 19
remain, and only 11 Handing : the walk between thefe
two circles is 300 feet in circumference. The Adytum
<?r Cell is an oval formed of 10 ftones (from 16 to 22
feet high), in pairs, with impofts, which Dr Stukeley
It has been long a difpute among the learned, by
what nation, and for what purpofe, thefe enormous
ftones were colle&ed and arranged. The firft account
of this ftruffure we meet with is in Geoffroy of Mon¬
mouth, who, in the reign of King Stephen, wrote
the hiftory of the Britons in Latin. He tells us,
that it was erefted by the counfel of Merlin the Bri-
tifli enchanter, at the command of Aurelius Ambro-
fius the laft Britilh king, in memory of 460 Bri- *
tons who were murdered by Hengilt the Saxon. The
next account is that of Polydore Virgil, who fays that
the Britons eredted this as a fepulchral monument of
Aurelius Ambrofius. Others fuppofe it to have been
a fepulchral monument of Boadicea the famous Britifh
Queen. Inigo Jones is of opinion, that it was a Roman
temple ; from a ftone 16 feet long, and four broad, pla-
ced in an exa& pofition to the eaftward, altar-fafhion.
Mr Charlton attributed it to the Danes, who were two
\ ears mailers of Wiltfhire ; a tin tablet, on which were
fome unknown charadters, fuppofed to be Punic, was
digged up near it in the reign of Henry VIII. but is
loft ; probably that might have given fome information
refpedlmg its founders. Its common name, Stonehengey
is Saxon, and fignifies a “ ftone gallows/' to which
thofe ftones, having tranfverfe impofts, bear fome re-
femblance. It is alio called in Welch choir gouty or
“ the giants dance.”
Mr Grofe thinks that Dr Stukeley has completely
proved this ftrudture to have been a Britifli temple in
which the Druids officiated. He fuppofes it to have
been the metropolitan temple of Great Britain, and
tranflates the words choir gour (i the great choir or
temple.” The learned Mr Bryant is of opinion that it^wy.,
was ereaed by a colony of Cuthites probably before AntiqUtUs,
the time of the Druids; becaufe it was ufual with themvo*-v'*
to place one vaft ftone upon another for a religious me-P'40'
morial; and thefe they often placed fo equably, that even
a breath of wind would fometimes make them vibrate. Of
b-ich ftones one remains at this day in the pile of Stone-
henge. The ancients diftinguifhed ftones eredfed with a
religious view, by the name of amber; by which was fig-
nified any thing folar and divine. The Grecians called
them wirpai petra ambrojla, Stonehenge, ac-
5 K 2 cording
S T O [8
Stack cording to Mr Bryant, is compofed of thefe amber
^ {tones : hence the next town is denominated Ambrejbu-
Stove' , ry ; not from a Roman Ambrofms, for no fuch perfon
ever exifted, but from the ambroJi<r petra-, in whofe vi¬
cinity it ftoed. Some of thefe were rocking {tones ;
and there was a wonderful monument of this iort near
Penzance in Cornwall, which {till retains the name of
main-amber, or the faered Hones. Such a one is menr
tioned by Apollonius Rhodius, fnppofed to have been
raifed in the time of the Argonautse, in the ifland Te-
nos, as the monument ot the two-winged fans of Boreas,
{lain by Hercules ; and there are others in China and
other countries.
S POOK, a term ufed in many parts of the king¬
dom for a {hock of corn containing i 2 {heaves.
STOOL, in medicine, an evacuation or diicharge of
the faeces by the anus.
Stool, in mining, is ufed when the miners leave off
digging deeper, and work in the ends forward. The
end before them is called the fiool.
Stool, in {hip-building, the name of the fupporters
of the poop and top lanterns.
STOOPING, in falconry, is when a hawk, being
upon her wings at the height of her pitch, bends down
violently to take the fowl.
STOPPERS, in a (hip, certain Ihort pieces of rope,
which are ufually knotted at one or both ends, accord¬
ing to the purpofe for which they are defigned. They
are either ufed to fufpend any heavy body, or to retain
a cable, fhroud, &c. in a fixed pofition. Thus, the
anchors, when firll hoifted up from the ground, are
hung to the cat-head by a Hopper attached to the lat¬
ter, which paffing through the anchor-ring, is after¬
wards faHened to the timber-head ; and the fame rope
ferves to faHen it on the bow at fea y or to fufpend it
by the ring which is to be funk from the fiiip to the
bottom. The Hoppers of the cable have a large knot
and a laniard at one end, and are faHened to a ring-bolt
in the deck by the other. They are attached to the cable
by the laniard, which is- faHened fecurely round both
by feveral turns pafled behind the knot, or about the neck
of the Hopper ; by which means the cable is rellrained
from running out of the {hip when fhe rides at anchor.
The Hoppers of the Hiroud have a knot and a la¬
niard at each end. They are only ufed when the
{hrouds are cut afunder in battle, or difabled by tempe-
iluous weather; at which time they are lafhed, in the
fame manner as thofe of the cables, to the feparated
parts of the Ihroud, which are thereby reunited, fo as
to be fit for immediate fervice. This, however, is only
a temporary expedient.
STOPS. See Punctuation ; and Scripture,n°i36.
tSTORAX. See Sty rax.
STORK, in ornithology. See A rhea,
STOVE for heating apartments, greenhoufes, hot-
houfes, fruit-walls, See.
When treating of the mechanical properties of air,
we explained in fufficient detail the manner in which
the expanfion produced in a mafs of air by heat pro¬
duces that motion up our chimneys which is called the
draught of the chimney ; and, in the article Smoke,
we confidered the circumHances which tend to check, to
promote, or to direft this current, fo as to free us
from the fmoke and vitiated air which neceffarily accom-
2 ] s t o
panics the confumption of the fuel. In Pneumatics Store,
we alfo attended to the manner in which our fires im- '
mediately operate in warming our apartments. At
prefent, when about to delcribe a method ot warming
intrinfically difierent, we mufi pay feme more attention
to the difiinguifiu’ng circumHance. Without pretending
to explain the phyfical connexion of heat and light, it
may fuffice to obferve, that heat, as well as light, is com¬
municated to diHant bodies in an inHant by radiation,
A perfon paffing hafiily by the door of a glafs-houfe
feels the glow of heat in the very moment he fees the
dazzling light of the furnace mouth, and it is interrupted
by merely fereening his face with his hand. In this
way is an apartment partly warmed by an open fire ;
and we avoid the oppreffirve heat by fitting where the
fire is not feen, or by interpofing a ferecn. We are
apt to conned! this fo Hrongly in the imagination wdth
the light emitted by the fire, that we attribute the heat
to the immediate a&ion of the light. But this opinion
is (hown to be gratuitous by a curious experiment made
before the Royal Society by Dr Hooke, and afterwards*
with more care and accurate examination, by MrScheele.
They found, that by bringing a plate of the mofi tranfpa-
rent glafs brilkly between the fire and one’s face, the heat
is immediately intercepted without any fenfible diminu¬
tion of the light. Scheele, by a very pretty inveHigation*
difeovered that the glafs made the feparation, and did
it both in refradfion and refledtion ; for he found, that
when the light of the fame fire was colledted into a fo¬
cus by means of a polifiied metal concave fpeculum, a
thermometer placed there w^as injlantly affedled. But
if we employ a glafs fpeculum foiled in the ufual man¬
ner with quicklilver, of the fame diameter and focal
diHance, and of equally brilliant refledlion, there is
hardly any fenfible heat produced in the focus, and
the thermometer mufi remain there for a very long while
before it is fenfibly affedled. When we repeated this
curious experiment, we found, that after the glafs
has remained a long while in this pofition, whether
tranfmitting or refledling the light, it lofes in a great
meafure its power of intercepting the heat. By varying
this oblervation in many of its circumHances, we think
ourfelves entitled to conclude, that the glafs abforbs the
heat which it intercepts, and is very quickly heated by
the abforption. While it rites iu its own tempei'ature,
it intercepts the heat powerfully ; but when it is, as it
were, faturated, attradting no more than what it imme¬
diately imparts to the air in corporeal contadi with it,
the heat paffes freely through along with the light. If
the glafs be held fo near the fire that the furrounding
air is very much heated, no fenfible interruption of heat
is perceived after the glafs is thus faturated. We found
the cheek more quickly feniible than the thermo¬
meter of this infiantaneous radiation of the heat which
accompanies the light, or is feparated from it in this
experiment. It is a very inllmctive experiment in the
pbyfiology of heat.
We cannot fay how far this radiation of heat may
extend, nor whether the aecompanyrnent of light is ab-
folutely neceffary. The mathematician proceeds on the
fuppoiition that it extends as far as the radiation of
light, and that, being alfo redlilineal, the denfity of
the heat is proportional to that of the light. But
thefe notions ?.re foniewhat gratuitous \ and there are
appearances.
Stove
S T O [8
_ ^PP^rances which render them ’doubtful. When with
alens of an inch in diameter we form a focus on a piece
of black unpulifhed marble of an inch diameter, the ma-
themat.cian muft allow that no more rays fall on the
n 1 the 'T were away: therefore the
marble fhould be equally warmed in either cafe. But
it is by no means fo, as we have repeatedly found bv
expohnyf it during equal times, and then dropping it
into water. The water which is heated by the'marble
on which the focus has been formed will be found to
-save acquired from it much more heat than from th**
other. i'he tops of lofty mountains which are never
fhaded by clouds, but enjoy perpetual funfhine and fe-
remty, inftead of being warmer than the valleys below'
are covered with never-melting fnow ; and we have fome
grounds to fufpeft that the genial influence of the fun
requires the co-operation of the atmofphere, and to
doubt whether there is any warmth at the moon, on
which no atmofphere like ours can be obferved Per¬
haps the heat which cheers us, and fertilizes our earth,
is chemically feparated from our atmofphere by its elec-
tive attraaion for the light of the fun. Our fucceffors
in the fludy of meteorology need not fear that the fub-
pet of their refearch will be foon deprived of fcientific
allurements. We know but little of it after all the
progrefs we have made during this laft century, and it
itill prefents an ample field of difeufilon.
We faid that the accompanyment of light is not de-
monflrably neceffary. We are certain that heat may be
imparted without any fenfible light, in a manner which
we can hardly fuppofe any thing but radiation. If a
piece of very hot iron be placed a little without the
principal focus of a metallic concave fpeculum, and a very
fenfible am-thermometer be placed in its conjugate focus,
it wdl mftantly fhow an elevation of temperature, although
the iron is quite imperceptible to an eve which has even
been a long while in the dark. No fuch rife of tempe¬
rature is obferved if the thermometer be placed a little to
one fide Of the focus of the fpeculum; therefore the pheno¬
menon is preciiely fimilar to the radiation of light. We
are obliged therefore to acknowledge that the heat is ra¬
diated in this experiment in the fame way that light is in
the common optical experiments.
Although this is the moft ufual way that w-e in this
country employ fuel for warming our apartments, it is
by no means the only way in w'hich the heat diffufed
from this fuel may be imparted to diftant bodies. It is
not even the moft eflfe&ual method ; it is diffufed alfo
# ^ ^ Ally. 9 XL id UIlllHCU auo
by immediate communication to bodies in contact.
I he air in immediate contact with the burning fuel is
heated, and imparts fome of its heat to the air lying
beyond it, and this is partly fhared wdth the air which
is Itill farther off; and this diffufion, by communication
in contaftu, goes on till the remote air contiguous to the
walls, the floor, the ceiling, the furniture, the com¬
pany, all get a fhare of it in proportion to their attrac¬
tions and their capacities. And as the air is thus con¬
tinually fupplied, and continually gives out heat, the
walls, &c. become gradually warmer, and the room
becomes comfortable and pleafant. But we apprehend
that no great proportion of the heat a&ually acquired
by the room is communicated in this way. This dif¬
fufion by contact is hut flow, efpecially in air which is
very diy ; fo flow indeed, that the air in the immediate
ciglibourhood of the fuel is hurried up the chimney be-
'3 1 s t o
c0ortaaha!wmV0 ,a"y °f ,he heat ™
firr MHi fthe time eraP‘°y«l ^ diffu.
derate f ''S "'ay thl?u2h ftngnnnt mV to any mo.
fore th?T ,'ry We imagine there-
^ .the,1jeat communicated to our rooms by an
open fire is chiefly by -adiation hvt In l r}
rVimrr n-rr . r } -auiation, out in a way fome-
g .ifferent from what we mentioned before. We
Imagine, that as the piece of glafs in Dr Hooke’s ex.
™ ^ heat’ fo the "hole mafs of air
pan cC rh he r00m \nterCC^S the radiatcd heat in every
paitcf the room where the fire is feen, and is as it
^ere faturated with it throughout, and ready to impart
l t0 CVe7 b°df lmrnerfed in it. We cannot otherwife
* pamof hr the of the heat in the different
par of the room. Mere radiation on the folid bodies
Mould waim them in the inverfe duplicate ratio of
their d'dances from the fire ; and diffuiion by contadt
if compatible with the rapid current up the^ney
would heat the room flill more unequably. Recoiled
how flow, and with what rapid diminution in-
to S’ hC C° OUr °f blue vl'trio1 fs communicated
parTs ofrtehVen ^ f T* ^ But ^
? frth,e air obfbe room nhforb radiated heat, what
s faturated at a higher temperature, being nearer to
•pfrC’ rflto 7e 7lling» fpreads outwards along the
thus nnfhn1 138 PuCe fUpplied by thc ai*r’ whfch is
thus pufhecl towards the fire from the places which are
not dire&ly illuminated.
Far different is the method of warming the room by
r OVC‘ , !re tn^ radiation, if any, is very feeble or
canty ; and if a paffage were allowed up the chimney for
the watmed air, it would be quickly carried off. Thin
is well known to the Englifh who refide in the cold cli¬
mates of St Peterfburgh, Archangel, See. They love
the exhilarating flutter of an open fire, and often have
one m their parlour ; but this, fo far from warming
he room during the extreme cold weather, obliges them
n° beat, t}!e,r itfpves niore frequently, and even ah-
liracts the heat from a whole fuite of apartments. But
all paflages this way is /hut up when we warm a room
foy Loves. j he air immediately contiguous to the itove
hea^d by contact, and this heat is gradually, though
/lowly, diffufed through the whole room. The diffidioit
wou.d however he very flow indeed, were it not for the
great expanfibility of air by heat. But the air fur-
rounding the ftove quickly expands and riles to the cell¬
ing, while the neighbouring air Aides in to fupply the
place, nay is even pu/hed in by the air which goes
outwards aloft. Thus the whole air is foon mixed,
throughout^ aCCpmeS almoit an temperature
The warming by ftoves muft therefore be rtianaired
upon very different principles from thofe adopted in
the employment of open fires. The general principle
is, y7, To employ the fuel in the moft effectual manner
for heating the external part of the itove, which is im-
mediately efficient in warming the contiguous air; and,
, ’ lo keeP in the room the air already warmed, at
leaft as much as is confident with wholefomenefs and
cleanlmefs.
The fir ft purpofe is accompli died by condufting the
flue of the furnace round its external parts, or, in fhort,
by making every part of the flue external. Of all
forms, that of a long pipe, returned backwards and for¬
wards, up and down (provided only that the place of
its
S T O r ] S T o
fStove. Its laft difckarire be confiderably higher than its entry
1   from the'fire-place), would be the moft effectual. We
have feen a very fmall {love conllru&ed in this way, the
whole being incloltd in a handfome cafe of polifhed
iron plate, pierced and cut into elegant foliage like the
cock of a watch, fo that the odd looking pipes were
completely concealed. 1 hough only three teet long,
one foot thick, and lix feet high, it warmed a very lofty
room of 24 feet by 18, and confumed lefs than half the
fuel of a Hove of the more ufual make, which did not
. fo fully warm a fmaller chamber.
It would occupy a volume to defcribe the immenfe
variety of {loves w'hich ingenuity or architeftonic tafte
has conftru&ed. We {hall content ourfelves with
giving a fpecimen of the two chief clafles into which
they may be diftinguilhed.
The air of a room may be equally warmed, either by
applying it to the furface of a fmall ftove made very
hot, or to the furface of a much larger ftove more mo¬
derately heated. The firft kind is chiefly ufed in Hol¬
land, Handers, and the milder climates of Germany and
Poland. The laft are univerfally ufed in the frozen
climates of Ruffia and Sweden. The firft are generally
made of call-iron, and the fail of brick-work covered
with glazed tiles or ftucco.
Pla’e Fig. 1. reprefents a fmall German ftove fully fuffi-
(SCcclxxxv. cJent for warming a room of 24 feet by 18. The bafe
is about three feet broad and 14 inches deep, that is,
from back to front, and fix or feven feet high. rl he
decoration is in the falhion of that country ; but the
operative ftfudlure of it will admit of any ftyle of orna¬
ment. A, is the fire-place, and the wood or charred
coal is laid on the bottom, which has no barr. Bars
would admit the air too freely among the fuel, and would
both confume it too fall and raife too great a heat.
That no heat may be ufelefsly expended, the foie of
the fire place and the whole bottom of the ftove is rai-
fed an inch or two above the floor of the room, and the
air is therefore warmed by it in fucceflion, and rifes up¬
wards. For the fame reafon the back of the ftove is
not in contad with the wall of the room, or of the
niche in which it is placed. The fire-place is fhut up by
a door which fits clofely to its cafe, and has a fmall
wicket at the bottom, whofe aperture is regulated by
a Hiding plate, fo as to admit no more air than what
iuffices for flowly confuming the fuel. The flame and
heated air rife to the top of the fire-place three or
four inches above the arch or mantle-piece, and get
out laterally by two narrow paffages B, B, immediately
below the top plate of the bafe. The current bends
downward on each fide, pafles at C, C, undei the
partition plates which divide the twro fide chambers,
and then rifes upwards through the outer divifion of
each, and pafles through narrow flits D, D, in the top
plate, and from thence along the two hollow piers E,
E. The two lateral currents unite at the top of the
arch, and go through the Angle paflage F into the
larger hollow behind the efcutcheon G. From this place
it either goes ftraight upwards into the vent in the wall
by a pipe on the top of the Hove, or it goes into the
wall behind by a pipe inferted in the back of the ftove.
'The propriety of this conftrudlion is very obvious.
The current of hot air is applied to exterior parts of
the ftove everywhere except in the two fide chambers
of the bafe, where the partition-plates form one fide of
the canal. Even this might be avoided by making
each of thefe fide-chambers a detached hollow pillar.
But this would greatly increafe the trouble of conltruc-
tion and joining together, and is by no means neceflary.
The arch H has a graceful appearance, and affords a
very warm fttuation for any thing that requires it, fuch
as a drink in a fick perfon’s bed-chamber, See. Perfons
of a certain clafs ufe this place for keeping a difh warm ;
nay, the lower part of the arch is trequently occupied
by an inclofed chamber, where the heat rifes high
enough even for dreffing vidluals, as will be eafily ima¬
gined when we refleft that the foie of it is the roof of
the fire place.
The ftove now deferibed is fupplied with fuel and
with air by the front door opening into the room. That
there may be room for fuel, this middle part projedls
a few inches before the two fide chambers. Thefe laft,
with the whole upper part of the ftove, are not more
than ten inches deep. The pafiages, therefore, from
the fire-place are towards the back of it ; fo that if -we
have a mind to fee the fire (which is always cheerful),
the door may be thrown open, and there is no danger
of the fmoke coming out after the current has once
warmed the upper part of the ftove. When the ftove is
of fuch dimenlions that the bafe is about two leet and a
half or three feet high, the fire place may be furnilhed
with a fmall grate in the Britiflr ftyle. If the door is
fo hung that it can not only be thrown back, but lift¬
ed off its hinges, we have a Hove-grate of the comple-
teft kind, fully adequate, in our mild climate, to warm
a handfome apartment, even with an open fire and
when we hang on the door, and {hut up the fire-place,
a ftove of the dimenfions already given is almoft too
much for a large drawing-room.
We have frequently remarked, that one fide of thefe
ftoves grows much warmer than the other, and that it
was difficult to prevent or remedy this ; and we ima¬
gine that this is an unavoidable defetl in all {loves with
a double flue. It is fcarcely poffible to make the fire
fo equable in the fire-place, that one fide ffiall not be a
little warmer than the other, and a brilker current will
then be produced in it. This mull increafe the con-
fumption of the fuel on this fide, which will increafe
the current, will heat this fide ftill more, and thus go on
continually till the fuel on this fide is expended; after
which the other fide will obtain and increafe the fupe-
riority. The flue is made double, that the fire-place
may occupy the middle of the front; and it will be
difficult to gain this point of fymmetry with one flue.
The inconvenience may, however, be corrected by damp¬
ing valves placed in fome part of the upright funnels
Stove,
£, E.
In the colder winters on the continent, it is thought
neceflary to increafe the effect by making the fire-place
open to the back of the ftove. Its mouth or door com¬
municates with or is joined to an opening of the fame
dimenfions formed in the wall, and the door is on the
other fide in an antichamber or. lobby. In Weftpha-
lia, and other places of Germany, the apartments are
difpofed round a fpacious lobby, into which all their fire¬
places open, and are there fupplied with fuel. By this
conftruftion it is plain that the air of the room, already-
warmed by the ftove, is not carried off, and the room
is more heated. But this method is very unfavourable
to cheerfulnefs and health. The fame air confined, and
repeatedly
Stove.
S T ° f 8ic T STD
repeatedly breathed and compounded with all the" vola- hr hi the rv^r V, *
tile emanations of the room, oiuckly lofes that refrefh verv J-fF V u' •Dl<Jcrei,t Parts of the Hove beinpr of
ing quality that is fo deftrable, and even fo ne7“v' 11 > ^ ^ exPand ^equaUy, and there
for health. It is nevP, 10 ntcefla.*y 18 no cement wh,ch can withiland this, efpecially when
we rernlleA r . , - . r
for health. It is never renewed except by verv partial
admixtures when the room doors are thrown open, and
becomes difagreeable to any perfon coming in from the
open air; and in the houfes of the lefs opulent becomes
really orrenfive and naufeous.
Something of this is unavoidable in all rooms heated
r Roves. Even in nnr Qr»ort-rv»^i-»fn .-U * .*n_ i
^ recoHea that the fame heat whlh ^ds th^
Dan^ C 37 °r Cement, with wh'ch the
tPlaiS °fAthe ^ve,are PU} together or covered, to con.
tract. Accordingly thofe earthen ware itoves feldom
Itand a winter or two without cracking in fome place
or other, even when ftrengthened by iron hoops^nd
by Roves. Even in our'apartmenis'lnThinZr^0 ^ ^ f.V5n when. lengthened by h
fons of delicate nerves are hurt by what they caliche inT^em" lc'oufly d,fPofed with'n them. Even hoop,
clofe air of a room ; audit is long7before ^ fmel/of wfl ttmpr:rtnS^ be ^
dinner is quite removed from a dining-room, notwith- fmn ‘ f o- ’ , n0thing can rehft the exoan-
ftanding the copious current up the chimney. This happens h? a R IOn- 7 ^eat and cold. When a crack
muft be incomparably more fenLe in a roo^ helted Sa^eroVs be"1? 7^1’ ^
by a Rove ; and this inconvenience is peculiarly fenfible difeharcre into th i7 ^ b°- !Ituated’ tdat lt; will
W,.h refpea ,o the Hove which we are confjering a & 'aVd 0theZ f' a'r ""“‘I137 t,he
prefent, where we employ a fmall furface heated to a maU R i ° i re?fons’ we can Scarcely hope to
great degree. ^ unace heated to a make fto,eS of bnck-work or pottery which lhall bear
Such itoves are feldom made of any thing elfe than muftllwrefT, k™ ''cthjUt cracking! and their ufc
caft-iron. This (in thofe parts at kaft which are in l7at is h ffl° ^ w" "CdJt° "''y ^derate
....vu .uAr.. • .ltait/vwn,cu are m heat is fufficient. We need not deferibe their conRruc-
. .. \   co cn. icait wmen are m
immediate contaft with the fuel) is In a Rate of conti-
mial calcination, and even throwing off feales. This in-
deed is not feen, becaufe it is the bottom or foie of the
nre-place which is fo heated: but the effeft on the
air of the room is the fame. The calcination of
the iron is occafioned by the combination of pure
vital air with the iron. This is abiiraaed from
the general mafs of atmofpheric air in the room, of
which it ufually conRitutes about fths. By this ab
animal life or flame, and may even become highly dele¬
terious. In every degree the remainder becomes lefs
rerreihmg, and grows dull and oppreffive. This is al¬
ways accompanied by a peculiar fmell, which, though
not difguflmg, is unpleafant. It refembles the fmell of
burnt feathers, or more exadly the fmell we feel if we
rub violently for fome time the palms of our hands to¬
gether when perfectly dry.
For fimilar reafons thefe iron Roves occafiou a fickly
fmell, by burning every particle of duR which falls on
the hot parts ; and if they be wiped with a woollen
cloth, or any cloth not perfectly free from every kind
of greafy or oily matter, a fmell is produced for a day
or days afterwards; fo that without the moR fcrupulous
attention we fuffer by our very cleanlinefs.
For fuch teafons we think that the Roves of brick¬
work covered with Rucco or with glazed tiles are vaflly
preferable. Thefe are much ufed in the genteeler houfes
in Flanders and Holland, where they are made in the
mofl elegant forms, and decorated with beautiful fculp-
ture or enamel ; but it is plain that they cannot be fo
efle&ual, nor equally warm a room with the fame ex¬
pence of fuel. Earthen ware, efpecially when covered
with porous Rucco, is far inferior to metal in its power
of conducing heat. If built of bricks, they muR be
vaRly more bulky when the fire-place and flues are of
the fame dimenfions. ■ The mofl perfect way of con
ftrudling t^em would certainly be to make them of pot
terv, in parts exaiflv fitted —i • j i
tion. It is evident that it fliould be more fm.p]e than
that of iron Roves; and we imagine that in the very
ew cafes m which they are likely to be employed in
this country, a Angle fire-place and an arch over it, di¬
vided, if we pleafe, by a partition or two of thin tile
to lengthen the flue, will be quite enough. If the Rove
is made in whole or in part of potters ware, a bafe for
the fire-place, with an urn, column, obelilk, or pyramid
Try-V f°r inCreaiint? the furface’ wil1 aIf0 be fufficient.
firadtion the remainder becomes lefsTfit for fupportiW T'CVl ^ inCrea{inf the iurface> will alfo be fufficient,
a-r*mr-beirh^Tdek?
, . -j >-nc junungs, wnere
the difi-erent pieces of a different heat, and perhaps of
a different baking, are apt to expand unequally, and
by working on each other one of them muft give way
i herefore, inftead of making the joints clofe and ufing
any cement, the upper piece ffiould Rand in a groove
formed in the undermoft, having a little powdered chalk
or clay fpnnkled over it, which will effeaually prevent
the paffage ol any air; and room being thus given for
the unequal expanhon, the joint remains entire. This
may be confidered as a general diredion for all furnace-
work, where it is in vain to attempt to hinder the mu¬
tual working of the parts.
^ We have feen Roves in fmall apartments at St Peterf-
burg, which were made internally of potters ware, in a
great variety of forms, and then covered with a thick
coat of Aucco, finiflied externally with the utmofl ele¬
gance of ornament, and we were informed that they were
very rarely fubjeft to crack. They did not give much
heat, on account of the very low conducing power of
the porous Rucco ; but we imagine that they would be
abundantly warm for a moderate room in this country.
When fitted up in thefe fituations, and with thefe
precautions, the brick or pottery Roves are incompa¬
rably more fweet and pleafant than the iron ones.
But in the intenfe colds of Ruffia and Sweden, or
even for very large rooms in this kingdom, Roves of
thefe fmall dimenfions are not Efficiently powerful, and
we muA follow the practice of thofe countries where
. • ' . “ u^tIca5ni> oe to make them of pot- we muA follow the practice of thofe countries where-
tery, in parts exad y fitted to each other, and joined by they are made of great fize, and very rnXi l fZ
a proper cement. I h.s mode of eonitrnafn,; would ad, ed. It it needlefa to deferid their exTZl form
t r i 1*7^" V/1 wuiuu au.- ca. it is needlefs to deferibe their external form whiVh
J, ?.fIurLf t?a"Cl0,fform r r,ich,,.e!i.of or!r?‘< bc «t pleafure. Their internal llmflure is
re built of the fame in all, and is diflindly deferibed in Pneuma-
nr T e* r-,0 n/Z M ' WT^  I.. _ . l ..
and would^not be fo bulky as thofe which a;t uuul oi
biicks. The great difficulty is to prevent their crack- tics, n° 364.
We fhall only enlarge a little on the
pecu~
Stow
S T O
Stow, peculiarities connected with the general principle of
their conftruftion.
The ftove is intended as a fort of magazine, in
- which a great quantity of heat may be quickly accu-
, mulated, to be afterwards dowly communicated to the
air of the room. The dove is therefore built extremely
maffive ; and it is found that they are more powerful
when coated with clay as wet as can be made to hang
together. We imagine the reafon of this to be, that ve¬
ry wet clay, and more particularly llucco, mutt be ex¬
ceedingly porous when dry, and therefore a very flow
conductor of heat. Inftead of {ticking on the glazed
tiles with no more clay or ftucco than is fufficient to
attach them, each tile has at its back a fort of box
baked in one piece about two or three inches deep. It
is reprefented in fig. 2. This is filled with mortar,
and then (tuck on the brick-work of the ftove, which
has a great number of iron pins or hooks driven into
the joints, which may fink into this clay and keep it
firmly attached when dry. This coating, with the maf-
five brick-work, forms a great mafs of matter to be
heated by the fuel. The loweft chamber, which is the
fire-place, is fomewhat wider, and confiderably thicker
than the ftories above, which are merely fines. When
the fire-place is finifhed and about to be arched over, a
flat iron bar of fmall thtcknefs is laid along the top of
the fide-wall on both Tides, a fet of finifliing bricks be
ing moulded on purpofe with a notch to receive the
iron bar. Crofs bars are laid over thefe, one at each
end and one or two between, having a bit turned down
at thejcnds, which takes hold of the longitudinal bars,
and keeps them from being thruft outwards either by
the prefture of the arch or by the fwelling in confe-
quence of the heat. In fig. 3. A is the crofs fe&ion
of one of the long bars, and BC is part of one of the
crofs bars, and CD is the clench which confines the
bar A. This precaution is chiefly neceflary, becaul'e the
contradb'on of the ftove upwards obliges the walls of
the other ftories to bear a little on the arch of the
fire-place. The building above is kept together in
like manner by other courfes of iron bars at every
'fecond return of the flue. The top of the ftove
Is finifhed by a pretty thick covering of briek-work.
The laft paffage for the air at H (fee Pneumatics,
fig. 62.) has a ring lining its upper extremity, and pro-
jefting an inch or two above it. The flat round it is
covered with fand. When we would flop this paffage,
a cover fhaoed like a bafon or cover for difhes at table
is whelmed over it. The rim of this, refting on the
fand, effectually prevents all air from coming through
and getting up the vent. Accefs is had to this damper
by a door which can be fhut tight enough to prevent
the heated air of the room from wafting ftfdf up the
■ vent. When the room is too warm, it may be very ra¬
pidly cooled by opening this door. The warm air nifti¬
es up with great rapidity, and is replaced by cool air
from without.
The management of the ftove is as follows. About
eiu.ht o’clock in the morning "the pietchnick, or iervant
who has the charge of the ftoves, takes off the cover,
fhut3 the damper-door, arid opens the fire-place door.
Pie then puts in a handful of wood fhavings orftravv,
and kindles-it. 'i’his'warms the ftove and vent, and
begins- a current* of air through it. Pie then lays
t v iew chips on the foie of the fire-place, immediately
S T O
within the door; and behind this he arranges the billets
of birchwood, with their ends inwards. Then he lays on
more wood in the front, till he thinks there is enough.
He fets fire to the chips, flints the door, and opens the
fmall wicket at its bottom. The air blows the flame
of the chips upon the billets behind them, and thus
kindles them. They confume (lowly, while the billets
in front remain untouched by the fire. The fervant,
having made his firft round of the rooms, returns to
this ftove, and opens the door above to admit air into
the vent. P’his is to fupply its draught, and thus to
check the draught in the body of the ftove, which is
generally too ftrong at this time, and would confume
the fuel too faft. By this time the billets in the front
are burning, firft at the bottom, and the reft in fuccef-
fiou as they fink down on the embers and come oppo-
fite to the wicket. The room does not yet feel any
effeft from the fire, the heat of which has not yet reach¬
ed its external furface ; but in about half an hour this
grows warm. The upper door is fhut again, that no
heat may now be wafted. The pietchnik by and by
fpreads the embers and afhes over the whole bottom of
the fire-place with a rake, by which the bottom is grefl-t-
ly heated, and heats the air contiguous to it externally
(for it ftands on little pillars) very powerfully. He
takes care to bring up to the top of the afhes every bit
of wood or coal that is not yet confumed, that all may
be completely expended. He does this as brifkly as
poffible, that the room may not lofe much warmed air
by keeping open the fire place door. At his laft vifit,
when he obferves no more glowing embers, he (huts the
fire-place door and wicket, and puts the damper on the
paffage above, and (huts its door.—All this is over in
about an hour and a half after kindling the fire. All
current of air is now at an end within the ftove, and it
is now a great mafs of brick-work, heated to a great
degree within, but only about blood-warm externally.
The heat gradually fpreads outwards, and the external
furface of the ftove acquires its greateft heat about three
o’clock in the afternoon; after which it gradually cools
till next morning.
'This heat feldom is fo great that one cannot bear
to touch the ftove with his cheek, and to keep it there.
In confequence of this it can burn none of the duft
which unavoidably falls on the ftove, and we are never
troubled with the fickening fmells that are unavoidable
when we employ the fmall caft iron ftoves much heated.
The great expence of heat in a room arifes from the glafs
windows. The pane is fo thin that the external air keeps
it continually cold, and thus the windows are continu¬
ally robbing the air of the room of its heat. This €K-
pence of heat is reduced to lefs than one third by double
cafements. The inner cafement is about as much cold-
er than the room as the outer cafement is warmer than
the air of the fields; and we have the fmgular advantage
of having no ice formed on the glaffes. But to enfure
this laft advantage, the Teams of the inner cafement mull
be pafted with paper, and thofe of the outer cafement
muft be left unpatted. If we do the contrary, we (hall
certainly have ice on the outer cafement; the reafon of
Which is eafily feen.
We have been thus particular in our defeription of
the management, becaufe the reafons of fome particulars
are not very obvious, and the.praCtice would not readily
occur to us in this country; fo that a perfon who, on the
r faith
r 816 ]
Stove.
STD
Stove, fjutli of our recommendation, t'hould prefer one of thefe
" ftoves to the German ftove, whofe manafrement is fimple
and obvious, might be greatly difappointed. But by foU
lowing this method, we are confident that the Ruffian
ftove will be found much fnperior both in warmth and
agreeable air. The fpreading out of the embers, and wait¬
ing till all is reduced to afhes before the doors are fhut,
is alfo abfolutely neceflary, and a negleft of it would
expofe us to imminent danger of fnffocation by fixed air;
and this is the only inconvenience of the Ruffian ftove,
from which the other ftove is free. The fixed air has
no fmell; and the firft indication of its prefence is a flight
giddfnefs and laflitude, which difpofes us to fit down
and to fleep. This would be fatal; and we muft imme¬
diately open the upper paffage and the fire-place door,
fo as to produce a ftrong current to carry the vitiated
air of the room up the chimney. Throwing up the
faflies, or at leaft opening all the doors, is proper on
fuch an occafion.
If we burn pit-coal, either raw or charred, this pre¬
caution is ftiil more neceflary; becaufe the cinder is not
fo eafily or fo foon completely confumed. This fuel
will require a little difference in the management from
wood fuel, but which is eafily feen by any perfon of re¬
flexion. The fafe way would be to rake out all half-
burnt coal before {hutting up the doors.
If we ufe raw pit-coal, great care is neceflary to
prevent the accumulation of foot in the upper part of
the ftove. It is an inacccffible place for the chimney
fweep; and if we attempt to burn it out, we run a great
rifle of fplitting that part of the ftove which is the moft
flightly conftruXed. It is advifable therefore to burn
it away every day, by giving a brilk draught with an
open door for five minutes. With wood or coak there is
no danger.
It will not be improper in this place to ^ive feme in-
ftruXions for the conftruXion of ftoves for warming fe-
veral floors in a great manufactory, fuch as a cotton-
mill, or a public library or mufeum.
In fuch fituations wc think cleanlinefs, wholefome-
nefs, and fweetnefs of air, no lefs neceflary than in the
drawing room of a man of opulence. We therefore re¬
commend the brick-ftove in preference to the iron one;
and though it would not be the beft or moft economi¬
cal praftice to heat it but once a-day, and we ffiould ra¬
ther prefer the German praXice of conftant feeding, we
{till think it highly proper to limit the heat to a very
moderate degree, and employ a large furface.
If the difpofition of the rooms allows us the conve-
niency of a thick party-wall, we would place the ftove
in the middle of this wall, in an arch which pierces
through the wall. Immediately above this arch we
would carry up a very wide chimney through the whole
height. This chimney muft have a paflage opening
into each floor on both fides, which may be very accu¬
rately flint up by a door. The ftove being fet up under
the arch, it muft have a pipe communicating with its
flue, and riling up through this chimney. Could an
earthen pipe be properly fupported, and fecured from
Iplitting by hoops, we ffi.ould prefer it for the reafons
already given. But as this is perhaps expeXing too
much, we muft admit the ufe of a call iron pipe. This
is the real chimney or flue of the ftove, and muft be of
as great diameter as poffible, that it may aX, by an ex-
ten five furface, all the way up.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
t 817 1
S T O
. The under the arch in the wall; but the
air that IS wanned by its furface would efcape on both
iides, and would be expended in that finale floor. To
prevent this, the ftove muft be inclofed in a cafe ; this
may be of brick-work, at the diftanqe of two or’three
inches from the ftove all round. It muft be well flipt
in above, and at the foundation muft have a row of fmall
holes to admit the air all around it. This air will then
be warmed over the whole fpace between the ftove and
the cafe, pafs up the chimney, and there receive addi-
tional heat from the flue-pipe which is in the middle
Great care muft be taken that the fire-place door have
no communication with the fpace between the ftove and
its caie, but be incloled in a mouth-piece which comes
through the cafe, and opens into the feeding room,
i hus all the air which goes up to the rooms will be
pure and vvholefome, provided we take care that every
tiling be kept clean and fvveet about the air holes below.
Obfene that thofe air-holes which are near the furnace
door muft be inclofed in a wooden trunk which takes
in its air at fome diftance from this door; for fince the
current between the ftove and cafe may be almoft as great
as the current within the ftove (nay, when a puff of wind
beats down the chimney, it may even exceed it), there
is a rifle of fome vitiated air and imoke being drawn into
the cafe.
It the ftove cannot be placed in the arch of a party,
wafl, it may be fet adjoining to a iide or outer wall,
and furniffied with a caie, a large chimney, and a flue-
pipe, in the fame manner. But in this cafe a great
deal of heat is wafted on this outer wall, and carried off
by the external air. In this htuation we would recom-
mend to line that part ot the wall which is behind the
ftove (at two or three inches diftance), and the whole
of the chimney, with platter on laths. Thefe fhould be
nailed on battens properly fattened on the wall, leaving
a fpace of an inch between the laths and the wall. The
platter fhould be of the moft fpungy kind, having in it a
quantity of clay in powder inftead of the full proportion
of fand. Horfe-dung, wafhed with water and ftrained
through coarfe flannel, leaves a great portion of unaffi.
milated vegetable fibre, which will mix very intimately
m the plafter, and make it a fubftance very unfit for con-
ciuXing heat. There is no danger of catching fire by this
lining. We have feen a moft tremendous fire rage for
three hours, in contaX with a partition of lath and
plafter (on the plafter-fide however), without difcolour-
ing the thin laths on the other fide. dVe once faw 3.
cottage chimney on fire, and burn till the foot was
confumed. This chimnqy was nothing but a pipe of a
foot wide, made of lathes, and plaftered on the infide
and outfide; and it patted through a thatched roof. We
therefore recommend this in place of the brick-cafe for
inclofing the ftove. It would fave heat; and as it might
be made in pieces on detached frames, which could be
joined by iron ftraps and hinges, any part of the fteve
could be laid open for repairs at pleafure.
We have no hefitation in faying that a ftove conftruc-
ted in this manner would be greatly fuperior in power
to any we have feen, and would be free from manv of
their difgufting defeXs. We beg leave therefore to con¬
clude this part of the fubjeX by delcribing one which
vvas to have been ereXed in one of the churches of the
city of Edinburgh.
Fig. 4. is a iketch of the plan of the church contain-
5^ ed
S T O [ 818 ] S T O
Stovf. e(j Jn the parallelogram AFED. P marks the place
of the pulpit, and LMNO the front of the galleries.
Thefe are carried back to the fide walls AB and DC.
But at the end oppolite to the pulpit they do not
reach fo far, but leave a fpace BFEC about 12 feet
wide. Below the back of the galleries, on each fide,
there is a paffage ABGH, KICD, feparated from the
feated part of the church by partitions which reach from
the floor'to the galleries, fo that the fpace HGIK is
completely fhut in. The church is an ancient Gothic
building, of a light and airy ftru&ure, having two rows
of large windows above the arcades, and a fpacious
window in the eaft end above the pulpit. The congre-
• nation complain of a cold air, which they feel pouring
down upon their heads. This is more particularly felt
by thofe fitting in the fronts of the galleries. We ima¬
gine that this arifes chiefly from the extennve furface
of the upper row of windows, and of the cold ftone-
wal’s above, which robs the air of its heat as it glides
up along the fides of the church. It becomes heavier
by collapfing, and in this ftate defcends in the middle
of the church.
The ftove S is placed againfl the middle of the weft
wall at the diftance of a few inches, and is completely
inclofed in a cafe of lath and plafter. The vent, which
is to carry off the fmoke and burnt air, is conveyed up
or along the wall, and through the roof or fide-wall,
but without any communication with the cafe. In like
manner the fire-place door is open to the paffage, with¬
out communicating with the cafe; and care is taken that
the holes which admit the air into the cafe are fo dif-
pofed that they {hall run no rifk of drawing in any air
from the fire-place door.
From the top of this cafe proceed two trunks Q^R,
each of which is two feet broad and fix inches deep,
coated within and without with the moil Ipunoy plafter
that can be compofed. For this purpofe we fhould re¬
commend a compofition of powdered charcoal and as
much clay and quicklime as will give it a very flight co-
hefion. We know that a piece of this may be held in
the hand, without inconvenience, within an inch of where
it is of a glowing red heat.—Thefe trunks open into
another trunk XVTYZ, which ranges along the parti¬
tion immediately under the galleries, and may be form¬
ed externally into a corniche, a little maffive indeed, but
not unfightly in a building of this ftyle. This trunk is
coated in the fame manner. It has feveral openings
c, a, &c. which have Aiders that can be drawn alide by
means of handles acceffible from the outer paffage. — At
the extremities X and Z of t^is trunk are two perpen¬
dicular trunks which come up through the galleries, and
are continued to a confiderable height. At their junc¬
tion with the horizontal trunk are two doors large
enough to admit a lamp. Each perpendicular trunk has
alfo a valve by which it can be completely flopped.
The ftove is managed as follows : Early in the morn¬
ing the fuperintendant fhuts all the Aiders, and fets a
lamp (burning) in each of the trunks X and Z, and
fhuts the doors. He then puts on and kindles the fire
in the ftove, and manages it either in the Ruffian or
German method, Perhaps the latter is preferable, as
being liable to feweft accidents from miftake or negledl.
The lamps fet in the lower ends of the upright trunks
prefently warm them, and produce a current of air up¬
wards. This mult be fupplied by the horizontal trunk,
which muft take it from the cafe round the ftove. Thus Stove.
a current is begun in the direftion we wilh. By and  v—
by the air in the cafe acquires heat from the ftove, and
the current becomes extremely brifk. When the ma¬
nager perceives this, he removes the lamps, fhuts the
valves, and opens the holes </, a, &c. beginning with
the moft remote, and proceeding Aowly towards the
ftove from each extremity of the horizontal brandies.
The heated air now iffues by thefe holes, glides along
the ceiling below the galleries, and efcapes, by rifing
up along the fronts of the galleries, and will be fenfibly
felt by thofe fitting there, coming on their faces with a
gentle warmth. It will then rife (in great part) flraight
up, while fome of it will glide backwards, to the com¬
fort of thofe who fit behind.
The propriety of Aiutting the valves of the upright
trunks is evident. If they were left open, no air
would come out by the holes a, a, See.; but, on the con¬
trary, the air would go in at thefe holes to fupply the
current, and the ftove be rendered ufelefs. The air de¬
livered by thefe holes will keep clofe to the ceiling, and
will not, as we imagine, incommode thofe who fit be¬
low the galleries. But if it fiiould be found to render
theie parts too warm, holes may be pierced through the
ceiling, by which it will rile among the people above,
and muft be very comfortable. It will require the care¬
ful attention of fome intelligent perion to bring all this
into a proper train at firft, by finding the proper aper¬
tures ot the different holes, fo as to render the heat
equable through the whole fpace. But this being once
alcertained the difficulty is over.
The air trunks muft be very, capacious, but may be
contra&ed towards the extremities as their lateral dif-
charges diminifii; and the row of holes which admit
the air to the cafe round the ftove muft be fully able to
fupply them.
It muft be obferved, that in this conftrurftion the
afcenfional force is but fmall. It is only the height of
a fhort column of warm air from the ground to the gal¬
leries. At firft indeed it is great, having the unlimit¬
ed height of the perpendicular trunks at X and Z ;
but during the uie of the ftove it is reduced to nine
or ten feet. It is neceffary, therefore, that the ftove
be highly heated, perhaps confiderably beyond the Ruf¬
fian practice, but yet inferior to the heat of the Ger¬
man iron ftoves. But ftili we ftrongly recommend the
brick or pottery ftoves, on account of the wholefome
fvveetnefs of the air which they furnifh ; and we are
certain that a ftove of moderate dimenfions, eight feet
long, for inftance, by eight feet high, will be fufficient
for warming a church holding i 200 or 1 $co people. If
the ftove could be placed lower, which in many iitua-
tions is very prafticable, its effeft would be proportion¬
ally greater, becauie all depends on the rapidity of the
Current. When we are limited in height, we muft ex¬
tend the ftove fo much the more in length, and make
the air trunks more capacious. Thefe and many other
circumftances of local modification muft be attended ta
by the eredlorof the ftove ; and without the judicious
attention of an intelligent artift, we may experft nothing
but difappointment. It is hardly poffible to give ia-
ftrurftions fuited to every fituation ; but a careful atten¬
tion to the general principle which determines the af¬
cenfional lorce will free the artift from any great rifk of
failure.
We
Stove,
Stour¬
bridge.
S T O
S T ° [ 8xo 1
We may fay the fame thine of ftoves
rres, hot houfes, hot walls, &c. and can hardly add any Shoufo^h ^ L ^ ^ Ufed {n m3kl'^ ^ts for
tirbld.tx::;* p“r4Th,r alr'idy fiid ’&c-and is fold at an h;sh
note"°„> ^
1^ frequently offered for drying malt by (loves Many quVof Buck" f° ^ S”"1' °f a ofth^Marl
of thefe are to be feen in the publications of the ^ca7 heft Buckingham in Buckinghamfhire. Here are the
demies of Stockholm, Upfal, Copenhagen? and fomi obel.r, I" « with hufts, ftaiues
b::; Sd^rhis k^d™ * ^ &„ 11 is ^
o'i (J°^n)> the induflrious hiftorian fon of
omas Stow merchant-taylor of St MicSs, C0rm
’ " U*S. Of
that
been found to anfwer.
We apprehend that they cannot anfwer. To drv
malt, and make it (it for the ales and beers for wS
ills ifland is fo famous, it is by no means enough tlnh fht» « i '"'r’, L'w:" ilU3llt tne year icz:
we give it a proper and an equable fupply Gf heat - h- wal k Pftrt ° k^S hfe We know vety Iktle, except
tht'mlifturrton ^ ^ flinty» ^uf.n? i^o h^l.-nl.t^^8 buflnefs' wh^ in the
t • moifture to penetrate the mealy particles of the
gram ; and, by completely diffolving the foluble parts
Ti ould render each kernel an uniform mafs, which would
dry into a flinty grain, breaking like a piece of ghtfs —
f ?SL0I_Talt 18 n0t an fnfrt PuIP- B is a seed! i„
relinquiflied, dev^Se^ mi
fti dy of our ancient hiftoriansfchronicles, anni, char
der^blj^ olpS foU ^ recoy4s* Of thefe hemade a’ confi-
ent part of tl IT f°r that PurPafe to differ-
r„ • B to , the klngdom, and tranferibino- fLICh manu-
fenpts as he could not purchafe. Bn, this profcffZ of
n.- n ftcii pulp. It IS a SEED in fcrint-e ac ko ii ° » ‘•l£tlI1i'-nDing luch manu-
an aftive ftate, grow.ng, and of an organized ftrufture an Lual Z But this Prafeffion of
Wc wiih to flop it in this ftate, and kill it not k Z antIqua<7 being attended with no prefent emolument
S ^Slhfrv?F
2? -s-*-”-«- - «.—™, jai-jgfis
uwijorssrajts
only flue of the furnace, and a copious of air s g^r H , coll A°n l°Z StOW did not escape dan-
formed through among the grains, carrying off with it faufe of f f^ reCOrds was deemed
the water which is evaporating by the heat! But this ferred no leffT H,S y0-U^er brothcr Th°m.as pre¬
evaporation being chiefly in confequence of the vapour ecdefiaftlal r 1 -'fZ0 ^ h™ ^fore dte
being immediately diffolved by the paffing air, Villftop cient he was a ’’ rbUt the pr°of be‘n^ fnfuffi-
as foon as the current of air flops. This current has to Summa'Tf ZTru • Z I5^ he firft PubHfhed his
make its way through moift grain, laid in a pretty thick year r J, he he ChJ'°niJles ot England. About the
bed, and matted together. Some fnree r • i he began his Survey of London In . rQr
neceffary to drive itfhtough. ^Thist^iutd^tke lZLZ Tl ^ ‘ ^ -Vefi
draught of the kiln. Snbftituting a ftove, immediate- corporation Ze T Z the ^ he Petitioned the
^y applied to the malt, will not have this effed. The tw0Pfreemen to M beftow on him the benefit of
only way ,n which we think this can be done different in ^cSn hT’ x v ^ ^ t0 Publifh ^rvey ; and
from the prefent, is to have a horizontal Sue, as ha HccLded if agaiI1x?r 3 penfion- Whether he
been propofed in thefe projeds, fpread out at a Lai ed hTthe f ft knOWn> r J!e was principally concern-
dHance below the grate on which Le malt is laid, and Aid h/cSy hZZ chr0IlicIe* Pab-
to cover the whole with a high dome like u rrlaf i r i ^ yde a bo corre<^;ed, aad twice au xinenf
dome. This being filled with atall column of hot^air^ mZZlZTZ t
and having no paffaqe into it but thorn:-1, ,h, , T, , , Lontion was. firft publifl.ed in S
would produce the^cutrent which ^3. We iIL cto tlT^T^ h*™ added'S
convinced that this will make much left fuel ferve : bw only to Zhft Z Kff°I fE-n8la"d * b,,t he
we are by no means certain that the fulphureous and F/oZs r°,f !t’ under the title of
carbonic acid which accompanies the air in rmi- • , Jiortatum. The folio volume, which was
kiln is not a neceffary or aS Innrrfi m7n ?rm°" PTd ^ h‘S fdeath- w;th th= 'Me d! S,oZChrZ
cels. It is well known that different coaks cinctrf'0' hT wa‘tak^ from h's papeis by Edmund Howes
charcoals, impart different qualities „ the m b ’ f H f ^ l!‘S 1!ft and fort“"e ■'» thefe laboTo? i
are preferred each for U, Were 5,t ama", L“d well ^ 0,bl,«ed t0 fol''dt chari S
ter of inftiffW^ i P p°Je\ Were this a mat- and well difpofed for relief. For this purpofe, kin
\r ■ A J " ^w'lF"rpoje. were this a mat¬
ter of indifference, we know a method of rapidly dry-
bvLfth 1 Zl TrG e^ononil‘cal and expeditious thJn
> her kiln or ftove. But this has nothing to do with
STOTTR Which We now take^leave.
rj ^0URBJvIDGF, or Sturbich, the name of a
field near Cambridge, noted for its famous fair kept an-
r Yfon 7tb °f September, and which continues
■ora fortnight. The commodities are, horfes, hops,
" ”d70° ’ “^u’ Cheefe’ &c- Th:s PlF-l:e >'s alfo
• oted for an excellent fpecies of clay capable of refill.
James I. ffmnted him in .bog, a hr,“ft Etas re!
“T ‘6.°4. awhorifing him to colleft in chureh«
the benefadlions of his fellow-citizens. He died in A n„!
■ 6oj, aged bo i and was buried in his pari/h-church of
bt Andrew s, Underfhaft, where his widow erefled a
decent monument to his memory. John Stow was l
anEeft maf ant“lUam"- a fai*hM hiflorian, and
S rOWMA RKET, a town of Suffolk, in England
fi-tuated m E. Long. S. N.Lat.ya. ,6.’ It is agQ
5 ^ 2 hand-
SfAW
c II
Stousr-
mtrkec.
S*ow: ge
Strabo.
s T R [
handfome place, fttuated between the branches of the ri¬
vers Gypping and Orwell, and is remarkable for having
; the be ft cherries in England f . f ,
STOWAGE, the general difpohtion or the ieveral
materials contained in a (hip’s hold, with regard to their
figure, magnitude, or folidity. ..
In the (towage of different articles, as ballalt, calks,
cafes, bales, and boxes, there are feveral general rules
to be obferved, according to the circumftances or qua¬
lities of thole materials. The cades which contain any
liquid are, according to the fea phrafe, to be bung-up
and bilge fret, i. e. clofely wedged up m an horizontal
pofition, andrefting on thJr quarters: io that the bilges
where they are thickeft being entirely free all round,
cannot rub againft each other by the motion of the veb
fel. Dry gobds, or fnch as may be damaged by the
wate’-, are to be carefully incloted in cades, bales, cafes,
or wrappers; and wedged off from the bottom and (ides
of the ihip, as well as from the bow, malls, and pump-
well. Due attention mull likewife be had to their dtf-
poiition with regard to each other, and to the trim and
centre of gravity of the blip ; fo that the heaviell may
always be nearell the keel, and the lighted gradually
above them. ^ r
STRABISMUS, fquinting. See MEDiciNE-/rt-
C STRABO, a celebrated Greek geographer, philo-
fopher, and hiilorian, was born at Amalia, and was de¬
fended from a family fettled at Gnoffus in Crete. _ He
was the dilciple of Xenarclius, a Peripatetic philofo-
pher, and at length attached himfelf to th'e Stoics. He
contra&ed a ftrid friendlhip with Cornelius Gallus, go¬
vernor of Egypt, and travelled into feveral countries to
obferve the fituation of places, and the cuftoms of na¬
tions. He dourilhed under Auguftus, and died under
Tiberius about the year 25, in a very advanced age.—
Tie compofed feveial woiks, all ot which aie loft ex¬
cept his Geography in 17 books; which are julily
efteemtd very precious remains of antiquity. The two
full books are employed in blowing, that the lludy of
geography is not only worthy of, but evenjieceffary to,
a philofopher; the third defenbes Spain; the foutth,
Gaul and the Britannic ides ; the fifth and iixth, Italy
and the adjacent ides ; the feventh, which is imperfedl
at the end, Germany, the countries of the Getas and
Ulyrii, Taurica Cherfonefus, and Epirus; the eighth,
ninth, and tenth, Greece with the neighbouring illes;
the four following, Alia within Mount Laurus; the
fifteenth and fixteenth, Ada without Taurus, India,
Perfia, Syria, Arabia; and the feventeenth, Egypt,
^Ethiopia, Carthage, and other places of Africa. Stra¬
bo’s work was publilhed with a Latin verfion by Xy-
lander, and notes by Ifaac Cafaubon (or rather by
Henry Scrimzeer, from whom Cafaubon chiefly Hole
them), at Paris, 1620, in folio. But the heft edition
is that of Amfterdam in 1707, in two volumes folio,
by the learned Theodore Janfonius ah Almelooveen,
with the entire notes of Xylander, Cafaubon, Meurfius,
Cluver, Holftenius, Salmaflus, Bochart, Ez. Spanheim,
Cellarius, and others. To this edition is fubjoined the
Chreflomathia, or epitome of Strabo; which according to
Mr Dodwell, who has written a very elaborate and
learned differtation about it, was made by fome unknown
perfon between the years of Chrift 676 and 996. It
has been found of fome ufe, not only in helping to cor-
re£i the original, but in (applying in fome meafure the
8ao 1 S T II
deleft in the feventh book. Mr Dod vell’s differta
tion is prefixed to this edition. w
STRADA (Eamianus), a very ingenious and learn-
ed jefuit, was born at Rome tire latter end of the 16th
century, and taught rhetoric there, in a public man¬
ner, for fifteen years. He wrote feveral pieces upon
the art of oratory, and publibied fome orations with
a view of illuftrating by example what he had inculca¬
ted by precept. But his Prolujwnes Academica and
his Hijloria de Bello Belgico are the works which rai-
fed his reputation, and have preferved his memory.
His hiftory of the war of Flanders was publibied at
Rome ; the firft decad in 1640, the fecond in i 647 ;
the whole extending from the death of Charles V.
which happened in *55^> to t*ie year I59°* f*- _IS
written in good Latin, as all allow; but its merit in
other reipefts has been varioufly determined. His
Prolujiones Academics blow great ingenuity, and a
mafterly btili in clafiical literature ; that prolulion efpe-
cially in which he introduces Lucan, Lucretius, Clau*
dian, Ovid, Statius, and Virgil, each of them verfify-
ing according to his own (train. i hey have been ol-
ten printed. We know not the year of Strada’s birth
or of his death.
STRAHAN (William), an eminent printer, was
born at Edinburgh in the year 1715. His father,
who had a fmall appointment in the cuftoms, gave his
fon the education which every one oi decent rank then
received in a country where the avenues to learning
were eafy, and open to men of the molt moderate cir-
cumftances. After having palled through the tuition
of a grammar fehool, he was put apprentice to a
printer ; and when a very young man, removed to a
wider fphere in that line or bulxnefs, and went to follow
his trade in London. Sober, diligent, and attentive,
while his emoluments were for fome time very feanty,
he contrived to live rather within than beyond his 111*
come ; and though he married early, and without fuch
a provifion as prudence might have looked tor 111 the
eftablilhment of a family, he continued to thrive, and to
better his circumftances. This he would often mention
as an encouragement to early matrimony ; and uled to
fay, that he never had a child born that Providence did
not fend iome mcreaie of income to provide for the m-
creafe of his houfehold. With fulhcient vigour ot mind,
he had that happy flow of animal ipirits that is not
ealily difeouraged by unpromiling appearances.
His abilities in his profeffion, accompanied with
perfect integrity and unabating diligence, enabled
him, after the firft difficulties were overcome, to ad¬
vance with rapid fuccefs. And he was one of the moft
flouriihing men of the trade, when, m the year
he purchafed a (hare of the patent for king s printer
of Mr Eyre, with whom he maintained the moft cordial
intimacy during the reft or his life. Belide the emolu¬
ments arifing from this appointment, as well as from a
very extenfive private bulinefs, he now drew largely
from a field which required fome degree of fpeculative
fagacity to cultivate on account of tbg great literary pro¬
perty which he acquired by purchafing the copy-rights
of the moft celebrated authors of the time. In this his
liberality kept equal pace with his prudence, and in fome
cafes went perhaps rather beyond it. Never had fuch re¬
wards been given to the labours of literary men as now
were received from him and his affociates ia thole pur-
chafes of copy-rights from authors.
Strada,
Strafnn.
Uavinf
StrEhan.
S T R [ 821
Having now attained the firft great object of bufi-
nefs,^ wealth, Mr Strahan looked with a very allowable
ambition on the ftations of political rank and eminence.
Politics had long occupied his a&ive mind, which he
had foi many years purfued as his favourite amufement
by correfponding on that fubjeft with feme of the firft
characters of the age. Mr btrahan’s queries to X)r
Franklin in the year 1-769, refpe&ing the difeontents
©f the Americans, publifhed in the London Chronicle
of 28th July 1778, ftow the juft conception he enter¬
tained of the important confequences of that difpute,
and his anxiety as a good fubjeft to invelligate, at that
early period, the proper means by which their grie¬
vances might be removed, and a permanent harmony
reftored between the two countries. In the year 1775
he was clefted a member of parliament for the borough
of Malmfbury in Wikihire, with a very illuftrious col¬
league, the lion. C. J Fox ; and in the fucceedvng
parliament, for Wootton BafTet, in the fame county?
In this ftation, applying himfelf with that induflry
which was natural to him, he was a uftful member,
and attended the houfe with a fcrupulous pun6f uality.
His talents for bufinefs acquired the confideration to
which they were intitled, and were not unnoticed bv
the minifier. ^
_ his political connexions he was conkant to the
friends to whom he had hi ft been attached. He was
fteady fupporter of that party who were turned out
of adminiftration in fpring 1784, and loft his feat in
the houfe of commons by the diftblution of parliament
with which that change was followed: a fituation
which he did not fhow any defire to refume on the
return of tbe new parliament; arifing from a feeling
of fome decline in his health, which had rather fuffered
from the long fittings and late hours with which the
political warfare in the preceding had been attended.
\\ ithout any fixed dafeafe, his Urength viltbly declined ;
and though his fpirits furvived his ftrength, yet the
vigour and aXivity of his mind were alfo conliderably
impared. Both continued gradually to decline till his
death, which happened on the oth of July 178 c in the
71ft year of his age.
Endued with much natural fagacity, and an attentive ftreets.
J S T R
of polities in Britain, drawn from the profeflion ofprmt-
ing ; of which, though the DoXor had quitted the ex-
erciie, ne had not forgotten the terms.
The judicious difpofnion which Mr Strahan made of
his property, affords an evident proof of his good fenfe
and propriety. After providing munificently for his
widow and childern, his principal ftudy feems to have
been to mitigate the affliction of thofe (and many there
were) who would more immediately have felt his lofs*
by bequeathing them liberal annuities for their lives;
and (recolleXing that all of a profeffion are not equally
provident J he left 10001 to the Company of Stationers,
the mterefl to be divided-among infirm old printers
As the virtuous connexions of the life and the heart
are always plealing to trace-of Mr Strahan it may
neJy be faid, that his capacity, diligence, and probity,
raffed him to the head of his profeffion. The good
humour and obliging dffpofition which he owed to na-
ture, he cultivated with cate, and confirmed by habit-
His fympathetic heart beat time to the joy .and forrow
o his fnencs. His advice was always ready to direX
youth, and his purfe open to relieve indigence. Living
in times not the pureft in the Engliih annals, he efcaped
uniulhed through the artifices of trade and the cor¬
ruption or politics. In him a ftrong natural fagacity,
improved by an extenfive knowledge of the world!
ferved only to render refpeXable his unaffeXed fimplici-
ty of manners, and to make his Chnftian philanthropy
more adeeming and ufeful. The uninterrupted health
and happineis which accompained him for half a cen¬
tal y m the capital, proves honefty to be the beft policy
temperance the greateft luxury, and the efl'enti/duties
of h.e its molt agreeable amufement. In his elevated
fortune, none of his iormer acquaintance ever accufed
him of negleX. He attained profoerity without envy,
enjoyed wealth without pride, and difperffed bounty
without odentation. 1
. S rfrAiKS, m the military art, are ftrono- plates of
iron, fix in number, fixed with large nails called /trails
riai/s, on the circumference of a cannon-wheel, over the
joints of the fellows; both to Itrengthen the wheel,
and to fave the fellows from wearing on hard ways or
obfervation of life, he owed his rife to that ftation of
opulence and refpeX which he attained, rather to his
own talents and exertion, than to any accidental occur¬
rence of favourable or fortunate circumflances. His
mind was not uninformed by letters ; and from a habit
of attention to ftyle, he acquired a confiderable portion
of critical acutenefs in the difeernment of its beauties
and defeXs. In one branch of writing he particularly
excelled the epiftolary ; in which he not only (howed
the precifion and clearness of bufinefs, but poffeffed a
neatnefs as well as a fluency of expreffion which few let¬
ter-writers have been known to furpals. Letter-writing
was one of his favourite amufements ; and among his
coneipondents were men of fuch eminence and talents
as well repaid his endeavours to entertain them. Among
thefe, as before-mentioned, was the juftly celebrated
Hr I* ranklin, originally a printer like Mr Strahan,
whofe friendfhip and correfpondence, notwithftandfng
the difference of their fentiments in political matters,
he continued to enjoy till his death. One of the lateft
letters which he received from his illuftrious and vene¬
rable friend, contained a humorous allegory of the ftate
7
SI RAIN, a pam occafioned by the violent extenfi on
of fome membranous or tendinous part.
S train, Slrejl, in mechanics, are terms indifcriminate-
ly uied to expieis the force which is excited in any part
of a machine or ilruXure of any kind tending to break
it m that part. Thus every part of a rope is equally
ft rained by the weight which it fuipends. Every part
of a pillar is equally ftrained by the load which it lup-
ports. A mill axle w equally twilled and ftrained in
every part which lies between the pait of the wheel ac¬
tuated by the moving power and the part which is re-
fifted by the work to be performed. Every part of 3
lever or joift is differently ftrained by a force aXing on
a diftant part. ^ 6
It is evident that we cannot make the ftruXure fit
for its purpofe, unlefs the ilrength in every part be at
leaft equal to the ftrefs laid on, or the ftrain excited in
that pait. It is no lefs plain, that if we are ignorant
of the principles which determine this ftrain, both in in-
tenfity and direXion, in relation to the magnitude and
the fituation of its 1 emote caufe, the only fecunty we
have for fuccefs is to give to every part of the affem-
blage
S T R [82
Strain blacre fucK folidity that we can leave no doubt of its fuf-
II. ficiency. But daily experience fhows us that this vague
f Str^t‘ fecurlty is in many cafes uncertain, if we are thus igno-
• rant. In all cafes it is flovenly, unlike an artift, attend¬
ed with ufelefs expence, and in machines is attended
with a lofs of power which is wafted in changing the
motions of a needlefs load of matter.
It muft: therefore greatly tend to the improvement of
all prorefiions occupied in the ere&ion or employment
of fuch ftru&ures to have a diftindl notion of the {trains
to which their parts are expofed. Frequently, nay ge¬
nerally, thefe {trains are not immediate, but arife from
the aftion of forces on diftant parts, by which the af-
femblage is {trained, and there is a tendency to rupture
in every part. This {train is induced on every part, and
is there modified by fixed mechanical laws. Thefe it is
our b.ufmefs to learn ; but our chief object in this invef-
tigation is to determine the ftrength of materials which
it is neceflary to oppofe in every part to this {train; and
how to oppofe this ftrength in fuch a manner that it
lhall be exerted to the beft advantage. The notions of
{train and ttrength therefore hardly admit of feparation;
for it is even by means of the ftrength of the interme¬
diate parts that the {train is propagated to, or excited
in, the part under confideration. It is proper therefore
to confider the whole together underthearticle.SYtf£JVGrff
of Materials in mechanics.
STRAINING, is the clarification of a liquor, by
palling it through a fieve or filter. The word is de¬
rived from the French, ejlreindre; which is formed
from ex, “ out of,” and Jlringere, “ to prefs.”
STRAIT, a narrow channel or arm of the fea, fhut
up between lands on either fide, and affording a paffage
out of one great fea into another.
There are three kinds of ftraits. 1. Such as join
one ocean to another. -Of this kind are the ftraits of
Magellan and Le Maire. 2. Thofe which join the
ocean to a gulf: the ftraits of Gibraltar and Babelman-
del are of this kind, the Mediterranean and Red Sea
being only large gulfs. 3. Thofe which join one gulf
to another ; as the ftraits of Caffa, which join the Pa-
lus Maeotis to the Euxine or Black Sea. The paffage
of ftraits is commonly dangerous, on account ol the
rapidity and oppofite motion of currents. The moft
celebrated ttrait in the world is that of Gibraltar,
which is about from 24 to 36 miles long, and from
to 24 broad, joining the Mediterranean fea with
the Atlantic ocean. The ftraits of Magellan, difco-
vered in 1520 by F. Magellan, were uied {ome time
as a paffage out of the North into the South Sea;
but fince the year 1616, that the ftrait of Le Maire
has been difcovered, the former has been difufed ; both
becaufe of its length, which is full three hundred miles,
and becaufe the navigation thereof is very dangerous,
from the waves of the North and South Seas meeting
in it and claftiing. The ftrait at the entrance of the
Baltic is called the Sound. That between England
and France, L.e eas de Calais, of the Channel. There
are alfo the ftrait s of Weigats, of Jefio, of Anian, of
Davis, and Hudfon, &c.
STRAKES, or Streaks, in a {hip, the uniform
(a) The name of Strange or Strang is indifcriminately
mily, now in the poffelBon of Sir Robert Anftruther of I
2 j s T R
ranges of planks on the bottom and Tides of a fhip, or Strakes
the continuation of planks joined to the ends of each II
other, and reaching from the ftem to the ftern-poft and < .
fafhion-pieces ; the loweft of thefe, which is called the
garboard-Jlreak, is let into the keel below, and into the
ftem and ftern-poft. They fay alfo a (hip heels afirake,
that is, hangs or inclines to one fide the quantity of a
whole plank’s breadth.
Strakes, orjlreks, in mining, are frames of boards
fixed on or in the ground, where they wafti and drefs
the fmall ore in a little ftream of water, hence called
Jlrahed ore.
STRALSUND, a ftrong and rich fea-port town of
Germany, in Hither Pomerania, and was formerly an
important trading-place. In 1678 it was forced to fur-
render to the ele&or of Brandenburg, after 1800 houfes
had been burnt to afhes in one night’s time. After this
the Swedes defended it to the laft extremity ; and
Charles XII. in 1714, came hither after its return out
of Turkey. But the crown of Sweden not being able
to hold out againft five great powers, it was forced to
fubmit in 17x5. In 1720 it was rendered back to Swe¬
den, but in a very poor condition. It is almoft fur-
rounded by the fea and the lake Francen, and has a har¬
bour fcparated from the ifle of Rugen by a narrow
ftrait. It is 15 miles north-weft of Grippfwald, and
40 north-eaft of Guftrow. E. Long. 13. 28. N. Lat.
54. 17.
STRAMONIUM, in botany ; a fpecies of Datu¬
ra.
STRAND (Saxon), any ftiore or bank of a fea or
great river. Hence the ftrect in the weft fuburbs of
London, which lay next the fliore or bank of the
Thames, was called the Strand. An immunity from
cuftom, and all impofitions upon goods or veffels by land
or water, was ufuallyr expreffed by Jlrand or Jlream.
S’J RANDED (from the Saxon Jlrand), is when a
{hip is by tempeft, or by ill fteerage, run on ground,
and fo perilhes. Where a veffel is branded, juftices of
the peace, &c. (hall command conftables near the fea-
coafts to call affiftance for the prefervation of the fhip;
and officers of men of war are to be aiding and aflifting
thereto.
S {'RANGE (Sir Robert), who carried the art of
engraving to fo great perfedfion in this country, was a
man of fuch general merit, that a life of him, not mere¬
ly eftimating his character as an artift, but alfo pour-
traying his private virtues and domeftic habits, would
be both ufetul and entertaining. Such a life, we have
reafon to believe, will be prefented to the public- Mo-
deft as he was ingenious, he ufed indeed to fay that the
works of an artift fhould ferve for a life and monument
to him. His works no doubt will perpetuate his name
whilft any tafte for the fine arts remains. In the mean
time, we cannot but here give a fhort {ketch of his
hiftory, the accuracy of which may be depended on.
Sir Robert Strange was born in the illand of Pomona
in Orkney, July the 14th 1721 ; and died at London
July the 5th 1792. He was lineally defeended from
David Strange or Strang, a younger fon of the family
of the Stranges or Strangs (a_) of Balcalkv, in the coun¬
ty
ufed in the old charters and deeds of the Balcalky fa-
ialcafky, baronet.
S T R
Strange, ty of Fife, who fettled in Orkney at the time of the
Reformation. But as there were no males remaining
of the elder branch of the Stranges of Balcaficy, Sir
Robert became the male reprefentative of it, and was
found by a legal inveftigation to have a right to the ar¬
morial bearings and every other mark of honour belong¬
ing to that ancient family.
He received his claffical education at Kirkwall in
Orkney under the care of a learned, worthy, and much
refpeSed gentleman, Mr Murdoch Mackenzie, ft ill alive
(179^), who has rendered infinite fervice to his coun¬
try by the accurate furveys and charts he has given of
the illands of Orkney and of the Britifti and Irifh
coafts.
Originally intended for the law, Mr Strange foon be¬
came tired of that profeffion, and perceived that his ge¬
nius decifively led him to the arts of drawing and en¬
graving, For this purpofe he was introduced to the
late Mr Richard Cooper at Edinburgh, the only perfon
there who had then any tafte in that line of the fine
arts. He was bodnd with him as an apprentice for fix
years; during which time he made fuch progrefs in his
new profeifton, that his friends entertained the higheft
expeftation of his fuccefs; nor were they difappointed.
In the year 17 17 he married Ifabella, only daugh¬
ter of William Lumifden, Ion of Bilhop Lumifden; and
foon after his marriage he went to France, where with
the moft ardent application he profecuted his ftudies,
chiefly at Paris, under the direftion of the celebrated
Le Bas, who engraved many excellent prints from
the Dutch painters. It was from Le Bas he had the
firft hint of the ufe of the inftrument commonly called
the dry r.eedie ; but which he afterwards greatly impro¬
ved by his own genius, and which has added fuch fu-
perior beauties to his engravings.
lathe year 1751 Mr Strange removed with his fa¬
mily from Edinburgh and fettled at London, where he
engraved feveral fine hiftorical prints, which juftly ac¬
quired to him great reputation. At this period hifto¬
rical engraving had made little progrefs in Britain, and
he may be properly confidered as its father.
The admiration he always had for the works of the
great Italian painters made him long defire to vifit Ita¬
ly, the feat o! the fine arts ; and the farther he advan¬
ced in life, he became the more perfuadtd that a jour¬
ney to that country was efientiai to an artift who had
the laudable ambition to excel in his profeffion. He
therefore undertook this journey in the year 1760. In
Italy he made many admirable drawings, feveral of
which he afterwards engraved. Thefe drawings are
now in the poffieffion of Lord Dundas.
Everywhere in Italy Angular marks of attention were
beftowed on Mr Strange ; not only by great perfo-
nages, but by the principal academies ol the fine arts in
that country. He was made a member of the acade¬
mies of Rome, Florence, and Bologna, and profeffor in
the royal academy at Parma.
To fhow the eftimation in which his talents were held
S T R
at Rome, we cannot but record the following anecdote.
The ceiling of the room of the Vatican "library, in
which the colle&ion of engravings are kept, is elegant¬
ly painted by Signor Rotfanelli. It reprefents the pro¬
grefs o1 engraving ; and the portraits of the moft emi¬
nent artifts in that line are there introduced, among
which is that of our artift. Under his arm he holds a
portfolio, on which his name is inferibed. Fie is the
only Britifti artift; on whom this honour has been con¬
ferred.
In France, where he refided many years at different
periods, his talents likewife received every mark of at¬
tention that could be beftowed on a foreigner. He
was made a member of the royal academy of painting
at Paris.
FI is majefty King George III. ever attentive to the
progrefs of the fine arts in Britain, and fenfible of the
advantages of which engraving particularly has been to
this country, even in a commercial light ; and defirous
to give a mark of his royal approbation of the merit of
Mr Strange, whom he confidered as at the head of his
profeffion and the great improver of it—was gracioufly
pleafed to confer the honour of knighthood on him the
5th of January 17B7.
Such was Sir Robert Strange as an artift ; nor was
he lefs diftinguifhed by his truly amiable moral quali¬
ties, which endeared him to all who had the happinefs
to know him.
With regard to his works, he left fifty capital plates,
Hill in good condition, which are carefully preferved in
his family. They are engraved from pictures by the
moft celebrated painters of the Roman, Florentine,
Lombard, Venetian, and other fchools. They are hi¬
ftorical, both facred and profane, poetical, allegorical.
From his earlieft eftabliihment in life, Sir Robert.
carefully preferved about eighty copies of the fineft and
moft choice impreffions of each plate he engraved ;
which, from length of time, have acquired a beauty^
mellownefs, and brilliancy, ealier feen than deferibed.
He did this with a view of prefenting them to the pub¬
lic at a period when age ftiould difable him from add¬
ing to their number. Thefe he collefifed into as many
volumes, and arranged them in the order in which they
were engraved. To each volume he prefixed two por¬
traits of himfelf, on the fame plate, the one an etching,
the other a finiihed proof, from a drawing by John
Baptifte Greufe. 'L his is the laft plate he engraved; and
which is a proof that neither his eyes nor hand were -
impaired by age. It likewife (hows the ufe he made
both of aquafortis and the graver. Each volume, be-
fides a dedication to the king, contains an introdudlion
on the progrefs of engraving, and critical remarks on
the pi&ures from which his engravings are taken.
Thefe volumes w'ere ready to be given to the public,
when Sir Robert’s death and confequent circumftances
delayed this magnificent publication; a publication
which does fo much honour to the artift, and to the
country which gave him birth (b)
STRANGER,
[ 823 ]
(b) Solicitous to make all our biographical articles the vehicles of truth, and particularly defirous to do juftice
to the memory of our illuftrious countryman Sir Robert Strange, we applied fo, information refpefting him to
the peifon whom we confidered as the moft; capable of furnilhmg it, an to w om we imag.ne 1a our c.pp k.
Uon would be in a high degree grateful. With fome difficulty we obtained, as a favour to ourfelves, the {ketch
S T R
r '8^4 ]
S T R
gffangw STRANGER, in iaw, denotes a perfon who is not
U vr\VY or party to an aft. Thus a ttran^er to a judge-
8 Strafburg: Lnt is he to whom a judgment does not belong ; m
' which fenfe the word Hands diredtiy oppofed to party
or privy.
STRANGLES, in Farriery.
See Me-
See that article,
$ x'v*
STRANGURY, a fuppreflion of urine.
dicine, n° 119 c , , r , ,
STRAP, among furgeons, a fort ot band uied to
jlretch out limbs in the fetting of broken or disjointed
bones.
Strap, in a fhip, tbe rope which is fpliced about any
block, and made with an eye to fallen it anywhere on
occalion.
Straps, in the manege. The (traps of a (addle are
fmall leather (traps, nailed to the bows of the (addle,
with which we make the girths fail to the faddle.
STRAP ADO, or Strappado, a kind of military
punilhment, wherein the criminals hands being tied be¬
hind him, he is hoifted up with a rope to the top of a
long piece of wood, and let fall again almoft to the
ground ; fo that, by the weight of his body in the
ihock, his arms are diflocated. Sometimes he is to un¬
dergo three ftrapadoes or more.
STR ASBURG, an ancient, large, handfome, popu¬
lous, and (trong city of France in Alface. It contains
about 200 ftreets, part of which are very narrow, and
mod of the houfes are built after the ancient tafte.
However, there are a great number of handfome build¬
ings, fuch as the hotel of the marfhal of France, who is
commander of the city ; the hotel of the cardinal of
Rouen, the bifhops palace, the Jd'uits college, the royal
hofpital, the hotel of Heffe-Darmiladt, the arfenal, the
town-houfe, and the cathedral. It has a wooden bridge Staftnng,
over the Rhine, which is thought to be one of the fined , ^ r¥a- t
in Europe ; as is likewife tbe cathedral church, whole
tower is the handfomed, in Germany, and the clock is
greatly admired by all travellers.\ Borpe look upon it
as one of the wonders of the worldj ..and the deeple is
allowed to be the highed in Europe.. The clock not
only fhows the hours ot the day, .bidrthe motion of the
fun, moon, and (tars. Among other}things there is an
angel, which turns an hour-glafs .every hour j and the
twelve apodles proclaim noon, by each <d" them (biking
a blow with a hammer on a bell. There is likewife a
cock, which is a piece of clock-work, that crows every
hour. There are 700 deps up to the tower or deeple,
it being 500 feet high. It was a free and imperial city;
but the king of France became mader of it in l.68v
and greatly augmented the fortifications, though before
it had as many cannon as there are days in the year.
The inhabitants were formerly Protedants, and carried
on a great trade ; but mod of them have been obliged
to embrace the Romifh fuperdition, though there is dill
a fort of toleration. Such was Stralburg before the
French revolution ; what it is now w.e have not leifure
to inquire. It is feated <en the river 111, 55 miles
north of Bafil, 112 fouth-welt of Mentz, and 255 ead
of Paris. E. Long. 7. 51. N. Lat. 48. 35.
STRATA, in natural hidory, the feveral beds or
layers of different matters whereof the earth is compo-
feii. See Quarry.
The itrata whereof the earth is compofed are fo very
different in different countries, that it is impoffible to
fay any thing concerning them that may be generally
applicable : and indeed the depths to which we can pe¬
netrate are fo finall, that only a very few can be known
of his life, which we have laid before our readers, upon the exprefs condition that we (hould not alter a fing/e word
of it; as the cornpofition, we were told, would do honour to our work. We have obferved the condition, and
therefore cannot claim this honour to any of the ufual writers in the Encyclopedia Bmanmca it Sir hobert s
more intimate friends (hall be pleafed with the article, their gratitude will be due not to us, but to fome of his
neared relations; and what may appear its defefts to others (for the tades of mankind are very different), we
trud will be fupplied by the following authentic catalogue of his works : Plate 1. i WQ Heads of the author—one
an etching, the other a finithed proof, fiom a drawing by John Baptide Greufe; 2. ihe Return from Market, by
Wouvermans ; 3. Cupid, by Vanloo ; 4. Mary Magdalen, by Guido ; 5. Cleopatra, by the fame ; 6. I he xa-
donna, by the fame ; 7. The Angel Gabriel, by the fame ; 8. The Virgin, holding m her hand a book, at¬
tended by angels, by Carlo Maratt; 9. The Virgin with the Child afieep, by the fame ; 10. Liberality and Mo-
dedy, by Guido ; 11. Apbllo rewarding Merit and punithing Arrogance, by Andrea Sacchi ; 1 2. ihe riuding
of Romulus and Remus, by Pietro da Cortona; 13. Caefar repudiating Pompeia, by the fame; 14. Three Chil¬
dren of King Charles I. by Vandyke ; 15. Belifarius, by Salvator Rota; 16. St Agnes, by Doimmchino, 1 7.
The Judament of Hercules, by Nicolas Pouffin ; 18. Venu-s attired by the Graces, by Guido ; y'9 an 20. Ju -
tice and Meeknefs, by Raphael; 21. The Offspring of Love, by Guido ; 22. Cupid deeping, by the fame;
43. Abraham giving up the Handmaid Hagar, bv Gtiercino ; 24. Either a Suppliant before Ahafuerus, by the
fame; 25. Jofeph and Potiphar’s Wife, by Guido ; 26. Venus Blinding Cupid, by Titian ; 27. Venus, by the
fame; 28. Danae, by the fame ; 29. Portrait of King Charles I. by Vandyke; 3p. The Madonna, by Correg¬
gio ; 31. St Cascilia, by Raphael ; 32. Mary Magdalen, by Guido ; 33. Our Saviour appearing to his Mother
after his Refurredtion, by Guercino; 34. A Mother and Child, by Parmegiano; 35. Cupid Meditating, by
Schidoni; 36. Laomedon King of Troy detected by Neptune and Apollo, by Salvator Roia ; 37. Ihe Death
of Dido, by Guercino ; 38. Venus and Adonis, by Titian ; 39. Fortune, by Guido; 40. Cleopatia, by tne
fame; 41. Two Children at School, by Schidoni; 42. Mary Magdalen, by Correggio; 43. Portrait of King
Charles I. attended by the Marquis of Hamilton, by Vandyke ; 44. Queen Henrietta, attended by the imice of
Wales, and holding in her Arms the Duke of York, by the fame ; 45. Apotheofis ot the Royal Children, y
Wed ; 46. i he Annunciation, by Guido ; 47. Portrait of Raphael Sancio D’Urbino, by himfelf; 48. Sapp iof
by Carlo Dolci; 49. Our Saviour afleep, by Vandyke; 50. St John in the Defert, by Murillo.
S T R
Strata, to us at any rate; thofe that lie near the centre, or even
a great way from it, being for ever hid. One reafon
why we cannot penetrate to any great depth is, that as
we go down the air becomes foul, loaded with perni¬
cious vapours, inflammable air, fixed air, &c. which de*
flroy the miners, and there is no poffibility of-going on.
In many places, however, thefe vapours become perni¬
cious much fooner than in others, particularly where
fulphureous minerals abound, as in mines of metal, coal,
&c.
But however great differences there may be among
the under ftrata, the upper one is in fome refpe&s the
fame all over 'the globe, at lead in this refpeft, that
it is fit for the fupport of vegetables, which the others
are not, without long expolure to the air. Properly
fpeakmg, indeed, the upper ftratum of the earth all
round, is compofed of the pure vegetable mold, though
in many places it is mixed with large quantities of
other ftrata, as clay, fand, gravel, &c. ; and hence pro¬
ceed the differences of foils fo well known to thofe who
pra&ife agriculture.
It has been fappofed, by fome naturalifts, that the
different ftrata of which the earth is compofed were
originally formed at the creation, and have continued
in a manner immutable ever fince : but this cannot pof-
fibly have been the cafe, fince we find that many of the
ftrata are ftrangely intermixed with each other; the
hones of animals both marine and terreftrial are fre¬
quently found at great depths in the earth; beds of
oyfter-fhells are found of immenfe extent in feveral coun¬
tries ; and concerning thefe and other fhell-fifh, it is re¬
markable, that they are generally found much farther
from the furface than the bones or teeth either of ma¬
rine or terreftrial animals. Neither are the /hells or
other remains of fifti found in thofe countries adjoining
to the feas where they grow naturally, but in the moft
diftant regions. Mr Whitehurft, in his Inquiry into the
Original State and Formation of the Earth, has given
the following account of many different kinds of ani¬
mals, whole /hells and other remains or exuvia are found
in England ; though at prefent the living animals are
not to be found except in the Eaft and Weft Indies.
/ Catalogue of Extraneous Fossils, Mowing where
they were dug up ; alfo their native Climates. Mojily
feleRed from the curious Cabinet of Mr Neilson, in
King-ftreet, Red-Lion Square.
Their names, and Places where found. Native Climates.
Chambered Nautilus. Sheppy'l Chinefe Occant and
Iflands ; Richmond in Surrey ; \ other Parts of that
Sherbone in Dorietfhire, - J great fea.
'Te\th of Sharks. Sheppy Ifland, 1 * n i ur n i
Oxfordfhire, Middlefa, Surrey! Vf ^ h'
Northampton/hire, - j tes'
Sea-Tortoise, feveral kinds; the!
Hawljbill, Loggerhead, and Green > IVeJl Indies.
fpecies. Sheppy Ifland, - J
MangroveTreeOvsters. Shep-1 „ r J-
pyltland, . . V InJm.
Coxcomb Tree Oysters. OxO
fordfhire, Gloucefter/hire, Dor- > Caajl of Guinea.
fet/hire, and Hanover, - J
VERTEbR^Eanr/PALATESo/r- n j nr a r
*ES. Sheppy Wands, and ™„Y l 4 J
mother pait o‘ England, - j ^
Vol.XVII. Part II.
[ 825 ]
S T R
Native Cimiates. Strata.
Their names, and Places where found.
Crocodile. Germany, Derby-"1
/hire, Nottinghamfhire, Oxford- >
/hire, and York/hire, - j
Alligator’s Teeth. Oxford-1 Eaf and Wefl In-
/hire, Sheppy Ifland, . J
The BandedBuccinum. Oxford-'
/hire, and the Alps,
The Dipping-Snail, and Star-’
Fish. Sheppy Ifland.
Tail Buccinum. Sheppy Ifland, i r a
Hordel Cliff, Hampfhire, - j
dies.
IVeJl Indies.
Wefl Indies.
Indies.
Nothing has more perplexed thofe who undertake to
form theories of the earth than thefe appearances. Some
have at once boldly afferted, from thefe and other phe¬
nomena, that the world is eternal. Others.have had re-
courfe to the umverfal deluge. Some, among whom is
the Count de Buffon, endeavour to prove that the
ocean and dry land are perpetually Ranging places ;
that for many ages the highell mounfains hav: been
covered with water, in confequence of which the ma¬
rine animals juft mentioned were generated in fuch vail
quantities, that the waters will again cover thefe moun¬
tains, the habitable part of the earth become fea, and
the fea become dry land as before, &c. Others have
imagined that they might be occafioned by volcanoes
earthquakes, &c. which confound the different ftrata,
and often intermix the productions of the fea with thofe
of the dry land.
Thefe fubjedts have been difeuffed under the article
Earth, to which therefore we refer the reader; and
/hall conclude with fome account of the ftrata in thofe
places where they have been moft particularly obferved.
Under the article Natural History, Sett. I. it
is obferved, that the upper ftrata of the earth and moun¬
tains generally confift of rag-ftone, the next of flate,
the third of marble filled with petrifattions, the fourth
again of flate, and the next of free /lone. But we arc
far from confidering this as a rule which holds univer-
fally. The ftrata differ exceedingly in a great number
of places; fome inftances of which we /hall give from
Mr Whitehurft.—At Alfreton Common in Derby/hire, Tnquirym.
the ftrata are, « to the Ori.
ginal State
and Forma*
tion of the
Inch. -Earth, p,
O aI1-
Tab if. of the Strata at JIlfreton Common.
Numb.
Clay
Ratcwell,fragments offont
Bind indurated clay
Stone, argiil ceous concreted clay
Bind - . -
Bind ...
Stone, a blacl colour
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 Bin©
p Stone
jo Bin© - -
11 Bind - -
12 Coal
13 Bind -
14 Stone -
1 5 Stone
16 Bind - - -
17 Smutt, a black fulf ante, refemlling
ftratum of coal-duf
1
Feet.
7
9
*3-
6
8
25
5
2
2
5
5
1
1
23
14
7
M
Carried over 138 o
Strata. Numb,
18 Bind
19 Stone
20 Bind
21 Coal
s t R
Brought over
[ 826
Feet. fnch.
138 O
8 0
20 o
16 O
7 4
184 4
j Table of the Strata at West Hall am-
Feet. Inch.
Numb,
j Clay
Bind
Smutt
Clunch, or indurated clay
Bind
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*3
H
Stone
Bind
Stone
Bind
Stone
Bind
Shale
Bin'd
Shale - -
QbvuSiiyJlone andfometimes cank
16 Soft Coal
17 Clay
18 Soft Coal
19 Clunch and Bind
20 Coal
21 Bind
22 Strong, Iroad Bind
23 Coal
7
48
1
4
3
2
1
1
3
1
16
2
12
3
54
4
o
4
21
1
1
25
6
222 3
Mr Forfter has given an account of fome of the ftra-
ta of the South-Sea iflands, the fubftance of which may
be feen in the following table.
South Georgia.
j. No foil, except in a few ctevices o! the rocks.
2. Ponderous flate, with fome irony particles, in hori¬
zontal ftrata, perpendicularly interfeaed with veins
of quartz.
Southern IJle of New Zealand,
j . Fine light black mould, in fome places nine inches
deep, but generally not fo much.
2. An argillaceous fubftance, nearly related to the clafs
0f Talcons, turned into earth by the adtion of the
oblique
air.
0. The fame fubftance farther indurated, in
° ftrata, generally dipping to the fouth.
Easter Island.
3. Reddifh-brown dufty mould, looking as if it had
been burnt.
2. Burnt rocks, refembling flags or drofs and other
volcanic matters.
Marquesas.
1. Clay mixed with mould.
2. An earthy argillaceous fubftance mixed with tarras
and puzzolana.
Otaheite.
The fhores are coral rock, extending from the reef en¬
circling thefe ifles to the very high water-mark.
] s T R
There begins the fand, formed in fome places from Strata,
fmall fhells and rubbed pieces of coral; but in others —v““
the fhores are covered with blackifh fand, conlifting
of the former fort mixed with black, fometimes glit¬
tering, particles of mica, and here and there fome
particles of the rerraftory iron ores called in Eng¬
land Skim, the ferrum micaceum of Linnaeus, and
Kall the molybdenum [puma lup'i of the fame author.
The plains from the fliores to the foot of the hills
are covered with a very fine thick ftratum of black
mould, mixed with the above-mentioned fand, which
the natives manure with fkells. The firft and lower
range of hills are formed of a red ochreous earth,
fometimes fo intenfely red, that the natives ufe it to
paint their-canoes and cloth. The higher hills con-
lift of a hard, compadt, and ftiff clayey fubftance,
hardening into ftone when out of the reach oi the iun
and air. At the top of the valleys, along the banks
of the rivets, are large mafles ot coarfe granite ftones
of various mixtures ; in one place are pillars of a
grey, folid bafaltes ; and, in feveral others, fragments
of black bafaltes.
Friendly Islands and New Hebrides.
The fame with the above.
Ma llicollo.
Yellowifti clay mixed with common fand.
Tanna, a Vulcanic I (land.
The chief ftrata here are clay mixed with aluminous
earth, interfperfed with lumps of pure chalk. The
llrata of the clay are about fix inches, deviating very
little from the horizontal line.
New Caledonia and the adjacent Ifles.
The flrores confift of fhell-fand, and particles of quartz;
the foil in the plains a black mould mixed with this
fand. The fides of the hills compofed of a yellow
ochreous clay, richly fpangled with fmall particles of
cat-filver, or a whitifh kind of daze, the mica argentea
of Linnaeus. The higher parts of the hills confift
of a ftone called by the German miners gejlelflein, com¬
pofed of quartz and great lumps of the above cat-
iilver. The latter is fometimes of an intenfely red or
orange colour, by means of an iron ochre.
“ From the above account, “ fays Mr Forfter,” it
appears, I think, evidently, that all the high tropical
ifles of the South Sea have been fubjeft to the action
of volcanoes. Pyritical and fulphureous fubftances,
together with a few iron-ftones, and fome veftiges of
copper, are no doubt found in feveral of them: but
the mountains of New Caledonia are the moft likely to
contain the richeft metallic veins ; and the fame opi¬
nion, I fufpedt, may be formed of the mountains in New
Zealand.”
In the city of Modena in Italy, and for fome miles
round that place, there is the moft lingular arrange¬
ment of ftrata perhaps in the whole world. From the
furface of the ground to the depth of 14 feet, they meet
with nothing but the ruins of an ancient city. Being
come to that depth, they find paved ftreets, artificers
fhsps, floors of houfes, and feveral pieces of inlaid work.
After thefe ruins they find a very iolid earth, which
one would think had never been removed ; but a little
lower they find it black and marfhy, and full of briars.
SLnior Ramazzini in one place found a heap of wheat
entire at the depth of 24. feet j in another, he found
filbert-
Strata
Str
STR [ 827 ]
filbert-trees with their nuts. A.t the depth of about in a place called
iB ^eet, they find a bed of chalk, about 11 feet deep,
which cuts.very >eafily ; after this a bed of marfhy earth
' of about two feet, mixed with ruihes, leaves, and
branches. After this bed comes another of chalk,
nearly of the fame thicknefs ; and which ends at the
depth of 42 feet. This is followed by another bed of
marfhy earth like the former; after which comes a new
chalk bed, but thinner, which alio has a marfhy bed
underneath it. This ends at the depth ot 63 feet;
after which they find fand mingled with fmall gravel,
and feveral marine (hells. This ilratum is ufually about
five feet deep, and underneath it is a vafl refervoir of
water. It is on account of this water that the foil is
fo frequently dug, and the ftrata fo well known in this
part of the world. After coming to the fandy bottom
above-mentioned, the workmen pierce the ground with
a terebra or auger, when the water immediately fprings
up with great force, and fills the well to the brim.
The flow is perpetual, and neither increafes by rain,
nor decreafes by drought. Sometimes the auger meets
with great trees, which give the workmen much trouble ;
they alio fometimes fee at the bottom of thele wells
great bones, coals, flints, and pieces ot iron.
It has been afferted by fome, that the fpecific gra¬
vity of the ftrata conftantly inereafed with the depth
from the (urface. Hot DrJLcigh, in his Natural tli-
ftory ot Lancafhire, fpeaking ot the coal-pits, denies
the ftrata to lie according to the laws of gravitation;
obferving, that the ftrata there are firft a bed of marie,
then ffee-ftone, next uon-ftone, then coal, 01 channel
mire, then fome 'other ftrata, then coal again, &c.
This .determined Mr Derham to make a nicer inquiry
into the matter: accordingly, in 1 7'2, he can fed di¬
vers places to be bored, laying the fevei al ftrata by
themfelves ; and afterwards determined very carefully
their foecific gravity. The relult was, that in his yard  — —_ , . yv , ,
the ftrata were gradually fpecifically heavier and heavier tern ranging under the firft order, pa mt.
: . s 1 r „ fi^hvlous: the oenanthium is tnfid.
Vol. xxvi
P- 54I*
the lower and lower they 'went; but in another place
in his fields, he could not perceive any difference in the
fpecific gravitie-x-
Acquainting the Royal Society therewith, their ope¬
rator Mr Haukfbee was ordered to try the ftrata of a
coal pit, which he did to the depth of 30 ftrata : the
thicknefs and fpecific gravity of each whereof he gives
us in a table in the Philofophicaf Tranfadions ; and
from the whole makes this inference, that it evidently
appears the gravities of the feveral ftrata are in no
manner of order, but purely cafual, as if mixed by
chance.
STR
     . The twodid not com- Strath
maud together, but took their turns day by day; as
we find from Herodotus and Cornelius Nepos. Some- rav^ gri 7*
times indeed, as when a perfon was found of merit
vaflly fuperior, and exceedingly tamed in war, the c >m»
mand was given to him alone : bat it was ever a rule,
not to put any perfon in the office but whofe eftate was
in Attica, and who had children, that there mi he oe
fome holla<es and (ecurities for his conduit and fideli¬
ty. Conftantine the Great, befides many other privi¬
leges granted to the city of Athens, honoured its
chief magiftrate with the title of -dT/g'-
nus Dux.
STRATH, in the Scottifh language, figm'fies a long
narrow valley, with a river running along the bottom.
STRATHEARN, a beautiful and extenfive valley
in Perthffiire, bounded on the north by the lolty ridge
of mountains called the Grampians, and on the fourh by
the Ochils, which are rounded on the tops and covered
with verdure. It is called Strathearn from the river
Earn, which runs through the middle of it from weft to
call for about 30 miles. On each fide oi the banks of
this beantihil ftream are many villages and country-feats
diftinguffhed for romantic lituations. Were we to fiuglc
out any ot the villages, we would mention Crieff, whtcii
Hands on a fine (loping ground on the north tide of the
Earn, and has been much admired by travellers for
its fituation, and the variety, contrail, fingularity, and
beauty of the profpecl which it affords.
STRATHNAVER, a fubdiviiion or diftria of the
county of Sutheiland in Scotland ; bounded 011 the
north by the ocean, on the eaft by Caithnefs, on the
fouth by Sutherland properly fo called, and on the weft
partly by Rofs and partly by the ocean.
STRATIOTES, Water-soldier, in botany: A
genus of plants belonging to the clafs of polyandria,
and to the order of bexagynia ; and in the natural fyf-
The (patha is
diphyllous : the perianth!um is trifid. There are three
petals, and the beiry is fix-celled and inferior. There
are three fpecies, the abides, the acoroides, and ahf-
moides. The a/oides alone is of Britiffi extraftion,
which is alfo called the water aloe, or frejh-ivater foldier.
The root conlifts of long fibres tufted at the ends. The
leaves are thick, triangular, pointed, and prickly at the
edres. The flowers are white and floating on the wa¬
ter’ and bloffom in June. This plant may be feen in
flow rivers and fens. .
STRATO, a philofopber of Lampfacus, diiciple and
fucceffor in the ichool ot Theophraftus, about 248 years
STRATAGEM, in the art of war any device for.. bc»ce ‘he ChriAian era He
dectiving and furprifmg an enemy. he ancients dealt
very much in ftratagems; the moderns wage war more
openly, and on the Iquare. Frontinus has made a col-
le&ion of the ancient ftratagems of war. _
STR ATEGUS. rp«r»>ef, in antiquity, an officer
among the Athenians, whereof there were two chofen
yearly, to command the troops of the (late. __
Plutarch fays, there was one chofen from out of each
tribe ; but Pollux teems, to fay they were chofen indft-
ferently out of the people. The people themfelves
made the choice ; and that on the laft day oi t le year,
common indultry to the ftudy ot nature ; and aftei the
mod mature inveftigations, he (upported that-nature was
inanimate, and that there was no god but nature, (bee
Plastic Nature). He was appointed preceptor to Pto¬
lemy Philadelphus, who not only revered his abilities
and' learning, but alfo rewarded his labours with un¬
bounded liberality. He wrote difterent treatifes, all
now loft.
STRAWBERRY, in botany, bee Fragaria
S-TRAWBERHr-Pree. See Arbutus.
END
OF THE SEVENTEENTH VOLUME.
ERRATA:
Vot. III. p. 124. col. g. I. i r. For “ yet brought,”* read “ not yet brought.”
p. 258. col. 1. 1. 20.. For “ in the 50th,” read “ in the 57th.”6
Vol. IX. p. 470. col. I. 1. JO. A correfpondent fays, for “ fummer affijes,” read « fpring .ni,....
«• ol. X. p. 7. col. 2. I. 22. from bottom. For (C ifofceles rectangle,” read “ iTnr,’f.!oo 1 >•
p. 119. col. 1.1. 13. from bottom. For “ read “ ^ 13n? e’
p. 471. col. 2. 1. 27. For “ prevents,” read “ perverts.”
p. 542. col.. 1. 1. i. from bottom. Erafe the fentence berrinnino- wiVK « n *- ,,
P. 549. col. 2. 1. 37-. For “ him,” read « he.” DeSinning "‘th It 1S an earldom.”
Vc. XIII. p. jo4. col. j. 1. ,7. For “ after the 364th, In the year 44o,- read - in the year ,, j as r
drenus fays, in the year 393.” 7 3IZ> or, as Ce
Vol, XIV. p. 67. col. 2. 1. 27. For “ St Claget,” read “ Dr Claget.”
• Vot. XVI. p. ,96. col. j. I. 23. Inftead of the fentence beginning with - In the ntean time,” read •« Or
the 9th June Admiral Montague fell in with the FrenrK L** ? •
« , , „ counting to ,9 fankof the hW> nChflKtrCtUrn,nS
p. 082. col. T. 1. 37. For ” Milan,” read “ Mifnaw.”
p. 696. col. 2. 1. 3. For “ ev.r,xT,™; >’ read “ <rxf;rr<x5r and u
, » ana ror ‘rx,:rT0^aV read “ frxurTO^at.w
Vol. XVII. p. 180. col. 2. 1. 16. from bottom. For “ covers them,” read « it covers.”
p.524. col. 2. 1. 12. For “ where,” read “ when.”
P* 533- co1- 1* 3°* ^ After the word “likewife” add “ poflible.”
p. 556. col. 2. 1. 18. from bottom. Erafe the fentence berdnmno-'„ r* ...
P- 671. col. 2. 1. 23. Erafe the word “ beSlnnin£ tha word “ Candidates.”
p. 678. col. 2. 1. 12. For “ *»y*xorj»» read <« «y>fXof.^
p. 728. col. 2. 1. 18. For u Balydrene,,, read “ Balydrone.”
p. 729* co^* *• !• 41* For “ J669,,, read “
directions
R'l' J
Plate CCCCXLVII. to face *
CCCCXLVIIL
CCCCXLIX.
DCCCL. -)
CCCCLI. {■
CCCCLII. j
CCCCLIII.
CCCCtlV.
CCCCLV.
CCCCVI. 1
CCCCVII.f
CCCCLVIII.
CCCCLIX.
CCCCLX.
CCCCLXR . .
CCCCLXII.
CCCCLXIII.
CCCCLXIV.
Part II.
}
FOR placing the PLATES of Vol. XVII.
Page 220
240
300
368
370
379
382
384
386
388
392
396
424
Plate CCCCLXV. to face
CCCCLXVI.
CCCCLXVII.
CCCCLXVIII. (
cccclxix. r
CCCCLXX. J
CCCCLXXI.
CCCCLXXJI.
x CCCCLXXIII.
CCCCLXX1V.
CCCCLXXV.
CCCCLXXVI.
CCCCLXXVII. J
CCCCLXXVIII. f
CCCCLXXIX. ]
CCCCLXXX.
CCCCEXXXI.
CCCCLXXXII. 1
CCCCLXXXIII. |
Page 424
488
502
558
659
619
691
708
713
76S
770
784
79°
4