V Enctclo PjEdia Britannic A; D I C T I 6 NARY O F ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE; Conftrufted on a Plan, B Y W H I C H THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS Are digeiled into the Form of Diftindl TREATISES or SYSTEMS, COMPREHENDING The History, Theory, and Practice, of each, according to the Lateft Difcoveries and Improvements; JND FULL EXPLANATIONS given of the VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE, WHETHER RELATING TO Natural and Artificial Obje&s, or to Matters Ecclesiastical, Civil, Military, Commercial, &c. Including Elucidations of the moft Important I opics relative to Religion, Morals> Manners, and the Oeconcmy of Life : TOT. »TK*R WITH A A Description of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, throughout the World; A General History, Ancient and Moderny of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States; AND An Account of the Lives of the moft Eminent Perfons in every Nation, from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times. CvmpiSd fr*m the writing/ of tl t bcji Aathort, in Jevaral Innguagu i tht mofl approved Difliomriei, as tvell of general fcienct at of itt parti¬ cular brambes ; the 7ranfaSitomt Journalst and Afemoirs, of Learned Societies, both at borne and abroad; the MS. Leisures of Eminent Profejfors on differentfcicncts ; and a variety of Original ^Jateria/s, furni/heJ by en F.xtenfine Ctrrrfpondence. THE THIRD EDITION, IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, GREATLY IMPROVED, ILLUSTRATED WITH FIVE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO COPPERPLATES. VOL. XVI. 1 N D OCT l D 11 CANT, ST AM £ NT MMMINtSSB FRK.1TI. EDINBURGH, PRINTED FOR A. BEIIL AND C. MACFARQJJHAR. MDCCXCV1I. Cnteceo in Stationers ipalt in Cecmo of tf)e aa of parliament. Encyclopedia Britannica. j* RAN Rain. T3 ANA, the fmg, in zoology ; a genus belonging to y——’ Xv the order of amphibia reptilia. The body is naked* furnifhed with four feet, and without any tail. 1 here are 17 fpecies. The moll remarkable are, 1. The temporaria, or common frog. This is an animal fo well known, that it needs no defcription; but fome of its properties are very lingular. Its fpring, or power of taking large leaps, is re- markably great, and it is the bell fwimmer of all four- footed animals. Nature bath finely adapted its parts for thofe ends, the fore members of the body being very lightly made, the hind legs and thighs very long, and furnilhed with very ftrong mufcles. While In a tadpole ftate, it is entirely a water ani¬ mal ; the work of generation is performed in that ele¬ ment, as may be feen in every pond during fpring, when the female remains opprefled by the male lor a number of days. The work of propagation is extremely fingular, it be¬ ing certain that the frog has not a penis intrant. There appears a Itrong analogy in this cafe between a cer¬ tain clafs of the vegetable kingdom and thofe animals ; for it is well known, that when the female frog depo- fits its fpawn, the male inftantaneoufly impregnates it with what we may call a farina farundans, in the lame manner as the palm-tree conveys fnuftification to the flowers of the female, which would otherwife be barren. As loon as the frogs are rtleafed from their tadpole ftate, they immediately take to land ; and if the wea¬ ther has been hot, and there fall any refrtlhing Ihowers, you may fee the ground for a confiderable fpace per¬ fectly blackened by myriads of thefe animalcules, feek- ing for fome fecure lurking places. Some philofo- phers, not giving themfelves time to examine into this phenomenon, imagined them to have been generated in the clouds, and fhowered on the earth ; but had they, like our Derham, but traced them to the next pool, they would have found a better Solution of the difficulty. See Preternatural Rains, As frogs adhere clofely to the backs of their own fpecics, fo we know they will do the fame by tifh.— Walton mentions a llrangc ftory of their deilroying pike ; but that they will injure, if not entirely kill carp, is a fa& indifputable, from the following rela¬ tion. Not many years ago, on fifhing a pond belong¬ ing to Mr Pitt of Lncomb, Dorfetfhire, great numbers of the carp were found each with a frog mounted on it, the hind legs clinging to the back, and the fore legs fixed in the corner of each eye of the fifh, which were thin and greatly wailed, teized by carrying fp diiagree- Vol. XVI. Part 1. RAN able a load. Thefe frogs Mr Pennant fuppofes to have Ran». been, males difapppointed of a mate. The croaking of frogs is well known ; and from that in fenny countries they are dillinguifhed by ludicrous tides: thus they are ftylcd Dutch nightingalesy and Boj- tun nvaites. Yet there is a time of the year when they become mute, neither croaking nor opening their mouths for a whole mouth : this happens in the hot feafon, and that is in many places known to the country people by the name of the padJocL moon. It is faid, that during that period their mouths are fo doled, that no force (with¬ out killing the animal) will be capable of opening them. Thefe, as well as other reptiles, feed but a fmail fpace of the year. The food of this genus is flics, m- feds, and fnails. Toads are faid to teed alio on bees, and to do great injury to thofe ufeful infect*. During winter, frogs and toads remain in a tor¬ pid date : the latl of which will dig into the earth, and cover themiclves with almoft the fame agility as the mole. See Physiology, n° 48 and note (u), and id 54. 2. The eiculenta, or edible frog, differ:, from the former, in having a high protuberance in the middle of the back, forming a very lharp angle. Its colours arc alfo more vivid, and its marks more diilintl j the ground colour being a pale or yellowiih green, marked with rows of black fpots from the head to the rump.-— This, and (Mr Pennant thinks) the former, are eaten, pie has fetn in the markets at Paris whole hamper* full, which the venders were preparing for the table, by fkinning and cutting off the fore-paits, the loins and legs only being kept ; but his ftrong dilhke to thei< reptiles prevented a clofe examination into the fpecies, 3. In the country of Pennfylvania* and fome other parts of North America, there is a very large fpecies of frogs called the bullfrog, or rana octllata. Their irides arc of a dufky red, furrounded with a yellow ring. The auricles are covered with a thin circular flein, which forms a fpot behind each eye. They have four toes on the fore-feet, and five palmated toes behind. Their co¬ lour is a dufky brown, mixed with yellowifh green, and fpotted with black. The belly is yellowifh, and faintly fpotted. Thefe make a monftrous roaring noile like a bull, only fomewhat more hoarfe. Their ftze is fuperior to that of any other of the geuus, and they can ip ring forward three yards at a leap. By this means they will equal in fpeed a very good horfe in its fwiftdl courfe. Their places of abode are ponds, or bogs with ftagnant water \ but they never frequent flreanu* When many RAN [ ■ Rara. of them are together, they make fuch a horrid noife, —v that two people cannot underhand each other’s fpeech. They croak all together, and then hop for a little and begin again. It feems as if they had a captain among them : for when he begins to croak, all the others fol¬ low’ ; and when he hops, they alfo become hlent. When this captain gives the fignal for hopping, yo1 h' ar a note like poop coming from him. In the day-time they feldom make any great noife, unlefs the fky is covered ; but in the night-time they may be heard at the dihance of a mile and an half. When they croak, they are commonly near the furface of the water, under the bufhes, and have their heads out of the water. By go¬ ing flowly, therefore, one may get up almoit quite clofe to them before they go away. As foon as they are quite under w’ater, they think themlelves fafe, though it be ever fo {hallow. Thefe creatures kill and eat young ducklings and goflings, and fometimes carry oft chickens that come too near the water ; when beaten, they cry out almoft like little children. As foon as the air be¬ gins to grow a little cool in autumn, they hide them- felves under the mud in die bottom of flagnant waters, and lie there torpid during the winter. As foon as the weather grows, mild towards fummer, they begin to get out of their holes and croak. They are fuppofed by the people of Virginia to be the purifiers of waters, and are refpe&ed as the genii of the fountains. Some of 1 them were brought to England alive fcveral years ago. 4, The bufo, or toad, is the molt deformed and hi¬ deous of all animals. The body is broad ; the back flat, and covered with a pimply dufky hide ; the belly large, {wagging, and fwelling out ; the legs fhort, and its pace laboured and crawling ; its retreat gloomy and lihhy ; in Ihort, its general appearance is fuch as to ftrike one with difguft and honor. Yet it is faid by thofe who have refolution to view’ it with attention, that its eyes are fine ; to this it feems that Shakefpcarc alludes, when he makes his Juliet remark, S >me fay the hrk and loathed toad change eyes; As if they would have been better bellowed on fo charming a fongfler than on this raucous reptile. But the hideous appearance of the toad is fuch as to make this one advantageous feature overlooked, and to have rendered it in all ages an objedt. of horror, and the origin of moil tremendous inventions. jElian makes its venom fo potent, that bafilifk-like it convey¬ ed death by its very look and breath ; but Juvenal is content with making the Roman ladies who were weary of their hufbands form a potion from its entrails, in order to get rid of the good man. This opinion begat others of a more dreadful nature ; for in after-times fu- • perdition gave it preternatural powers, and made it a principal ingredient in the incantations of no&urnal l‘ags. < I his animal was believed by feme old writers to have a ftone in its head fraught with great virtues me¬ dical and magical: it was dillinguilhed by the name of the reptile, and called the toad-Jionty bujonttesy era- paudirte, krottenfteln ; but all its fancied powers vanifti- I See Anrr ed on the difeovery of its being nothing but the follil- tooth of the fea-wolf J, or of feme other flat-toothed rbicat. 2 1 RAN fifh, not unfrequent in our ifland as well as feveral other countries. But thefe fables have been long exploded. And as to the notion of its being a poifonous animal, it is pro- bable that its exceflive deformity, joined to tlie faculty it has of emitting a juice from its pimpleg, and'a dulky liquid from its hind parts, is the foundation of the re¬ port. That it has any noxious qualities there feem to have been no proofs in the fmalkft degree fatisfadlory, tho’ we have heard many ftrange relations on that point.—- On the contrary, there have been many who have taken them in their naked hands, and held them long with¬ out receiving the leatt injury : it is alfo well known that quacks have eaten them, and have belides i'queezed their juices into a glafs and drank them with impunity. We may fay alfo, that thefe reptiles are a common food to many animals ; to buzzards, owls, Norfolk plovers, ducks, and fnakes, who would not touch them were they in any degree noxious. So far from having venomous qualities, they have of late been confidered as if they had beneficent ones; particularly in the cure of the moil terrible of difeafes, the by fudtion : (See Br'ttijh Zoology, vol. iii. Append, p. 389, etJeq.) But, from all circumltances, as Mr Pennant obferves, they feem only to have ren¬ dered a horrible complaint more loathfome. The moll full information concerning the nature- and qualities of this animal is contained in the follow¬ ing letters from Mr Arfcott and Mr Pittfield to Dr Milles. “ It would give me great pleafure (fays Mr Arfcott) to be able to inform you of any particulars worthy Mr Pennant’s notice, concerning the toad who lived fo many years with us, and was-fo great a favour-' ite. I he greateft cunofity in it was its becoming fo re¬ markably tame. It had frequented fome Heps before the- hall-door lome years before my acquaintance commenced w,th it, and had been admired by my father for its lize (which was of the largelt I ever met with), who conilantly paid it a viflt every evening. I knew it mylelf above 30 years; and by conilantly feeding it, brought it to be fo tame, that it always came to the candle, and looked up as if expelling to be taken up and brought upon the table, where I always fed it with infects of all lorts ; it was fondell of flelh maggots, which I kept in bran ; it would follow’ them, and, when within a proper diilance, would fix its eye, and remain motionlefs for near a quarter of a minute,'as if preparing bn the llroke, which was an inllantaneous throwing its tongue at a great diflance upon the infedl, which lluck to the tip by a glutinous matter : the motion is quicker than the eye can follow (a). I always imagined that the root of its tongue was placed in the forepart of its under Jaw, and the tip to¬ wards its throat, by which the motion mull be a half circle ; by which, when its tongue recovered its fitua- tion, the infe& at the tip would be brought to the place o| deglutition. I was confirmed in this by never obfer- ving any internal motion in its mouth, excepting one fwallow the inftant its tongue returned. PofiTbly I might be millaken ; for I never difle&ed one, but con¬ tented P"7 m:ght s!ve 0C‘ar'01110 th£ reP°rt 0f its fafci'‘ati"S powers, Linnams fays. ' RAN r Rana, tinted myfelf with opening its mouth, and {lightly i«- fpopting it. “ You may imagine, that a toad, generally detefted, (although one of the moll inoffenfive of all awimals), fo much taken notice of and befriended, excited the curiofity of all comers to the houfe, who all defired to fee it fed ; fo that even ladies fo far conquered the hor¬ rors inftilled into them by nurfes, as to ddire to fee it. This produced 'innumerable and improbable reports, making it as large as the crown of a hat, &c. &c.” The following are anfwers from the fame gentleman to fume queries propofed by Mr Pennant. “ Firjl, I cannot fay how long my father had been acquainted with the toad before I knew it ; but when I hrft was acquainted with it, he uftd to mention it as the old toad I’ve known fo many years ; I can anfwer for 36 years. “ Secondly^ No toads that I ever faw appeared in the winter feafon. The old toad made its appearance as foon as the warm weather came, and I always con¬ cluded it retired to fome dry bank to repofe till the fpring. When we jiew-lay’d the Heps, I had two holes made in every third Hep, with a hollow of more than a yard long for it, in which I imagine it fiept, as it came from thence at its firll appearance. Thirdly, It w'as feldom provoked: neither that toad, nor the multitudes I have feen tormented with great cruelty, ever {bowed the leall defire of revenge, by fpittin^ or emitting any juice from their pimples.— Sometimes, upon taking it up, it would let out a great quantity of clear water, which, as I have often feen it do the fame upon the Heps when quite quiet, was cer¬ tainly its urine, and no more than a natural evacuation. Fourthly, A toad has no particular enmity for the fpidcr; he ufed to eat five or fix w'ith his millepedes (which I take to be its chief food) that I generally provided for it before I found out that flcili maggots, by their continual motion, was the moll tempting bait; 3 1 RAN but, when offered, it eat blowing flies and humble bees that come from the rat-tailed maggot iu gutters, or in {hort any infeft that moved. I imagine, if a bee w'aa to be put before a toad, it would certainly eat it to its coH ; but as bees are feldom Hirring at the fame time that toads are, they can fcldom come in their way as they feldom appear after fuH*rifmg or before fun-ftt. In the heat of the day they will come to the mouth of their hole, I believe, for air. I once from my parlour window obferved a large toad I had in the bank of a bowling-green, about 1 2 at noon, a very hot day, very bufy and a&ive upon the grafs ; fo uncommon an ap¬ pearance made me go out to fee what it was, when I found an innumerable fwarm of winged ants had drop¬ ped round his hole, which temptation was as irre- iillible as a turtle would be to a luxurious alderman. “ Fifthly, Whether our toad ever propagated its fpecies, I know not; rather think not, as it always ap¬ peared well, and not IdTened in bulk, which it mull have done, I Ihould think, if it had difeharged fo large a quantity of fpawn as toads generally do. The females that are to propagate in the fpring, I imagine, in Head of retiring to dry holes, go into the bottom of ponds, and lie torpid among the weeds : for to my great fur- prife, in the middle of the winter, having for amufc* ment put a long pole into my pond, and twined it till it had gathered a larga volume of weed, on taking it efl‘ I found many toads ; and having cut fome afundcr with my knife, by accident, to get off the weed, found them full of fpawn not thoroughly formed. I am not poiitive, but think there were a few males in March ; I know there are 30 males (b) to one female, 12 or 14. of w hom I have feen clinging round a female : I have often difengaged her, and put her to a folitary male, to fee with what eagemefs he would leize her. They impregnate the fpawn as it is draum (c) out in long Hrings, like a necklace, many yards long, not in a large quantity of jelly, like frogs fpawn. A 2 Sixthly9 (b) Mr John Hunter has affured me, that during his refidence at Belleifle, he diffe&ed fome hundreds of toads, yet never met with a fingle female among them. (c) I w'as incredulous as to the objletncal offices of the male toad; but fince the end is fo well accounted for, and the fa6l eHablilhcd by fuch good authority, belief mult take place. Mr Demours, in the Memoirs of the French Academy, as tranflated by Dr Templeman, vol. i. p. 371, has been very particular in refped to the male toad as acting the part of an accoucheur : His account is curious, and claims a place here. “ In the evening of one of the long days in fummer, Mr Demours, being in the king’s garden, perceived tw’o toads coupled together at the edge of an hole, which was formed in part by a great Hone at the top. “ Curiofity drew him to fee what was the occation of the motions he obferved, when Jtwo facts equally new fur- prifed him. The firjl was the extreme1 difficulty the female had in laying her eggs, inforauch that Ihe did not feem capable of being delivered of them without fome affiilance. The fecond w-as, that the male w as mounted on the back of the female, and exerted all his Hrength with his hinder feet in pulling out the eggs, whilH his fore¬ feet embraced her brealt. “ In order to apprehend the manner of his working in the delivery of the female, the reader muft obferve, that the paws of thefe animals, as well thofe of the fore-feet as of the hinder, are divided into feveral toes, which can perform the office of fingers. it mult be remarked likewife, that the eggs of this fpecies of toads are included each in a membranous coat that is very firm, in which'is contained the embryo ; and that thefe eggs, which are oblong and about two lines in length, being faitened one to another by a {hort but very ftrong cord, form a kind of chaplet, the beads of which are diilant from each other about the half of their length. ' Jt is by drawing this cevd with his paw that the male performs the function of a midwife, aud acquits himfelf in it with a dexterity that one would not expedt From fo lumpifli an animal. ““ The prefence of the obferver did not a little difeompofe the male ; for fome time he Hopped fuort, and threw Rana. —/— RAN [4 « Shthfy, Infers being their foo^, I never faw any toad Oiow any liking or difiike to any plant (d). « Seventhly, I hardly remember any potions taking it tip except my father and myielf; i do not knuvv whctlior it had any particular attachment to tis. ^ Eighthly, In roYpeCt to its end, I anfwer this la it query. Had it not been for a tame raven, b make no doubt but it would have been now living; who one cay ledng it at the mouth of its hole, pulled it out, and al¬ though I refciicd it, pulled out one eye, and hurt it to, that notwithilanding its living a twelvemonth it never enjoyed itfelf, and had a difficulty of taking its food, miffing the mark for want of its eye : before that acci¬ dent it had all the appearance of peifeft health.” 6. The rubeta, or natter-jack, frequents dry and Tan¬ dy places : it is found on Putney common, and alio near K.evefby abbey, Lincoln (hire* It nevei leaps, nei¬ ther does it crawl with the flow pace ot a toad, but its motion is liker to running. Several arc found common¬ ly together, and like others of the genus they appear in the evenings. The upper part of the body is of a dirty yellow, clouded with brown, and covered with po¬ rous pimples of unequal liv.es : on the back is a yellow line. The upper lide of the body is ot a palyr hue, marked with black fpots, which are rather rough. On the fore-feet are four divided toes ; on the hind live, a little webbed. The length of the body is two inches and a quarter; the breadth, one and a quarter: the length of the fore-legs, one inch one-lixth ; of the hind legs, two inches. We are indebted to Sir Jofeph Banks, for this account. 7. The pipal, or Surinam toad, is more ugly than even the common one. 1 he body is flat and broad ; the head fmail; the jaws, like tliofe of a mole, are ex¬ tended, and evidently formed for rooting in the ground: the fkin of the neck forms a fort of wrinkled collar: the colour of the head is of a dark chelnut, and the eyes are fmall: the back, which is very broad, is of a hghtifh grey, and feems covered over with a number of i'mall eyes, which are round, and placed at nearly equal diftances. Thefe eyes are very diflerent from what they ieem : they are the animal’s eggs, covered with their fhells, and placed there for hatching. Thefe eggs are buried deep in die Ikin, and in the beginning of incuba¬ tion but juft appear; and are very viiible when the young animal is about to bin'll from its confinement. They are of a reddiih, fhining yellow colour ; and the fpaces between them arc full of fmall warts, refembling pearls. This is then fituation previous to their coming forth ; hut nothing fo much demands our admiration as the ] RAN manner of their prqdu&iom The egge, when formed in the ovary, are fent, by Come internal canals, which anatomills have not hitherto detoribed, to lie and come to maturity under the bony fubilance ol the back : in this ft ate they are impregnated by the male, whofe feed finds its way by pores very Angularly contrived, and pierces not only the Ikin but the periofteum : the Ikin, however, is Hill apparently entire, and forms a very thick covering over the whole brood; but as they ad¬ vance to maturity, at different intervals, one after an¬ other, the egg feems to ftart forward, and burgeons from the bade, becomes more yellow, and at laft breaks j when the young one puts forth its head: it Hill, how¬ ever, keeps its fituation until it has acquired a proper degree of ilrength, and then it leaves the fhell, but itill continues to keep upon the back of the parent. In this manner the pipal is feen travelling with her W’o«- derous family on her back, in all the different ftages of maturity. Some of the ftrange progeny, not yet come to fufficknt perfe&ion, appear quite torpid, and as yet without life in the egg : others feem juft beginning to rife through the Ikin ; here peeping forth from the {hell, and there having entirely forfaken their prifon : fome are fporting at large upon the parent’s back, and others defending to the ground to try their own fortune below. The male pipal is every way larger than the fe¬ male, and has the Ikin lefs tightly drawn round the bo¬ dy. The whole body is covered with puftules, refem¬ bling pearls; and the belly, which is of a bright yel¬ low, feems as if it were fewed up from the throat to the vent, a feam being feen to run in that direction. This animal, like the reft of the frog kind, is moil pro¬ bably harmlefs. 8. The water frog of Catefby has large black eyes, yellow irides, and long limbs : the upper part of the head and body is of a dufley green, fpotted with black j and from each eye to the nofe is a white line ; and alfo a yellow line along the lides to the rump. They fre¬ quent rivulets and ditches, which they do not quit for the dry land. It is faid they will fpring five or fix yards at a leap. 9. The rana arborea, or green tree frog of Catefby, is ot a (lender fliape and bright green colour, marked on each fide with a line of yellow : the eves are black ; the irides yellow ; they have four toes before and five behind ; at the end of each toe there is a round mem¬ brane, concave beneath, and not unlike the mouth of a leech. They lurk under the lower iides of leaves, even gf the talleft trees, and adhere firmly, by means of the membranes at the ends of their toes, fticking to the fmootheft furface t a looking-glafs was held before one, at Hans. threw on (he cvriotts impertinent a fixed look that marked his dilquietnefs and fear; but he foon returned to his work with more precipitation than before, and a moment after he appeared undetermined whether he fhould continue it or not. The female likewife difeovered her uneafinefs at the fight of the ftranger, by motions that interrupted fometimes the male in his operation. At length, whether the lilence and fteady pofture of the fpec- tator had diffipated t heir fear, or that the cafe was urgent, the male refumed his work with the fame vigour, and fuccefsfnlly performed his function.” (d) This queftion arofe from an aflertion of Linnauis, that the toad delighted in filthy herbs. De/etiatur co~ title', afUa, jLachycle fa tide. The unhappy deformity of the animal feems to be the only ground of this as well as another mifreprefentation, of its conveying a poiion with its pimples, its touch, and even its breath. Ennt* £<£ ladefcentet venenatee infufa: tatlu, anhelitu* . RAN f at four yards dJfhnce 5 it reached it at om leap, and ftuck clofely to it. At night theft froga make an in, ceffant chirping1, and leap from fpray to fpray in fc&rch of infers. This fpccies is common to America and the warmer parts of F.ttrope. to. 1 he land frog of Catefoy has much the anpear- ance of a toad: above it is grey or brown, fpotted with duikyj below white, faintly fpotted; the irides are red; and the legs fhort. They frequent the high-lands, and are feen mo ft frequently in wet weather and in the hot- tell time of the day : they leap, feed on infects, parti¬ cularly the fire-fly and ant. Sometimes the Americans bc.ke and reduce this fpecies to powder, which, mixed with orricc root, is taken as a cure for a tympany, it. I he cinereous tro^ has a gibboui, cinereous, and fmooth back; the belly is yellow and granulated : on each fide, from the nofe to the rump, there is a white line ; and there is the fame on the outftde of the thighs and legs ; the toes are bullated at their ends. They inhabit Carolina. RAN AT, one of the Sandwich iflands dilcovered by Captain Cooke, is abottt nine miles diftant from Mow* e and Morotoi, and is fituated to the fouth-weft of the panage between thofe two ifles. The country towards the fouth is elevated and craggy ; but the other pails ot the ifland had a better appearance, and feemed to be well inhabited. It abounds in roots* fuch as fvvect potatoes, taro, and yams ; but produces very few plar- tams and bread-fruit trees. The feuth point of Ranai is in the latitude of 20*46’ north, and in the longitude RANCID, denotes a fatty fubftance that is become rank or mufty, or that has contraded an ill fmell bv being kept clofe. J RANDIA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and m the natural method ranking with thofe of which the order is ooubtful. The calyx is monophyllous ; the corolla falverdhaped ; the berry unilocular, with a cap- lular rmcl. There are two l>ccies, viz. the mitis and acuieata. . ^NDOLPH (Thomas), an eminent Englifh poet m t ie 17th century,was born in Ndrthamptonlhire 160c He was educated at Weftminfter and Cambridge, and very early aiftmguifhed for his excellent genius ; for at about nine or ten years of age he wrote the Hiftory of tnc Incarnation of our Saviour in verfe. His fubfeauent vrritings eftabl.lhed his clmrader, and gained him the ei.eem and fnendflup of feme of the greatell men of that age, particularly of Ben Johnfon, who adopted him one of his fens in the mufes. He died in 163.;, and was honourably interred- He wrote, i./Phe Mufes Louk- 5 1 RAN mg-glafs, a e«medy, 2. Amyntas, or the Impofllbfc Random Dowry, a paftoral, af^ed b* fure the king and queen, N, 3. Anitippus, or the Jovial Philofopher. 4. The Con- Ra'! ceited Pedlar. 5. 'I’he Jealous Lovers, a comedy. 6, ^ ey for IJonefty, dbwn with Knavery, a comedy: and leveral poems. RANDOM shot, in gunnery, is a fhot made when the muzzle o* a gun is raifed above the horizontal line, and lS not defigned to ihoot directly or point-blank. I he utmoft random of any piece is about ten times as far as the bullet will go point-blank. The bullet will go fartheft when the piece is mounted to about 45° above the level range. See Gunnery and Pro, jectiles. RANGE, in gunnery, the path of a bullet, or the line it defenbes from the month of the piece to the pmnt where it lodges. If the piece lie in a line pa- ralyd to the horizon, ft is called the rqit or /rvtl range : if it be mounted to 45 it is faid to have the ran2e > all others between 00 and 45'* are called the intermediate ranges. RANGER, a fwom offleer of a foreft, appointed by the king’s left era patent ; whole buiinds is to walk tlirough Ins charge, to drive back the deer out of the P-rlrnU8* &c‘ to Prefcnt tr«fpaff« within Ids in, riiaicxion at the next foreli-court. RANK, tlie order 01 place aihgned a perfon fuitable to hii> quality or inent. Rank, is a ftraight line made by the foldiere of a battalion or fquadroa, drawn up fide by tkie : this or^ ur j-ff eftaW,^le(i for niarches, and for regulating the different bodies of troops and officer* which com- pole an army. foI£- an^ lJr{c*Una, in the army and navy, are as Engineers R*NK. Chief, as colonel 4 dire&or, as Jeutenant-colond ; fub diredor, as major ; engineer in oruinary, as captain{ engineer extraordinary, as captain- lieutenant; fob-engineer, as lieutenant; praciitioner-cu- guieery as enfign. Aavy Rank. Admiral, or commander in chief of his roajefty’s fleet, has the rank of a field-inarnud ; ad> minds, with their flags on the main-top-maft head, rank with generals of horfe and foot; vice-admirals, with lieutenant-generals; rear-admirals, as major-generals; commodores, with broad pendants, as brigadier-*end C^>ns PoMup*, after three years from the date or their firft comnnllion, as colonels ; other tau- tains, as commanding poft-fhipe, as lieutenant-colonels • captains, not taking poll, as majors ; lieutenants, aa RAN RAN Rank II Ranuncu¬ lus. t 6 1 Rank between the Army, Navy, and Governors. Ranunen« lus. Army. General in clyef Generals of horfe Lieutenant-generals Navy. Admiral in chief Admiral with a flag at the main-top-mall Vice-admirals Major-generals Colonels Lieutenant-colonels Majors Captains Rear-admirals Governors. Commander in chief of the forces in America Captain-general of provinces Lieutenant-generals of provinces Lieutenant-governors and prefidents Poll-captains of 3 years Poll-captains Captains Lieutenants Lieutenant-governors not commanding Governors of charter colonies Deputy-governors Eftablifhed by the king, 1760 Doubling of the Ranks, is the placing two ranks in .one, frequently ufed in the manoeuvres of a regiment. Ranks and Files, are the horizontal and vertical lines of foldiers when drawn up for fervice. RANSOM, a fum of money paid for the redemp¬ tion of a Have, or the liberty of a prifoner of war. In our law-books, ranfom is alfo ufed for a fum paid lor -the pardon of fome great offence, and to obtain the of¬ fender's liberty. ... RANULA, a tumor nnder a child’s tongue, whicn, like a ligature, hinders it from fpeaking or fucking. RANUNCULUS, crowfoot: A genus of tne polygamia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs ot plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 26th order, Multifiliqua. The calyx is pehtaphyUous; there are five petals, each with a melliferous pore on the in fide of the heel; the feeds naked. . ' Species. There arc near 40 different fpecies ot this genus, fix or eight of which claim general elleem as flowery plants for ornamenting the gardens, and a great number are common weeds in the fields, waters, and pallure ground, not having merit for garden cul¬ ture. Of the garden kinds, the principal fort is the Afiatic or Turkey and Perfian ranunculus, which com- prifes many hundred varieties of large, double, molt beautiful flowers of various colours : but feveral other Ipecies having varieties with fine double flowers, make a good appearance in a collection, though as thofe ot each fpecies confiff qnly of one colour, feme white, others yellow, they are inferior to the Afiatic ranun¬ culus, which is large, and diverfified a thoufand ways in rich colours, in different varieties. However, all the warden kinds in general effect a very agreeable diverkty fn affemblage in the flower compartments, &c. and they being all very hardy, fucceed in any open beds and hol¬ ders, -&ef . . Culture. The Afiatic fpecies in all its varieties will fucceed in any light, rich, garden earth; but the flo- rilts often prepare a particular compoll for the fine va¬ rieties, confiding of good garden-mould or palture- earth, fward and all, a fourth part of rotted cow-dung, and the like portion of fea-fand; and with tills they prepare beds four feet wide and two deep: however, in default of fuch compoft, ufe beds of any good light earth of your garden ; or, if neceffary, it may be made light and rich with a portion of drift-fand and rotten dung, cow-dung is motl commonly recommended; but they will alfo thrive in beds of well-wrought kitchen- garden earth, and they often proiper well in the com¬ mon flower-borders. The feafon for planting the roots is both in autumn and fpring; the autumn plantings generally flower ilrongell and foonell by a month at lead, and are fuc- cceded by the fpring-planting in May and June. Per¬ form the autumnal planting in October and early part of November, but fome plant towards the latter end of September in order to have a very early bloom ; but thofe planted in that month and beginning of Oaober often come up with rank leaves foon after, in wintei, fo as to require prote£Hon in hard frolts; thofe, hovvevti, planted about the middle or latter end of Oftober, and beginning of November, rarely fhoot up flrong till to¬ wards fpring, and will not require fo much care of cover¬ ing during winter ; and the fpring-planting may be per¬ formed the end of January or beginning of February', or as foon as the weather is fettled; they will not re¬ quire any trouble of covering, and will iucceed the au¬ tumnal plants regularly in bloom, and will flower in good perfection. Thus by two or three diffeient plant- ings y@u may obtain a fucceffion of thefe beautiful flower* in conftant bloom from April till the middle of June; but the autumnal plants, for the general part, not only flower ftrongeft, but the roots increafe more in fize, and furnifh the belt off-fets for propagation : it is, however, proper to plant both in fpring and au- tumn. # , Prepare for the choicer forts four-feet beds ot fignt earth, and rake the furface fmooth: then plant the roots in rows lengthwife the beds, either by diihing them in two inches deep, and fix inches difiance in the row, and the rows fix or eight afunder ; or you may plant them by bedding-in, or by dibble planting, the fame depth and diilance. Xhofe dcligned for the borders Ihould be planted ge- nprallv RAP [ norally towards the fpring, in little clumps or patches, three, four, or five ro®ts in each, putting them in either with a dibble or trowel, two or three inches deep, and three or four afunder in each patch, and the patches from about three to five or ten feet diltance, placing them rather forward in the border. Propagation. A.U the varieties of the Afiatic ranun¬ culus propagate abundantly by off-fets from the root, and new varieties are gained by feed.—i. By off-fets. The time for feparating the off-fets is in fummer when the flower is pall, and the leaves and /talks are wither¬ ed : then taking up all the roots in dry weather, fepa. rate the ofl'-fets from each main root, and after drying the whole gradually in fome fhady airy rdom, put them - up in bags till the autumn and fpring ftafons of plant¬ ing ; then plant them as before, placing all the off-fets in feparate beds: many of them will blow the firflyear, but in the fecond they will all flower in good perfec¬ tion.—2. By feed. Save a quantity of feed from the finefl; femi-double flowers, and fow it either in Auguft, or in March, or April, though, to fave trouble of win¬ ter-covering,- fome prefer the fpring : it fhould be fowed in light rich mould, either in pots or in an rail bonier, drawing very /hallow flat drills five or fix inches afun¬ der, in which low the feeds thinly, and cover them lightly with earth, giving frequent refre/hments of wa¬ ter in dry weather, and in a month or fix weeks the plants will rife with fmall leaves; obferving to continue the light waterings in dry weather, to preferve the foil moift during their fummer’s growth to increafe the fize of the roots ; and in June when the leaves decay, take up the roots and preferve them till the feafon for plant¬ ing, then plant them in common beds, as before di¬ rected, and they will flower the fpring following, when all the doubles of good properties fhould be marked) and the tingles thrown away-. I he juice of many fpecies of ranunculus is fo acrid as to rai/e bhlters on the fkin, and yet the roots may be eaten with fafety when boiled. animals, are fuch as live upon prey. RAPE, in law, the carnal knowledge of a woman forcibly and againit her will. This, by the Jevrifh law, was puni/hed with death, in cafe the damfel was be¬ trothed to another man : and, in cafe /lie was not be¬ trothed, then a heavy fine of fifty fhekels was to be paid to the damfcl’s father, and fhe was to be the wife of the raviflier all the days of his life ; without that power ot divorce, which was in general permitted by the Mo- faic law. 1 The civil law punifhes the crime of ravi/hment with death and confi/cation of goods: under which it includes both the offence of forcible abdu&ion, or taking away a woman from her friends ; and alfo the prdent offence of forcibly ^di/honouring her ; either of which, without tiie other, is in that law Zufficient toconftitute a capital crime. Alfo the ftealing away a woman from her pa¬ rents or guardians, and debauching her, is equally penal by the emperor’s edid, whether fhe confent or is forced. And this, in order to take away from women every opportunity of offending in thiy v-ay ; whom the Ro¬ man laws fuppofe never to go aftray without the fe- ductum and arts of the other fex j and tlierefore, by «llra,m„g and „,ak,ng fo highly penal the foUcitatlons ot the men, they meant to fecure cffeaually the honour 7 ] RAP of the women. But our Englilh law does not enter- tain quite fuch fublime ideas of the honour of cither /ex, as to lay the blame of a mutual fault upon one of the tranfgreffors only j and therefore makes it a necef- fary ingredient in the crime of rape, that it mu/t be agam/t the woman’s w-ill. Rape was puni/hed by the Saxon laws, particularly thofe of king Athelflan, w ith death ; which was alfo agreeable to the old Gothic or Scandinavian con/litu- tion. But this was afterwards thought too hard : and in its /lead another fevere, but not capital, puni/hment was in/lifted by William the Conqueror, viz. caftration am. lo/s of eyes; which continued till after Brafton wrote, in the reign of Henry III. But in order to prevent malicious accufations, it was then the law, (and, it feems, flill continues to be fo in appeals of rape), that the woman fliould, immediately after, go to tlie next town, and there make difeovery to fome cre¬ dible perfons of the injury /he has fuffered ; and after¬ wards ihould acquaint the high con/table of the bundled, the coroners, ami the flieriff, w-ith the outrage. Tliia feems to correfpond in fome degree with the laws of Scotland and Arragon, which require that complaint mult be made within 24 hours i though afterwards by- itatute Weftm. x. c. 13. the time of limitation in Eng- land was extended to 40 days. At prefent there is no time ot limitation fixed: for, as it is ufually now puni/h¬ ed by indiftment at the fuit of the king, the maxim of law takes place, that “ nullum temp us occurrit regi but the jury will rarely give credit to a ilale complaint. During the former period aii'o it was held for law, that the woman (by confent of the judge and her parents) might redeem the offender from the execution of his fentenoe, by accepting him for her hu/baud ; if he alfo was willing t© agree to the exchange, but not other- wile. In the 3 Edw. I. by the ftatute Weffln. r. c. 1 tat puni/hment of rape was much mitigated: the of¬ fence itfelf, 0/ raviihing a damfel within age, (that is tyveive years old) either with her confent or without, or oi any other woman again it her will, being reduced to - a treipafs, it not profecuted by appeal within 40 days, and iubjefting the offender only to two years imprifon- ment, and a fine at the king’s will. But this lenity being produftive of the moft terrible coniequences, it was, in ten years afterwards, 13 Edw. I. found neceffa- ry to make the offence of forcible rape felony by itatute Weilm. 2. c. 34. And by llatute x8 Eli/., c. 7. it is made felony without benefit of clergy; as is alfo the abominable wickednefs of carnally knowing or abufimr any woman-child under the age of ten years ; in which cafe the confent or non-confent is immaterial, as by rea/on ot her tender years /he is incapable of judgment and difcretion. Sir Matthew Hole is indeed of opinion, ' that uch profligate aft ions committed on an infant un¬ der the age of twelve years, the age of female difcretion by the common law, either with or without confent- amount to rape and felony; as well fince as before the ftatute of queen Elizabeth : but that law has in general been held only to extend to infants under ten ; though- it fhould feem that damfels between ten and twelve are it if under the proteftion of the ftatute Weltm. the law with refpeft to their feduftion not having been al- tered by either of the fubfequent ftatutes. A male xn/ant, under the age of fourteen rears, is pvc- Rape. RAP [ 8 tirefumcd by law incapable to commit a rape, >™J therefore it feems cannot be found guilty or it- or though in other felonies “ malitia lupplet »tatem; yet, 'as to this particular fpeciea of fclofiy, the aaw iup- txrfes an imbecillity of body as well as mind. The civil law feems to fuppofe a prolUtute or com- Blf,n harlot incapable of any injuries of this kind: not allowing any punifitment for violating the challity o her, who hath indeed no chaftiVy at all, or at lea hath no regard to it. But the law of England does not judge to hardly of offenders, as to cut off all op¬ portunity of retreat even from common trumpets, and to treat them as never capable of amendment. it therefore holds it to be felony to force even a con¬ cubine or harlot ; becanfe the woman may have tor- faken that unlawful eourfe of life : for, as Braclon well obferves, “ licet merctrix fuerit antea, certe tunc temporis non fuit, cum reclamando neguitia; ejus con- fentire noluit.” .... As to the material facts requifite to be given in evi¬ dence and proved upon an indictment of rape, they are of fuch a nature, that, though neceflary to be known and fettled, for the conviftion of the guilty and preter- ■vatioh of the innocent, and therefore are to be found in fuch criminal trtatifes as difeourfe of thefe matters in detail, yet they are highly improper to be publicly dit- cufled, except only in a court of juilice. We (hall therefore merely add upon this head a tew remaiks from Sir Matthew Hale, with regard to the competen¬ cy and credibility of witueffes ; which may,/a/vo pudore, be confrdered. And, firft, the party raviflred may give evidence upon oath, and is in law a competent witnefs; but the credi¬ bility of her teftimony, and how far forth {he is to be belie-ved, mult be left to the jury upon the circumitances of fa& that concur in that teftimony. For inftance : if the witnefs be of good fame; if {he prefently difeover- *d the offence, and made fearch for the oftender; if the party accufed fled for it; thefe and the like are con¬ curring ciroumftances, which give greater probability to her evidence. Hut* on the other IkIc* it fht be of evil fame, and itand unfupported by others ; if Ore eon- cealed4the injury for any confulerable time after {he had opportunity to complain ; if the place, where the taCt was alleged to be committed, was where it was pofiible fhe might have been heard, and ftre made no outcry : thefe and the like circumffances carry a ftrong, but not conclufive, prefumption that her teftimony is falte or feigned. , , , • , Moreover, if the rape be charged to be committed ©n an infant under 12 years of age, flic may ft ill be a competent witnefs, if Ihe hath fenfe and underftand- ing to know the nature and obligations of an oath ; and, even if fhe hath not, it is thought by Sir Mat¬ thew Hale, that fhe ought to be heard without oath, to give the court information ; though that alone will not be fufficient to convid the offender. And he is of this opinion, firff, Becaufe the nature of the offence being fecret, there may be no other pofiible proof of the adual fad ; though afterwards there may be con¬ current circumllances to corroborate it, proved by other witneffes: and, fecondly, Becaufe the law al¬ lows what the child told her mother, or other rela¬ tions, to be given in evidence, lince the nature of the 3 RAP cafe admits frequently of no better proof; and there is much moie reafon for the court to hear the narra-^ tion of the child herfelf, than to receive it at fecond, hand from thofe who fwear they heard her fay fo. And indeed it feems now to be fettled, that inthefe cafes infants of any age are to be heard ? and, ft they have any idea of an oath, to be alfo (warn : it being found by experience, that infants of very tender yearn often give the cleareft and trueft teftimony. But m any of thefe cafes, whether the child he fworn or not, it is to be wifhed, in order to render her evidence ere- dible, that there fhould be fome concurrent teftimony of time, place, and circumftances, m order to make out the fa&; and that the conviaton fhould not bo grounded fingly on the unfupported accufation of an infant under years of diferetion. There may be there¬ fore, in many cafes of this nature, witneffes who are competent, that is, who may be admitted to be heard ; and yet, after being heard, may prove not to be cre¬ dible, or fuch as the jury is bound to believe, tor one excellence of the trial by jury is, that the jury are triers of the credit of the witneffes, as well a* of the truth of the Hcf. . . “ It is true (fays this learned judge), that rapt is a molt deteftable crime, and therefore ought feverely and impartially to be punifhed with death ; but it mutt be remembered, that it is an accutation eafy to he made, hard to be proved, but harder to be defended by the party 'accufed, though innocent.” He then relates two very extraordinary cates of malicious pro locution for this crime, that had happened within Ins own ob- fervation ; and concludes thus: “ I mention thefe m- fiances, that we may be the more cautious upon tri da of offences of this nature, wherein the court and jury with fo much eafe be impoled upon, without Rap«, Raphael, great care and vigilance ; the heinoufnefs of the offence many times tranfporting the judge and jury with h> much indignation, that they are over-baftily earned to the conviftion of the perfons accufo'd thereof, by the confident teftimony of fometimes falfe and malici¬ ous witneffes.’' . v , a a r RAPHAEL (D’Urbino), the greateft, moft fu- blime, and moft excellent painter that has appeared, fince the revival of the fine arts, was the fon o* an in¬ different painter named Sanviv, and was born nt Urbi- no on Good Friday 1482. The popes Julius II. and Leo X. who employed him, loaded him with wealth and honour ; and it is faid that cardinal De St Bihiam* had fuch a value for him, that he offered him his niece in marriage. His genius is admired in all his pictures ; his contours are free, his ordonnanc.es magnificent, hi* defigns correft, his figures elegant, his exprefiions live¬ ly, his attitudes natural, his heads graceful; in line, every thing is beautiful, grand, fublime, juft, and adorn¬ ed with graces. Thefe various perfeftions he derived not only from his excellent abilities, but from his ftudy of antiquity and anatomy ; and fiom the friendihip he contrafted with Ariofto, who contributed not a little to the improvement of his tafte. His piftures are prin¬ cipally to be found in Italy and Paris. That oi the Transfiguration, preferved at Rome in the church of St Peter Monterio, pafles for his roafter-piece. He had a handfome perfon, was well proportioned, and had great fwecUiefs of temper ; was polite, affable, and mo- Plate CCCCXXXV. , Vjttfe// /?«*. _&y^i s’run ft'? fwelling out in knots, fubarticulated, and round. 'Jhere are two melliferous glandules between the fhorter ftamina and the piftil, and two between the longer ftamina and the calyx. There is only one fpecies, viz. the fativus, or common garden radifh; of which there are feveral varieties. They are annual plants, which being fowed in the fpring, attain perfection in two or three months, and Ihoot up foon after into ftalk for flower and feed, which, ripening in autumn, the wdiole plant, root and top, perifhes; To that a frefh fupply muft be raifed an¬ nually from feed in the fpring, performing the fowings at feveral different times, from about Chriftmas until May, in order to continue a regular fuccdfion of young tender radifhes throughout the feafon : allowing only a fortnight or three weeks intenal between the fow- ings ; for one crop wdll not continue good longer than that Ipace of time, before they will cither run to feed, or become tough, fticky, and too hot to eat. RAPHANIDOSIS, a puniflunent inflicted at A- thens upon adulterers. The manner of it was this: The hair was plucked off from the privities of the of¬ fender, hot afhes laid upon the place, and a radifh or mullet thrufl up his fundament, as has been mentioned under Adultery. To this Juveual alludes, Sat. x. ver. 317. Quofdam machos et mugilis intrat. Pcrfons who had been thus punilhed w'ere called nr pc,*.!,, The word raphanidojis is derived from peifxnc, a radifh. RAPHIDIA, in zoology ; a genus of infeCts, of the neuroptera order ; the characters of which are thefe: The head is of a horny fubflance, and deprefled or flattened : the mouth is anned with twro teeth, and furnifhed with four palpi: the flemmata are three in number : the wings are deflected : the antennae are fi¬ liform, as long as the thorax ; the anterior part of which is lengthened out, and of a cylindrical form : the tail of the female is terminated by an appendix, refembling a flexible crooked brifile.—There are three fpecies. The molt remarkable is the ophioplis ; which f Plate *°r ltS ^aPe 18 one the moil Angular that can be cccxxxv. ^,'cn ft has an oblong head, fhaped like a heart, Vol. XVL Part I. 9 ] R A P w'ith its point joined to the thorax, and the broad part Rapier, before. It is fmooth, black, flattened, continually RaPin- , fliaking, with fliort antennae, yellowifh maxillx, and four palpi. Towards the middle of the upper part of the head, between the eyes, are the three flemmata, placed in a triangle. The tho>ax, to wdrich this head is fattened, is narrow, long, and cylindrical. The ab¬ domen, broader, is black like the reft of the body, w ith the fegments margined yellow. I he feet are of a yellowifh caft. The wings, wRich are faftigiated, are white, diaphanous, veined, and as it were covered with a very fine net-work of black. This infeCl, in the figure of its head, refembles a fnake. It is found but feldom, and in w*oods only. Its larva, chryfahs, and habitation, are abfolutely unknown. RAI iER, formerly figmned a long old-fafhioned fword, fuch as thofe w’orn by the common foldiers : but it now denotes a Aiiall fword, as contradiftinguifh- ed from a back-fword. f^-APlN (Rene), a Jefutt and eminent French WTi- ter» "’as born at Tours in 1621. He taught polite literature irr the fociety of the Jefuits with great ap- plaufe, and w’as juftly efteemed one of the belt Latin poets and greateft wits of his time. He died at Pa¬ ns in 1687. He wrote, 1. A great number of Latin poems, which have rendered him famous throughout all Europe ; among which are his Hortorvm libri quatuor, which is reckoned his mafter-picce. 2. Re- fleCtions on Eloquence, Poetry', Hiltory, and Philo- fophy. 3. Comparifons between Virgil and Homer, Dtmofthenes and Cicero, Plato and Ariflotle, Thu¬ cydides and Titus Livius. 4. The Hillory of Janfe- nifm. 5. Several works on religious fubjeCts. The beft edition of his Latin poems is that of Paris in 1723> *n 3 vols i2mo. Rap IN de Thnyras (Paul de), a celebrated hiftorian, was the fon of James de Rapin lord of Thoyras, and was born at Caltres in 1661. He was educated at firft under a tutor in his father’s houfe; and afterwards fent to Puylaurens, and thence to Saumur. In 1697 he returned to his father, with a defign to apply him- felf to the ftudy of the law', and was admitted an ad- * vocate : but fome time after, rdkaing that his being a Proteftant w'ould prevent his advancement at the bar, he refolved to quit the profeflion of the law, and apply himfelf to that of the fword; but his father w-ould not confent to it. The revocation of the edidt of Nantes in 1685, and the death of his father, which* happened two months after, made him refolve to come to England ; but as he had no hopes of any fettlement here, his ftay was but fhort. He therefore foon after went to Holland, and lilted himfelf in the company of French volunteers at Utrecht, commanded by M. Rapm his coufin-german. He attended the Prince of Orange into England in 1688 : and the following year the Lord Kmgilon made him an enfign in his regiment, with which he went into Ireland, where he gained the erteem of his officers at the Aege of Carrickferguu, and had foon a lieutenant’s commiffion. He was pre- fent at the battle of the Boyne, and was (hot thro’ the shoulder at the flege of Limerick. He w as foon after captain of the company in which he had been enfign ; but, in 1693, religned his company to one of his bro’ thers, in order to be tutor to the earl of Portland’s * ^ fon. Rapine R A S l »c fen. In 1699, he married Marianne Teftard ; but this marriage neither abated his care of his pupil, nor pre¬ vented his accompanying him in his travels. Mavmg finilhed this employment, lie returned to his family, which he had fettled at the Hague ; and here he con¬ tinued fome years. But as he found his family w- creafe, he refolved to retire to fome cheap country ; and accordingly removed, in 1707, to Wefel, where he wrote his Hiftory of England, and fome other pieces. Though he was of a ftrong conftitution, yet feventeen years application (for fo long was he in compoiing the hiftorv juft mentioned) entirely ruined his health. He died in 1725. He wrote in French, 1. A Diflertation on the Whigs and Tories. 2. His Hiftory of Eng¬ land, printed at the Hague in 1726 and 1727, in 9 vols 4to, and reprinted at Trevoux in 1728, in 10 vols ato. This laft edition is more complete than that ot the Hague. It has been tranflated into Englifh, and improved with Notes, by the Reverend Mr Tindal, m 2 vols folio. This performance, though the work oi a foreigner, is defervedly efteemed as the fuileft and tnoft impartial collection of Enghfh political tranfac- tions extant. The readers of wit and vivacity, however, may be apt to complain of him for being iometimes ra¬ ther tedious and dull. RAPINE, in law, the taking away another’s goods See. by violence. RAPPERSWIL, a town of Swifierland, on the confines of the canton ot Zurich, and of the territory Gafter, with an old caitle. It is ftrong by fitua- tion, being feated on a neck of land which advances into the lake of Zurich, and over which there is a bridre 850 paces long. It is fubjeCl to the cantons of Zurich and Berne. E Long. 8. 57. N. Lat. 47. 20, RAPPOLSTEIN, a town of France in Upper Al- face, which, before the Revolution, had the title of a barony. All the muficians of Alface like wife depend- ed upon this baron, and were obliged to pay him a certain tribute, without which they could not play upon their inftruments. E. Long. 7. 28. N. Lat. 48. 15.^ RAPTURE, an eeftafyor tranfport of mind. See Ex T A S Y • RARE, in phyfic, Hands oppofed to denfe ; and de¬ notes a body that is very porous, whofe parts are at a great diftance from one another, and which is fup- pofed to contain but little matter under a large bulk. See the following article. RAREFACTION, in phyfics, the aft whereby a body is rendered rare ; that is, brought to pofiefs more room, or appear under a larger bulk, without accef- iion of any new matter.— I his is very frequently the effe& of fire, as has long been univerfully allowed. In many cafes, however, philofophers have attributed it to the aCtion of a repulfive principle. However, from the many difeoveries concerning the nature and pro¬ perties of the eleCtnc fluid and ure, there is the great- eft reafon to believe, that this repulfive principle is no other than elementary fire. See Repulsion. 'RAS-el-Feel, one of the frontier provinces of A- byflinia, of which the late celebrated traveller Mr Bruce was made governor while in that country. It is but of fniall extent, and in its moft profperous ftate con¬ tained only 39 villages. The climate is extremely hot, in Mr Bruce’s opinion one of the hotteft in the world. He informs us, that on the firft day of March, at three ] R A S o’clock in the afternoon, the thermometer flood at 114*' Ras.Sent,. in the {hade, and in the evening at 82° ; though at R ‘fa>% / funrife it had been no higher than 61. Notwithftand- v jng this appearance of extreme heat, however, the fen- fation was by no means intolerable \ they could hunt at mid-day, and felt the evenings rather cold. The foil is a fat, loofe, black earth, which our author fays is the fame from 1 3° to 16° of north latitude ; at leaft till we come to the deferts of Atbara, where the tropical rains ceafe. I his country divides that of the Shan- galla into two parts, nearly equal. Thefe people in¬ habit a belt of land about 60 miles broad, all along the northern frontier of Abyffinia, excepting two large gaps or fpaces which have been left open for the fake of commerce, and which are inhabited by ftrangers, to keep the Shangalla in awe. The latter trade in gold* which they pick up in the dreams as it is waihed down from the mountains; for there are no mines in their country, neither is there any gold in Abyfiinia, except¬ ing what is imported from this or fome other country. The ShangaUa are the natural enemies of the inhabi¬ tants of Ras-el-Feel, and much blood has been fhed in the various incurfions they have made upon one ano¬ ther ; though of late thofe of Ras-el-I* eel, by the afiift- ance of the emperors, have been enabled to keep the Shangalla at bay. RAS-Sem, a city of Tripoli in Barbary, concerning which a number of fables were told by the Tripoline ambaffador, all of which were believed in England and other parts of Europe in the beginning of this century. (See PETkiFiF.D-City). Mr Bruce informs us, that it is fituated about five days journey fouth from Bengazi; but has no water excepting one fountain, which has a difagreeable tafte, and feems to be impregnated with alum. Hence it has obtained the name of Ras-Srm, or the fountain of poifou. The only remains of anti¬ quity i* this place confift of the ruins of a tower or fortification, which, in the opinion of Mr Bruce, is as late as the time of the Vandals ; but he fays he cannot imagine what ufe they made of the water, and they had no other within two days journey of the place.— Here our traveller faw many of the animals called jerboa, a kind of mice ; which, he fays, feem to par¬ take as much of the nature of a bird as of a qua¬ druped. RASAY, one of the Hebrides Iflands, is about 13 miles long and 2 broad. It contains 700 inhabitants, has plenty of lime-ftone, free-ftone ; and feeds great num¬ bers of black cattle; but has neither deers, hares, nor rabbits. The only appearance of a harbour in Rafay is at Clachan Bay, where Mr Macleodthe proprietor o£ the ifland rtfides. Rafay prefents a bold fhore, which rifes to the height of mountains ; and here the natives have, with inciedible labour, formed many little corn fields and patato grounds. Thefe heights decreafe at the louth end, where there are iome farms and a good * looking country. Mr Macleod is foie proprietor of this if]and* and of Rona and Fladda at the north end of it, which are only proper for grazing. The houle of Rafay is pleaiantly fituated near the fouth-weft end of the ifkmd, which is the moft level part of it. It has an extenfive and excellent garden, and is furrounded with foreft trees of considerable mag¬ nitude ; another proof that trees will grow upon the edo'C of the fea, tixough it muft be allowed that the a 0 channel HAS r Haitian! channel here i« narrow. Immediately hchind the houfe r “Tl o ^ 1 *3 n «i •-» 1 ..w.w unxvnr, j-iiuiicuuticiy ucmno me Mouic of Rafay arc the ruins of an ancient chapel, now ufed as the family burying-place. Dr Johnfon, in his Tour, expreffes the higheft fatisfac- tion at the reception he met with when in Rafay from Mr Macleod. RASCIANS, a poor opprefled people who dwelt on both fides of the Danube, and who, about the year 1594, being weary of the Turkifh thraldom, firft took *3 their veflels upon that river ; and then drawing together a body of fifteen thoufand men between Buda and Belgrade, twice defeated the pafha of Temefwar with a body of fourteen thoufand Turks. They after- wards took Baczkerek, four miles from Belgrade, and the caftle of Ottadt; then laying liege to that of Beche, on the rheyffa, the old pafha of I emefwar marched to relieve it with eleven thoufand men ; but the Rafcians encountering them, flew near ten thoufand, and took 18 pieces of canon. The confequence of this vienlon, and S*r J. B. Warren, K. B. have been former proprietors. See Lundy. * .. RAT-Taih, or Arrejls. See Farriery, $ xxxvn. RATAFIA, a fine fpirituous liquor, prepared from’, the kernels, &c. of feveral kinds of fruits, parfcularly of cherries and apricots. Ratafia of cherries is prepared by bruifing the Ciier- ries, and putting them into a vefiel wherein brandy has^ been long kept; then adding to them the kernels ot cherries, with ftrawberries, fugar, cinnamon, white pep¬ per, nutmeg, cloves; and to 20 pound of cherries 10 quarts of brandy. The veflel is left open ten or twelve days, and then flopped clofe for two months before it be tapped. Ratafia of apricots is prepared two ways, viz. either by boiling the apricots in white-wine, adding to the liquor an equal quantity of brandy, with fugar, cinnamon, mace, and the kernels of apricots ; infilling or by flight or ntotlons, the whok; for eight or ton days ; then draining th. B. Utfteisanvc or mgiu : all finnr anfi nilttjnfr t UD for ule : or elfe by infilling the into a bag of a long form, the mouth of which, after all the rats are come in, is drawn up to the opening of the place by which they entered, all other ways of retreat being fecured. Others, again, intoxicate or poifon them, bv mixing with the repaft prepared for them the cocu- lus Indicus, or the nux vomica. They diredt four oun¬ ces of the coculus Indicus, with twelve ounces of oat¬ meal, and two ounces of treacle or honey, made into a moift pafte with ilroug-beer ; but if the nux vomica be ufed, a much lefs proportion will ferve than is here gi¬ ven of the coculus. Any fimilar compofition of thefe drugs, with that kind of food the rats are moll fond of, and which has a ftvong flavour, to hide that of the drugs, will equally well anfwer the end. If indeed the coculus Indicus be well powdered, and infufed in Jlrong-beer for fome time, at leafl half the quantity heie directed will ferve as well as the quantity before-men¬ tioned. When the rats appear to be thoroughly in- quor, and putting it up for ufe : or elfe by infufing the apricots, cut in pieces, in brandy, for a day or two, puf¬ fing it through a ftraining bag, and then putting in the ufual ingredients. RATCH, or rash, in clock-work, a fort of wheel having twelve fangs, which ferve to lift up the detents every hour, and make the clock ftrike. See Clock. RATCHETS, in a watch, arc the fmall teeth at the bottom of the fufy, or barrel, which flops it in winding up. RATE, a ftandard or proportion, by which either the quantity or value of a thing is adjufted. RATES, in the navy, the orders or clafles into which the fhips of war are divided, according to their force and magnitude. The regulation, which limits the rates of men of war to the fmalleft number pofiible, feems to have been dic¬ tated by confideratkms of political economy, or of that of RAT r Rates, of the nmplicity of the fervice in the royal dock-yards. '■’’V—*"' 'J'he Britidt fleet is accordingly dillributed into fix rates, exclufive of the inferior veflels that ufually attend on naval armaments; as Hoops of war, armed (hips, bomb- ketches, Hre-Hiips and cutters, or fchooners commanded by lieutenants. Ships of the firft rate mount roo cannon, having 42- poundens on the lower deck, 24-pounders on the middle deck, 1 2 -pounders on the upper deck, and 6-pounders on the quarter-deck and fore-caitle. They are manned with 850 men, including their officers, feamen, marines, and fervants. In general, the Hups of every rate, befides the cap¬ tain, have the mafter, the boatfwain, the guuner, the chaplain, the purfer, the furgeon, ami the carpenter ; all of whom, except the chaplain, have tlieir mates or afliilants, in which are comprehended the fail-maker, the mafter at arms, the armourer, the captain’s clerk, the gunfmith, &c. The number of other officers are always in propor¬ tion to the rate of the Hup. Thus a firft rate has fix lieutenants, fix mailer’s mates, twenty-four midihipmen, and live furgeon’s mates, who are confidered as gentle¬ men : befides the following petty officers ; quarter-maf- ters and their mates, fourteen ; boatfwain’s mates and yeomen, eight; gunner's mates and afliftants, fix; quar¬ ter-gunners, twenty-five ; carpenter’s mates, two, befides fourteen afliftants; with one lleward, and lleward’s mate to the purfer. If the dimenfions of all (hips of the fame rate were equal, it would be the fimplcfl and mod pcrfpicuous method to collect them into one point of view' in a tablet but as there is no invariable rule for the general dimen¬ fions. We mull content ourfelves with but a few re¬ marks on fhips of each rate, fo as to give a general idea of the difference between them. The Viclory, one of the laft built of our firfl rates, is 222 feet 6. inches in length, from the head to the Hern ; the length of her keel, 151 feet 3 inches; that of her gun-deck, or lower deck, 186 feet '; her ex¬ treme breadth is 51 feet 10 inches; her depth in the hold, 21 feet 6 inches; her burden, 2162 tons;,and her poop reaches 6 feet before the mizen-maft. Ships of the fecond rate carry 90 guns upon three decks, of which thofe on the lower battery are 32- pounders; thofe on the middle, 18-pounders; on the upper deck, 12-pounders; and thofe on the quarter- deck, 6-pounders, which ufually amount to four or fix.. Their complement of men is 750, in which there are fix / lieutenants, four mafter’s mates, 24 midlhipmen, and four furgeon’s mates, 14 quarter-mailers and their mates, tight boatfwain’s mates and yeomen, fix gunner’s mates and yeomen, with 22 quarter-gunners, two carpenter’s mates, with 10 aflillants, and one He ward and ftewaid’s mate. Ships of the third rate carry from 64 to 80 cannon, which are 31, 18, and 9 pounders. The 80-gun ihips however begin to grow out of repute, and-to give way to thofe: of 74, 70, &c. which have only two whole batteries ; whereas the former have three, with 28 guns planted on each, the cannon of their upper deck being the fame as thofe on the quarter-deck and fore-caitle of the latter, which are 9"Pt>un^t’rs- J be complement in a 74 is 650, and-in a 64, 500 men ; having, in peace, four lieutenants, but in war, five; and when an admiral 13 3 RAT is aboard, fix. They have three mailer’s mates, 16 Rate*, midihipmen, three furgeon’s mates, 10 quarter-mailers ■—-y and their mates, fix boatfwuin’s mates and yeomen, four gunners mates and yeomen, with 18 quartet-gunners, ' one carpenter’s mate, with eight aflillants, and one llew¬ ard and lleward’s mate under the purfer. Ships of the fourth rate mount from 60 to 50 guns, upon two decks, and the quarter-deck. The lower tier is compofed of 24-pounders, the upper tier of 1 2- pounders, and the cannon on the quarter-deck and fore-callle are 6-pounders. I he complement of a jo' gun Ihip is 35® bi which there are three lieute¬ nants, two mailer’s mates, 10 midfhipinen, two fur¬ geon’s mates, eight quarter-mailers and their mates, four boatfwain’s mates and yeomen, one gunner’s mate: and one yeoman, with 1 2 quarter-gunners, one carpen¬ ter’s mate and fix affillants, and a lie ward and lleward’s' mate. All veffels of war,* under the fourth rate, are ufual¬ ly comprehended under the general name of frigates^* and never appear ir> the line of battle. They are di¬ vided into the 5th and 6th rates ; the former mounting" from 40 to 32 guns, and the latter from 28 to 20. The largefl of the fifth rate have two decks of cannon,- the lower battery being of 18-pounders, and tliat of the upper deck of 9-pounders ; but thofe of 36 and 32- guns have one complete deck of guns, mounting 1 2- pounders, befides the quarter-deck and fore-caflle, which carry 6-pounders. The complement of a (hip of 44 guns is 280 men ; and that of a frigate of 36 guns, 240 men. The firll has three, and the fecond two, lieutenants ; and both have two mailer’s mates, fix mid- ftiipmen, two furgeon’s mates, fix quarter-mallei s and their mates, two boatfwain’s mates and one yeoman, one gunner’s mate and one yeoman, with 10 or 11 quar- ter-gunners, and one purferis lleward. Frigates of the 6th rate carry 9-pounders, thofe of 28 guns having 3-pounders on their quarter-deck, with 200 men for their complement ; and thofe of 24, 160 men : tire former has two lieutenants, the latter, one ; and both have two mailer’s mates, four midihipmen, one furgeon’s mate, lour quarter-mailers and their mates, one boatlwain’s mate and one yeoman, one gunner’s mate and one yeoman, with fix or feven quarter-gun¬ ners, and one purfer’s lleward. The Hoops-of war carry from 18 ro 8 cannon, the largeil of which have fix-pounders ; and the fmalleil, viz. thofe of 8 or 10 guns, four-pounders. Their offi cers are gaierally the fame as in the 6th rates, with little variation; and their complements of men are from 120 to- 60, in proportion to their force or magnitude. - N. B. Bomb-veffels are on the fame eftablilhment as Hoops; but fire-lhips and hofpital-lhips are on that of fifth rates. Nothing more evidently mamfclls the great improve- ment of the marine art, and the degree of perfection to* which it has arrived in Britain, than the facility of ma- naging our rirll rates ; which were formerly cfleemed * incapable of government, unlefs in the moll favourable weather of the funimer. Ships of the fecond rate, and thofe of the third, which have three decks, carry their fails remarkably well, and labour very little at lea. They are excellent in a general action, or in cannonading a fortrefs. Thofe* of the third rate, which have two tiers, are lit for the line Riiietn II Ratio. , R A. T t line of WtJe, to lead the convoya and fquadrona of (hips of war in adtion, and in general to fuit the different ex¬ igencies of the naval fervice. The fourth-rates may be employed on the fame oc- cafions as the third-rates, and may be alfo deitined a- mongft the foreign colonies, or on expeditions of great didance; fince thefe veifels are ufually excellent for keeping and fuftaining the fea. Veflels of the fifth rate are too weak to fuffer the •{hock of a line of battle ; but they may be dedined to lead the convoys of merchant (hips, to protect the com¬ merce in the colonies, to cruize in different dations, to accompany fquadrons, or be fent exprefs with neceffai y intelligence and orders. The fame may be obferved of the fixth rates. The frigates, which mount from 28 to 38 guns upon one deck, with the quarter-deck, are extremely proper for cruizing againft privateers, or for fhort expeditions, being light, long, and ufually excellent failors. KATEEN, or Ratten, in commerce, a thick woollen duff, quilled, woven on a loom with four treddles, like ferges and other duffs that have the whale or quilling. There are fome rateens dreffed and prepa¬ red like cloths ; others left fimply in the hair, and others where the hair or knap is frized. Rateens are chiefly manufaclured in France, Holland, and Italy, and are moAly ufed in linings. T he fnze is a fort of coarfe lateen, and the drugget is a rateen half linen half wool¬ len. RATIFICATION, an a& approving of and con¬ firming fomething done by another in our name. RATIO, in arithmetic and geometry, is that rela¬ tion of homogeneous things which determines the quantity of one from the quantity of another, without the intervention of a tliird. Two numbers, lines, or quantities, A and B, being propofed, their relation one to another may be confider- ed under one of thefe two heads : 1. How much A ex¬ ceeds B, or B exceeds A ? And this is found by taking A from B, or B from A, and is called arithmetic rca- jhn, or ratio. 2. Or how many times, and parts of a time, A contains B, or B contains A ? And this is cal¬ led geometric reafon or ratio ; (or, as Euclid defines it, it is the mutual habitude, or rtfpeS, of two magnitudes of the fame kind, according to quantity; that is, as to how often the one contains, or is contained in, the other) ; and is found by dividing A by B, or B by A. And here note, that that quantity which is referred to another quantity is called the antecedent of the ratio ; and that to which the other is referred is called the con- Jequent of the ratio ; ae, in the ratio of A to B, A is the antecedent, and B the confequent. Therefore any quantity, as antecedent, divided by any quantity as a confequent, gives the ratio of that antecedent to the confequent. tk Thus the ratio of A to B is but the ratio of B B to A is —; and, in numbers, the ratio of 12 to 4 is A or triple ; but the ratio of 4 to 12 is — = -» 4 . 123 -»r fubtriple. And here note, that the quantities thus compared EUfincina* tlOU 14 ] RAT mud be of the fame kind ; that is, fuch as by multipli¬ cation may be made to exceed one the other, or as thefe quantities are faid to have a ratio between them, which, being multiplied, may be made to exceed one another. Thus a line, how (hort foever, maybe multiplied, that is, produced fo long as to exceed any given right line ; and consequently thefe may be compared together, and the ratio exprefled: but as a line can never, by any multi¬ plication whatever, be made to have breadth, that is, to be made equal to a fuperficics, how fmall foever; thefe can therefore never be compared together, and confequently have no ratio or refpe& one to another, according to quantity ; that is, as to how often the one contains, or is contained in, the other. See Quantity. RATIOCINATION, the ad of reafomng. Sec Reasoning. RATION, or Ratian, in the army, a portion of ammunition, bread, drink, and forage, diilributed to each foldier in the army, for his daily fubfiftence, &c. The horfe have rations of hay and oats when they can¬ not go out to forage. The rations of bread are regu¬ lated by weight. The ordinary ration of a foot foldier is a pound and a half of bread per day. The offi¬ cers have feveral rations according to their quality and the number of attendants they are obliged to keep.— When the ration is augmented on occalions of rejoicing, it is called a double ration. The fhip’s crews have alfo their rations or allowances of bilket, pulfe, and water, proportioned according to their llock. RATIONALE, a folution or account of the prin¬ ciples of fome opinion, a&ion, hypothefis, phenomenon, or the like. RATIBOR, a town of Germany, in Silefia, and capital of a duchy of the fame name, with a caftle. It has been twice taken by the Swedes, and is feated on the river Oder, in a country fertile in corn and fruits, 15 miles north-call of Troppaw, and 142 eall of Prague. E. Long. 22. 24. N. Lat. 50. 14. RATISBON, an ancient, large, rich, handfome, and llrong city of Germany, in Bavaria, free and im¬ perial, with a bilhop’s fee, whole bifhop is a prince of the empire. It is called by the Germans Regenlburg, from the river Regens, which runs under a line Hone bridge, and throws itfelf into the Danube below the city ; and the rivers Luber and Nab mix with it above the city. The French call it Ratilbon, in imitation of the Latins ; it hath formerly been fubjedl to the king* of Bavaria, who made it the place of their refidence ; but it was declared free by the emperor Frederick I. which does not however hinder the dukes of Bavaria from dividing the toll with the citizens, according to an agree¬ ment between them. Thefe princes have alfo the criminal jurifdiclion, for which the magiltrates of the city pay them homage. It is the firlt city of the bench of Suabia, and contains at prefent within its walls five different free Hates of the empire ; namely, the bilhop, the abbot ot St Emmeran, the abbelfes of the Low and High Man¬ lier, and the city. The inhabitants of Ratilbon have the privilege not to be cited before other tribunals, un- lefs for actions above 400 florins. The fenate is com- pofed of 17 members, and there is a council of 10, which is charged with the government of the Hate. The citizens have a right to cleft a chief, whq judges of the affairs of police. The catholics have the exercife of their religion in the cathedral church, and others, and the R A V Ravelin. Ratlines the Lutherans in three churches, which they have built. The magiftrates and officers of the city are all Protef- tants ; and it is to be remarked, that although theie are about 2 2 Catholic churches, yet there are very few Ca¬ tholic citizens, the magiftracy not allowing the freedom of tire town to be given to Catholics living there. As this city is large, elegant, and full of magnificent houfes, it has been chofen many years for the place of holding the diet, upon account of the conveniency, to many neighbouring princes and ftates, of lending their provi- ions by land and water, without great expence. The town-houfe, in the hall of which the Diet meets, is extremely magnificent. In the year 1740, however, when there was a war in Germany, the Diet met at Frankfort on the Main, till after the death of the em¬ peror Charles VII. Provifion# are very plentiful at Ratilbon in time of peace. The inhabitants have a good deal of trade, the river on which it Hands being navigable, and communicating with a gre^t part of Ger¬ many. It is 55 miles fouth-eall of Nuremberg, 62 north of Munich, and 195 welt of Vienna. E. Long. J2. 5. N. Lat. 48. 59. RATLINES, or, as the failors call them ratlinsy thofe lines which make the ladder Heps to go up the Ihrouds and puttocks, hence called the ratiim of the Jhrouds. RATOLFZEL, a ftrong town of Germany, in Suabia, near the weft end of the lake Conltance. It is feated on that part of it called Bodenfee, and belongs to the houfe of Aultria, who took it from the duke of Wirtemburg, after the battle of Nordlingen. It is 12 miles well of the city of Conltance. It is defended by the impregnable caitie of Hohen Dwel, on an inaccef- fible hill in the middle of a plain, the rock of which is flint, fo that a few men may hold it out againll an army. RAPPLESNAKE. See Crotalus. Ratilksnakk Root. See Polycala. RAPZEBTJRG, or Ratzemburg, an ancient town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and m the duchy of Lawenburgh, with a bilhop’s fee and a caitie. The town depends on the duchy of Lawenburg, and the cathedral church on that of’Ratzburg. It "is feated on an eminence, and atmolt furrounded with a lake 25 miles in length and three in breadth. The Duke of Lawenburg feized and fortified it in 1689, and the king of Denmark took it in 1693 ; but it was difmantled, and reftored in 1700 to the Duke, who re-fortified it. This town has been frequently pillaged, particularly in 3 552> ky I'rancis duke of Saxe Lawenburg, becaufe the canons refufed to ele& his fon Magnus their bilhop. It lies nine miles fouth of Lubec. This place is noted for its excellent beer. E. Long. 10. 58. N. Lat 53- 47- RAVA, a town of Great Poland, and capital of a palatinate of the fame name, with a fortified caftle, where they keep Hate prifoners. The houfes are built of wood, and there is a Jefuits college. It is feated in a morafs covered with water, which proceeds from the ri¬ ver Rava, with which it is furrounded. It is 45 miles fouth of Blcfko, and i;o fouth-weft of Warfaw. The palatinate is bounded on the north by that of Bloflco, on the call by that of Mazovia, on the fouth by that of Sandomer, and on the welt by that of Lencieza. RAVELIN, in fortilication, was anciently a flat [ 1 R A V baftfon placed in the middle of a curtain ; but new a detached work compofed only of two faces, which make a faliant angle without any flanks, and raifed be¬ fore the countericarp of the place. See Fortifica¬ tion. RAVEN, in ornithology. See Corvus. Sea Rapen, or corvo marino of Kongo in Africa, in ichthyology, is about fix feet long, and big in propor¬ tion ; but the moft Angular circumflance apper aining to this creature is the Hone found in its head, to which the natives aferibe fume medicinal virtues, and the deli¬ cate tafte of its hard roe, which is ftill much admired, when dried in the fun, and becomes as hard as a ilone. RAVENGLAS, a town of Cumberland in Eng¬ land, Atuated between the rivers Irt and Efk, which, with the fea, encompafs three parts of it. It is a well built place, and has a good road for fhipping, which brings it feme trade. E. Long. o. 5. N. Lat. £ :. 20. RAVENNA (anc. geog.), a noble city of Gallia Cif- padana; a colony of ThefTalians, on the Adriatic, in waffl¬ es or a boggy fituation, which proved a natural fecurity to it. The houfes were all of wood, the communication by bridges and boats, and the town kept fweet and clean by the tides carrying away the mud and foil, (Strabo). Anciently it had a port at the mouth of the Bedefis ; Auguftus added a new port, capacious to hold a fleet! for the fecutity of the Adriatic, between which and the city lay the V 1a Caefaris. In the lower age it was the feat of the Oftrogoths for 72 years ; but being recover¬ ed by Narfes, Juftinian’s general, it became the refidence of the exarchs, magiflrates fent by the emperor from Confiantinople, for 175 years, when it was taken by the Longobards. It is ftill called Ravenna, capital of Romania. The feat of the weftem or Roman Empire washy Honorius tranflated to Ravenna about the year 404, and hence the country in which it flood was call¬ ed Romania, in the pope’s territory. It had a very flounfhing trade till the fea withdrew two miles from it, which has been a great detriment. The fortifica¬ tions are of little importance, and the citadel is gone to ruin. It is now moft remarkable for the excellent wine produced in its neighbourhood. The maufoleum of I heooonc is ftill to be feen, remarkable for bciW covered by a Angle Hone 28 feet in diameter and . e thick. It was at Ravenna that the duke of Nemourv fell, after having gained a moft de'cifive viftory over the confederate army, in ijii. See Franch, n' 120, and Modern Umverfal Hiftory, vol. xx. n. i >4.. &c RAVENSBURG, a county of Germany, in Weft- phalia, bounded on the north by the bifhoprics of Omaburg and Minden, on the call by Lemgovv, on the fouth by the bifhopnc of Paderbom, and on the weft by that of Munfter. It belongs to the king of i ruflu, and has its name horn the caftle of Ravcuf- burg. Ravensburg, a free and imperial town of Ger¬ many, in Algow, in the circle of Suabia. It is well bJilt, and the public ftmflares are handfome. The inhabitants are partly Proteftants and partly Papifts. It is feated on the river Chenfe, in E. Long. 9. 46. in• JLat. 47• 44* , 1^V£T» an 'nfea ftaped Kke a may-bug, or cock chattel, (fee Scarab^us), with which the ifland of (juadaloupe is much peftered. It has a {linking fmell, preys upon paper, books, and furniture, and whatever tllCT Raven It Ravet. II A V C t6 ] R A V RaviUla'’. ^ftdi’rn U- niv, Hi/It val. xxi. I'* 147* note (A), &c. they do not gnaw is difcoloured by their ordure, i hefc natty infects, which are very numerous, and appear chiefly by night, would be intolerable, were it not for a large fpidef, forne of them as long as a man’s flit, which intangles them in its web, and otherwife furprifes them. On which account the inhabitants of the iiland are very careful of thefe Ipiders. RAVILLIAC (Francis), the infamous afiaffin of Henry IV. of France, was a native of Angoulefme, and at the time of hiS execution was about one or two .and thirty .years of age. See 1'range, nc 146, and Henry IV. of France. Ravilliac was the fon of pa^ rents who lived upon alms. His father was that fort .of inferior retainer to the law, to which the vulgar give the name of a pettifogger, and his fon had been bred up in the fame way. Ravilliac had fet up a claim to an eftate, but the caufe went againft him : this dif- appointment affe£led his mind deeply : he afterwards taught a fchool, and, as himfelf faid, received chari¬ table gifts, though but of a very fmall value, from the parents of thofe whom he taught; and yet his diftrefs was fo great, that he had much ado to live. When he was fei/ed for the king’s murder, he was very loofely guarded ; all were permitted to fpeak with him who pltafed ; and it was thought very remarkable that a Je- fuit fliould fay to him, “ Friend, take care, whatever you do, that you don’t charge honeft people.” He was removed next day from the houfe of Efpernon to the Conciergerie, the proper prifon of the parliament of Paris. When he was firft interrogated, he an- fwered with great boldnefs, “ 1 hat he had done it, and would do it, if it were to do again.” When he was told that the king, though dangeroufly wound- and through a clay funnel into his bowels by the navel. RavlilUe. The people refilled to pray for him ; and w-hen, ac- cording to the fentence pronounced upon him, he came to he dragged to pieces by four horfes, one of thofe that were brought appearing to be but weak, one of the fpeefaters offered his own, with which the criminal was much moved : he is faid to have then made a con- feffiort, which was fo w'ritten by the greffier Voifin, that not fo much ag one word of it could ever be read. He was very earneft for abfolution, which hisconfeffor refufed, unlefs he w'ould reveal his accomplices ; “ Give it me conditionally (faid he) ; upon condition that I have told the truth,” which they did. His body was fo robuft, that it refilled the force of the horfes ; and the executioner w'as at length obliged to cut him into quarters, which the people dragged through the ftreets. The houfe in which he was born was demolilhed, and a column of infamy erefted ; his father and mother were banilhed from Angoulefme, and ordered to quit the kingdom upon pain of being hanged, if they return¬ ed, without any form of procefs ; his brothers, fillers, uncles, and other relations, were commanded to lay afide the name ©f Ravilliac, and to affume fome other. Such was the fate of this execrable monller, who, ac¬ cording to his own account, fiiffcred himfelf to be im¬ pelled to Rich a fadl by the feditious fermons and books of the Jefuits, whom Henry, rather out of fear than love, had recalled and caitffed, and to whom he had bequeathed his heart. Neither the dying words of Ravilliac, nor fo much of his procefs as was publilhed, were credited by his cotemporaries. Regalt the hillorian fays, that there were two different opinions concerning this aiTaifina- J1C vvrtb tuiu Liiau 11 iv_ jvmuj ^ j * - - —- r o ed, vas living, and might recover, he faid that he had tion ; one, that it was conduced by fome grandees, who n r 1 • t_ fm'rihr***r1 that- to their old refentmentfi : the Rruck him home, and that he was fure he was dead. In his fubfequent examinations he owned that he had long had an intention to kill the king, becaufe he fuf- fered two religions in his kingdom ; and that he en¬ deavoured to obtain an audience of him, that he might admonilh him. He alfo faid that he underllood the king’s great armament to be againll the pope, and that, in his opinion, to make war againll the pope, was to make war againll God. We have no diftindb account of the three lall examinations; but he is faid to have perfilled, in the molt folemn affeverations, that he had no accom¬ plices, and that nobody had perfuaded him to the fail. He appeared furprifed at nothing fo much as at the facririced that monarch to their old refentments; the other, that it was done by the cmiffaries of the Spa¬ niards. Letters from Bruffels, Antwerp, Mechlin, and other places, were received before the 15th of May, with a report of the king’s death. Though nothing occurs in the examinations of Ravilliac that were full publilhed, in reference to his journeys to Naples and other places; yet as thefe are fet down as certain truths by good authors, fo there are probable grounds to be¬ lieve that they were not fiftitious. It appears from Sir Ralph Winwood’s Memorials, that Ravilliac had been not long before at Bruffels. Amongft other cir- cumftances that created a very great doubt, whether XIc appealtu luipnixu au ^ c*v wa*^ ^ — 7 - univerfal abhorrence of the people, which, it feems, the aflaffm fpoke truth, were the things found in his Vi*. TTpv wfrp forced to frnard him oocket at the time he was feized : amonerft which was he did not expeft. They were forced to guard him llri&ly from his fellow-prifoners, who would otherw'ife have murdered him. 'The butchers of Paris ddired to have him put into their hands, affirming that they would flay him alive, and that he Ihould Hill live 12 days. When he was put to the toiture, he broke out into horrid execrations, and always infilled that he did the fa6l from his own motive, and that lie could accufe nobody. On the day of his execution, after he had made the amende honourable before the church of Notre Dame, he was carried to the Greve; and, being brought pocket at the time he was feized ; amongft which wras a chaplet, the figure of a heart made in cotton, in the centre of which he faid there was a bit of the true crofs, but when cut there was none, which he affirmed was given him by a canon at Angoulefme, a piece of paper with the arms of France pa nted upon it, ano¬ ther full of charadttp-s, and a third containing verfesfor the meditation of a criminal going to execution. The provoft of Pluviers, or Petiviers, in Beauce, about fix miles from Paris, had faid openly on the day that Hen¬ ry IV. was murdered, “ This day the king is either i n i v s i A r*. . 1 1 • » I . 1/rtlllv.j llv. \>c*a V. lltLil VJ.V 1 V Ai j act V. 1 upon a fcaffold, wras tied to a wooden engine in the flain or dangeroufly wounded.” After the king’s death ftvape of a St Andrew’s crofs. T he knife with which was known, he was feized and fent prifoner to Paris; he did the murder being faftened in his right hand, it was firil burnt in a flow lire ; then the flelhy parts of his body were torn with red-hot pincers, and melted lead, oil, pitch, and rofm, poured into the wounds, but, before he was examined* he was found hanged in the livings of his drawers. His body was, notwith- ftanding, hung up by the heels on the common gibbet on the 19th of June. What increafed the fufpicions 5 grounded RAY R.un grounded on this man’s end, was his having two Tons 'i Jefuits, and his being a dependent on the family of Riy' Monfieur d’Entragues. v RAUN, upon the liver Miza, a town of fome ftrength, remarkable for a bloody flcirmifh between the Pruflians and Andrians, in Align ft 1744. The king ivf Prufiia, intending to get poireffion of Beraun, fent thither fix battalionif, with eight cannon, and 800 hnf- fars ; but General Feftititz being there with a great party of his corps, and M. Luchefi with 1000 horfe, they not only repulfed the Pruflians, but attacked them in their turn, and, after a warm difpute, obliged them to retire with confiderable lofs. RAURICUM (anc. geog.), a town of the Raurici, fituated over againft Abnoba, a mountain from which the Danube takes its rife. A Roman colony led by L. Manutius Plancus the fcholar and friend of Cicero : called Colonia Rauriaca (Pliny), Ravrira (Infcription), dugu/la Riiuncorum. The town was deftroyed in Ju¬ lian’s time. It is now commonly called Augfl, a village greatly decayed from what it formerly was. It is fitua¬ ted on the Rhine, diftant about two hours to the call of Bafil. The country is now the canton of Bafil. RAY (John), a celebrated botaniil, was the fon of Mr Roger Ray a blackfmith, and was born at Black Notly in Efl’ex in 1628. He received the lirft rudi¬ ments of learning at the grammar-fehool at Brain¬ tree ; and in 1644 was admitted into Catharine hall in Cambridge, from whence he afterwards removed to Trinity college in that univerfity. He took the de¬ gree of mafter of arts, and became at length a fenior fel¬ low of the college ; but his intenfe application to his fludies having injured his health, he was obliged at his leifure hours to exercile himfelf by riding or walk¬ ing in the fields, which led him to the ftudy of plants. He noted from Johnfon, Parkinfon, and the Phytologia Britannica, the places where curious plants grew ; and in 1658 rode from Cambridge to the city of Cheiter, from whence he went into North Wales, yifiting many places, and among others the famous hill of Snowdon ; returning by Shrewfbury and Glouceft£r. In 1660 he publilhed his Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantalrigiam naf- centium, and the fame year was ordained deacon and prielt. In i66r he accompanied Francis Willoughby, Efq; and others in fearch of plants and other natural curiofities, in the north of England and Scotland ; and the next year made a wellern tour from Cheiter, and through Wales, to Cornwall, Devonlhire, Dorfetlhire, Hamplhire, Wiltlhire, and other counties. He after¬ wards travelled with Mr Willoughby and other gen¬ tlemen through Holland, Germany, Italy, France, &c. took feveral tours in England, and was admitted fel¬ low of the Royal Society. In 1672, his intimate and beloved friend Mr Willoughby died in the ?7th year of his age, at Middleton Hall, his feat in Yorklhire ; “ to the infinite and up.fpeakable lofs and grief (fays Mr Hay) of myfelf, his friends, and all good men.” There having been the clofell and fincereft friendlhip between Mr Willoughby and Mr Ray, who were men of limi- lar natures and taftes, from the time of their being fellow collegians, Mr Willoughby not only confided in Mr Ray, in his lifetime, but alfo at his death : for he made him one of the executors of his will, and charged him with the education of his funs Francis and Vol. XVI. Part T. R A Y 1 homas, leaving him alfo for life 601. per aftnunv The eldeft of thefe young gentlemen not being four years of age, Mr Ray, as a faithful truftee, betook himfelf to tire inftru6tion of them ; and for their rife compofed his Nomcnclator Glaflicus, which was publifh- ed tin's very year, 1672. Francis the eldeft dying be¬ fore he was of age, the younger became Lord Middle- ton. Not many months after the death of Mr Wil¬ loughby, Mr Ray loft another of his belt friends, bi- flrop Wilkins ; whom he vifited in London the < 8th of November 1672, and found near expiring by a total fuppreftion of urine for eight days. As it is natural for the mind, when it is hurt in one part, to feck re¬ lief from another; fo Mr Ray, having loft fome of his heft friends, and bang in a manner left deftitute, con¬ ceived thoughts of marriage ; and accordingly, in June 1673, did actually marry a gentlewoman of about 20 years of age, the daughter of Mr Oakley of Launton in Oxfordfhire. Towards the end of this year, came forth his “ Obfervations Topographical, Moral, &c.” made in foreign countries; to which was added his Catalogus Stirfiurn in exteris rtgtnnibus obfervatarum : and about the fame time, his CollcSion of unufual or local Englijl words, which he had gathered up in his travels through the counties of England. After having pub- lifhed many books on fubjevifts foreign to his proieflion, he at length refolvcd to publilh in the character of a divine, as well as in that of a natural philofopher : in which view he publilhed his excellent demohftration of the being and attributes of God, entitled The Wifdom of God manifejled^tn the Works of the Creation, 8vo, 1697. I he rudiments of tin's work were read in fome college leCfures 5 and another colledlion of the fame kind he enlarged and publiflred under the title of Three Pyjico- theological Difcourfes, concerning the Chaos, Deluge, and Diffolution of the World, 8vo, 1692. He died in 1705. Fie was modeft, affable, and communicative ; and was diftinguilhed by his probity, charity, fobriety, and piety. He wrote a great number of works ; the principal of which, befides thofe already mentioned, are, f. Cata¬ logus Plantarum Anglia. 2. Didionariolum Tri/inguefe- cundum locos communes. 3. Hijloria Plant arum. Species, hadenus editas, aliafque tnftper mult as noviter inventas et dejeriptas comptedens, 3 vols. 4. Methodus Plantarum nova, cum Tabulis, 8vo, and feveral other works on plants. 6. Synopjis Methodica Animalium quidrupe- dum et Serpentinigeneris, 8vo. 6. Synopjis Methodica A- vium et Pifcium, 7. Hijloria Inf'dorutr, opus poflhum’im. 8. Methodus JnfeBarum. 9. Philofophical Letters, &c. Ray, in (optics, a beam of light emitted from a ra¬ diant or luminous body. See Light and Optics. Injleded Rars, thole rays of light which, on their near approach to the edges of bodies, in palling by them, are bent out of their courfe, being turned either from the body or towards it. This property of the rays of light is generally termed dijfradion by foreigners, and Dr Hooke fometimes called it dejledion. Rejleded Rays, thofe rays of light which, after falling upon the body, do not go beyond the furface of it, but are thrown back again. Refraded Rays, thofe rays of light which, after fall- ing upoM any medium, enter its furface, being bent ei¬ ther towards or from a perpendicular to the point on which they ML F 17 ] c Pencil REA . t 18 R*y Pencil of Rays, a number of rap iiTutng from a 11 point of an object, and diverging in the form ot a Reading. cone. v RAZOR, a well-known indrumeilt, ufed by fur- geons, barbers, &c. for (having oflf the hair from va¬ rious parts of the body.—As (having to many people is a mod painful operation, cutlers in dilTerent coun¬ tries have long applied their (kill to remove that in¬ convenience. Some have invented foaps of a peculiar kind to make the operation more ealy, and fome have invented draps. With reipe61 to razors, iome artills have fucceeded rather by accident than from any fixed prin¬ ciple ; and therefore we have found great inequality in the goodnefs of razors made by the lame artitl. A correfpondent affures us, that he has for 40 years pad been at much pains to find out razors made by the bed makers both in England and Scotland, and was for¬ tunate enough, about 22 years ago, to difeover a kind made by a Scotchman of the name of Logan, which he called magnetical razors, becaufe they were direfted to be touched with an artificial magnet before ufing. Thefe, our friend affures us, are mod excellent razors, and he has ufed them for upwards of 20 years. He fays likewife that they continue in good order, without re¬ quiring to be ground ; but fliat the great draw-back on their being generally ufed, is the price, which is higher than mod people are able or difpofed to give for that inftrument. Our correfpondent, who refides in the vicinity of London, alfo informs us, that lately the famous furgeon’s indrument-maker, Mr Savigny in Pall Mall, after numberlefs experiments, in the courfe of above 20 years, has at length brought razors to a degree of perfeftion never yet equalled ; and with fuch certainty, that the purchafer is in no danger of a dif- appointment, though the price is very moderate. By thole, we are told, the operation of (having is per¬ formed with greater eafe, more perfeftly, and more ex¬ pedition!] y, than with any other. RE, in grammar, an infeparable particle added to the beginning of words to double or otherwife mo¬ dify their meaning ; as in re-a&ion, re-move, re-export, See. RE-ACTION, in phyfiology, the refidance made by all bodies to the aftion or impulfe of others that endeavour to change its date whether of motion or red, &c. READING, the art of delivering written language with propriety, force, and elegance. “ We mud not judge fo unfavourably of eloquence or good reading (fays tiie illudrious Fenelon), as to reckon it only a frivolous art, that a declaimer ufes to impofe upon the weak imagination of the multitude, and to ferve his own ends. It is a very ferious art, defigned to indraft people ; to fupprefs their paflions and reform their manners ; to fupport the laws, direft T public councils, and to make men good and happy.” Delivery in Reafon and experience demondrate, that delivery in reading reading ought to be hfs animated than in interejled/peaking. lhould.be jn every exercife of the faculty of fpeech, and thofe ex- ted than Vn Pref^ons countenance and gedure with which it is intertfted generally attended, wc may be conlidered to be always fpeaking. in one of the two following fituations: Firlt, delivering our bofom fcntimer.ts on circumdances which relate to ourfelves or others, or, fecondly, repeating fomething that was fpoken on a certain, occafion for the amufe- 1 REA ment or information of an auditor. Now, if we obferve Re-.ding. the deliveries natural to thefe two fituations, we fnall /"“‘J find, that the fird may be accompanied with every de¬ gree of expreffion which can mauifed itfelf in us, from the lowed of fympathy to the mod violent and energe¬ tic of the fuperior paffions ; while the latter, from the fpeaker’s chief bufinefs being to repeat what he heard with accuracy, difeovers only a faint imitation of thofe figns of the emotions which we fuppofe agitated him from whom the words were, fird borrowed.—The ufe and neceffity of this difference of manner is evident; and if we are attentive to thefe natural figns of ex¬ preffion, we lhall find them conforming with the great- ell nicety to the flighted and mod minute movements of the bread. This repetition of another’s words might be fuppofed to pafs through the mouth of a fecond or third perfon ; and in thefe cafes, fince they were not ear and eye wit- neffes of him who fird fpoke them, their manner of de¬ livery w'ould want the advantage neceffarily arifing from an immediate idea of the original one ; hence, on this account, this would be a dill lefs lively reprefentation than that of the fird repeater. But as, from a daily obfervation of every variety of fpeech and its affociated figns of emo¬ tion, mankind foon become pretty well acquainted with them, and this in different degrees, according to their difeernment, fenfibility, &c. experience (hows us that thefe latter repeaters (as we call them) might conceive and ufe a manner of delivery which, though lefs charafte- rijlic perhaps, would on the whole be no way inferior to the firit, as to the common natural exprefiion proper for their fituation. It appears, therefore, that repeaters of every degree may be eileemtd upon a level as to anima¬ tion, and that our twofold dillinftion above contains accurately enough the whole variety of ordinary delive¬ ry ;—we fay ordinary, becaufe There is another very peculiar kind of delivery fome- times ufed in the perfon of a repeater, of which it will in this place be neceffary to take fome notice. What we mean here is mimicry; an accomplifliment which, when perfeftly and properly difplayed, never fails of yielding a high degree of plcafure. But fince this • pleafure chiefly "refults from the principle of imitation refpefting manner, and not from the purport of the matter communicated; fince, comparatively fpeaking, it is only attainable by few perfons, and praftifed only on particular occalions ;—on thefe accounts it mull be • ref ufed a place among the modes of ufeful delivery taught us by general nature, and efteemed a qualifica¬ tion purely anomalous. Thefe dillinftions with regard to a fpeaker’s fitua¬ tion of mind premifed, let us fee to which of them an author and his reader may mod properly be referred, . and how they are circumilanced with regaid to one another. The matter of all books is, either what the author fays in his own perfon, or an acknowledged recital of the words of others: hence an author may be elleemed both an original fpeaker and a repeater, according as what he writes is of the firll or fecond kind. Now a reader mull be fuppofed either aftually to perfonate the author, or one whofe office is barely to communicate - what he has faid to an auditor. But in the firft of thefe fuppofitions he^would, in the delivery of what is the au¬ thor’s own, evidently commence mimic; which being, as . above REA [ Rfacing above obferved, a charaAer not acknowledged by gcnc- rai nature in this department, ought to be rejected as generally improper. The other i'uppolition therefore mud be accounted right; and then, as to the who/e matter of the book, the reader is found to be exadtly in the fituation of a repeater, fave that he takes what he delivers from the page before him inftead of his memo¬ ry. It follows then, in proof of our initial proportion, that, if we are directed by nature and propriety, the manner of our delivery in reading ought to be inferior in warmth and energy to what we fhould ufe, were the language before us the fpontaneous effufions of our own hearts in the circumftances of thofe out of whofe mouths it is fuppofed to proceed. Evident as the purport of this reafoning is, it has not fo much as been glanced at by the writers on the fub- jedt wc are now entered upon, or any of its kindred ones ; which has occalioned a manifelt want of accuracy in feveral of their rules and obfervations. Among the reft, this precept has been long reverberated from au¬ thor to author as a perfedl ftandard for propriety in reading. “ Deliver yourfelves in the fame manner you would do, were the matter your own original fentiments uttered direftly from the heart.” As all kinds of deli¬ very muft have many things in common, the rule will in many articles be undoubtedly right; but, from what has been faid above, it muft be as certainly faulty in refpedl to feveral others; as it is certain nature never confounds by like figns two things fo very different, as a copy and an original, an emanation darted immediately from the fun, and its weaker appearance in the lunar re- fledlion. The precepts we have to offer for improving the above-mentioned rule, (hall be delivered under the heads of accent, empbafis, modulation, exprejfion, f cvfes, &c. I. Accent* In attending to the affedfions of the voice when we fpcak, it is eafy to obferve, that, inde¬ pendent of any other confideration, one part of it differs from another, in Jirefs, energy, or force of utterance. In words we find one fyllable differing from another with refpedf to this mode; and in fenteuces one or more words as frequently vary from the reft in a iimilar manner. This ftrefs with regard to fyllables is called accent, and contributes greatly to the variety and har¬ mony of language. Refpedfing 'words, it is termed em- pbojis ; and its chief office is to affift the fenfe, force, or perfpicuity of the fentence—of which more under the next head. “ Accent (as deferibed in the Ledlures on Elocu¬ tion) is made by us two ways; either by dwelling long¬ er upon one fyllable than the reft, or by giving it a fmarter percuffion of the voice in utterance. Of the hr ft of thefe we have inftances in the -worte glory, father, holy ; of the lafl in hat1 tie, hab it, bor'ro'w. So that ac¬ cent with in is not referred to tune, but to time ; to quantity, not quality ; to the more equable or precipi¬ tate motion of the voice, not to the variation of the notes or inflexions.” In theatric declamation, in order to give it more pomp and folemnity, it is ufual to dwell longer than common upon the unaccented fyllables; and the author now quoted has endeavoured to prove (p. 51. 54.) the practice faulty, and to fhow (p. 55.) that “ though it {i. e. true foleirnity) may demand a flower utterance 2 eccent. 19 1 REA than ufual, yet (it) requires that the fame proportion R-fadlng. in point of quantity be obferved in the fyllables, as there v“—^ is in mufleal notes when the fame tune is played in quicker or flower time.” But that this deviation from ordinary fpecch is not a fault, as our author afferts ; nay, that on the contrary^ it is a real beauty when kept under proper regulation, the following obfervations it is hoped will fufficicntly prove. (I.) It is a truth of the moft obvious nature, that thofe things which on their application to their proper fenfes have a power of railing in us certain ideas and emotions, are ever differently modilkd in their conftituent parts when different effects are produced in the mind: and alfo (II.) that, within proper bounds, were we to fuppofe thefe conilituent parts to be proportion illy in- creafed or diminilhed as to quantity, this effect would Hill be the fame as to quality.—For inftance: The dif¬ ferent ideas of ftrength, fwiftnefs, &c. w hich are railed in us by the fame fpecics of animals, is owing to the different form of their correfponding parts; the different effects of mufic on the paflions, to the different airs and movements of the melody ; and the different expreffions of human fpeech, to a difference in tone, fpeed, &c. of the voice. And thefe peculiar effects would ftill re¬ main the fame, were we to fuppofe the animals above alluded to, to be greater or leffer, within their proper bounds ; the movement of the mufic quicker or flower, provided it did not palpably interfere with that of fome other fpecies; and the pitch of the voice higher or lower, if not carried out of the limits in which it is obferved on limilar occafions naturally to move. Farther (III.) flnee, refpefting the emotions more especially, there are no rules to determine d priori what effect any par¬ ticular attribute or modiheation of an object will have upon a percipient, our knowledge of this kind muft evidently be gained from experience. Ealtly, (IV.) In every art imitating nature we are pleafed to fee the characteriftic members of the pattern heightened a little farther than perhaps it ever was carried in any real example, provided it be not bordering upon fome ludicrous and difagreeable provinces of excels. Now for the application of thefe premiffes.—To keep pace and be confiftent with the dignity of the tragic mufe, the delivery of her language fliould neceflarily be dignified ; and this it is plain from obfervation (I.) can¬ not be accomplifhed otherwife than by fomething diffe¬ rent in the manner of it from that of ordinary fpcech ; ft nee dignity is effentially different from familiarity. But how muft we difeover this different manner? By attend¬ ing to nature : and in this cafe flie tells us, that beiides uftng -aflower delivery, and greater diflintlnefs of the words (which every thing merely grave requires, and gravity is a concomitant of dignity, though not its effenceJ, we muft dwell a little longer upon the unaccented fylla- bles than we do in common. As to wdiat our author obferves in the above quotation, of dignity's only requi¬ ring a flower utterance than ordinary’, while the pro¬ portion of the fyllables as to quantity continues the lame; it is apprehended the remark (II.) rcfpe&ing quicknefs and Jlownefs of movement, w’ill Ihow it to be not altogether true. For fince the delivery is not al¬ tered in form, its expreffion muft he ftill of the fame kind, and perhaps what may be rightly fuggefted by the term gravely familiar. C 2 But REA [ 40 Reading. But fomething farther may be yet faid In defence ot this artificial deliver)^, as our author calls it. Is not the movement of any thing, of whatever fpecies, when dignified or folemn, in general of an equable and delibe¬ rate nature (as in the minuet, the military Hep, &c.) . And in theatrical declamation, is not the prbpenfity to introduce this equab/enefi fo fining, that it is almolt im- pojfible to avoid it wholly, were we ever fo determined to do it ? If thefe two queries be anfwered in the affir¬ mative (as we are perfuaded they will), while the firft fupporls our argument for the propriety of the manner of delivery in queflion, the fecond difeovers a kind ol ne- cejjity for it. And that this manner may be carried a little farther in quantity on the Jlage tlun is ufual in real /iffy the principle (IV.) of heightening nature will juftify, provided fafhion (which has ever fomething to do in thefe articles) give it a fan&ion ; for the freci/e quantity of feveral heightenings may be varied by this 3 great legiflator almoft at will. Jiiupiudi8- II. Emphajis. As emphafis is not a thing annexed to particular words, as accent is to fyllables, but owes its rife chiefly to the meaning of a paflage, and muft there¬ fore vary its feat according as that meaning varies, it will be neceflary to explain a little farther the general idea given of it above. Of man’s firfl difobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whofe mortal tafte Brought death into, the world, and all our woe, See. Sing heav’nly mufe, &c. Suppofing, in reference to the above well-known lines, that originally other beings, befides men, had dif¬ obeyed the commands of the Almighty, and that the circumltance were well known to us, there would fall an emphajis upon the word man's in the firfl line, and hence it would be read thus ; Of mans firfl difobedience, and the fruit, See. But if it were a notorious truth, that mankind had tranfgrefled in a peculiar manner more than once, the emphjts would fall on JrJl, and the line be read, Of man’s firjl difobedience, See. Again, admitting death (as was really the cafe) to ] REA have been an unheard-of and dreadful punilhment Readini?, brought upon man in confequence of his tranfgrfcfhon j —» on that fuppofition the third line would be read, Brought death into the world, Sec. But if we were to fuppofe mankind knew there was fuch an evil as death in other regions, though the place they inhabited had been free from it till their trr.ifgrefixon: the line would run thus, Brought death into the avorld. Sec. Now from a proper delivery of the above lines, with regard to any one of the fuppofitions we have chofen, out of feveral others that might in the fame manner have been imagined, it will appear that the emphjs they il- lullrate is effected by a manifefl de/ay in the pronuncia¬ tion, and a tone fomething fuller and louder than is ufed in ordinary ; and that its office is folely to determine the meaning of a fentence with reference to fomething faid before, prefuppofed by the author as general know¬ ledge, or in order to remove an ambiguity where a paflage is capable of having more fenfes given it than one. But, fuppofing in the above example, that none of the fenfes there pointed out were precifely the true one, and that the meaning of the lines were no other than what is obvioufly fuggclled by their fimple conllrudtion; in that cafe it may be afked, if in reading them there ffiould be no word dignified with the emphatical accom- panyments above deferibed ?—The anfwer is, Not one with an emphaiis of the fame kind as that we have juil been illuflrating ; yet it is neverthelefs true, that on bearing thefe lines well read, we fhall find fome words diflinguifhed from the reft by a manner of delivery bor¬ dering a little upon it (a). And thefe words will in general be fuch as feem the mofl important in the ftn- tence, or on other accounts to merit this diflin6lion. But as at bell it only enforces, graces, or enlivens, and not fixes the meaning of any paffage, and even caprice and fafhion (s) have often a hand in determining its place and magnitude, it cannot properly be reckoned an ejfenhal of delivery. However, it is of too much mo¬ ment to be negledled by thofe who would wilh to be good readers ; and, for the fake of dillin&ion, we may not (a) The following lines will illuflrate both thefe kinds of flrefies: For, to convey th«ir right meaning, the word any is evidently to be pronounced louder and fuller than thofe with the accents over them. Get wealth and place, if poffible with grace ; If not, by any means get wealth and place. Pope. This couplet is accented in the manner we find it in the EJfny on Elocution by Mafon. And if, according to the judgment of this author, the words thus diflinguifhed are to have an emphatical flrefs, it muft be of the inferior kind above-mentioned, and which a little farther on \^e call emphafis of force ; while the word any in a diffe¬ rent type alone pofleffes the other fort of energy, and which is there contradiflinguifhed by the term empbafit — Farther : Since the more elTentiai of thefe two energies is folely the work of ha- ivre (as appears by its being corfantly found in the common converfation of people of all kinds of capaci¬ ties and degrees of knowledge), and the molt ignorant perfon never fails of uling it rightly in the effufions of his own heart, it happens very luckily, and ought al¬ ways to be remembered, that provided we underhand what we read, and give way to the didates of our own teeling, the emphafts of fenfe can fcarce ever avoid fall¬ ing fpontaneoufly upon its proper place. Here it will be neceffary to fay lomething by way of reply to a queltion which will naturally occur to the mind of every one. As the rule for the anphafis of fenfe requires we fhould underltahd what we read before it can be properly ufed, it is meumbent upon us never to attempt to read what we have not previoufly Itudied lor that purpofe ? In anfwer to this, it mult Ire obfer- vtd, that though fuch a Hep will not be without its advantages ; yet, as from the fairnefs of printed types, the well-known paufes of punduation, and a long ac¬ quaintance with the phrafeology and conllrudion of our language, &c. experience tells us it is pojfblc to com¬ prehend the fenfe at the firft reading, a previous perufal of what is to be read does not feem neccjjary to all, though, if they would wilh to appear to advantage, it may be expetlient to many ; and it is this circumitance which makes us venture upon extemporary reading, and Rwdirpi give it a place among our amufeiwents.—Similar re- marks might be made with regard to modulation, expref- fon, &c. did not what is here obferved naturally antici¬ pate them. ^ III. Modulation (n). Every perfon mull have obfer-ModuU. ved, that, in fpeaking, the voice is fubjed to an altera-dotu tion of found, which in fome meafure refemblts the movement'of a tune. Thefe founds, however, are e\i- dently nothing like fo much varied as thofe that are flridly mulical; and we have attempted to {how in the preceding chapter, that, befides this, they have an elfcn- t’al difference in themfelves. Neverthelefs, from the geneial fimilitude of thefe two articles, they' polfefs fe- veral terms in common; and the particular we have now to examine is in both of them called modulation. This affedion of the voice, being totally arlitrary, is differently charaderized in different parts of the world; mid, through the power of cuftom, every' place is iis- clined to think their own the only' one natural and agreeable, and the reft affeded with fome barbarous twang or ungainly variation (*r). It may be obferved, however, that though there is a general uniform call or fafhion of modulation peculiar to every country, yet it hy no means follows, that there is or can be any thing fixed in its application to particular paffages; and therefore we find different people will, in any given ia- flance, ufe modulations fomething different, and never- thelefs be each of them equally agreeable. But, quitting thefe general remarks, we fhall (as our purpofe requires it) confider the properties of modula¬ tion a little more minutely. Firft, then, w’e may obferve, that, in fpeaking, there is a particular found (or key-note, as it is often called) in which the modulation for the moft part runs, and to which (c ) The firft of thefe terms anfwers to X\vt fimp'e emphafu deferibed in the Ledum on Elocution, and the fecond nearly to what is there called complex. The difference lies in this. Under complex emphafit the author feems (for he is far from being clear in this article) to include the tones fimply confidered of all the emotions of the mind ; as well the tender and languid, as the forcible and exulting. Our term is intended to be confined to fuch modes of Cxprelhon alone as are marked with an apparent frefs or increafe of the voice. ♦ 1° A rh5 autll?r °/ fntroduawn to the Art of Reading, not allowing that there is any variation of tone, as to high and in the delivery of a complete period or fentence, places modulation folely in the diverfification of the key-note and the variety of fyllables, as to long oxjhorl, fwft oxfoov, frong or weak, and loud or fojt. As we arc of a different opinion, our idea of modulation is confined purely to harmonious inflexions of voice. Thcfe qualities of words, it is true, add greatly both to the force and beauty of delivery ; yet, fince fome of them are fixed and not arbitrary (as long nlfbort), and the others (of/™/, and flow,/ranged weak, loud and foftf. may be confidered as modes of exprefiion which do not affed the modulation as to it will agree beft with our plan to efleem thefe properties as refpeaively belonging to the eftablifhed laws of pronunciation and the imi¬ tative branch of exprtffion mentioned in the end of the enfuing head.' nri-EJ *17 " It1 aCCOun!s )ve ha'f remaining of the modulation of the ancients, it appears to have been highly ornamented, and apparently fomttW not unitke our modern rwiM/iw ; particularly that of their theatric dccla- S of^LTf'C.in.V [I1 and accomPan; ""1 ^ >“a'd can,fas 1, is Ti ti dum dum, ti ti dum ti dum de, U- u X nr , ri dl,ra ^ dum> ti dum tl dum dum de ; the favourite* mr^MV ” •nDWLt°ja^ ^Ut mer^ ru^‘cs on account of its being out of fafhion, was very probably praate, of d ! R T \ [°'C "fre rtcit'd bf °“r a'>"ll»«- So fluctuating are the Lite and charge lull n,endnd d But 'vhrthr*- cipe by him made, muft vouch the remainder-man in tail, otherwife the recovery is void : but if he does vouch fuch remainder-man, and he appears and vouches the common vouchee, it is then good ; for if a man be vouched and appears, and fuffers the recovery to be had, it is as effectual to bar the eftate-tail as if he himfelf were the rtcoverce. In all recoveries, it is neceffary that the recoverec, or tenant to the prxeipe^ as he is ufually called, be ao- tually feifed of the freehold, elle the recovery is void. For all actions to recover the feifin of lands muft be brought againft the actual tenant of the freehold, die the fuit will lofe its effect; fmee the freehold cannot be recovered of him who has it not. And, though thefe recoveries are in themfelves fabulous and fiiftitious, yet it i> neceffary that tnere be adores fabulet. properly qua* lified. But the nicety thought by fome modern prac¬ titioners to he requiiite in conveying the legal free¬ hold, in order to make a good tenant to the prxcifx, is removed by the provifions of the llatute 14 Geo. 11. c. 20. which enads, with a retrofpea and conformity to the ancient rule of law, that, though the legal free¬ hold be veiled in leffees, yet thofe who are entitled to the next freehold eftate in remainder, or reverfion, may make a good tenant to the inetipe ; and that, though the deed or fine which creates fuch tenant he fubfe- quent to the judgment of recovery, yet if it he in the fame term, the recovery ihall be valid in law a and that though the recovery itfelf do not appear to be entered, or be not regularly entered on record, yet the deed to make a tenant to the prsnipe, and declare the ufes of the recovery, fhall after a poffeffion of 20 years be fufficient evidence on behalf of a purchafer for Valuable confideration, that fuch recovery was duly fuffered. Re c overy of perfons drowned, or apparently dead See Re-animation, and the articles there referred to. RECREAN i , Cowardly, Faint-heartedi formerly a word very reproachful. See Battel. RECREMEN 1, in chemiftry, fome fuperfluous. matter feparated from fome other that is uieful ; in whick fteeovfcry. Recrement, R E C Reeriminn- \v1uc1i fenfc it is the fume vvith fcorid, fates, ti°n merits. [ 32 and excre- ] .Bctftory. RECRIMINATION, in law, an accufation brought by the accufed againft the accufer upon the fame faa. RECRUITS, in 'military affairs, new-raifcd foldiers defigned to fupply the place of thofe who have loil their lives in the fervige, or who are difabled by age or wounds. . , RECTANGLE, in geometiy, the fame with a right- angled parallelogram. See Geometry.. RECTIFICATION, in chemiftry, is nothing but the repetition of a diftillation or fublimation fcveral times, in order to render the fubflance purer, finer, and freer from aqueous and earthy parts. Rectification of Sfnrits. See Distillatiov. RECTIFIER, in navigation, an inflrument confift- In0- of two parts, which are two circles, either laid one upon, or let into the other, and fo fattened together in their centres, that they reprefent two compattes, one fixed, the other moveable ; each of them divided into the*3 2 points of the compafs, and 3^^ » numbered both ways, from the north and the fouth, ending at the caft and weft, in 90°. ^ ^ The fixed compafs reprefents the horizon, m which the north and all the other points of the compafs are fixed and immoveable. The moveable compafs roprefents the mariner’s com- pafs; in which the north and all other points are liable to variation. r • r * In the centre of the moveable compafs is fattened a ijlk thread, long enough to reach the outfide of the fixed compafs. But if the inftrument be made of wood, there is an index inftead of the thread. Its nfe is to find the variation of the compafs, to redtify the courfe at fea ; having the amplitude or azi¬ muth given. RECTIFYING the Globe. See Geography, p. 656. RECTILINEAR, in geometry, right-lined; thus figures whole perimeter coniifts of right lines, are faid to be redlilinear. RECTITUDE, in philofophy, refers either to the -aft of judging or of willing ; and therefore whatever comes under the denomination of redlitude, is either what is true or what is good, thefe being the only ob- je&s about which the mind exercifes its two faculties of judging and willing. Moral rectitude, or uprightnefs, is the choofing and purfuing thofe things which the mind, upon due inqui¬ ry and attention, clearly perceives to be good ; and avoiding thofe that are evil. See Moral Philofophy. RECTOR, a term applied to feveral perfons vvhofe offices are very different: as, 1. The redtor of a parifh is a clergyman that has the charge and cure of a parifh, and pofleffes all the tithes, &c. 2. The fame name is alfo given to the chief eledlive officer in feveral foreign univerfities, particularly in that of Paris, and alfo in thofe of Scotland. It is alfo applied to the head maf- ter of large fchools in Scotland, as in the high fchool • of Edinburgh. 3. Redlor is alfo ufed in feveral convents for the fuperior officer who governs the houfe : ;fnd the Jefuits give this name to the fuperiors of fuch of their houfes as are either feminaries or colleges. RECTORY, a parifh-church, parfonage, or fpiritual living, with all its rights, tithes, and glebes. R E C Rectory is alfo fometimes ufed for the redlor’s manfion or parfonage-houfe. j 1 n. RECTUM, in anatomy, the third and lait ot tne large inteftines or guts. See Anatomy, n'J 93. RECTUS, in anatomy, a name common to ieveral pairs of mufcles, fo called on account of the ftraightnefs of their fibres. RECUPERATORES, among the Romans, were commiffioners appointed to tak'e cognizance of private matters in difpute, between the hibjedts of the ftate and foreigners, and to take care that the former had iuftice done them. It came at laft to be ufed for com- miflioners, to whom the praetor referred the determi¬ nation of any affair between one fubjedl and another. RECURRENTS, in anatomy, a name given to fe¬ veral large branches of nerves fent out by the par va- gum from the upper part of the thorax to the larynx. RECURVIROSTRA, in ornithology ; a genus be¬ longing to the order of grallae of Linnaeus,^ and that of palmipedes of Pennant and Latham. Ihe bill is long, Tubulated, bent back, iharp and flexible at the point. The feet are webbed, and furnittied with three toes forwards, and a fhort one behind. Mr Latham notes of this genus three fpecies, viz. the Avofetta, or the one commonly known, the Americana, and the Alba. This laft, it is probable, has fome affinity to the Americana. The recurviroftra avofetta is about the fize of a lapwing in body, but has very long legs. The fubftance of the bill is foft, and almoft membranous at its tip ; it is thin, weak, (lender, compreffed horizontal¬ ly, and incapable of defence or effort. Thefe birds are variegated with black and white, and during the win- ter are frequent on the ealtem (bores of Great Britain. They vifit alfo the Severn, and fometimes the pools of Shropffiire. They feed on worms and infers, which they fcoop out of the fand with their bills. They lay two eggs, white, with a greeniffi hue, and large fpots of black ; thefe eggs are about the fize of a pigeon’s.— They are found alfo in various parts of the continent of Europe, in Ruffia, Denmark, and Sweden, but they are not numerous, i hey are alfo found in Siberia, but oftener about the fait lakes of the Tartarian defert, and about the Cafpian fea. They are found likewife on the coafts of Picardy in France in April and Novem¬ ber, and at Orleans, but rarely. In breeding-time they are very plentiful on the coafts of Bas PoiCtou. 1 hey do not appear to wander farther fouth in Europe than Italy. Whether from timidity or addrefs, the avofet (buns fnares, and is not eafily taken. T.he American avofet is rather larger and longer than the laft. I he bill is fimilar, and its colour black: the forehead is dulky white: the head, neck, and upper part of the breatt, arc of a deep cream-colour : the lower parts ol the neck behind white: the back is black, and the un¬ der parts from the breaft pure white: the wings are partly black, partly white, and partly affi-coloured. Thefe birds inhabit North America, and were.found by Dampier in Shark’s Bay, on the coaft of New Hol¬ land. See Plate CCCCXXXV. The recurviroftra, or fcolopax alba, is about 14 inches and a quarter long, its colour white, the inferior coverts of its wings duflulh, its bill orange, its legs brown. Ed¬ wards remarks, that the bill of this bird is bent up¬ wards, as in the avoiet; its bill black at the tip, and orange the reft of its length ; all the plumage is white, except Rettonr li Recurvi- roftra. RED [ 33 ] RED .enilarts, except a tint of yellowifh on the great quills of the and 40 in breadth. As no river falls into it of fuffi- Red Sea. tedjSea. wjng anj Gf taji, Edwards fuppofes, that the cient force to counteraft the influence of the tide, it is ——\r—■ vvhitenefs is produced by the cold climate of Hudfon’s more affected by the motions of the great ocean than Bay, from which he received it, and that they refume any of the inland feas nearly in the fame latitude. It their brown feathers during the fummei*. It appears that is not much expofed to tempefts : the winds ufually feveral fpecies of this bird have fpread further into A- blow from north to fouth, and being periodical, like merica, and have even reached the fouthern provinces: the monfoons of India, invariably determine the feafon for Sloane found our third fpecies in Jamaica; and Fer¬ nandez feems to indicate two of them in New Spain, by the names chiquatototl and elotol&tl; the former being like our woodcock, and the latter lodging under the ftalks of maize. A bird of this kind, Mr Latham fays, was fent from Hudfon’s Bay, and from the figure, has every appear¬ ance of an avofet: however, in Edwards’s plate, the toes appear cloven to the bottom ; a circumftance feem- ing to overturn the fuppofition, and only to be authen¬ ticated when other fpecimens lhall have come under tire eye of the well-informed naturalift. RECUSANTS, fuch perfons as acknowledge the pope to be the fupreme head of the church, and re- lufe to acknowledge the king’s fupremacy ; wlio are hence called Pop'ijh recufants. The penal laws againll Papifts are now abolifhed in Britain and in Ireland; and in all probability they will quickly be allowed the am- pleft privileges. RED, one of the colours called Jimple or primary : being one of the ihades into which the light naturally divides itfelfwhen refracted through a prifm. See Chro¬ matics. Red, in dyeing, fee that article.—Some reckon fix kinds or calls of red, viz. fcarlet-rcd, crimfon-red, mad¬ der-red, half-grain red, lively orange-red, and fcarlet of cochineal: but it is eafy to fee that there can be but one proper fpecies of red ; namely, the reflection of the light exaCtly in fuch a manner as it is refraCted by the prifm ; all other Ihades being adulterations of that pure colour, with yellow, brown, &c. Red, in heraldry. See Gules. RKD-Bird. See Muscicapa, n° 7. RKD-Brea/ly 'm ornithology. See Motacilla. RED-Book of the exchequer, an ancient record or manufeript volume, in the keeping of the king’s re¬ membrancer, containing divers mifcellany treatifes re- .ating to the times before the conquelt. RED-Lead. See Chemistry, n° 1213. Red Precipitate of Mercury. See Chemistry, n° 764. RED-RuJ/idy or Little Rujfay a province of Poland, bounded on the weft by Upper Poland, on the north by Lithuania, on the eaft by the country of the Little I artars, and on the fouth by Moldavia, Tranfylvania, and a part of Hungary. It comprehends Ruflia pro¬ perly fo called, Volhinia, and Podolia. It is about 650 miles in length, and from 150 to 250 in breadth. It confifts chiefly of large fields, but little cultivated on account of the frequent inroads of the Tartars, and becaufe there is no water-carriage. It had the name of Red Rujftay from the colour of the hair of its inha¬ bitants. Rufiia, properly fo called, comprehends the three palatinates of Leopol or Lemburg, Bellko, and Chelm. Red Sea% or Aralic Gulphy fo much celebrated in fa- cred hiftory, feparates Arabia from Upper Ethiopia and part of Egypt. This fea is 350 leagues in length Vol. XVI. Part I. ^ s b of failing into or out of this lea. It is divided into two gulphs ; that to the eaft was called the JE:anitic gulphy from the city Adana at the north end of it; and that to the weft the Heroopoliticy from the city of Heroopo- lis; the former of which belongs to Arabia, and the latter to Egypt. Mr Bruce lias made many obfervations on this fea, which are worthy of notice.—With regard to the name, he fays it was certainly derived from Edom or Efau the fon of Jacob ; though in another place he fays, he wonders that writers have not rather fuppofed it to have got the epithet of Redy from the colour of the fand on its coafts, than for other reafons they have al. leged. With regard to any rednefs in the water itfelf, or in the bottom, which fome have aflerted, our travel¬ ler aflures us that there is no fuch tiling. It is more dif¬ ficult to aflign a reafon for the Hebrew name of it, which lignifies the Sea of Weeds ; as he never faw a weed throughout the whole extent of it. “ Indeed, (fays he) upon the flighteft con fide ration, it will occur to any one, that a narrow gulph, under the immediate influence of the monfoons, blowing from contrary points fix months each year, would have too much agi¬ tation to produce fuch vegetables, feldom found but in ftagnant waters, and feldom, if ever, found in fait ones. My opinion then is, that it is from the large trees or plants of white coral, fpread everywhere over the bottom of the Red Sea, perfectly in imitation of plants on land, that the fea has obtained this name.—I faw one of thefe, which, from a root nearly central, threw out ramifications of an almoft circular form, meafuring 26 feet every way.” Our author has alfo made many ufeful obfervations on the navigation of this fca. “ All the weftern ftiore (he fays) is bold, and has more depth of water than the eaft; but on this fide there is neither anchoring ground nor (hoals. It is rocky, with a confiderable depth of water everywhere ; and there are a number of funken rocks, which, though notviiible, are fufficiently near the furface to deftroy a large fhip.” The caufe of this, in Mr Bruce’s opinion, is, that the mountains on the fide of Abyffinia and Egypt are all of hard ftone, porphyry, many different kinds of marble, granite, ala- bafter, and bafaltes. T. hefe being all compofed of fo- lid materials, therefore, can part with very- little dull or fand, which might otherwife be blown Vrom them into the fea. On the oppofite coaft, viz. that of He- jaz and Tahamah, on the Arabian fide, the whole con- iifts of moving fands; a large quantity of which is blown from tlie fouth-eaft by the dry winter monfoons; which being lodged among the rocks on that fide, and confined there by tire north-call or fummer monfoon, which is in a contrary direftion, hinders them from co¬ ming over to the Egyptian fide. Hence the weftern coaft is full of funk rocks for want of fand to cover them, With which they would otherwife become iflandf. They are naked and bare all round, with fliarp points Uke fpears; while, on the eaft-iide, every rock becomes E RED [ or three illands become an Red Sea. an Ifland, and every two —v-— harbour. On the ends of the principal of thele har¬ bours the people have piled up great heaps of Hones to ferve as lignals : “ and it is in thefe (lays Mr bruce) that the large velfels from Cairo to Jidda, equal in lize to our large 74 gun-fhipe (but from the ciiterns of ma- fon-work built within for holding water, I fuppofe double their weight), after navigating their portion of the channel in the day-time, come fafely and quietly to at four o’clock in the afternoon ; and in thefe little har¬ bours pafs the night, to fail into the channel again next morning.” , ' The weftern channel of the Red Sea was cholen, in the days of the Ptolemies, for the track of the Indian and African. Thefe monarchs ere&ed a great number of cities all along the weftern coaft ; and notwithftand- ing the dangers of the navigation, we do not hear tliat it was ever abandoned on account of them. From the obfervations made by our author on the navigation of the Red Sea, he undertakes to point out a fafe paflage for large fhips to the gulph of Suez, fo that they may be able to judge of the propriety of their own courfe themfelvcs, without trailing implicitly to the pilots they meet with, who are often very ignorant of their profeflion. 1 his fea, according to Mr llruce, may be divided into four parts, of which the channel occupies two, till near the latitude of 26 , or that of Coffair. On the weft it is deep water, with many rocks; and on the eaft it is full of iflands, as has been already mentioned. Between thefe iflands there are channels and harbours of deep water, where (hips may be prote&ed in any wind ; but a pilot is neceflary in failing among thefe from Mocha to Suez, and the voy¬ age beiides can be continued only during part of the day. Ships bound to Suez without the confent of the Iheriffe of Mecca, that is, without any intention of fell¬ ing their cargo at Jidda, or paying cuftom there, ought to take in their frelh water at Mocha; or if there be any reafon againft this, a few hours will carry them to Azab or Saba on the Abyflinian coaft, where they may be plentifully fupplied : but it muft be remembered, “ that the people here are Galla, the molt treacherous and villanous wretches on earth.” Here not only water may be procured, but plenty of fheep, goats, with fome myrrh, and incenfe in the proper feafon.-— Great caution, however, muft be ufed in dealing with the people, as even thofe of Mocha, who are abfolutely necelfary to them in their commercial dealings, cannot trull them without furety or hoftages. Not many years ago, the furgeon and mate of the Elgin Eaft India- man, with feveral other failors, were murdered by thefe favages as they went afhore to purchafe myrrh, though they had a letter of fafe condudl from the ftiekh. To fuch as do not want to be known, our author recommends a low black ifland on the coaft of Arabia, named Camaran, in latitude 150 30'. It is diftinguifh- ed by a white houfe or fortvefs on the weft end of it; where water is to be had in ftill greater plenty than at Azab ; but no proviflons, or fuch only as are very bad, can be procured. If it is neceflary not to be feen at all on the coaft, the ifland of Foolht is recommended by our author as having excellent water, with a faint or monk, whofe office is to keep the wells clean. This is one of the chain of iflands which ftretches almoft acrofs the gulph from Loheia to Mafuah, and from ac- 34 1 RED tual obfervation by Mr Bruce, is found to be fituated Ret! So. in N. Lat. 15° 59' 43'. E. Long. 420 47'. From this to Yambo there is a fafe watering-place ; and there is an*abfolute neceflity for having a pilot before you come to Ras Mahomet; becaufe, over the iElanitic gulph, the mountains of Aucha, and the Cape itfelf, there is often a thick haze which lafts for many days together, and a number of Ihips are loft by miftaking the eaftern bay or iElanitic gulph for the entrance of the gulph of Suez ; the former has a ridge of rocks nearly acrofs it. After reaching Sheduan, a large ifland, about three leagues farther in a north by well direftion, there is a bare rock diftinguifhed by no par¬ ticular name ; but fo fituated that Ihips ought not to come within three leagues of it. This rock is to be left to the weft ward at the diftance juft mentioned ; af¬ ter palling wrhich you meet with Ihoals forming a pretty broad channel, with foundings from 15 to 30 fathoms ; and again, on Handing dire&ly for Tor, there are two other oval fands with funk rocks in the chan¬ nel, between which you are to fteer. Tor may be known at a diftance by two hills that Hand near the water fide ; which, in clear weather, may be ieen lix leagues off. Juft to the fouth-eall of thefe is the town and harbour, where there are fome palm-trees about the houfes, the more remarkable, as being the firft that are feen on the coaft. The foundings in the way to Tor harbour are clean and regular ; “ and, by giving the beacon a fmall birth on the larboard hand, you may haul in a little to the northward, and anchor in five or fix fathom.” In fpring-tides, it is high water at Tor nearly about 12 o’clock : in the middle of the gulph there is no perceptible tide, but at the fides it runs at the rate of snore than two knots in the hour. 'For it¬ felf is but a fmall village, with a convent of monks be¬ longing to thofe of Mount Sinai. It was taken by Don John de Cailro, and fortified foon after its difeo- very by the Portuguefe; but has never fince been a place of any conlideration ; ferving now only for a wa¬ tering place to the fhips trading to or from Suez.— From this place there is a diftinft view of mounts Ho- reb and Sinai, which appear above and behind the others, with their tops frequently covered with inow iii the winter. Mr Bruce next proceeds to confider fome queftions which may be reckoned matters of curiofity rather than any thing elfe. One of thefe is concerning the level of the water of this fea itfelf, which has been fuppofed fe¬ veral feet above that of the Mediterranean. “ To this (fays our author) I anfwcr, that the fa£t has been fup¬ pofed to be fo by antiquity, and alleged as a reafon why Ptolemy’s canal was made from the bottom of the Heroopolitic gulph rather than brought due north acrofs the ifthmus of Suez ; in which laft cafe it was feared it would fubmerge a great part of Alia Minor. But who has ever attempted to verify this by experi¬ ment ? or who is capable of fettling the difference of le¬ vels, amounting, as fuppofed, to fome feet and inches, between two points 120 miles diftant from each other, over a defert that has no fettled furface, but is chan¬ ging its height every day ? Befides, finoe all feas are in fa —The next thing confidered by our author is the paf- entering upon lands, &c. that have been fold and af- fage of the Ifraelites through the Red Sea. At the figned, upon rcimburfmg the purchafe-money with le- place where he fuppofes the paflage to have been, the gal coils. fea is not quite four leagues broad, fo that it might ea- Redemption, in theology, denotes the recovery of lily have been croffed in one night without any miracle, mankind fiom tin and death, by the obedience and fa- There is about 14 fathom water in the channel, and 9 crihce of Chrift, who on this account is called the at the fides, with good anchorage everywhere ; the far- deemer of the world, bee 1 heology. theft, fide is a low Tandy edaft, "and a very eafy landing REDENS, Redans, or Redant, in fortification, a place. “ The draught of the bottom of the gulph kind of work indented in form of the teeth of a faw, (fays he) given by Dr Pococke, is very erroneous in with faliant and re-entering angles ; to the end that one every part of it. It was propofed to Mr Niebuhr, when part may flank or defend another. It is likewife called ia Egypt, to inquire upon the fpot, whether there were Jaw-work and indented work, d he lines or faces in this not fome ridges of rocks where the water was (hallow, flank one another. do that an army at particular times might pafs over ? Redens are ufed in fortifying walls, where it is not Secondly, whether the Etefian winds, which blow neceflary to be at the expence ot building bullions; ftrongly all fummer from the north-well, could not as when they (land on the lide of a river running blow fo violently againil the fea, as to keep it back on through a garrifon town, a marlh, the fea, &c. But the a heap, fo that the Ifraelites might have palled with- fault of fuch fortification is, that the befiegers from one out a miracle ? And a copy of thefe queries was left battery may ruin both the fidcs of the tenaille or front for me to join my inquiries likewife. But I mull con- of a place, and make an alfault without fear of being fiefs, however learned the gentlemen were who propofed enfiladed, fince the defences are mined. I he parapet thefe doubts, I did not think they merited any atten- of the corridor is likewife often redented or carried oa lion to folve them. If the Etefian winds, blowing from by the way of redens. The redens was ufed before the north-weft in fummer, could heap up the fea as a ballions were invented, and fome people think them pre- wall on the right or to the fouth, of 50 feet high, ferable. (till the difficulty would remain of building the wall on REDI (Francis), an Italian phyfician and polite the left hand or to the north. Befides, water (landing fcholar, was born at Arezzo in Pufcany in 1626. His in that pofition for a day, mull have loll the nature of ingenuity and learning recommended him to the office a fluid. Whence came that cohefion of particles that of firft phyfician to Ferdinand II. duke of Tufcany ; hindered that wall to efcape at the fides ? This is as and he contributed not a little toward the compiling of great a miracle as that of Mofes. If the Etefian winds the Dictionary of La Crufca. He wrote upon vipers, had done this once, they mull have repeated it many a upon the generation of infedls, and compofed a good time before and fince, from the fame caufes. Yet Dio- deal of poetry. All his writings are in Italian; and dorus Siculus fays, the Troglodytes, the indigenous in- his language is fo fine and pure, that the authors of the habitants of that very fpot, had a tradition from father Didliouary of La Crufca have often cited them as ftan- tto fon, from their very earlielt and remoteft ages, that dards of perfection. He died in 1697. once this divifion of the fea did happen there; and that, REDOUB I', in fortification, a fmall fquare fort, after leaving the bottom fome time dry, the fea again without any delence but in front ; ufed in trenches, came back and covered it with great fury. The words lines of circumvallation, contravallation, and approach ; ajf this author are of the moft remarkable kind. We as alfo for the lodgings of corps-de-gard, and to de- cannot think this heathen is writing in favour of reve- fend paflages. iation. He knew not Mofes, nor fays a word about REDUCTION, in the fchools, a manner of bring- Pharaoh and his hoft ; but records the miracle of the ing a term or propofition, which was betore oppolite to divifion of the fea in words nearly as ftrong as thofe fome other, to be equivalent to it. • of Mofes, from the mouths of unbialfed undefigning Reduction, in arithmetic, that rule whereby num- pagans.” bers of different denominations are brought into one de- RuD-Sbank, in ornithology. See Scolopax. domination. See Arithmetic. a fpecies of Motacilla. Rkductiox of Equations, in algebra, is the clearing Run-Wing. SccTurdus. them from all fuperfluous quantities, bringing them to REDANS, in field fortification. See the article their loweft terms, and feparating the known from the Redens. unknown, till at length only the unknown quantity is REDDENDUM, in law, is ufed fubftantively for found on one fide, and known ones on the other. The the claufe in a leafe wherein the rent is referved to the reduclion of an equation is the lalt part of the refolu- leflbr. The proper place for it is next after the limita- tion of the problem. See Algebra. tion of eftate. Reduction of a figure, defign, or draught, is the REDDITIO, was the third part of the facrifice of making a copy thereof, cither larger or fmaller than the heathens, and confifted of the folemn ait of putting the original; Hill preferving the form and proportion, in again the entrails of the vi&irns, after they had been The great ufe of the proportional compaffes is the re- religioully infpe&ed. See Sacrifice. duftion of figures, &c. whence they are called comt>aJ[es REDDLE, a foft, heavy, red marie, of great ufe of reduQion. See the article Compass. in colouring ; and being walhcd and treed from fand, There are various methods of reducing figures, &c. E 2 the RED- [36 Redudtion the moft eafy is by means of the pentagraph, or paral- 11 Iclocfram : but this hath itsdefetls. See the article Pen- Redundant. f* v. _ T A G R A P H • ^ The belt and moft ufual methods of reduftion are as follow: 1. To reduce a figure, as ABCDE (n° I•)» ccccxxxv ^nto a compafs. About the middle of the figure, as 2, pitch on a point, and from this point draw lines to its feveral angles A, B, C, &c. then drawing the line a b parallel to AB, b c parallel to BC, &c. you will have the figure abode fimilar to ABCDE. If the figure abode had been required to be enlarged, there needed nothing but to produce the lines from the point beyond the angles, as z D, z C, &c. and to draw lines, viz. DC, CB, &c. parallel to the fidesi/r, c b, &c. 2. To reduce a figure by the angle of proportion, fuppofe the figure ABCDE (n°2.) required to bedi- minifired in the proportion of the line AB \.o a b (n° 3.), draw the indefinite line GH (n°4.), and from G to H fet off the line AB. On G deferibe the arch HI. Set off the line a b as a chord on HI, and draw GI. Then with the angle IGH, you have all the meafures of the figure to be drawn. Thus to lay down the point c, take the interval BC, and upon the point G deferibe the arch KL. Alfo on the point G deferibe MN ; and upon A, with the diftance MN, deferibe an arch cutting the preceding one in c, which will determine the fide be. And after the fame manner are the other Tides and angles to be deferibed. The fame procefs will alfo ferve to enlarge the figure. 3. To reduce a figure by a feale. Meafure all the Tides of the figure, as ABCDE (n° 2.) by a fcale, and lay down the fame meafures refpedlively from a fmaller fcale in the proportion required. 4. To reduce a map, defign, or figure, by fquares. Divide the original into little fquares, and divide a frelh paper of the dimenfions required into the fame number of fquares, which are to be larger or lefs than the for¬ mer, as the map is to be enlarged or diminifiied. This done in every fquare of the fecond figure, draw what you find in its correfpondent one in the firft. Reduction, in metallurgy, is the bringing back me¬ talline fubftances which have been changed into fcorite or afhes, or otherwife divefted of their metallic form, into their natural and original ftate of metals again. See Metallurgy, pajfun ; and Chemistry, n^ 140. and 320. Reduction, in furgery, denotes an operation where¬ by a difiocated, luxated, or fratlured bone, is rellored to its former ftate or place. REDUNDANCY, a fault in difeourfe, c^nfifting in the ufe of a fuperftuity of words. Words perfect¬ ly fynonymous are redundant, and ought to be re¬ trenched. REDUNDANT, in mufic. What the French call une accordfuperflue, which we have tranflated a redun¬ dant chord in the article Music (from D’Alembert), has by others been rendered a chord extremely Jharp, as in the tranflation of Rameau’s Principles of Gompofi- tion. Their nature will be belt underftood by a few examples, and an account of the number of tones, femi- toncs, or leflfer intervals, contained in each. The fecond redundant is compofed of a major tone* and a minor femitone; as from fa to fol lharp. Its pro¬ portion is as 64 to 75. ] REE- The third redundant confifts of two tones and a femi¬ tone, as/a, fharp. Its proportion is as 96 to 125. The fourth redundant is the fame with the tritone. From thefe examples compared with the fame inter¬ vals in their natural ftate, the reader may form a general idea of what is meant by redundant. REE, Reis, or Res, a little Portuguefe coin. See Mon rt-Table. REED, in botany. See Arundo and Bamboo. There are two forts of reeds, fays Haffelquift, grow¬ ing near the Nile. One of them has fcarce any branch¬ es ; but is furnifiied with numerous leaves, which are narrow, fmooth, channelled on the upper furface ; and the plant is about 11 feet high. The Egyptians make ropes of the leaves. They lay them in water like hemp, and then make them into good ftrong cables. Thefe, with the bark of the date-tree, form almoft the only cable ufed in the Nile. The other fort is of great con- fequence. It is a fmall reed, about twro or three feet high, full branched, with Ihort, fliarp, lancet-fiiaped leaves. The roots, which are as thick as the ftem, creep and mat themfelves together to a conliderable di¬ ftance. This plant feems ufelefs in common life : but to it, continues the learned author, is the very foil of Egypt owing : for the matted roots have ftopped the earth w'bich floated in the waters, and thus formed, out of the fea, a country that is habitable. Fire-REEDS. See FiRE-Ship. Reed, a term in the weft of England for the ftraw ufed by thatchers, which is wheat ftraw finely combed, confifting of ftiff, unbruifed, and unbroken ftalks of great length, carefully feparated from the ftraw ufed for fodder by the threlher, and bound in {heaves ©r nitches, each of which weighs 28 lb. and are fold from 21 s. to 31 s. per hundred nitches, according to the- feafon. 1 his is a great improvement in the art ot thatching, as it gives a finifli to tiie work which cannot be attained by ftraw, rough and tumbled together, without any feparation of the long and fhort: it alfo is a readier mode of working. REEF, a term in navigation. When there is a great gale of wind, they commonly roll up part of the fail below, that by this means it may become the nar¬ rower, and not draw fo much wind ; which contrad- ing- or taking up the fail they call a reef, or reefing the fail: fo alfo when a top-majl is fprung, as they call it, that is, when-it is cracked, or ahnoft broken in the cap* they cut off the lower piece that was near broken off* and fetting the other part, now much fhorter, in the ftep again,- they call it a reefed top-majl. REEL, in the manufa&ories, a machine fer/ing for the oflice of reeling. There aie various kinds of reels ; fome very Ample, others very complex. REELING, in the manufa&ories, the winding of filk, cotton, or the like, into a- Ikain, or upon a button, to prevent its entangling. It is alfo ufed for the char¬ ging or difeharging of bobbins, or quills, to ufe them in the manufacture of different Huffs, as thread, filk, cot-* ton, &c. Reeling is performed in difl'erent ways, and on different engines. REEVING, in the fea-language, the putting a rope through a block: hence to pull a rope out of a block is called unreeving. RE-EXCHANGE, in commerce, a fecond pay*- wait uf the price of exchange, or rather the piice of REF [ F e (51 ion ■ n F ming. a new exchange due upon a bill of exchange that comes to be protefted, and to be refunded the bearer by the drawer or indorfer. REFECTION, among ecclefiaftics, a fpare meal or repail, juft fufficing for the fiYpport of hfe : hence the hall in convents, and other communities, where the monks, nuns, See. take their refedtions or meals in com¬ mon, is called the refefiory. REFERENCE, in writing, Sec. a mark relative to another limilar one in the margin, or at the bottom of the page, where fomething omitted in the text is added, and which is to be inferted either in reading or copy- ir)£* . . REFINING, in general, is the art of purifying a thing ; including not only the effaying or refining of metals, but likewife the depuration or clarification of liquors. See Metallurgy, Part II. Clarification; and Pharmacy. Gold and lilver may be refined by feveral methods, which are all founded on the efiential properties of thefe metals, and acquire different names according to their kinds. Thus, for inftance, gold having the property which no other metal, not even filver, has of refilling the adlion of fulphur, of antimony, of nitrous acid, of marine acid, may be purified by thefe agents from all other metallic fubftances, and confequently may be re¬ fined. Thefe operations are diftinguifhed by proper names, as purification of gold by antimony', parting, ccncen- 1 e Part, (rated parting, dry parting*. In a fimilar manner, as filver has the property, which the imperfedl metals have not, of refilling the adftiou of nitre, it may be re¬ fined by this fait: but the term refining is chiefly ap¬ plied to the purification of gold and filver by lead in the cupel. This is performed by the deftru£lion, vitrification, and fcorifieation, of all the extraneous and deftrudlible metallic fubftances with which they are all allayed. As none but the perfect metals ean refill the com¬ bined a&ion of air and fire, without loling their in¬ flammable principle, and being changed into earthy or vitreous matters, incapable of remaining any longer uni¬ ted with fubftances in a metallic Hate, there is then a poffibility of purifying gold and filver from all allay of imperfect metals merely by the adion of fire and air ; only by keeping them fufed till all the allay be deftroy- cd : but this purification would be very expenfiye, from the great confumption of fuel, and would be exceedingly tedious. Silver allayed with copper has been expofed longer than 60 hours to a glafs-houfe fire without be¬ ing perfe&ly refined : the reafon of which is* that when a fmall quantity only of imperfeCt metal remains united'with gold or filver, it is covered and protected from the aCtion of the air, which is neceffary for the combuftion of the imperfeCt metals, as of all combulti- ble matters. This refining of gold and filver merely by the aCtiorr of fire, which was' the only method anciently known, w'as veiy long, difficult, expenfrve, and impei'feCt ; bi;t a much fhorter and more advantageous method has been difeovered. This method'confifts in adding to the al¬ layed gokl and filver a certain quantity of lead, and in expoiing afterwards this mixture to the aClion of the fire. Lead is one of the metals which lofes moil quickly and eafily afufficient quantity of its inflammable principle to ceafe to be in a metallic Hate; but, at the 37 1 REF lame time, tl k metal has the remarkable property of Refining^ retaining, notw ithftandiug the aClion of the fire, enoughv*- of this fame inflammable principle to be very eafily melted into a vitrified and powerfully vitrifying matter, called litharge. The lead then which is to be added to the gold and filver to be refined, or which happens naturally to be mixed with thefe metals, produces in their refining the following advantages: I. By incrcafing the proportion of imperfefl metals, it prevents them from being fo well covered and protected by the perfect metals.— 2. By uniting with thefe imperfed metals, it commu¬ nicates to them a property it has of lofing very eafily a great part of its inflammable principle. 3. By its vi¬ trifying and fuling property which it exercifes with all its force upon the calcined and naturally refraclory parts of the other metals, it facilitates and accelerates the fu- fion, the fcorification, and the feparation of thefe me¬ tals. Thefe are the advantages procured by lead in the refining of gold and filver. The lead, which in this operation is fcorified, and fcorifies along with it the imperfefk metals, feparates from the metallic mafs, with which it is then incapable- of remaining united. It floats upon the furface of the melted rwafs ; bccaufe, by lofing part of its phlogif- ton, it lofes alio part of its fpecific gravity, and laltly it vitrifies. Thefe vitrified and melted 'matters accumulating more and more upon the furface of the metal while the operation advances, would proted this furface from the contad of air which is fo abfolutely neceflary for the icorification of the reft, and would thus Hop the pro- grefs of the operation, which could never be finiflied, if a method had not been contrived for their removal. This yemoval of the vitrified matter is procured either by the nature of the vcffel in which the melted matter is con¬ tained, and which being porous, abl'orbs and imbibes* the fcorilied matter as fall as it is formed, or by a chan¬ nel cut in the edge ot the velfel through which the matter flows out. The veffel in which the refining is performed is flat and (hallow, that-the matter which it contains may pre- fent to the air the greateft furface pofiible. This form refembles that of a cup, and lienee it has been called cu¬ pel. i he furnace ought to be vaulted, that the heat may be applied upon the furface of the metal during’ the whole time ot the operation. Upon this furface a cruft of dark-coloured pellicle is continually forming. In the irritant w hen all the imperfed metal is deftroved, and confequently the fcorifieation ceafcs, the furface of the peifect metals is feen, and appears dean and bril¬ liant. This forms a kind of fulguration or corui- cation. By this mark the metal is known to be refined. If the opeiation be fo conduded that-the metal ful- tains only the precife degree of heat neceflary to keep it fufed before it be perfedly refined, we may obfervs- that it fixes or becomes folid all at once in the very in- llant of the corufcation ; becaufe a greater heat is re¬ quired to keep filver or gold in fuliow when they are pure than when allayed with lead. The operation of refining may be performed in final! ^ * or in large quantities, upon the lame principles, but only with fome differences in the management. As the? refining of fmall quantities of perfed metals is perform** ed in the fame maimer as theie mcwL are eflayed, th«- eliayy H Reform. R F. F [38 Reflexion efTay being only a very accurate refining, vre refer to the article Essay of the Va/ue of Silver. Large quantities of filver are thus purified, after the operations by which that metal is obtained from its ores. This filver, being always much allayed, is to be mixed with a fufficient quantity of lead to complete its purification, unlefs lead has been added in its firit fufion from the ore, or urilefs it has been extracted from an ore which alfo contains lead; in which latter cafe, it is allayed naturally with a fufficient quantity, or more than fufficient, for the refining of it. REFLECTION, the return or progrefiive motion of a moving body, occafioned by fome obllacle which hindered it from purfuing its former dire&ion. Circular Injlrumtnt of Rf.flectioh, an inftrument for meafuring angles to a very great degree of accuracy. It was invented by the celebrated -aftronomer Mr To¬ bias Mayer of Gottingen, principally with a view to do away the errors of the divifions of the limb ; and has fince been much improved by the Chevalier de Eorda, and M. J. H. de Magellan. This inftrument is particularly applicable to the meafuring of the diftances of the heavenly bodies, and was ufed by the French in their part of the operation for determining the dif¬ ference of meridians of Paris and Greenwich. For the -defeription, re&ification, and ufe of this inllrument, fee the article Navigation, and Mackay on the Longitude, vol. i. p. 44. r , * Rfflfction of the Rays of Light, m catoptrics, is their return, afteV approaching fo near the furface of bodies as to be thereby repelled or driven backwards. Tor the caufes of refledtion, fee Optics, Index at Rays of Light, and Refettion of Light, &c. For the application of the do&rine of refle&ion to mirrors, fee Optics, p. 347—349. See alfo Mirror, Burning- Glcfs, and Glafs-G ion ding ; and for the coating or foli¬ ating of mirrors, fee the article Foliaiing of Looking- glajjes, &c. See alfo Telescope. Reflection is alfo nfed, figuratively, for an ope¬ ration of the mind, whereby it turns its view backwards as, it were upon itfelf, and makes itfelf and its own ope¬ rations the objeft of its difquifition ; and by contem¬ plating the manner, order, and laws, which it obferves in perceiving ideas, comparing them together, reafon- ing, 6cc. it frames new ideas of the relations difeovered therein. See Metaphysics. REFLEX, in painting, means thofe places in a pi&ure which are fuppofed to be illuminated by light refle&ed from fome other body in the fame piece. See Paint¬ ing, Part I. feft. 2. and 5. REFLUX, the backward courfe of water, has the fame meaning as the ebbing of the fea, and is oppofed to flood, flux, or the flowing of the fea. See Tides. REFORM means a change from worfe to better, a rc eftablifliment or revival of former negletted difeipline, or a correftion of abufes therein. The term is much ufed in a monadic fenfe for the reducing an order or congregation of religious to the ancient feverity of the rule from which it had gradually fwerved, or even for improving on the ancient rule and inliitution itfelf, and voluntarily making it more fevere. In this fenfe the order of St Bernard is faid to be only a reform of that of St Benedict. In this country it is applied both to politics and religion, and may innocently be applied to any endeavours to change an eftablilhment from worfe ] REF to better. But it appears at prefeut to have been Reform, chiefly made a pretence for defigns which could not fairly or fafely be avowed. A reform in religion and in parliament (fee Parlia¬ ment) has, we know, been moft loudly called for by men whofe religious notions are immenfely different from what has been generally reckoned Chriftianity, and whofe defigns, as has been legally proved, went to the overthrow of all civil order. For inhdious purpofes like thefe, the ward reform is a good cloak, efpecially if any thing can be fixed upon, either in the religion or government of the Hate, which, with the help of exag¬ geration and diftortion, can be reprefented to the weak and unthinking as extremely defective and enoneous. The general error of thefe men feems to be, that ha¬ ving picked up a fet of fpeculative notions which flatter their own pride and the pride of thofe who liften to them, they will allow nothing to the arguments of their opponents or the experience of mankind. They think fo often and fo much upon their ideal reforms, that while they imagine their notions are liberal and exten- five, they become contracted beyond imagination; while their judgments, of courfe, are warped with the moil inveterate prejudices (iee Prejudice.) They fee, or think they fee, the propriety of their fchemes ; but they feldom, perhaps never, refleft, that that may be true in fpeculation or in theory which cannot pofiibly be redu¬ ced to praCtice. They will not take the world as it is, and allow it to profit by the wifdom and experience of ages; but they will reform it according to thofe ideas of right which they have learned from their own fpecula- tions and airy theories ; feldom confidering what may be done, they are determined to do what they think ought to be done. Liberty of confcience, and liberty of aClion, have been claimed by them as the unalienable rights of man ; and fo we ourlelves are difpofed to think them : nor have we heard that in this country they have been denied to any man, or fet of men, fo far as has been thought confiftent with the fafety of the ftate, and that of the other individuals who compofe it. At the fame time, the very fame men hefitate not to blame, with acrimony the moft violent, and to the utmoit of their power to reftrain, the aClions and opinions of thofe who with equal conviClion, often on better grounds, and generally with more modefty, differ from them. Amidft that exceflive ardour, too, with which they propagate their opinions, they forget the extreme dan¬ ger ot withdrawing the attention of that part of the community, who mull earn their bread by the fweat of their brow, irom their proper occupations, to the tempeftuous fea of political debate, for which their education and mode of life cannot pofiibly have quali¬ fied them. It requires but very little penetration, however, to be able to fee, that it can be of no real fervice either to the individuals themfelves, or to the community at large, in whatever light we look upon it. Indeed, to make thofe the judges of the law, and the reformers of the legiflature, who have all their lives been employed in manual labour, is the extreme of fol¬ ly ; and yet it is what fome men of confiderable abilities, and from whom we had reafon to expeCl better things, have more than once attempted. ’1 he effeCl of fuch a mode of feduftion (and it deferves no better name), when it lhall become general, inilead of ftrrving the purpol'es of a real reform, mult be to annihilate all civil order. Lifla- tisfaClion form, forma REF C 39 ] tlsfa&ion is the moft powerful check to honeft induftryj pline, or the like, and difiatisfa&ion and idlencfs muft be the effeit of the wanderings of fuch men in the labyrinths of politics ; which, for uncultivated minds efpecially,paves the way for every fpecies of vice, and gradually ripens them for any wickednefs, however atrocious. For the truth of thefe re¬ marks, we appeal to the hiftory of mankind from theCrea- tion to the prefent time: and we would ferioufly requell the fober fritnds of reform, and many fuch, \tre doubt not, there are, to reflect, that in the prefent day we have more to fear from Hcentioufnefs than from defpotifm ; from reform carried to an extreme than from the pre¬ tended attempts either of kings or minulers to annihi¬ late our real liberty (fee Revolution). It may alfo be worth their while to confider, that times of public danger are not generally the bell adapt¬ ed to attempt changes of government; becaufe what might fatisfy one party would probably be thought too little by another, and divifions at fuch a period are moll dangerous. When, therefore, attempts are' made for re¬ form which appear to be inconfiftent with the fafety of the Hate, reftridlions mull be ufed, which may by fpecu- lative men be thought fevere and unneceflary, but of which they themfelves are the caufes. Thefe re- ftri&ions too will be patiently fubmitted to by the wifer part of the community, when in more peaceable times they would neither have been thought of nor al¬ lowed. Speculative reafoners may fpeak as much as they will of enlightening the minds of men, and of reform- ing government by the di&ates of a refined and dif- pafiionate philofophy; but when they come to apply their notions to practice, they will either find their re- prefentations little better than empty founds, and there REF By way of eminence the word is Reforms* ufed for that great alteration and reformation in the cor- t'OD' rupted fyltem of Chrillianity, begun by Luther in the year 1517. Under the article History (fed. ii.), the various corruptions in religion, t f: opprefilons and ufurpations of the clergy, and the extreme infolence of the popes, have been fo fully treated of, that any further detail here is unneceflary. It is fufficient to obferve, that, be- rhe pX fore the period of the Reformation, the Pope had in aflumts the the moll audacious manner declared himfelf the fovereigndifPofal °f ol the whole world. All the parts of it which were t^ie inhabited by thofe who were not Chrillians, he account-WOr ed to be inhabited by no-loJy ; and if Chrillians took it into their heads to poflefs any of thofe countries, he gave them full liberty to make war upon the inhabitants without any provocation, and to treat them with no humanity than they would have treated wild more fore ineffedual ; or, as is more generally found to be the cafe, thofe fchemes which in theory appeared to be perfedl, will in pra&ice, when combined with the ma¬ lignant and ambitious paflions of men, lead to ruin and diforder. I he firll inditution of government, except among the Jews, was unqueftionably the effedl of paf- fion and interell combined ; and this palfion and this interell, reftrained within due bounds, is produdlive of much happinefs. That government, we believe, too, will be bell fupported, and mod; productive of happi¬ nefs, in which the mutual pafllons and interefts of the individuals who compofe it are fo equally poifed as to fupport one another, and to promote each the ends and fuccefs of the other: and this by the ablell reafoners and the bed men has been thought to be the cafe with the Britilh conftitution. If the modern favourers of reform fhould think this an unltable fupport, if they will conlider the world as it ever has been, and as it is, they will find it the only one we have, except religion ; and they will thence be inclined to make the bed of it! If, after all, however, they fhould be difpofed to doubt the polition, we have only further to requelt them, with the fincerity of men and of Chridians, to confult their own breads, and ferioufly to cor.hder the probable mo¬ tives of thofe who a& with them. They will then per¬ haps fee, and they furely ought to acknowledge, that *ew men have adted more according to the impulfe of paflion, intered, and ambition, than thofe who have for lome time pall founded the toezin of reform. . REFORMATION, in general, an act of reform¬ ing or correcting an error or abufe in religion, diici- beads. The countries, if conquered, were to be par¬ celled out according to the pope’s pleafure ; and dread¬ ful was the fituation of that prince who refufed to obey the will of the holy pontiff, of which many indance* will occur to the reader in the various hidorical articles of this work. In confequence of this extraordinary authority which the pope had affumed, he at lad grant¬ ed to the king of Portugal all the countries to the call- ward of Cape Non in Africa, and to the king of Spain all the countries to the wedward of it. In this, ac¬ cording to the opinions of fome, was completed in his perfon the charaAer of /inftcbrtjl fitting in the temple of God, andJhewing himfelf as God He had long before , * » TheC fay they, affumed the fupremacy belonging to the Dei-'1* 4* ty himfelf in fpiritual matters ; and now he affumed the fame fupremacy in worldly matters alfo, giving the ex treme regions of the earth to whom he pleafed. The Reformation, therefore, they coniider as the immediate effeA of divine power taking vengeance on this and all other deviations from the fydem of truth ; while others confider it merely as an effeA of natural caufes, and which might have been forefeen and prevented, without abridging the papal power in any conliderable degree. . Ee th'8 as it will, however, the above-mentioned par¬ tition was the lad piece of infolence which the pope ever had, or in all probability ever will have, in his pow¬ er to exercife, in the way' of parcelling out the globe to his adherents. Every thing was quiet, every heretic exterminated, and the whole Chridian world fupinely acquiefeed in the enormous abfurdities which were in¬ culcated upon them; when, in 1517, the empire of fuper- itition began to decline, and has continued to do fo ever imee. The perfon who made the firff attack on the extravagant luperftition* then prevailing w'as Martin Luther; the occafion of which is fully related under , a^,cle Luther. By fome it is pretended, that the only motive which Luther had in beginning the Re¬ formation was his enmity to the Dominican friars, who 2 had excluded his order (the Augudins) from all fhare Rcf°uma" m the gainful traffic of indulgences. But this does not feem atall probable, ,f we confider that fuch a motive would not naturally have led him to deny the virtue of indulgences, as fuch conduA could not but exclude him forever from any chance of a (hare in the traffic, which otherwife perhaps he might have obtained. Beiides the extreme contrariety of this traific to the common principles of reafon and honefty wras fo great, that we ^ cannot^ Refo ma¬ tron. In Switzer land by ZuiugHus. Oppofed in Germany by Char. V * See La¬ tter. REF t 4’ cannot wonder at finding on. man in the world who had fenfe enough to difcern it, and virtue enough to oppoie fuch an infamous pra&icc. In all probability, however, the infignificancy of the fira reformer was the realon why he was not perfecuted and exterminated at his hrit beginning, as others had b vn before him. Another reafon probably might be, that he did not at once at¬ tack the whole errors of Popery, but brought about his reformation gradually, probably as it occurred to lum- felf, and as we have related in the account of hts ne. The Reformation began in the city.of W ittemnerg in Saxony, but was not long confined either to that ci¬ ty or province. In 1520 the. Francifcan . uais, w 10 had the care of promulgating indulgences in Switzer¬ land, were oppofed by Zuinglius, a man not inferior 111 undemanding and knowledge to Luther himfeU. tlu proceeded with the greateft vigour, even at the very be¬ einning, to overturn the whole fabnc of Popepr ; but his opinions were declared erroneous by the umverfities of Cologne and Louvain. Notwithftanding this, the ■lagillrates of Zurich approved of his proceedings ; and that whole canton, together with thofe of Bern, Baiil, and Chaffaufen, embraced his opinions. In Germany, Luther continued to make great ad¬ vances, without being in the leaft intimidated, by the ecclefiaftical cenfures which were thundered againtt him from all quarters, he being continually protefted by the German princes either from religious or political mo¬ tives, fo that his adverfaries could not accomplilh ms deftru&ion as they had done that of others. The pnn- ces, who were upon bad terms with the court of Rome, took advantage of the fuccefs of the new doctrines; and in their own dominions eafily overturned a church which had loll all the refpeft and veneration of the inferior ranks. The court of Rome had difobliged fome of the fmaller princes in the north of Germany, whom the Pope probably thought too infigmficant to be worth the managing, and they univerfally eftabhflied the Re¬ formation in th«ir own dominions. Melandthon, Car- loftadius, and other men of eminence, alfo greatly for¬ warded the work of Luther ; and in all probability the Popifh hierarchy w'ould have foon come to an end, in the northern parts of Europe at leaft, had not the em¬ peror Charles V. given a fevere check to the progrefs of reformation in Germany. In order to follow out the fchemes didated by his ambition, he thought it necef- iary to ingratiate himfelf with the pope ; and the moll effeaual method of doing this was by deftroying Luther. The Pope’s legates infilled that Luther ought to be condemned by’the diet of Worms without either trial or hearing ; as being a moft notorious, avowed, and in¬ corrigible heretic. However, this appeared unjuft to the members of the diet, and he was fummoned to appear ; which he accordingly did without hefitation *. There is not the leaft doubt that his appearance there had been his lail in this world, had not the aftonilhing refpea that was paid him, and the crowds who came daily to fee him, deterred his judges from delivering the church from the author of fuch a peftilent herefy ; which they were flrongly folicited by the pope’s party to do. He was therefore permitted to depart with a fafe condua for a certain time ; after which he was in the (late of a proferibed criminal, to whom it was unlawful to perform any of the offices of humanity. During the confinement of Luther in a caftle near ] REF Warburg, the Reformation advanced rapidly; almoft Reform, every city in Saxony embracing the Lutheran opinions. At this time an alteration in the. eftabliftied 5 worfhipwas firft ventured uponatWittemberg,by abohlh- Form of ing the celebration of private maffes, and by giving the worlhipfi cup as well as the bread to the laity in the Lord s fup-^terd .,, per. In a ffiort time, however, the.new opinions were condemned by the univerfity of Pans, and a refutation of them was attempted by Henry VIII. of England. But Luther was not to be thus intimidated, lie pub- liihed his animadverfions on both with as much acrimo¬ ny as if he had been refuting the meaneft adveriary ; and a controverfy maaaged by fuch illuftrious antago- nifts drew a general attention, and the Reformers daily gained new converts both in France alld England. ^ But while the efforts of Luther were thus everywhere nifputci crowned with fuccefs, the divifions began to P™vadsm,.nK. which have fmee fo much agitated the reformed church-Return, es. The firft difpute was between Luther and Zuin¬ glius concerning the manner in which the body and blood of Chrift were prefent in the euchanft. Luther and his followers, though they had rejeaed.the notion ot tranfubftantiation, were neverthelefs ot opinion that the body and blood of Chrift; were really prefent in the Lord’s fupper, in a way which they could not pretend to explain. Carloftadt, who was Luther’s colleague, firft fug- . gefted another view of the fubjea, which was afterwards confirmed and illuftiated by Zuinglius, namely, that the body and blood of Chrift were not really prefent m the eucharift ; and that the bread and wine were no more than external fymbols to excite the remembrance of Chrift’s fufferings in the minds of thofe who received it. Both parties maintayied their tenets with the ut- moft obftinacy ; and, by their divifions, firft gave their adverfaries an argument againft them, which to this day the Catholics urge with great force ; namely, that the Proteftants are fo divided, that it is impoffible to know who is right or wrong ; and that there cannot be a ftronger proof than thefe divifions, that the whole doc trine is falfe. ,, , , > 7 To thefe inteftine divifions were added the horrors D;ftur of a civil war, occafioned byoppreffion on the one hand,cesin and enthufiafm on the other. In 1525, a great num-many, ber of feditious fanatics arofe on a fudden in diffeient parts of Germany, took arms, united their forces, and made war againft the empire, laying walle the country with fire and fword, and committing everywhere the greateft cruelties. The greateft part of this furious mob was compofed of peafants and vaffals,who groaned under heavy burdens, and declared that they were no longer able to bear the defpotic government of their chiefs; and hence this fedition had the name of the rujitc war, or the war of the peafants. At firft this rabble declared, that they had no other motives than the redrefs of their grievances ; but no fooner had the enthufiaft Munzer, or Munfter, the anabaptift, put himfelf at their head, than the face of things was entirely changed, and the civil commotions in Saxony and l huringia exceedingly increafed, of which an account is given under the aiticle Anabaptists. > In the mean time Frederic, furnamed the Wifey elec¬ tor of Saxony, and Luther’s great patron, departed this life, and was fucceeded by his brother John. Fiedciic, though he had protefted and encouraged Luther, yet was at no pains to introduce the reformed religion into r ^ his REF [ 4 his dominion*. But with his fticcefTorlt vm otherwlfe ; *1 ‘r--w —— - - ’ 7 for he, convinced that Luther’s dodtrine mud foon be totally deftroyed and fupprefTed unlcfs It received a fpee- dy and efFedlual fupport, ordered Luther and Melanc- thon to draw up a body of laws relating to the form of ecclefiaftlcal government, the method of public worfhip, &c. which was to be proclaimed by heralds throughout his dominions. This example was followed by all the princes and dates of Germany who renounced the papal fupremacy ; and a like form of worfhip, difcipline, and government, was thus introduced into all the churches which dKFented from that ofJ^ome. This open renun¬ ciation of the Romifh jurifdiftion foon changed the face of affairs ; and the patrons of Popery foon intimated, in a manner not at all ambiguous, that they intended to make war on the Lutheran party ; which would certainly have been put in execution, had not the trou¬ bles that took place in Europe difconcertcd their mca- fures. On the other hand, the Lutherans, apprized of thefe hoftile intentions, began alfo to deliberate on a proper plan of defence againd that fnperditious violence with which they were in danger of being affailed. The oliitmns diet of the empire afTembled at Spire, in the year 1526; he diet —r pjre' fa where the emperor’s ambaffadors were defired to ufe ion. pire 1 a- . i — — rable to their utmod endeavours to fupprefs all difputes about Hefor- religion, and to infill upon the rigorous execution of the fentence which had-been pronounced againd Lu¬ ther and his followers at Worms. The greated part of the German princes oppofed this motion wn'th the ut¬ mod refolution, declaring that they could not execute that fentence, nor come to any determination with re¬ gard to the do&rines by which it had been occafioned, before the whole matter was fubmitted to the decifion of a council lawfully afTcmbled ; alleging farther, that the decifion of controverfies of this nature belonged properly to it, and to it alone. This opinion, after long and very warm debates, was adopted by a great majo¬ rity, and at length confented to by the whole afiembly: for it w’as unanimoufly agreed to prefent a folemn ad- drefs to the emperor, intreating him to aiTemble, with¬ out delay, a free and general council; while in the mean time it was alfo agreed, that the princes of the empire fhould, in their refpedlive dominions, be at liberty to manage eccldiadical affairs in the manner they fhould think moll proper ; yet fo as to be able to give to God and the emperor a proper account of their adminiilra- tion when it fhould be required of them. Thefe refolutions proved extremely favourable to the vaufe of reformation ; neither had the emperor any lei- fure for fome time to give difturbance to the reformed. The war, which at this time enfued between him and the pope, gave the greateft advantage to the friends of the reformed, and conliderably augmented their num¬ ber. Several princes, whom the fear of perfecution and punifhment had hitherto prevented from lending their afliftance, publicly renounced the Romifh fuperflition, and introduced among their fubjedls the fame forms of religious worfhip, and the fame fyflcm of doctrine, that had been received in Saxony. Others, though placed in fuch circumflances as difeouraged them from adling in an open manner againfl the interefts of the Roman pontiff, were, however, far from difeovering the fmalleft *>ppofition to thofe who withdrew the people from his defpotic yoke ; nor did they moleft the private affem- blies of thofe who had feparated themfeives from the Vo*.. XVI. Part L 1 ] REF church of Rome. And in general, all the German* P-eforrm. who, before thefe lefolutions of the diet of Spire, had ti toge¬ ther with feveral other of the more eminent doftors who adhered to the refpeftive parties of thefe contending chiefs: but this meafure was not attended with the fa- lutary effedls whicli were expedled from it. The divines difputed for four days in prefence of the landgrave. Lu¬ ther attacked Oecolampadius, and Zuinglius was attack¬ ed by Melan&hon. Zuinglius was accufed of herefy, not only on account of his explanation of the nature and delign of the Lord’s Supper, but alfo in confequence of the falfe notions he was fuppofed to have adopted concerning the divinity of Chnft, the efficacy ot the divine word, original fin, and fome other parts of the Chriftian doftrine. This illuftrious reformer, however, cleared himfelf from the greateft part of thefe charges with the moll triumphant evidence, and in fuch a man¬ ner as appeared fatisfadlory even to Luther himfelf: but their difienfion concerning the manner of Chrifi’s pre¬ fence in the eucharifi: ftill remained ; nor could either of the contending parties be perfuaded to abandon, or even to modify, their opinions on that matter. T he only advantage, therefore, which refulted from the meeting was, that the jarring doftors formed a kind of truce, by agreeing to a mutual toleration of their fenti- ments, and leaving to the difpofal of Providence the cure of their divifions. In the mean time news were received that the em¬ peror defigned to come into Germany, with a view to terminate all religious differences at the approaching diet of Augfburg. Having forefeen fome of the confequcn- ces of thofe difputes, and, befides, taken the advice of men of wifdom, fagacity, and experience, he became at certain times more cool in his proceedings, and more impartial in his opinions both of the contending par¬ ties and the merits of the caufe. He, therefore, in interview with the pope at Bologna, infilled, in Reformj. tion. large them, in order to give perfpicuity to their argu ments, and ftrength to their caufe. In this work Me- ^ landlhon was employed ; in which he fiiowed a proper ' deference to the counfels of Luther, and exprefied his fentiments and do&rine with the greateft elegance and perfpicuity ; and thus came forth to view the famous ConfeJJion of Augsburg, On the 15th of June 1530, Charles arrived at Augf- burg, and the diet was opened five days after. The Proteftants received a formal permiflion to prefent an account of their tenets to the diet on the 25 th of the fame month ; in confequence of which, at the time ap¬ pointed, Chriftian Bayer, chancellor of Saxony, read, in the German language, before the emperor and the princes affembled, the confefllon of Auglburg above- mentioned. It contained z8 chapters, of which 21 were employed in reprefenting the religious opinions of the Proteftants, and the other feven in pointing out the errors and fuperftitions of the church of Rome. The princes heard it with the deepeft attention and recolleo tion of mind : it confirmed fome in the principles they had embraced ; furprifed others ; and many, who be¬ fore this time had little or no idea of the religious fen¬ timents of Luther, were now not only convinced of their innocence, but delighted with their purity and fimplicity. The copies of this Confeflion, which after [t iSj,re. being read were delivered to the emperor, were ligned Tented to by John eledtor of Saxony, George marquis of Bran-the eaiF* denburg, Erneft duke of Lunenburg, Philip landgrave lor‘ of Hefte, Wolfgang prince of Anhalt, and by the im¬ perial cities of Nuremberg and Reutlingen. 15 The creatures of the church of Rome who were pre- A rduti ... . r* * « • si * win / f it '4 fent at this diet employed John Faber, afterwards bilhoptl0tl c,f of Vienna, together an the moft ferious and urgent manner, on the necefiity of a general council. His remonftrances and expo- ftulations, however, could not move the pontiff; who maintained with zeal the papal prerogatives, reproached the emperor with an ill-judged clemency, and alleged that it was the duty of that prince to fupport the church, and to execute fpeedy vengeance upon that obltinate heretical fadlion who dared to call in queition the au¬ thority of Rome and its pontiff. To this difeourfe the emperor paid no regard ; looking upon it as a moft ini i||l|i , - 0- with Eckius, and another dodlor^^p^j, named Cecil a us, to draw up a refutation of the Protef-aants arc tant confeflxon : which refutation having been publicly ordered to read, the emperor required the Proteftant members to aC(luietcfe acquiefce in it, and put an end to the religious difputes by an unlimited fubmiffton to the opinions and do&rines contained in this anfwer. But this demand was far from The Proteftants declared on the being complied with, contrary, that they were by no means fatisfied with the reply of their adverfaries ; and earneftly defired a copy of it, that they might more fully t^monftrate its extreme infufficiency and weaknefs. But this reafonable requeft was refufed by the emperor ; who interpofed his fu- quitous thing, and a meafure diredlly oppofite to the preme authority to prevent any farther proceedings in 1 „f 1tliic matter anrf fnlemnlv nrrthibttrd the nubhcation of *3 Origin of the confef- fion of Aa^fburg. lawrs of the empire, to condemn unheard a fet of men who had always approved thcmfelves good citizens, and deferved well of their country in fcveral refpedls. Hi¬ therto indeed it was not eafy for the emperor to form a clear idea of the matters in debate, fince there was no regular fyflem as yet compoftd, by which it might be known with certainty what were the true caufes of Lu¬ ther’s oppofition to the pope. The eledlor of Saxony, therefore, ordered Luther, and other eminent divines, to commit to writing the chief articles of their religious fyflem, and the principal points in which they differed from the church of Rome. Luther, in compliance with this order, delivered to the eleftor at Torgaw 17 arti¬ cles which had been agreed upon in a conference a-t Sultzbach in 1529; from whence thefe received the name of the articles ofTorgaw. But though thefe v/ere deemed by Luther a fufficient declaration of the fenti- ments of the reformers, yet it was judged proper to en. this matter, and folemnly prohibited the publication of any new writings or declarations that might contribute to lengthen out thefe religious debates. This, however, did not reduce the Proteflants to filence. The divines of that communion, who had been prefent at the diet, endeavoured to recolleift the arguments and objections employed by Faber, and had again recourfe to the pen of MelanCthon, who refuted them in an ample and fa- tisfaCtory manner in a piece which was presented to the emperor on the 22d of September, but which Charles refufed to receive. This anfwer was afterwards enlarged by Melanclhon, when he had obtained a copy of Faber’s reply; and was publifhed in the year 1531, with the other pieces that related to the doClrine and difeipline of the Lutheran church, under the title of A Defence of the Corf JJion of Augsburg. Matters now began to draw towards a crifis. There were only three ways of bringing to a conclufion thefe rcliirious REF t 43 ] REF 11 rr.rma^ religious differences. I. To gwU the Proteftants a others, were cxprcfsly (Upulated: That the-king Humid Reform*' Jion. toleration and privilege of ferving God as they thought encourage, promote, anu maintain, the true doctrine of 2. To compel them to return to the church Chritt as it vvas contained in the confeflion of Augf- tion. proper: of Rome by the violent methods of perfecution : or, j. That a reconciliation Ihould be made, upon fair, can¬ did, and equitable terms, by engaging each of the par¬ ties to temper their zeal with moderation, to abate re¬ ciprocally the rigour of their pretenfions, and remit fomething of their refpe&ive claims. The third expe¬ dient was moll generally approved of, being peculiarly agreeable to all who had at heart the welfare of the empire ; nor did the pope feem to look upon it either with averlion or contempt. Various conferences there¬ fore were held between perfons eminent for piety and I 16 E :re de i t ; league >1 !mal- 4* burg, and defend the fame at the next general council: that he Ihould not agree to any council fummoned by the bilhop of Rome, but protell againit it; and nei¬ ther fubmit to its decrees, nor fuffer them to be refpec- ted in his dominions: that he Ihould never allow the Roman pontiff to have any pre-eminence or jurifdi&ion in his dominions; that he Ihould advance 100,000 crowns for the ufe of the confederacy, and double that fum if it became necelfary : all which articles the confederate princes were equally obliged to obferve on their part. To thefe demands the king replied, that he would main- learning on both Tides; and nothing was omitted that tain and promote the true dotlrine of Chrill ; but, at 1 1—a ^—1 —1„ *1,^ the fame time, as the true ground of that dotlrine lay only in the holy Scriptures, he would not accept at any one’s hand what Ihould be his own faith, or that of his kingdom ; and therefore delired that they would fend over two learned men to confer witli him, in order to promote a religious union between him and the confe¬ derates. However, he declared himfclf of their opinion with regard to the meeting of a free general council, and promifed to join with them in all fuch councils for the defence of the true do&rine ; but thought the regula¬ tion of the ceremonial part of religion, being a matter of indifference, ought to he left to the choice of each fovereign for his own dominions. After this the kiim- gave them a fecund anfwer more full and fatisfadory°; but after the execution of queen Anne, this negociation came to nothing. On the one hand, the king grew cold when he perceived that the confederates were no longer of ufe to him in fupporting the validity of his marriage ; and, on the other hand, the German prince* became fenfible that they could never fucceed with Hen¬ ry unlefs they allowed him an abfolute dictatorfhip in matters of religion. While every thing thus tended to an open war be¬ tween the two oppohte parties, the cledlor Palatine, and the eledor of Mcntz, offered their mediation, and en¬ deavoured to procure a reconciliation. The emperor himfelf, for yarious reafons, was at this time inclined to peace : for, on the one hand, he Hood in need of fuc- cours againll the Turks, which the Proteilant princes refufed to grant as long as the edicls of Worms and Augflnirg remained in force ; and, on the other, the ele&ionof his brother Ferdinand to the dignity of king of the Romans, which had been carried by a majority might have the lead tendency to calm the animofities and heal the divifions which reigned between the con¬ tending parties. But the differences were too great to admit of a reconciliation ; and therefore the votaries of Rome had recourfe to the powerful arguments of im¬ perial edicls, and the force of the fecular arm. On the 19th of November, a fevere decree was iffued out by c apaiiiftthe exprefs order of the emperor (during the abfence Ifl f rote- of the Hefllan and Saxon princes, who were the chief W t3, fupporters of the Proteilant caufe), in which every thing was maniftllly adapted to dejecl the friends of religious liberty, excepting only a faint and dubious promife of engaging the pope to affemble a general council about ' fix months after the feparation of the diet. In this de¬ cree the dignity and excellence of the Popilh religion were extolled beyond meafure, a new degree of feverity and force vvas added to that which had been publifhed at Worms againft Luther and his adherents, the changes which had been introduced into the dodlrine and difei- pline of the Proteftant churches were feverely cenfured, and a folemn order was addreffed to the princes,cities, and Hates, who had thrown off the Papal yoke, to return to their allegiance to Rome, on pain of incurring the indig¬ nation and vengeance of the emperor as the patron and protetlor of the church. Of this formidable decree the ele&or of Saxonyand confederated princes were nofooner informed, than they affembled in order to deliberate on the meafures proper to be taken in fuch a crifis. In the years 1530 and 1531'they met, full at Smalcald, and afterwards at Francfort, where they formed a fo¬ lemn alliance and confederacy, with the inteution of de¬ fending vigorouHy their religion and liberties againil the dangers and encroachments with which they were threa¬ tened by the edidl of Augfburg, without attempting, of votes at the diet of Cologne in 1531, was by the however, any thing offenfive againll the votaries of fame princes conteiled, as being contrary to the funda- s8 Fi facion ten- Ull. of 1 uad. Rome ; and into this confederacy they'invited the kings of England, France, Denmark, &c. leaving no means unemployed that might corroborate and cement this im¬ portant alliance. This confederacy was at firff oppofed by Luther, from an apprehenlion of the calamities and troubles which it might produce ; but at laft, perceiving the neceffity of it, he confented ; though lie uncharitably, as well as imprudently, refufed to comprehend in it the followers of Zuinglius among the Swifs, together with the German Hates and cities who had adopted the fen- timents and confeffion of Bucer. In the invitation ad¬ dreffed to Henry VIII. of England, whom the con¬ federate princes were willing to declare the head and protestor of their league, the following things, among mental laws of the empire. In confequence of all this, Peace after many negotiations and projedls of reconciliation, Nuremberg a treaty of peace vvas concluded at Nuremberg in i jg2,conchldc when the Prote- ftants perceived undoubted figns of the approaching fperate. In the diet of Augftmrg, which was loon ftorm, and a formidable union betwixt the emperor *h‘‘r ^ and pope, which threatened to crufh and overwhelm them at once. This year indeed there had been a new conference at Ratilbon upon the old fubject of accom¬ modating differences in religion ; but from the manner in which the debates were carried on, it plainly ap¬ peared that thefe differences could only be decided in the field of battle. The council of Trent, in the mean time, promulgated their decrees; while the reformed princes, in the diet of Ratifbon, protefted againft their authority, and were on that account proferibed by the emperor, who raifed an army to reduce them to after called, the emperor required the Proteftants to leave the decifion of thefe religious difputes to the wifdom of the council which was to meet at Trent. The greatell part of the members confented to this propofal, being convinced by the powerful argument of an imperial army, which was at hand to diipel the darknefs from the eyes of fuch as might otherwife have been blind to the force of Charles’s reafoning. However, this general fubmiffion did not produce tha ^ *7 effedt which was expe&ed from it. A plague which cjj broke out, or was faid to do fo, in the city, caufed tliciy difful- greateft part of the bifhops to retire to Bologna ; byved.. obedience. See Father Paul’s Hiftnry of the Council of which means the council was in effect diffolved, nor S >r of y de- and pri. Treaty and our articles Paul (Father), and Trent. The ele&or of Saxony and the landgrave of Heffe led their forces into Bavaria againfl the emperor, and cannonaded his camp at Ingoldllalt. It was fuppofed that this would bring on an engagement, which would probably have been advantageous to the caufe of the reformed; but this was prevented, chiefly by the per¬ fidy of Maurice duke of Saxony, who invaded the do¬ minions of his uncle. Diviiions were alfo fomented among the confederate princes, by the diflimulation of the emperor; and France failed in paying the fubfidy which had been promifed by its monarch : all which fo difeouraged the heads of the Proteftant pgj*ty, that their army foon difperfed, and the ele&or of Saxony was obliged to direct his march homewards. But he was purfued by the emperor, who made feveral forced marches, with a view to deftroy his enemy before he fhould have time to recover his vigour. The two ar¬ mies met near Muhlberg, on the Elbe, on the 24th of April 1547 ; and, after a bloody action, the eleftor was entirely defeated, and himfelf taken prifoner.— Maurice, who had fo bafely betrayed him, was now declared ele6tor of Saxony ; and by his intreaties Phi¬ lip landgrave of Heffe, the other chief of the Prote- could all the intreaties and remonftrances of the em¬ peror prevail upon the pope to re-affemble it without delay. During this interval, therefore, the emperor judged it neceffary to fall upon fome method of ac¬ commodating the religious differences, and maintain¬ ing peace until the council fo long expe&cd fliould be „ e finally obtained. With this view he ordered Julius a formula- Pelugius bifhop of Naumberg, Michael Sidonius, ary drawn creature of the pope, and John Agriccla, a nativeUP tl15 of Ayfelben, to draw up a formulary which mighten'^>’'ror’ ferve as a rule of faith and worlhip, till the council fliould be affembled : but as this was only a temporaiy expedient, and had not the force of a permanent or perpetual inllitution, it thence obtained the name of the Interim. This proje<5l of Charles was formed partly with a defign to vent his refentment again!! the pope, and partly to anfwer other political purpofes. It contain¬ ed all the eflential doctrines of the church of Rome, though confiderably foftened by the artful terms which were employed, and which were quite different from thofe employed before and after this period by the council of 1 rent. There was even an affected am¬ biguity in many of the expreffions, which made them Hants, was perfuaded to throw himfelf on the mercy of fufceptible of different fenfes, and applicable to the 19 the emperor, and to implore his pardon. To this he fentiments of both communions. The confequence DffPlea^e* confented, relying on the promife of Charles for obtain- of all this was, that the imperial creed was reprobated11.01^ ing forgivenefs, and being rellored to liberty; but, not- by both parties. However, it was promulgated with'10*’ withftanding thefe expectations, he was unjuffly detain- great folemnity by the emperor at Augfburg. The ed prifoner, by a fcandalous violation of the moft fo- ele&or of Mentz, without even afleing the opinion of the princes prefent, gave a fan&ion to this formula, as if he had been commiflioned to reprefent the whole diet. Many kept filence through fear, and that filence was interpreted as a tacit confent. Some had the courage to oppofe it, and thefe were reduced by force of arms ; and the mol! deplorable feenes of bloodfhed and violence were adled throughout the whole empire. Maurice, eledlor of Saxony, who had hitherto kept neutral, now affembled the whole of his nobility and clergy, in order to deliberate on this critical affair. At the head of the latter was Melandlhon, whofe word was refpedted as a law among the Protelbnts. But i tW:v kmn convention. It is laid that the emperor retradl- ed his promife, and deluded this unhappy prince by the ambiguity of two German words. Hiltory in¬ deed can fcarce afford a parallel to the perfidious, mean-fpirited, and defpotic behaviour of the emperor in the prefent cafe. After having received in pub¬ lic the humble fubmiffion of the prince on his knees, and after having fet him at liberty by a folemn treaty, he had him arrefted anew without any reafon, nay, without any pretence, and kept him clofe pri- £6ner for feveral years. When Maurice remonffrated againlt this new confinement, the emperor anfwered, Ueformti tion. REF f 46 not the courage of Luther j fcnd vas 1 tion by Melanc thon. 3* A new Tient. th’-s man had therefore on all occafiona ready to make conceluana, and to propofe fchemea of accommodation. . In the Scheme of prefent cafe, therefore, he gave it as his opinion, that reconcilia- the whole ot the book called Interim could not by any means be adopted by the Proteftants; but at fame time he declared, that he faw no reafon why this book might not be appproved, adopted, and received, as an authoritative rule in things that did not relate to the eflential parts of religion, and which he accounted indifferent. But this fcheme, ir.ftead of cementing the differences, made them much worfe than ever ; and produced a diwilion among the Proteftants thendelves, which might have overthrown the Reformation en¬ tirely, if the emperor and pope had feized the oppor¬ tunity. In the year 15:49, the pope (Paul III.) died; and council pro* Waa fucceeded by Julius III. who, at the repeated fo- pnfed at Ucitations of the emperor, confented to the re-affem- bling of a council at Trent. A diet was again held at Augfburg under the cannon of an imperial army, and Charles laid the matter before the princes of the em¬ pire. Moft of thofe prefent gave their confent to it, and among the reft Mauric^ tle&or of Saxony ; who confented on the following conditions: 1. That the points of do&rine which had already been decided there, fhould be re-examined. 2. That this exami¬ nation fhould be made in prefence of the Proteftant divines. 3. That the Saxon Pioteftants fhould have a liberty of voting as well as of deliberating in the council. 4. That the pope fhould not pretend to pre- fide in that affembly, either in perfon or by his legates. This declaration of Maurice was read in the diet, and bis deputies infilled upon its being entered into the re- gifters which the archbilhop of Mentz obftinately re- fufed. The diet was concluded in the year 1551 ; and, at its breaking up, the emperor defined the af- fembled princes and flates to prepare all things for the approaching council, and promifed to ufe his ut- moft endeavours to procure moderation and harmony, impartiality and charity, in the tranfadlions of that al- fembly. On the breaking up of the diet, the Proteftants took fuch- fteps as they thought moft proper for the^r own fafety. The Saxons employed Melandlhon, and the Wurtembergers Brengius, to draw up Confeflions of Faith to be laid before the new council. The Saxon di¬ vines, however, proceeded no farther than Nuremberg, having received feerct orders from Maurice to flop there : For the eleftor, perceiving that Charles had formed defigns againft the liberties of the German princes, refolvcd to take the moft effe&ual meafures for crufhing his ambition at once. He therefore entered with the utmoft fecrecy and expedition into an alliance with the king of France, and feveral of the German 'Bheemper-princes, for the fecurity of the rights and liberties of or is fur- the empire ; after which, affembling a powerful army pnfed, and jn 1552, he marched againft the emperor, who lay with peace by* a handful of troops at Infpruck, and expefted no fuch the ele&or thing. By this fudden and unforefeen accident Charles of Saxony, was fo much difpirited, that he was willing to make ^ peace almoft on any terms. The confequence ef this was, that he concluded a treaty at Paffau, which by the Proteftants is confidered as the bafis of their religi¬ ous liberty. By the firft three articles of thiu treaty it 3* REF was agreed, that Maurice and the confederates fkould R?for«|j lay down their arms, and lend their troops to Ferdinand tion, to affift him agalnft the Turks 5 and that the landgrave ' of Heffe ftrould be fet-at liberty. By the fourth it was agreed, that the Rule of Faith called the Interim fhould be confidered as null and void : that the con¬ tending parties fliould enjoy the free and undifturbed exercife of their religion, until a diet fhould be affem- bled to determine amicably the prefent difputcs (which diet was to meet in the ipace of fix months) ; and that this religious liberty fhould continue always, in cafe it fhould be found impolfible to come to an uniformity in dodtrine and worfhip. It was alfo determined, that all thole who had fuffered banifhment, or any other cala¬ mity, on account of their having been concerned in the league or war of Smalcald, fhould be reinilated in their privileges, poffelfions, and employments; that the im¬ perial chamber at Spire fhould be open to the Prote¬ ftants as well as to the Catholics ; and that there fhould always be a certain number of Lutherans in that high court.—To this peace Albert, marquis of Branden¬ burg, refufed to fubferibe ; and continued the war againft the Roman-catholics, committing fuch ravages in the empire, that a confederacy was at laft formed againft him. At the'’head of this confederacy was Maurice elector of Saxony, who died of a wound he received in a battle fought on the occaiion in 1553. The affembling of the diet promifed by Charles was prevented by various incidents; however it met at Augfburg in 1555, where it was opened by Ferdi¬ nand in name of the emperor, and terminated thofe deplorable calamities which had fo long defolated the empire. After various debates, the following adls were pafled, on the 25th of September: That the Prote-p'0*^ ftants who followed the Confefiion of Augfburg fhould Jijl be for the future confidered as entirely free from the ju- rifdidion of the Roman pontiff, and from the authority and fupei intendance of the bifhops; that they were left at perfed liberty to cna& laws for themfelves relating to their religious lentiments, difeipline, and worfhip ; that all the inhabitants of the German empire fhould be allowed to judge for themfelvea iw religious matters, and to join themfelves to that church whofe do&rine and worfhip they thought the moft pure and confonant to the fpirit of true Chrillianity ; and that all thofe who fhould injure or perfecute any perfon under reli¬ gious pretences, and on account of their opinions, fhould be declared and proceeded againft as public ene¬ mies of the empire, invaders of its liberty, and difturbers of its peace. • 4 Thus was the Reformation eftablifhed in many parts of the German empire, where it continues to this day } nor have the efforts of the Popifh powers at any time been able to fupprefs it, or even to prevent it from 34 gaining ground. It was not, however, in GermanyAccom alone that a reformation of icligion took place. Al-^Ljj moft all the kingdoms of Europe began U> open theirgwe^ec eyes to the truth about the fame time. The reformed religion was propagated in Sweden, foon after Lu¬ ther’s rupture with the church of Rome, by one of his difciples named Oiaus Petri. The zealous efforts of this mifiionary were feconded by Guftavus Vafa, whom the Swedes had raifcd to the throne in place of Chriftiern king of Denmark, whofe horrid barbarity loft him the crown. This prince, however, was as prudent 33 I f T :| 4 REF . [ 47 ] REF a- prudent 3* he was zealous; and, as the minds o. the Swedes were in a fluduating Hate, he wjfely avoided ail kind of vehemence and precipitation in fpreading the new dodrine. Accordingly, the tirfl objed of his attention was the inftrudion of his people in the fa- cred dodrines of the Holy Scriptures; for which pui- pofe he invited into his dominions feveral learned Ger¬ mans, and fpvead abroad through the kingdom the Swedifh tranflation of the Bible that had been made by Olaus Petri. Some time after this, in 1526, he appointed a conference at Upfal, between this reformer and Peter Gallius, a zealous defender of the ancient fu- perlfition, in which each of the champions was to bring forth his arguments, that it might be ften on which fide the truth lay. In this difpute Olaus obtained a fignal vidory ; which contributed much to confirm Guftavus in his perfuafion of the truth of Luther’s doc¬ trine, and to promote its progrefs in Sweden. 'I he following year another event gave the finifhing flroke to its propagation and luccefs. I his was the afiembly of the ftates at Wefleraas, where Guflavus recommend¬ ed the dodrine of the reformers with fuch zeal, that, after warm debates fomented by the clergy in general, it was unanimoufiy refolved that the reformation intro¬ duced by Luther fhould have place in Sweden. This refolution was principally owing to the firmnefs and magnanimity of Guftavus, who declared publicly, that he would lay down the feeptre and retire from the kingdom, rather than rule a people enflaved by the or¬ ders and authority of the pope, and more controuled by the tyranny of their bifhops than by the law's of their monarch. From this time the papal empire in Swe¬ den was entirely overthrown, and Guflavus declared head of the church. In Denmark, the reformation was introduced as early as the year I >2t, in confequence of the ardent defire difeovered by Chriftiern II. of having his fubje&s in- ftru&ed in the doctrines of Luther. This monarch, notwithflanding his cruelty, for which his name has been rendered odious, was neverthelefs defirous of de¬ livering his dominions from the tyranny of the church , of Rome. For this purpofe, in the year 1520, he fent for Martin Reinard, one of the difciples of Carloftadt, out of Saxony, and appointed him profeflbr of divinity at Hafnia ; and after his death, which happened in 1521, he invited Carloftadt himfelf to fill that impor¬ tant place. Carloftadt accepted of this office indeed, but in a fhort time returned to Germany ; upon which Chriftiern ufed his utmoft endeavours to engage Lu¬ ther to vifit his dominions, but in vain. However, the progrefs of Chriftiern, in reforming the religion of his fubjeclfi, or rather of advancing his own power above that of the church, was checked, in the year 1523, by a confpiracy, by which he was depofed and banifh- ed ; his uncle Frederic, duke of Holftein and Slefwic, being appointed his fucceffor. Frederic conduced the reformation with much great¬ er prudence thah his predeceffor. He permitted the Proteftant dodlors to preach publicly the fentiments of Luther, hut did not venture to change the eftahlifli- ed government and difeipline of the church. Hov/ever, he contributed greatly to the progrefs of the reforma¬ tion, by his fuccefsful attempts in favour of religious liberty in an afiembly of the Rates held at Odenfee in 1527. Plere he procured the publication of a famous edift, by which eveiy fuhjedl of Denmark was deela- ^.”r!na* red free either to adhere to the tenets of the church of _i j Rome, or to the doiftrine of Luther. The papal ty¬ ranny was totally deftroyed by his fucceftbr Chri¬ ftiern III. He began by fupprefiing the defpotic au¬ thority of the bifhops, and reltoring to their lawful owners a great part of the wealth and pofiefiions which the church had acquired by various flratagems. This was followed by a plan of religious do&rine, worfhip, and difeipline, laid down by Bugenhagius, whom the king had fent for from Wittemberg for that purpofe ; and in 1539 an aflembly of the ftatts at Odenfee gave a folemn fanclion to all thefe tranfadlions. -5 In France alfo, the reformation began to make fome In Fiintc. progrefs very early. Margaret queen of Navarre, lifter to Francis 1. the perpetual rival of Charles V. was a great friend to the new dodrine ; and it appears that, as early as the year 1523, there were in feveral of the provinces of France great numbers of people who had conceived the greatell averfion both to the dodrine and tyranny of the church of Rome ; among whom were many of the firft rank and dignity, and even fome of the epifcopal order. But as their num¬ ber increafed daily, and troubles and commotions were excited in feveral places on account of the religious dif- ^ ferences, the authority of the king intervened, and many perfons eminent for their virtue and piety were put to death in the moll barbarous manner. Indeed Francis, who had either no religion at all, or, at bell, no fixed and confident fyllem of religious principles, conduded himfelf towards the Protcllants in fuch a manner as bell anfwered his private views. Sometimes he refolved to invite Melandhon into France, probably with a view to pleafe his filter the queen of Navarre, whom he loved tenderly, and who had llrongly imbi¬ bed the Proteftant principles. At other times he ex- erciftd the moll infernal cruelty towards the reformed ; and once made the following mad declaration, That if he thought the blood in his arm was tainted by the Lutheran herefy, he would have it cut off; and that he would not fpare even his own children, if they en¬ tertained fentiments contrary' to thofe of the Catholic church. About this time the famous Calvin began to draw the attention of the public, but more efpceially of the queen of Navarre. His zeal expofed him to danger ; and the friends of the reformation, whom Francis was daily committing to the flames, placed him more than once in the moll perilous fituation, from which he was delivered by the interpofition of the queen of Navarre. He therefore retired out of France to Balil in Swiffei- land; where he published hisChriftian Inllitutions, and became afterwards fo famous. Thofe among the French who firft; renounced the jurifdi&ion of the Romilh church, are commonly call¬ ed Lutherans by the writers of thofe early times. Hence it has been fuppofed that they had all imbibed the peculiar fentiments of Luther. But this appears by no means to have been the cafe : for the vicinity of the cities of Geneva, Laufanne, &c. which had adopt¬ ed the do&rines of Calvin, produced a remarkable ef- feft upon the French Proteilant churches ; infomuch that, about the middle of this century, they all entered into communion w'ith the church of Geneva. The French Proteftantfl were calledHuruemts* by their ad-* qef /7 *' A ^ r • gVtWTSm 4 verfaneft; R E F [ 48 1 REF ficforma- vtvfaries, by way of contempt. Their fate was very tion- fevere, being perfecuted with unparalleled fury ; and 1 " * though many princes of the blood, and of the ilril no¬ bility, had embraced their fentiments, yet in no part of f See the world did the reformers fuffer fo muchf. At lad France, all commotions were quelled by the fortitude and mag- i>0l3 »141 nanimity of Henry IV. who in the year 159^ granted all his fubjefts full liberty of confcience by the famous Edia of Nantes, and feemed to, have thoroughly efta- bliHied the reformation throughout his dominions. Du¬ ring the minority of Louis XIV. however, this edia was revoked by Cardinal Mazarine, lince which time the Proteftants have often been cruelly perfecuted ; nor was the profeffion of the reformed religion in France at any time fo fafe aa in mod other countries of Europe. 3? See Revolution. In the Ne- In the other parts of Europe the oppofition to the thtrlauds, c]ll1rch of Rome was but faint and ambiguous before &c* the diet of Augfburg. Before that period, however, it appears from undoubted teftimony, that the doarine of Luther had made a confiderable, though probably fecret, progrefs through Spam, Hungary, Bohemia, Britain, Poland, ami the Netherlands ; and had in all thefe countries many friends, of whom feveral repaired to Wittemberg, in order to enlarge their knowledge •by means of Luther's converfation. Some of thefe countries threw off the Romifti yoke entirely, and in • others a prodigious number of families embraced the principles of the reformed religion. It is certain in¬ deed, and the Roman-catholics themfclves acknowledge it without helitation, that the Papal do&rines and au¬ thority would have fallen into ruin in all parts of the world at once, had not the force of the fecular arm been employed to fupport the tottering edifice. In the Netherlands particularly, the mofl grievous perfccutions -took place, fo that by the emperor Charles V. upwards of 100,000 were deflroyed, while ftill greater cruelties were exercifed upon the people by his fon Philip II. The revolt of the United Provinces, however, and mo¬ tives of real policy, at laft put a flop to thefe furious proceedings ; and, though in many provinces of the Netherlands, the eflablifhment of the Popifh religion was ftill continued, the Proteftants have been long free of the dangei of perfecution on account of their 38 principles. In Italy. The reformation made a confiderable progrefs in Spain and Italy foon after the rupture between Lu¬ ther and the Roman pontiff. In all the provinces of Italy, but more efpecially in the territories of Venice, Tufcany, and Naples, the fuperftition of Rome loft ground, and great numbers of people of all ranks ex- preffed an averfion to the Papal yoke. Thisoccafion- ed violent and dangerous commotions in the kingdom of Naples in the year 1546 ; which, however, were at laft quelled by the united efforts of Charles V. and his viceroy Don Pedro di Toledo. In feveral places the pope put a flop to the prpgrefs of the reformation, by letting loole the inquilitors ; who fpread dreadful marks of their barbarity through the greateft part of Italy. Thefe formidable minilters of fuperftition put fo many to death, and perpetrated fuch horrid adls of cruelty and rppreflion, that moll of the reformed confulted their •fafety by a voluntary exile, while others returned to the religion of Rome, at leaft in external appearance. But the inquifttion, which frighted into the profeffion of Popery feveral Proteftants in other parts of Italy, could never make its way into the kingdom of Naples; Re/om nor could either the authority or intreaties of the 'bn. pope engage the Neapolitans to admit even viftting in- ^ quifitors. • 39 In Spain, feveral people embraced the Proteftant,n Sp^a religion, not only from the controverfies of Luther, but even from thofe divines whom Charles V. had brought with him into Germany in order to refute the doc¬ trines of Luther. For thefe do&ors imbibed the pre¬ tended herefy inftead of refuting it, and propagated it more or lefs on their return home. But the inqui* fiition, which could obtain no footing in Naples, reign¬ ed triumphant in Spain, and by the moft dreadful me¬ thods frightened the people back into Popery, and fuppreffed the defire of exchanging their fuperftition for a move rational plan of icligion. It was indeed prefumed that Charles himfelf died a Proteftant ; and it feems to be certain, that, when the approach of death had diffipated thofe fchemes of ambition and grandeur which had fo long blinded him, his fentiments became much more rational and agreeable to Chriftianity than they had ever been. All the ecclefiailics who had at¬ tended him, as foon as he expired, were fent to the inquifition; and committed to the flames, or put to death by fome other method equally terrible. Such was the fate of Auguftine Cafal, the emperor’s preach¬ er ; of Conftantine Pontius, his confeffor ; of Egidius, whom he had named to the biftiopric of Tortofa; of Bar¬ tholomew de Caranza, a Dominican, who had been con- feffor to King Philip and Queen Mary ; with 20 others of lefs note. 4* In England, the principles of the reformation be-j”J'l,J gan to be adopted as loon as an account of Luther’s do&rines could be conveyed thither. In that kingdom there were ftill great remains of the feeff called Lol¬ lards, whofe dodlrine rcfembled that of Luther ; and among whom, of confequcnce, the fentiments of our reformer gained great ciedit. Henry VIII. king of England at that time was a violent partilan of the chinch of Rome, and had a particular veneration for the writings of llromas Aquinas. Being informed that Luther fpoke of his favourite author with con¬ tempt, he conceived a violent prejudice againft the re¬ former, and even wrote againft him, as we have already obferved. Luther did not hefrtate at writing againft his majefty, overcame him in argument, and treated him with very little ceremony. The firft ftep toward* public reformation, however, was not taken till the year 1529. Great complaints had been made in Eng¬ land, and of a very ancient date, of the ufurpations of the clergy ; and by the prevalence of the Lutheran opinions, thefe complaints were now become more ge¬ neral than before. The Houfe of Commons, finding the occafron favourable, paffed feveral bills, reftraining the impc fitions of the clergy : but what threatened the eccldlaitical order with the greateft danger were the ievere reproaches thrown out almoft without oppofition in the houfe againft the diffolute lives, ambition, and avarice of the priefts, and their continual encroach¬ ments on the privileges of the laity. The bills for re¬ gulating the clergy met with oppofition in the Houfe of Lords; and bifhop Fifher imputed them to want of faith in the Commons, and to a formed defign, pro¬ ceeding from heretical and Lutheran principles, of rob* bing the church of her patrimony, and overturning the national religion. The Commons, however, complain- R H F [ 49 ] R E F vnu- on. ed to the kinp:, by their fpeaker Sir Thomas Audley, of thci’e reflexions thrown out againft them; and the bilhop was obliged to retraX his words. Though Henry had not the leaf! idea of rejeXing any, even of the mod abfurd Romifh fuperflitions, yet ns "the oppreffions of the clergy fuited very ill with the violence of his own temper, he was pleafed will} every opportunity of lefiening their power. In the parlia¬ ment of 1531* he fhowed his defign of humbling the clergy in the moll efteXual manner. An obfolete fla- tute was revived, from which it was pretended that it was criminal to fubmit to the legatine power which had been exercifed by cardinal Wolfey. 13y this ftroke the whole body of clergy was declared guilty at once. They were too well acquainted with Henry’s difpofi- tion, however, to reply, that their ruin would have been the certain confequence of their not fubmitting to Wolfey’s commiflion which had been given by royal authority. Indead of making any defence of this kind, they chofe to throw themfelves on the mercy of their fovereign ; which, however, it cod them 1 18,840 1. to procure. A confefiion was likewife extorted from them, that the king was proteXor and fupreme head -of the church of England ; though feme of them had the dexterity to get a claufe inferted, which invalidated the whole fubmifiion, viz. in fo far as is permitted ly the law of Chrift. y The king, having thus begun to reduce the power of the clergy, kept no bounds with them afterwards. He did not indeed attempt any reformation in religious matters ; nay, he perfecuted mod violently fuch as did attempt this in the lead. Indeed, the mod eflential article of his creed feems to have been his own fupre- mac y ; for whoever denied this, was fure to fuffer the mod fevere penalties, whether Proteftant or Papill. But an account of the abfurd and cruel conduX of this prince, and of his final quarrel with the pope on ac¬ count of his refilling a difpenfation to marry Anne Bo- le^n, is given under the article England, n° 253— 292. He died in 154,7. and was fucceeded by his only fon Edward VI. This amiable prince, whole early youth was crowned with that wifdom, fagacity, and vir¬ tue, that would have done honour to advanced years, gave new fpirit and vigour to the Protedant caufe, and was its brighted ornament, as well as its mod effec¬ tual fupport. He encouraged learned and pious men of foreign countries to fettle in England, and addref- fed a particular invitation to Martin Bucer and Paul Fagius, whofe moderation added a ludre to their other virtues, that, by the minidry and labours of thefe emi¬ nent men, in concert with thofe of the friends of the Reformation in England, he might purge his domi¬ nions from the fordid fiXions of popery, and edablifh the pure doXrines of Chridianity in their place. For this purpofe, he iffued out the wifed orders for the redoration of true religion; but his reign was too Ihort to accomplith fully fuch a glorious purpofe. In the year 1553, he was taken from his loving and affiiXed fubjeXs, whofe forrow was inexprcfltble, and fuited to their lofs. His filler Mary (the daughter of Catharine of Arragon, from whom Henry had been feparated by the famous divorce), a furious bigot to the church of Rome, and a princefs whofe natural charaXer, like the fpirit of her religion, was defpotic and cruel, fucceeded him on the Britifh throne, and impofed anew the arbi- Vou XVI. Part I. trary laws and the tyrannical yoke of Rome upon the Rcfo nu people of England. Nor were the methods die em* tlon‘ ployed in the caufe of fuperftition better than the caufe v 1 itfelf, or tempered by any feutiments of equity or com¬ panion. Barbarous tortures and death, in the mod Shocking forms, awaited thofe who oppofed her will, or made the lead Hand againd the redoration of Popery. And among many other viXims, the learned and pious Cranmer, aichbidiop of Canterbury', who had been one of the mod illudrious indruments of the Reformation in England, fell a facrifice to her fury. This odious feene of perfecution was happily concluded in the year 1558, by the death of the queen, who left no iffue ; and, as foon as her fucceffor the lady Elizabeth afeend- ed the throne, all things affumed a new and a pleaiing afpeX. This illudrious princefs, whofe fentiments, counfels, and projeXs, breathed a fpirit fuperior to the natural foftnefs and delicacy of her fex, exerted this vigorous and manly fpirit in the defence of oppreffed confcience and expiring liberty, broke anew the de¬ fpotic yoke of Papal authority and fuperllition, and, delivering her people from the bondage of Rome, edu- blifhed that form of religious doXrine and ecclefiaftica! government which dill iubfids in England. This reli¬ gious cdablifhment differs, in fume refpcXs, from the plan that had been formed by thofe whom Edward VI. had employed for promoting the caufe of the Reforma¬ tion, and approaches nearer to the rites and dlfcipline of former times ; though it is widely different, and, in the mod important points, entirely oppofite to the prin¬ ciples of the Roman hierarchy. See England, n° 293, &c. 4t The caufe of the reformation underwent ill Ireland111 Ireland, the fame viciffitudes and revolutions that had attended it in England. When Henry VIII. after the abolition of the Papal authority, was declared fupreme head upou earth of the church of England, George Brown, a na¬ tive of England, and a monk of the Augudiue order, whom that monarch had created, in the year 1535, aiehbifhop of Dublin, began to aX with the utmod vigour in confequence of this change in the hierarchy'. He purged the churches of his diocefe from fu perdi¬ tion in all its various forms, pulled down images, de- droyed relics, abolilhed abfurd and idolatrous rites, and, by tire influence as well as authority he had in Ireland, caufed the king’s fupremacy to be acknowledged in that nation. Henry fliowed, foon after, that this fu¬ premacy was not a vain title ; for he banifhed the monks out of that kingdom, confifcated their revenues, and dedroyed their convents. In the reigu of Edward VI. dill farther progrefs was made in the removal of Popifli fuperditions, by the zealous labours of bifhop Brown, and the aufpicious encouragement he granted to all who exerted themfelves in the caufe of the Re¬ formation. But the death of this excellent prince, and the acceffion of queen Mary, had like to have changed the face of affairs in Ireland as much as in England; but her deligns were difappointed by' a very curious adventure, of which the following account has been copied from the papers of Richard earl of Corke. “ Queen Mary having dealt feverely with the Prote- dants in England, about the latter end of her reign 4l figned a commiffion for to take the fame courfe with Curiousdif- them in Ireland ; and to execute the fame with greater^PP0'111' force, Ihe nominates Dr Cole one of the commiffumers.^'^^*.. This DoXor coming, with the commiflion, to Cheftcrtor iQ s.ot. G on land. REF [ 5° 3 REF 43 Of the R.C' formath n in Scot¬ land. on his journey, the mayor of that city hearing that her majelly was fending a mefienger into Ireland, and he being a churchman, waited on the Do&or, who in dif- courfe with the mayor taketh out of a cloke-bag a leather box, faying unto him, Here is a cornmijjion that (hall lajh the Heretics of Ireland, calling the Protcftants by that title. The good woman of the houfe being well affe&ed to the Proteftant religion, and alfo having a brother named jfohn Edmonds erf the fame, then a ci¬ tizen in Dublin, was much troubled at the Dodlor’s words; but watching her convenient time while the mayor took his leave, and the Doftor complimented him down the ftairs, (he opens the box, takes the com- mifiion out, and places in lieu thereof a flieet of paper with a pack of cards wrapt up therein, the knave of clubs being faced uppermoft. The Doftor coming up to his chamber, fufpedting nothing of what had been done, put up the box as formerly. The next day go¬ ing to the water.fide, wind and weather ferving him, he fails towards Ireland, and landed on the yth of Oc¬ tober 1558 at Dublin. Then coming to the caftle, the Lord Fitz-Walters being lord-deputy, fent for him to come before him and the privy-council; who, coming in, after he had made a fpeech relating upon what account he came over, he prefents the box unto the lord-deputy; who caufing it to be opened, that the fecretary might read the commiflion, there was nothing fave a pack of cards with the knave of clubs upper- molt ; which not only ftartled the lord-deputy and council, but the Dodtor, who aflured them he had a commiffion, but knew not how it was gone. Then the lord-deputy made anfwer : Let us have another com- miffion, and we will fhuffle the cards in the meanwhile. The Dodlor being troubled in his mind, went away, and returned into England, and coming to the court obtain¬ ed another commiflion ; but flaying for a wind on the water-lide, news came to him that the queen was dead: and thus God preferved the Proteftants of Ireland.” Queen Elizabeth was fo delighted with this ftory, which was related to her by lord Fitz-Walter on his return to England, that fhe fent for Elizabeth Edmonds, whofe hufband’s name was Matterjhad, and gave her a penfion of 40 1. during her life. ‘ In Scotland, the feeds of reformation were very early fown, by fevcral noblemen who had refided in Germany during the religious difputes there. But for many years it was fupprefled by the power of the pope, feconded by inhuman laws and barbarous executions. The mofl emi¬ nent oppofer of the Papal jurifdiction was John Knox, a difciple of Calvin, a man of great zeal and invincible fortitude. On all occalions he raifed the drooping fpi- rits of the reformers, and encouraged them to go on with their work notwithllanding the oppofition and treachery of the queen-regent; till at laft, in 1561, by the afliflance ot an Englifh army fent by Elizabeth, Po¬ pery was in a manner totally extirpated throughout the kingdom. From this period the form of doftrine, wor- fhip, and difeipline eftablifhed by Calvin at Geneva, has had the afcenclancy in Scotland. But for an account of the difficulties which the Scottifh reformers had to ftruggle with, and the manner in which thefe were overcome, &c. fee Scotlanb. For further information on the fubjedl of the refor¬ mation in general, we refer our readers to the works of Burnet and Brandt, to Beaufobre’s Hijloire de la Reformation dans (Empire, et les Etats de la Confejfton 8 Refu! J'JugJbourg depuis 1517—1530, in 4 vols 8vo, Berlin Refra 178?, and Mofheim’s Ecclefiaftical Hiftory. See alfo 1 Sleidan De Statu Religionis iff Republic# Carolo V. ; Ctefaris Commcntarii; and Father Paul’s Hiftory of the Council of Trent. REFRACTION, in general, is the deviation of a moving body from it? diredl courfe, occafioned by the different denfity of the medium in which it moves; or it is a change of direction occafioned by a body’s fall¬ ing obliquely out of one medium into another. The word is chiefly made ufe of with-regard to the rays of light. See Optics {Index) at Refradion. REFRANG1BILITY of Light, the difpofition of rays to be refradted. The term is chiefly applied to the difpofition of rays to produce different colours, ac¬ cording to their different degrees of refrangibility. See- Chromatics and Optics pajjlm. REFRIGERATIVE, in medicine, a remedy which refreflies the inward parts by codling them; as clyflers, ptifans, &c. REFRIGERATORY, in chemillry, a veffel tilled with cold water, through which the worm paffes in di- fl.illations; the ufe of which is to condenfe the vapours as they pafs through the worm. Cities of REFUGE, were places provided as Afy- la, for fuch as againft their will fhould happen to kill a man. Of thefe cities there were three on each fide Jordan: on this tide were Kedelh of Naphtali, Hebron, and Schechem; beyond Jordan were Bezer, Golan, and Ramoth-Gilead. When any of the Hebrews, or llran- gers that dwelt in their country, happened to fpill the blood of a man, they might retire thither to be out of the reach of the violent attempts of the relations of the deceafed, and to prepare for their defence and juftifica* tion before the judges. The manflayer underwent two trials : firft before the judges of the city of refuge to which he had fled ; and fecondly before the judges of his own city. If found guilty, he was put to death with all the feverity of the law. If he was acquitted, he was not immediately fet at liberty; but, to infpire a degree of horror againll even involuntary homicide, he was recondu&ed to the place of refuge, and obliged to continue there in a fort of banifliment till the death of the high-prieft. If, before this time, he ventured out, the revenger of blood might freely kill him; but after the high-prieft’s death he was at liberty to go where he pleafed without moleftation. It was nenzeffary that the perfon who fled to any of the cities of re* fuge fliould underitand feme trade or calling, that he might not be burthenfome to the inhabitants. The cities of refuge were required to be well fupplied with water and neceffary proviflons. They were alfo to be of eafy accefs, to have good roads leading to them, with commodious bridges where there was occafion. The width of the roads was to be 32 cubits or 48 feet at lead. It was further required, that at all crofs-waya dire£tion-potls (hould be ere&ed, with an infeription pointing out the road to the cities of refuge. The 15th of Adar, which anfwers to our February moon, was appointed for the city magiftrates to fee that the roads were in good condition. No perfon -in any of thefe cities was allowed to make weapons, left the rela¬ tions of the deceafed fhould be furnifhed with the means of gratifying their revenge. Dent. xix. 3. iv. 41. 43.; Jofh. xx. 7. Three other cities of refuge were condi¬ tionally promifed, but never granted. See Asylum. REGIL REG [ u?ccs REFUGEES, a term at firft applied to the French II Proteftants, who, by the revocation of the edi& of Igata* Nantz, were contlrained to fly from perfecution, and take refuge in foreign countries. Since that time, however, it has been extended to all fuch as leave their country in times of diftrefs ; and hence, fince the re.volt of the Britiflv colonies in America, we have frequently heard of American refugees. REGALE, a magnificent entertainment or treat, given to amballadors and other perfons of dillindtion, to entertain or do them honour. It is ufual in Italy, at the arrival of a traveller of tminence, to fend him a regale, that is, a prefent of fweetmeats, fruits, &c. by way of refrelhment.. REGALIA, in law, the rights and prerogatives of a king. See Prerogative. Regalia is alio ufed for the apparatus of a corona¬ tion ; as the crown, the fceptre with the crofs, that with the dove, St Edward’s ftaff, the globe, and the orb with the crofs, four feveral fwords, &c.—The re¬ galia of Scotland were depofited in the caitle of Edin¬ burgh in the year 1707, in what is called the Jewel Office. This room was lately opened by fome commif- fioners appointed by the king, when the large chelt in which it is fuppofed they were placed was found ; but as it has not, that we have heard of, been opened, it is impofiible to fay whether they be there or not. It is very generally thought they were carried to the Tower of London in the reign of Queen Anne ; and a crown is there (hewn which is called the Scotch crown. We do not believe, however, that that is the real crown of Scotland; and think it probable that the Scotch regalia are in the cheft which was lately found. If they are not there, they muft have been taken away by Health, and either deftroyed or melted do\vn, for we do not be¬ lieve that they are in the Tower of London. Lord of REGALITY, in Scots law. See Law, n° clviii. 4. Court of REGARD. See FontsT-Courts. REGxYRDANT, in heraldry, fignifies looking be¬ hind ; and it is ufed for a lion, or other bcaft, with his face turned towards his tail. REGARDER, an ancient officer of the king’s fo- 'reft, fworn to make the regard of the forelt every year ; that is, to take a view of its limits, to inquire into all offences and defaults committed by the forelters within the foreft, and to obferve whether all the offi¬ cers executed their rdpedtive duties. See Formst- JLaws REGATA, or Regatta, a fpecies of amufement peculiar to the republic of Venice. This fpe&acle has the power of exciting the greateft emotions of the heart, admiration, enthufiafm, a fenfe of glory, and the whole train of our beft feelings. The grand regata is only exhibited on particular occafions, as the vifits of foreign princes and kings at Venice. It is difficult to give a juft idea of the ardour that the notice of a regata fpreads among all claffes of the inha¬ bitants of Venice. Proud of the cxclulive privilege of giving fuch a fpedtacle, through the wonderful local cir- cumltances of their city, they are highly delighted with making preparations a long time before, in order to con¬ tribute all they can towards the perfe&ion and enjoyment of the fpedtacle. A thoufand interefts are formed and augmented every day ; parties in favour of the different competitors who are known j the protection of young -i ] REG noblemen given to the gondoliers in their fervice ; the defire of honours and rewards in the afpirants ; and, in y ' the midll of all this, that ingenious national induftry, which awakes the Venetians from their habitual indo¬ lence, to derive advantage from the bufinefs and agita¬ tion of the moment: all thefe circumftances united give to the numerous inhabitants of this lively city a degree of fpirit and animation which render it during that time a delightful abode in the eyes of the philoiopher and the ftranger. Crowds of people flock from the adjacent parts, and travellers joyfully repair to this feene of gaiety and pleafure. Although it is allowable for any man to go and in- feribe his name in the lift of combatants until the fixed number is complete, it will not be amils to remark one thing, which has relation to more ancient times. The ft ate of a gondolier * is of much confideration among * See C«k~ the people ; which is very natural, that having been the primitive condition of the inhabitants of this country. But, befidcs this general confidcration, there are among them fome families truly diftinguilhed and refpeCled by their equals, whofe antiquity is acknowledged, and who, on account of a fuccefllon of virtuous men, able in their profeffion, and honoured for the prizes they have carried off in thefe contefts, form the body of noble gondoliers ; often more worthy of that title than the higher order of nobility, who only derive their honours from the merit of their anceftors, or from their own riches. The confidcration for thofe families is carried fo far, that, in the difputes frequently ariling among the gondoliers in their ordinary paffage of the canals, we fometimes fee a quarrel inftantly made up by the Ample interpolition of a third perfon, who has chanced to be of this reverend body. They are rigid with refpedl to mif- alliances in their families, and they endeavour recipro¬ cally to give and take their wives among thofe of their own rank. But we muft remark here, with pleafure, that thefe diftindtions infer no inequality of condition, nor admit any oppreflfion of inferiors, being founded folely on laudable and virtuous opinions. Diftindfions derived from fortune only, are thofe which always out¬ rage nature, and often virtue. In general, the competitors at the great regatas are chofen from among theie families of reputation. As foon as they are fixed upon for this exploit, they fpend the intennediate time in preparing themlelves for it, by a daily afliduous and fatiguing exercifc. If they are in fervice, their matters during that time not only give them their liberty, but alfo augment their wages. This cuftom would ieem to indicate, that they look upon them as perfons confecrated to the honour of the nation, and under a fort of obligation to contribute to its glory. At laft the great day arrives. Their relations affem- ble together : they encourage the heroes, by calling to their minds the records of their families ; the women prefent the oar, befeeching them, in an epic tone, to remember that they are the fons of famous men, whofe fteps they will be expedted to follow': this they do with as much folemnity as the Spartan women prefented the fhield to their fons, bidding them either return with or upon it. Religion, as pradtifed among the lower clafs of people, has its {hare in the preparations for this en- terprize. They caufe maffes to be faid ; they make vows to fome particular church ; and they arm their boats for the conteft with the images of thofe faints who are moit in vogue. Sorcerers are not forgotten G 2 upon Rcgfltl. REG [ 52 1 REG uron this occafiou. For gondolier* who have loft the guards or patrol, nor even a gun or a halbert. > 7 he R*?<1 race often declare, that witchcraft had been praftifed mildnefs of the nation, its gaiety, its education m the I agairift them, or certainly they muft have won the day. habit of believing that the government is ever awake, Such a fuppofition prevents a poor fellow from think- that it knows and fees every thing ; -its refpeaful at- W ill of himfelf; an opinion that might be favourable tachment to the body of patricians ; the foleafpect of to him another time. ' certain officers of the police in their robes, difperled in The courfe is about four miles. The boats ftart from different places, at once operate and explain that tram- a certain place, run through the great winding canal, quiffity, that fecurity, which we fee m the m.dft of the which divides the town into two parts, turn round a greateft confufion, and that furprilxng docility in 1<) picket, and, coming back the ffime way, go and feize lively and fiery a people. Regattas have been attempt- the prize, which is fixed at the acuteit angle of the ed on the river Thames, but they were but humble imu ,rreat canal, on the convex fide, fo that the point of tations of the Venetian amufement. fight may be the more extended, and the prize feized REGEL, or Rigfl, a fixed ftar of the firft mag- in the fight of the fpe&ators on both fides. nitude, in Orion s left foot. According to the number of competitors, different REGENERATION, in theology, the aft of being races are performed in different forts of boats ; fome with born again by a fpiritual birth, or the change of heart one oar and others with two. The prizes propofed are and life experienced by a perfon who forfakes a courfe four, indicated by four flags of different colours, with of vice, and fincerely embraces a life of virtue and piety, the different value of the prizes marked upon them.— REGENSBURG, or Ratisbon. See Ratisbon. Thefe flags, public and glorious monuments, are the REGENT, one who governs a kingdom during the prizes to which the competitors particularly afpire. But minority or ablence of the king. the government always adds to each a genteel fum of In France, the queen-mother had the regency of the money ; befides that the conquerors, immediately after kingdom during the minority of the king, under the the viftory, are furrounded by all the beau monde, who title of queen-regent. congratulate and make them prefents ; after which they In England, the methods of appointing this guar- go, bearing their honourable trophy in their hand, dian or regent have been fo various, and the duration* down the whole length of the canal, and receive the of his power fo uncertain, that from hence alone it applaufe of innumerable fpeftators. may be collefted that his office is unknown to the com- This grand canal, ever ftriking by the Angularity moa Law ; and therefore (as Sir Edward Coke fays, and beauty of the buildings which border it, is, upon 4 Inft. 58.) tire fureft way is to have him made by au- thefe occafions, covered with an infinity of fpeftators, thoiity of the great council in parliament. I he earl of in all foits of barges, boats, and gondolas. The cle- Pembroke by his own authority affumed in very trou- ment on which they move is fcarcely feen ; but the blefome times the regency of Henry III. who was then noife of oars, the agitation of arms and bodies in per- only nine years old ; but was declared of full age by _ petual motion, indicate the fpeftacle to be upon the the pope at 17, confirmed the great charter at 18, and water. At certain diftances, on each fide of the fhore, took upon him the adminiftration of the government at are erefted little amphitheatres and fcaffoldings, where 20. A guardian and councils ot regency were named are placed bands of mufic ; the harmoniows found of for Edward III. by the parliament, which depofed his which predominates nowand then over the buzzing father ; the young king being then 15, and not afl'uming noife of the people. Some days before a regata, one the government till three years after. When Richard II. may fee on the great canal many boats for pleafure and fucceeded at the age of 11, the duke ol Lancailer took entertainment. The young noble, the citizen, the rich upon him the management of the kingdom till the parlia- curtizan, mounts a long boat of fix or eight oars ; his meat met, which appointed a nominal council to affift him. gondoliers decorated with rich and Angular dreffes, and Henry V. on his death-bed named a regent and a guar- the vefltl itfelf adorned with various Huffs. Among the dian for his infant fon Henry VI. then nine months old : nobles there1 are always a number who are at a conlider- but the parliament altered his difpofition, and appoint- able expence in thefe decorations ; and at the regain it- ed a proteftor and council, with a fpecial limited autho- felf exhibit on the water perfonages of mythologic rity. Both thefe princes remained in a ftate of pupit- ftory, with the heroes of antiquity in their train, or age till the age of 23. Edward V. at the age of 13, amufe themfelves with reprefenting the coftumi of dif- was recommended by his father to the care of the duke ferent nations : in (hort, people contribute with a mad of Glouceller; who was declared proteftor by the privy- iort of magnificence, from all quaiters, to this mafque- council. The ftatutes 25 Hen. VIII. c. 12. and 28 rade, the favourite diveriion of the Venetians. But Heu. VIII. c. 7. provided, that the fucceffor, if a thefe great machines, not being the lefs in motion on male and under 18, or if a female and under 16, fhould account of their ornaments, are not merely deftined to he till fuch age in the governance of his or her na- grace the fhow : they are employed at the regata, at tural mother, (if approved by the king), and fuch other every moment, to range the people, to proteft the counTeftors as his majefty fhuuld by will or otherwife ap- courfe, and to keep the avenue open and clear to the point: and he accordingly appointed his 16 executors goal, i he nobil-.ty, kneeling upon cufhions at the to have the government of his fon Edward VI. and the prow of their veffels, are attentive to thefe matters, and kingdom, which executors elefted the earl of Hartford announce their orders to the molt reftive, by darting at proteftor. The ftatutes 24 Geo. II. c. 24. in cafe the them Jitth; gilded or filvered balls, by means of certain crown fhould ddeend to any of the children of Frede- bows, with which they are furnifhed on this occafion. ric late prince of Wales under the age of 18, appoint- And this is the only appearance of coercion in the Ve- ed the princefs dowager ;—and that of 5 Geo. III. c. netian police on thefe days of the greateft tumult : nor 27. in cafe of a like defeent to any of his prefent ma¬ ts there to be feen, in any part of the city, a body of jelly’s children, empowers the king to name either the queen REG [ S3 1 REG queen or pripcefs dovrnger, or any tkfcendant of king George II. reliding in this kingdom; —to be guardian and regent till the fucceflbr attains fuch age, aflifted by a council of regency ; the powers of them all being ex- prcfsly defined and fet down in the feveral atls. Regent alfo fignities a profelfor ol arts and fciences in a college, having pupils under his care ; but it is ge¬ nerally reitrained t.> the lower claffes, as to rhetoric, lo¬ gic, &c. thole of philofophy being called proftJ[cirs, In the Englilli univerfities it is applied to Mailers of Arts under five years Handing, and to Doctors under two, as non-regent is to thole above that Handing. ‘ REGGIO, an ancient and coniiderable town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther Calabria, with an archbifiiop’s lee, and a woollen manu¬ factory. It is feated in a delightful country, which produces plenty of oranges, and all their kindred fruits. The olives are exquifite, and high-flavoured. rI he town, however, can boall of neither beautiful buildings nor Hrong fortifications. Of its edifices the Gothic cathe¬ dral is the only linking one, but it afibrds nothing cu¬ rious in architecture. The citadel is far from formida¬ ble, according to the prefent fyitem of tactics ; nor could the city walls make a long reiiitance againlt any enemy but Barbary corfairs ; and even thefe they have not al¬ ways been able to repel, for in 1543 it was laid in aihes by Rarbarolfa. Multapha facked it 15 years after, and the defolation was renewed in 1593 by another fet ol Turks. Its expofed fituation, on the very threlhold of Italy, and fronting Sicily, has from the earlieit period rendered it liable to attacks and devaitation. 1 he Chal- cidians feized upon it, or, according to the ufual Greek phrafe, founded it, and called the colony Rbegion, Irom a word that means a break or crack, alluding to its poli- tion on the point where Sicily broke off from the conti¬ nent. Anaxilas oppreffed its liberties. Dionyfius the Elder took it, and put many of the principal citizens to death, in revenge for their having refufed his alliance. The Campanian legion, fent to protect the Rhegians, turned its fvvord againlt them, maffacred many inhabi¬ tants, and tyrannized over the remainder, till the Ro¬ man fenate thought proper to puniih thefe traitors with exemplary feverity, though at the fame time it entered into league with the 1 evoked garrifon of Meffma. This union with a fet of villains, guilty of the lame crime, proved that no love ot juffice, but political reafons alone, drew down its vengeance on the Campanians.— It is about 12 miles S.^E. of Meffma, and 190 S. by E. of Naples. E. Long. 16.0. N. Eat. 38. 4. Reggio, an ancient, handiome, and Hrong town of Italy, in the duchy of Modena, with a Hrong citadel, and a bilhop’s fee. It has. been ruined feveral times by the Goths, and other nations. In the cathedral are paintings by the greatcit mailers; and in the fquare is the llatue of Brennus, chiel of the Gauls. The inha¬ bitants are about 22,000, who cany on a great trade in iilk. It was taken by prince Eugene in 1706, and by the king of Sardinia in 1742. It is feated in a fertile country to the fouth of the Apennines, and to the north of a fpacious plain, 15 miles north-welt of Modena, anxl 80 fouth-eall of Milan. E. Long. 11. 5. N. Lat. 44. 43. — The duchy of this name is bounded on the well by that of Modena, and produces a great deal of filk, and belongs to the duke ol Modena, except the marquilate of St Martin, which belongs to a prince of that name. REGIAM majestatem. See Law, n civ. 3. REGICIDE, king-killer, a word chiefly ufed with us in fpeaking of the.perfons concerned in the trial, condemnation, and execution, of king Charles I. REG I FUG IUM was a feafl celebrated at Rome on the 24th of February, in commemoration of the expul- fion of 'Tuiquinius Superbu<, and the abolition of regal powrer. It was alfo performed on the 26th of May, when the king of the iacrifiees, or Rex Sacrorum, offer¬ ed beau Hour and bacon, in the place where the affem- blies were held. The lacrifice being over, the people hailed away with all fpeed, to denote the • precipitate? flight of Ring Tarquin. REGIMEN, the regulation of-diet, and, in a motr general fcule, of all the non-naturals, wfith a view t»v preferve or reilore health. See A b st 1 n E s ce, Al 1 m e n r. Food, Diet, Drink, and Medicine. The viciffitude of excrcife and rell forms alfo a necef- fary part of regimen. See Exlrci.sk. it is beneficial to be at reft now and then, but more fo frequently to ufe exercife ; becaufe inaction renders the body weak and liltlefs, and labour Hrengthens it. But a medium is to be obferved in all things, and too much fatigue is to be avoided : for frequent and violent exercife overpowers the natural llrength, and waltes the body ; but moderate exercife ought always to be ufed before meals. Now, of all kinds of exercife, riding on horfeback is the molt convenient : or if the perfon he too weak to bear it, riding in a coach, or at lealt in a litter : next follow fencing, playing at ball, miming, walking. But it is one of the inconveniences of old age, that there is feldom fufficient Hrength for uling bo¬ dily exerciie, though it be extremely requiiite for health: wherefore frictions with the flelh-brulh are neceffary at this time of life ; which fhould be performed by the per¬ fon himfelf, if pofffblc ; if not, by his fervanta. Sleep is the fweet foother of cares, and reftorer of ftrength ; as it repairs and replaces the waftes that are made by the labours and exercifes of the day. But ex- ceflive fleep has its inconveniences ; for it blunts the fenfes, and renders them lefs fit for the. duties of life. The proper time for fleep is the night, when darknefs and filence invite and bring it on : day-fleep is lefs rc- frelhing; which rule if it be proper for the multitude., to obfei ve, much more is the obfervauce of it neceffary for perfons addicted to literary Hudies, whole minds and bodies are more fufeeptible of injuries. Regimen, in grammar, that part of fyntax, or con- HruCtion, which regulates the dependency of words, and the alterations which one occafions in another. Rhgimhn for Seamen. See Seamen. REGIMENT, is a body of men, either hprfe, foot, or artillery, commanded by a colonel, lieutenant-colonel, and major. Each regiment of foot is divided into com¬ panies ; but the number of companies differs: though in Britain our regiments are generally 10 companies, one of which is alwayS grenadiers, exclufive of the two independent companies. Regiments of liorfe are com¬ monly fix troops, but there are feme of nine. Dragoon regiments are generally in war-time 8 troops, and in time ol peace but 6. Each regiment has a chaplain, quarter-mailer, adjutant, and furgeon. Some German regiments confill of 2000 foot ; and the regiment of Picardy in France confided of 6000, being 120 com¬ panies, of 50 men in each company, 7 Reg'' REG I 54 1 REG RfMT*'’lVlOIT ti 'lUS II Regiftcr. Regiments were firft formed in Trance in the year 1558, and in England in the year 1660. ' REGIOMONTANUS. See Muller. REGION, in geography, a large extent of land, in- habited by many people of the fame"nation, and inclofed within certain limits or bounds. The modern aflronomers divide the moon into feveral regions, or large tradls of land, to each of which they give its proper name. Region, in phyfiology, is taken for adivifion of our atmofphere, which is divided into the upper, middle, and lower regions. The upper region commences from the tops or the mountains, and reaches to the utmoft limits of the at¬ mofphere. In this region reign a perpetual, equable, calmnefs, clearnefs, and ferenity. the middle region is that in which the clouds relide, and wdiere meteors are formed, extending from the extremity of the lowed to the tops of the higheft mountains. Ehe low't ll te- gion is that in which we breathe, which is bounded by the refleftion of the fun’s rays ; or by the height to which they rebound from the earth. See Atmosphere and Air. JEthereal Region, in cofmography, is the whole ex¬ tent of the univerfe, in which is included all the hea¬ venly bodies, and even the orb of the fixed ftars. . Elementary Region, according to the Ariflotelians, is a fphere terminated by the concavity of the moon’s orb, comprehending the atmofphere of the earth. Region, in anatomy, a divifion of the human body, otherwife called cavity, of which anatomifts reckon three, viz. the upper region, or that of the head ; the middle region, that of the thorax or bread ; and the low'er, the abdomen, or belly. See Anatomy. Region, in ancient Rome, was a part or divifion of the city. The regions were only four in number, till Augudus Coefar’s time, wdio divided the city into four¬ teen ; over each of which he fettled two furveyors, call¬ ed curat ores viarnm, who were appointed annually, and took their divifions by lot. Thefe fourteen regions contained four hundred and twenty-four dreets, thirty- one of w’hich were called greater or royal jlreets, which began at the gilt pillar that dood at the entry of the open place, in the middle of the city. The extent of thefe divifions varied greatly, fome being from 12000 •r 1 3000 to 33000 feet or upwards in circumference'. Authors, however, are not agreed as to the exatt limits of each. The curatores viarum wore the purple, had each two li&ors in their proper divifions, had flaves un¬ der them to take care of fires, that happened to break out. They had alfo two officers, called Jrnunciatores, in each region, to give account of any diforders. Four vico-magijlri alfo were appointed in each dreet, who took care of the dreets allotted them, and earned the orders of the city to each citizen. REGIS TER, a public book, in which are entered and recorded memoirs, a and Le Index there, at Antimony. Rsgvlus of Arfenic. See Chemistry, n° 1267, &c* and 1285 1294. The ancient procefs for making re- guhis Kul„s of arfenlc In mWng four part, of Lj \ pure- *“ ^ *V°*~ ?f. » fem!mfUl' With two parts of black flux, one part of borax and one part of filings of iron or of copper, and quickly tiding the mixture in a crucible. After the operation is fim . - ed, a regulus of arfenic will be found at the bottom of the crucible of a white livid colour, and ot conflderable folidity. The iron and copper employed in this pro- Is are not intended, as in the operation for the martial It has metallic gravity, opacity, and luftre. _ Its colour is white and livid, it tarnifhes in the air, is very brittle, but. much more volatile than any other femimetal. It eaiily lofes its inflammable principle, when fubhmed in veflels into which the air has accefs ; the fublimate ha¬ ving the appearance of grey flowers, which by repeat¬ ed fublimations become entirely white, and iimilar to white cryftalline arfenic. When regulus of arfenic Rcg;uSu cels are not mrenutu, as 1*1 white rrvftalline arfenic. When regulus ot arlemc is rcgulus of antimony. ,o precipitate the arfemc, and to nft^gly ;n op®, air, as under a feparate it from fulphur or any ot er u f _ (ne ;t (,uroa w|th a white or bluifli flame, and dif- white arfenic is pure, and nothing is to be taken from it; but, on the contrary, the inflammable principle is to be added to reduce it to a regulus. _ The true ufe of thefe metals in the prefent operation is to unite with the reo-ulus of arfenic, to give it more body, and to prevent its entire difiioation in vapours. Hence the addition of iron, while it procures thefe advantages, has the in- convenienoy of altering the purity of the regulus ; for the metallic fubftance obtained is a regulus of ariemc allayed with iron. It may, however, be punhed from the iron by fublimation in a clofe veffel; by which ope¬ ration the regulifed arfenical part, which is very volatile, is fublimed to the top of the veflel, and is feparated -from the iron, which being of a fixed nature remains at the bottom. We are not, however, very certain, that in this kind of reftification the regulus of arfenic does hot carry along with it a certain quantity of iron ; for, in general, a volatile fubftance raifes along with it, in fublimation, a part of any fixed matter with which it happened to be united. Mr Brandt propofes another method, which we be¬ lieve is preferable to that deferibed. He direfts that white arlemc fliould be mixed with foap. Inftead of the foap, olive-oil may be ufed, which has been found to fucceed well. The mixture is to be put into a retort or glafs matrafs, and to be dlftilled or fublimed with firet at firil very moderate, and only fufficient to raile the oil. As the oils, which are not volatile, cannot be diftilled but by a heat fufficient to burn and decom- pofe them, the oil therefore which is mixed with the arfenic undergoes thefe alterations, and after having •penetrated the arfenic thoroughly is reduced to a coal. When no more oily vapours rife, we may then know that the oil is reduced to coal. Then the fire muft be increafed, and the metallifed arfenic will be foon fub- iimed to the upper part of the veffel,/in the infide of which it will form a metallic cruft. When no more fublimes, the veffel is to be broken, and the adhering •cruft of regulus of arfenic is to be feparated. The re- gulus obtained by this firft operation is not generally perfeft, or not entirely fo, as a part of it is always overcharged with fuliginous matter, and another part lias not enough of phlogilton ; which latter part ad¬ heres to the inner fur face of the cruft, and forms grey or brown cryftals. This fublimate muft then be mixed with a lefs quantity of oil, and fublimed a iecond time like the firft; and even, to obtain as good regulus as mav be made, a third fublimation in a clofe veffel, and without oil, is neceffary. During this operation, the oil which rifes is more fetid than any other empyreu- xnatic oil, and is almuft iniupportable. This fmell cer¬ tainly proceeds from the arfenic ; the fmell of which is exceedingly ftrong and difagrecable when heated. Regulus of arfenic made by the method we have de- icribed, and which we confider as the only one which muffle, it burns with a ivhite or bluifti flame, and dif- fipates in a thick fume, which has a very fetid fmell, like that of garlic. Regulus of arfenic may be combined with acids and moft metals. See Arsenic, n° 17. We ftiall only far¬ ther obferve here, that, according to Mr Brandt, is the Swediffi Memoirs, the regulus of arfenic cannot be united with mercury. Although the phenomena exhibited by white arfenic and regulus of arfenic in fo- lutions and allays are probably the fame, yet an accu¬ rate companion of thefe would deferve notice, efpe* cially if the regulus employed were well made; for fome difference muft proceed from the greater or lefs quan¬ tity of what in the old chermftry is called phlogifton with which it is united. See Chemistry, n° 1288, &c. Regulus tf Cobalt, is a femimetal lately dilcovered, and not vet perfeiftly well known. It receives its name from cobalt, becaufe it can only be extra&ed from the mineral properly fo called. The proccfs by which this femimetal is obtained, is fimilar to thofe generally ufed for the extraftion of metals from their ores. The co¬ balt muft be thoroughly terrified, to deprive it of all the fulphur and arfenic it contains ; and the unmetallic earthy and ftony matters muft be feparated by waffling. The cobalt thus prepared is then to be mixed with double or triple its quantity of black flux, and a little decrepitated fea-falt; and muft be fufed either in a forge, or in a hot furnace, for this ore is very difficult of fu- fion. When the fufion has been well made, we find upon breaking the crucible, after it has cooled, a me¬ tallic regulus covered with a fcoria of a deep blue co¬ lour. The regulus is of a white metallic colour. T. he furface of its frafture is clofe and fraall-grained. I he femimetal is hard, but brittle. When the fufion has been well made, its furface appears to be carved with many convex threads, which crofs each other diverfely. As almoft all cobalts contain alio bifmuth, and even as much as of the regulus itfelf, this bifmuth is reduced by the fame operation, and precipitated in the lame manner, as the regains of cobalt; for although theie two metals are frequently mixed in the lame mineral, that is, in cobalt, they are incapable of uniting toge¬ ther, and are always found diftind and feparate from one another when they are melted together. At tlw bottom of the crucible then we find both regulus of cobalt and bifmuth. The latter, having a greater fpe- ciftc gravity, is found under the former. 1 hey may be feparated from each other by the blow of a hammer. Bifmuth may be eafily diftinguiflred from the regulus of cobalt, not only from its fit nation in the crucible, but alfo by the large ihining facets which appear in its fradure, and which are very different from the clofe afh* coloured grain of regnlus of cobalt. This femimetal is more difficult of fufion than any R E 1 [ ‘ Ru#[utii* other ? is lefs eafily calc’mable, and much icfs volatile. i! Its calx is grey, and more or lefs brown; and when fu- HHchen- vitrifiable mattei-s, it changes into a beautiful __ blue glafs called fmalt* This calx, then, is one of thofe ’" “ which preferve always a part of their inflammable prin¬ ciple. Tt is foluble in acids, as the regulus is. i his regains is foluble in vitriolic, marine, nitrous acids, and in aqua-regia, to all which it communicates colours. The folution in vitriolic acid is reddiih ; the folution in marine acid is of a fine bluifh-green when hot, and its colour is almofl totally effaced when cold, but is eafily recoverable by heating it, without being obliged to uncork the bottle containing it. This folution of the calx of regulus of cobalt is the bafis of the fympa- thetic ink ; for without marine acid this ink cannot be made. All the folutions of regains of cobalt may be precipitated by alkalis; and thefe precipitates are blue, which colour they retain when vitrified with the ftrong- eft. fire. Not only fympathetic ink, but alfo regulus of co¬ balt, may be made from the zaffre commonly fold ; which is nothing elfe than the calx of regulus of cobalt mixed with more or lefs pulverifed flints. For this pur- pofe we muft feparate as well as we can the powder of flints from it, by wafliing, as M. Beaume docs, and then reduce it with black flux and fea-falt. Regulus of cobalt feems incapable of uniting with fulphui : but it eafily unites with liver of fulphur; and the union it forms is fo intimate, that M. Beaume could not fepa¬ rate thefe two fubllances otherwife than by precipita¬ tion with an acid. Many curious and interefling remarks are ft ill to be difcovered concerning this lingular femimetal, and we may hope to receive further in formation from the en¬ deavours of chemifts who have undertaken the exami¬ nation of it. M. Beaume particularly has made con- fiderable experiments on this fubjecf, part of which he communicates to the public in his Courfe of Chemiitry, and from whom we have borrowed the moft of the above obfervations. See Chemistry, n0 1294, &c. REHEARSAL, in mufic and the drama, an eflay or experiment of fome compohtion, generally made in private, previous to its reprefentation or performance in public, in order to render the aftors and performers more perfe<5t in the’- parts. REICHENBE .G, in Bohemia, 95 miles weft of Prague, 205 north-weft of Vienna, N. Lat. ^o. 2. E. Long. 1 2. 25. is only remarkable as the place where the Pruffian army defeated the Auftrians on the 21ft of April 1757. The Auftrian army, commanded by Count Konigfeck, was pofted near Reichenberg, and was attacked by the Pniflians under the command of the prince of Brunfwick Bevern. The Pruflrans were 20,000, and the Auftrians 28,000 : the adtion began at half after fix in the morning, when the Pruflian lines were formed, and attacked the Auftrian cavalry, which was ranged in three lines of 30 fquadrons, and their two wings fuftained by the infantry, which was pofted among felled trees and intrenchments. The Auftrians had a village on their right, and a wood on their left, where they were intrenched. The Pruffian dragoons and grenadiers cleared the intrenchment and wood, and entirely routed the Auftrian cavalry ; at the fame time, the redoubts that covered Reichenberg were taken by General Leftewitz; and the Auftrians were entirely Vol. XVI. Parti. 17 1 R E L defeated. The Prudlans hid feven o:TLe”s and 100 Re'n-deer men killed; 14 officers and 1 yo men wounded. The N Auftrians had rooo men killed and wounded ; 20 of , ^ ^ e‘ their officers and 400 men taken prifoners. The action ended at eleven. REIN-deer, or TaranJus, See Cervus, n° 4. REINS, in anatomy, the fame with Kidneys. See Anatomy, n° ici. Reins of a Bndley are two long flips of leather, fa- ftened on each fide of a curb or fnaffle, which the ri¬ der holds in his hand, to keep the horfe in fubjedtion. There is alfo what is called falfe reins ; which is a lath of leather, parted fometmies through the arch of the banquet, to bend the horfe’s neck. REJOINDER, in law, is the defendant’s anfwer to die plaintiff’s replication or reply. Thus, in the court of chancery, the defendant puts in an anfvver to the plaintiff’s bill, which is fometimes alfo called an exception ; the plaintiff’s anfwer to that is called a re- plicationy and the defendant’s anfwer to that a rejoindre. RELAND (Adrian), an eminent Orientalift, born at Ryp, in North Holland, in 1676. During three years ftudy under Surenhulius, he made an uncommon prog refs in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, and Arabic languages; and thefe languages were always his fa¬ vourite ftudy. In I73i» he was, by the recommenda¬ tion of King William, appointed profeffor of Oriental languages and eccleliaftical antiquities in the univerlitv of Utrecht; and died of the fmall-pox in 1718. He was diftinguiftied by his modclty, humanity, and learn¬ ing ; and carried on a correfpondcnce with the moft % eminent fcholars of his time. His principal works are, 1. An excellent defeription of Paleftine. 2. Five dif- fertations on the Medals of the ancient Hebrews, and feveral other differtations on different fubjeCfts. 3. An Introduction to the Hebrew Grammar. 4. The An- tiquities of the ancient Hebrews. 5. On the Maho¬ metan Religion. Thefe works are all written in Latin. RELATION, the mutual refpeCt of two things, or what each is with regard to the other. See Meta¬ physics, n° 93, &c. and 1 28, &c. Relation, in geometry. See Ratio. Relation, is alfo ufed for analogy. See Ana¬ logy, and Metaphysics, p. 529, &c. RELATIVE, fomefhing relating to or refpedting another. Rrlative, in mufic. .See Mode. Rv.LATivR-Termsy in logic, are words which imply relation : fuch are mailer and fervant, bulb and and wife, &c. In grammar, relative words are thofe which anfwer to fome other word foregoing, called the antecedent; fuch are the relative pronouns qiiiy (jujry quody &c. and in Englifti, nuhoy whom, which, See. The word an- fwering to thefe relatives is often underftood, as, “ I know whom you jnean ,” for “ I know the perfon whom you mean.” RELAXATION, in medicine, the a6l ofloofening or flackening ; or the loofenefs or fbeknefs of the fibres, nerves, mufcles, &c. RELAY, a lupply of horfes, placed on the road, and appointed to be ready for a traveller to change, in order to make the greater expedition. RELEASE, in law, is a difebarge or conveyance of a man’s right in lands or tenements, to another that, li hath Relics. Slack/}. Comment. R E L Releafe hath fome former eftate in pofleflion nerally ufed therein are “ remifed, releafed, and tor ever quit-claimed ” And thefe releafes may enure, either, I. By way of enlarging an eflate, or enlarger Vejlate: as, if there be tenant for life or years, re¬ mainder to another in fee, and he in remainder re- jfafes all his right to the particular tenant and .ns heirs, this gives him the eftate in fee. But in this cafe the releifee muft be in pofftjfion of lome eftate, for the releafe to work upon ; for if there be leflee for years, and, before he enters and is in poffefhoH, the leflbr releafes to him all his right in the reverhon. Inch releafe is void for want of pofieflion in the releiTee. 2. By way of pnjjing an ejlate, or milter l eftate : a-., when one of two coparceners releafeth all his right to the other, this pafleth the fee-fimple of the. whole. And, in both thefe cafes, there muft be a privity of eftate between the releflbr and releflee; that is, one of their eftates muft be fo related to the other, as to make but one and the fame eftate in law. 3. By way of pqfftng a right, or milter le droit: as if a man be diffeifed, and releafeth to his diffeifor all his right; hereby the difteifor acquires a new right, which changes the quality of his eftate, and renders that lawful which before was tortious. 4. By way of extingui/hment : as if my tenant for life makes a leafe to A for life, re¬ mainder to B and his heirs, and I releafe to A ; this extinguifhes my right to the reverfion, and {hall enure to the advantage of B’s remainder as well as of A’s particular eftate. 5. By way of entry and feoffment : as if there be two joint difteifors, and the difleifee re¬ leafes to one of them, he fhall be foie feifed, and {hall keep out his former companion ; which is the fame in effedf as if the difteifee had entered, and thereby put an end to the diffeifin, and afterwards had enfeoffed one of the diffeifors in fee. And hereupon we may obferve, that when a man has in himfelf the poffeffion of lands, he muft at the common law convey the free¬ hold by feoffment and livery ; which makes a noto¬ riety in the country : but if a man has only a right or a future intereft, he may convey that right or intereft by a mere releafe to him that is in poffeffion of the hand : for the occupancy of the releffee is a matter of fufficient notoriety already. RELEVANCY, in Scots law. See Law, N° clxxxvi. 48. RELICS, in the Romifh church, the remains of the bodies or clothes of faints or martyrs, and the in- ftruments by which they were put to death, devoutly preferved, in honour to their memory ; kiffed, revered, and carried in proceflion. The refpect which was juftly due to the martyrs and teachers of the Chriftian faith, in a few ages increafed almoft to adoration ; and at length adoration was really paid both to departed faints and to relics of holy men or holy things. The abufes of the church of Rome, with refpedl to relics, are very flagrant and notorious. For fuch was the rage for them at one time, that, as y. Mabillon a BeileAiftine juftly complains, the altars were loaded with fufpefted relics; numerous fpurious ones being everywhere offered to the piety and devo¬ tion of the faithful. He adds, too, that bones are of¬ ten coufecrated, which, fo far from belonging to faints, probably do not belong to Chviftians. From the cata¬ combs numeious. relics have been takes, and yet it [ j8 ] it E L The words ge- not known who were the perfons interred therein. In - the uth century, relics were tried by fire, and thofe ' which did not confume were reckoned genuine, and the reft not. Relics were, and ftill are, preferved on the altars whereon mafs is celebrated ; a fquare hole be¬ ing made in the middle of the altar, big enough to re¬ ceive the hand, and herein is the relic depolited, be¬ ing fir ft wrapped in red filk, and inclofed in a leaden box. The Romanifts plead antiquity in behalf of relics : For the Manichees, out of hatred to the flefh, which they confidered as an evil principle, refufed to honour the relics of faints ; which is reckoned a kind of proof that the Catholics did it in the firft ages. We know, indeed, that the touching of linen cloths 011 relics,, from an opinion of fome extraordinary virtue derived therefrom, was as ancient as the firft ages, there being a bole made in the coffins of the 40 martyrs at Conftantinople exprefsly for this purpofe. The ho¬ nouring the relics of faints, on which the church of Rome afterwards founded her fuperftitious and lucrative ufe of them, as objects of devotion, as a kind of charms or amulets, and as inftruments of pretended miracles, appears to have originated in a very ancient cuftom, that prevailed among Chriftians, of affembling at the cemeteries or burying-places of the martyrs, for the purpofe of commemorating them, and of performing divine worihip. When the profeflion of Chriftianity obtained the prote&ion of the civil government, under Conftantine the Great, ftately churches were ere&ed over their fepulchres, and their names and memories were treated with every poffible token of affetftion and refpeft. This reverence, however, gradually exceeded all reafonable bounds ; and thofe prayers and religious fervices were thought to have a peculiar fan&ity and virtue, which were performed over their tombs. Hence the pra&ice which afterwards obtained, of depofiting relics of faints and martyrs under the altars in all churches. This praftice was then thought of fuch importance, that St Ambrofe would not cortfecrate a church becaufe it had no relics ; and the council of Conftantinople in Trullo ordained, that thofe altars, {hoaid be demoliihed under which there were found no relics. The rage of procuring relics for this and other purpofes of a fimilar nature, became fo exceffive, that, in 386 the emperor Theodofius the’ Great was obliged to pafs a law, forbidding the people to dig up the bo¬ dies of the martyrs, and to traffic in their relics. Such was the origin of that refpeift for facred relics, which afterwards was perverted into a formal worihip of them, and became the occalion of innumerable pro- ceffions, pilgrimages, and miracles, from which the church of Rome hath derived incredible advantage.— In the end of the ninth century, it was not fufficient to- reverence departed faints, and to confide in their inter- celfions and fuccours, to clothe them with an imaginary power of healing difeafes, working miracles, and deli¬ vering from all forts of calamities and dangers; their bones, their clothes, the apparel and furniture they had poffeffed during their lives, the very ground which they had touched, or in which their putrified carcafes were laid, were treated with a ftupid veneration, and fuppo- fed to retain the marvellous virtue of healing all diforders both of body and mind, and of defending fuch as pof¬ feffed them againft all the aflaults and devices of the de- Relic R E L [ 59 3 ReHcs* v51 The confequence of all this was, that every one —v— was eager to provide himfelf with thefe falutary reme¬ dies ; confequently, great numbers undertook fatiguing and perilous voyages, and fubjeaed themfelves to all forts of hardthips ; while others made ufe of this delu¬ sion to accumulate their riches, and to impoie upon the miferable multitude by the molt impious and (hocking inventions. As the demand for relics was prodigious and univerfal, the clergy employed the utmoil dex¬ terity to fatisfy all demands, and were far from being nice in the methods they ufed for that end. i he bo¬ dies of the faints were fought by fading and prayer, m- ftituted by the pried in order to obtain a divine anfvver and an infallible direction, and this pretended direftion never failed to accomphfh their deiires; the hoi) car- cafe was always found, and that always in confequence, as they impioufly gave out, of the fuggeftion and inspi¬ ration of God himfelf. Each difcovery of this kind was attended with excefiive demondrations of joy, and animated the zeal of thefe devout feekers to enrich the church dill more and more with this new kind of trea- fure. Many travelled with this view into the Eadern provinces, and frequented the places which Ohrid and his difciples had honoured with their prefence, that, with the bones and other facred remains of the fird he¬ ralds of the gofpel, they might comfort deje&ed minds, calm trembling confciences, fave linking dates, and de¬ fend their inhabitants from all forts of calamities. Nor did thefe pious travellers return home empty ; the craft, dexterity, and knavery of the Greeks, found a rich prey in the dupid credulity of the Latin relic-hunters, and made a profitable commerce of this new devotion. The latter paid confiderable fums for legs and arms, fktills and jaw-bones (feveral of which were Pagan, and fome not human), and other things that were fuppofed to have belonged to the primitive worthies of the Chridian church ; and thus the Latin churches came to the poflcdion of thofe celebrated relics of St Mark, St James, St Bartholomew, Cyprian, Pan- •taleon, and others, which they (how at this day with fo much odentation. But there were many who, un¬ able to procure for themfelves thefe fpiritual treafures by voyages and prayers, had recourfe to violence and theft; for all forts of means, and all forts of attempts in a caufe of this nature, were confidered, when fuccefs- ful, as pious and acceptable to the Supreme Being.— Befides the arguments from antiquity to which the Pa- pids refer, in vindication of their wordiip of relics, of which the reader may form fome judgment from this article, Bellarmine appeals to Scripture in fupport of it, and cites the following paffages, viz. Exod. xiii. 19.; Deut. xxxiv. 6. ; 2 Kings xiii. 21. ; 2 Kings xxiii. 16, 17, 18.; Ifaiah xi. 10.; Matthew xi. 20, 21, 22.; A£ts v. 12—15. ; A£ts xix. 11, 12. See Popery. The Roman Catholics in Great Britain do not ac¬ knowledge any worfhip to be due to relics, but merely a high veneration and refped, by which means they think they honour God, who, they fay, has often wrought very extraordinary miracles by them. But, however proper this veneration and refpedt may be, its abufe has been fb great and fo general, as fully -t» war- tant the rejection of them altogether. Relics are forbidden to be uied or brought into Eng¬ land by feveral datutes ; and judices of peace are em- powered to fearch houies for popilh books and relics, which, when found, are to be defaced and burnt, &c. 3 Jac. I. cap. 26. j! RELICT, in law, the fame with Widow. , e '<-v0, RELIEF (ReUvamen ; but, in Domefday, ReIevatiof Relevium), fignifies a certain fum of money, which the tenant, holding by knight’s fcrvice, grand feijeanty, or other tenure, (for which homage or legal fervice is due), and being at full age at the death of hia an- cedor, paid unto his lord at his entrance. See Pri¬ mer. T hough reliefs had . their original while feuds Were only life-edates, yet they continued after feuds be¬ came hereditary; and were therefore looked upon, very judly, as one of the greated grievances of te¬ nure : elpecially' when, at the fird, they were merely arbitrary and at the will of the lord ; fo that, if he pleafed to demand an exorbitant relief, it was in effett to difinherit the heir. The Englilh ill brooked this confequence of their new-adopted policy ; and there¬ fore William the Conqueror by his laws afcertained the relief, by directing (in imitation of the Danilh ho riots), that a certain quantity of arms, and habili¬ ments of war, Ihould be paid by the earls, barons, and vavafours refpe&ively; and, if the latter had no arms, they fiiould pay 100s. William Rufus broke through this compofition, and again demanded arbitrary un¬ certain reliefs, as due by the feodal laws ; thereby in effe£l obliging every heir to new-purchafe or redeem his land: but his brother Henry 1. by tliF charter be¬ fore-mentioned, redored his father’s law ; and ordained, that tlve relief to be paid fliould be according to the law fo ellablilhed, and not an arbitrary redemption.— But afterwards, when, by an ordinance in 27 Hen. II. called the ajftfe of armty it was provided, that c\cry man’s armour diould defcend to his heir, for defence of the icalm, and it thereby became imprafticable t» pay thefe acknowledgments in arms according to the laws of the Conqueror, the compofition was univer- fally accepted of 100 s. for every knight’s fee, as we find it ever after cltabliihed. But it mud be remem¬ bered, that this relief was only then payable, if the heir at the death of his ancedor had attained his full age of 21 years. To RELIEVE the Guard, is to put freih men upon guard, which is generally every 24 horns. To Rflie^m the Ttenchet, is to relieve the guard of the trenches, by appointing thofe for that duty who have been there before. To Relieve the Sentries, is to put frefh men upon that duty from the guard, which is generally done every two hours, by a corporal who attends the relief, to fee that the proper orders are delivered to the foldier who relieves. RELIEVO, or Relief, in fculpture, &c. is th^ projeCture or danding out of a figure which arifes pro¬ minent from the ground or plane on which it is foimed ; whether that figme be cut with the chilfel, moulded, or cad. T here are three kinds or degrees of relievo, viz. alto, baffo, and demi-relievo. The alto-relievo, called alfo haut-reliej, or high-relievo, is when the figure is formed after nature, and proje&s as much as the life. Baflb- relievo, bafs-ielief, or low-relievo, is when the work ie railed a little from the ground, as in medals, and the frontilpieces of buildings; and particularly in the hido- 11 2 ties, FrJIfva, W"’' n e l He a, feftoons, fnliages, and other ornarrenti of frie?‘on* happinefi of fociety ? and, above all, to examine, What particular religion is beft calculated to produce an happy influence on human life l We fliall endeavour to give a fatisfadWy anfwer to each of thefe queflions, referving to the article Theo¬ logy the cenfideration of the dogmas of that parti¬ cular religion which, from our prefent inquiries, (hall appear to be true, and to have the happielt influence on human life and manners. ^ I. The foundation of all religion reds on the belief Of the of the exidence of one or more iuperior beings, whof°utce or govern the world, and upon whom the happineis or mi-* un<*:lt.‘,'t* fery of mankind ultimately depends. Ot this belief, as °^r<" it may be faid to have been univerfal, there feem to be but three fources that can be conceived. Either the image of Deity mud be damped on the mind of every human being, the lavage as well as the fage; or the founders of focieties, and other eminent perfons, tracing by the efforts of their own reafon vifible effefts to invilible caufes, mult have difeovered the exidence of fuperior powers, and communicated the difeovery to their ad'oeiates and fol¬ lowers ; or, ladly, the univerfal belief in fuck powers- mud have been derived by tradition from a primaeval re¬ velation, communicated to the progenitors ®f the hu¬ man race. • One or other of thefe hypothefea mud be true, be-ft does not caufe a fourth cannot be framed. But we have elfe-Anfc from where (Polytheism, n° 2.) examined the reafoning *11 orkina* which has been employed to eltablilh the fird, and ffiewn jy^mind - that it proceeds upon falfe notions of human nature. 4 * We Ihould likewife pronounce it contrary to fa in the plaineft terms the duties incumbent on them in return for fo much goodnefs. The mode In what manner all this knowledge was communica- eU commu. ted, cannot be certainly known. It may have been in nication either of the following ways conceivable by us, or in not certain. otberg wbjCh we can form no conception. God may j now*. miraculoufly ftored the minds of the firft pair with adequate ideas and notions of fenfible and intelledfual objedts ; and then by an internal operation of his own Spirit have enabled them to exert at once their rational faculties fo as to difeover his exiftence and attributes, together with the relation in which as creatures they Hood to him their Almighty Creator. Or, after ren¬ dering them capable of diftinguiftiing objedfs by means of their fenfes, of comparing their ideas, and underftand- ing a language, he may have exhibited himfelf under fome fenfible emblem, and condudted them by degrees from one branch of knowledge to another, as a fchool- mafter condudts his pupils, till they were fufficiently acquainted with every thing relating to their own hap- pinefs and duty as rational, moral, and religious, crea¬ tures. In determining the queftion before us, it is of no importance whether infinite wifdom adopted either of thefe methods, or fome other different from them, both which we cannot conceive. The ordinary procefs in which men acquire knowledge is, by the laws of their nature, extremely tedious. They cannot reafon before their minds be ftored with ideas and notions ; and they cannot acquire thefe but through the medium of their fenfes long exercifed on external objects. E't whe The progenitors of the human race, left to inform therTitter- t^emf^ves by this procefs, muft have inevitably perifhed ml or exter-before they had acquired one diftinft notion ; and it is ml, c was tlie fame thing with itfpeft to the origin of religion, rcvek*'& whether God preferved them from deftruffion by an l0n' internal or external revelation. If he ftored their minds at once with the rudiments of all ufeful knowledge, and rendered them capable of exerting their rational, facul¬ ties, fo as, by tracing effeCbs to their caufes, to difeover his being and attributes, he revealed himfelf to them as certainly as he did afterwards to Mofes, when to him he condefeended to fpeak face to face. . , If this reafoning be admitted as fair and conclufive,Sudl and we apprehend that the principles on which it pro-velaji» ceeds cannot be confidered as ill-founded, we have ad^Ji vanced fo far as to prove that mankind mull.have beenjJJ, originally enlightened by a revelation. But it is fcarcepofi® neceffary to obferve, that this revelation rnuft have been handed down through fucceeding generations.. It i could not fail to reach the era of the deluge. It is not abfurd to fuppofe, that he who fpake from heaven to Adam, fpake alfo to Noah. And both the revelation which had been handed down to the poftdeluvian pa¬ triarch by tradition, and that which was communicated immediately to himfelf, would be by him made known to his defeendants. Thus it appears almoft impofiible that fome part of the religious fentiments of mankind fhould not have been derived from revelation ; and that not of the religious fentiments of one particular family or tribe, but of almoft. all the nations of the earth. This conclufion, which we have deduced by fair rea-Thei foning from the benevolence of God and the nature ofrityc is confirmed by the authority of the Jewifh and Jf^ Chriftian Scriptures, which are entitled to more im-ChnhI feript it plicit credit than all the other records ot ancient hih&c, tory. When we review the internal and external evidence of the authenticity of thefe facred books, we cannot for a moment hefitate to receive them as the genuine word of God. If we examine their internal character, they everywhere appear to be indeed the voice of Heaven. The creation of the world—the manner in which this globe was firft peopled—the deluge which fvvept away its inhabitants—the fucceeding views of the ftate of mankind in the next ages after the deluge—-the calling of Abraham—the legiflation of Mofes—the whole fe- ries of events which befel the Jewifh nation—the pro¬ phecies-—the appearance of Jefus (Thrift, and the pro- : mulgation of his gofpel, as explained to us in the Scrip¬ tures—form one ferks, which is, in the higheft degree, , ill nil rati ve of the power, wifdom, and goodnefs of the Supreme Being. While it mull be allowed that the human mind is ever prone to debafe the fublime principles of true reli¬ gion by enthufiafm and fuperftition, reafon and can¬ dour will not for a moment hefitate to acknowledge, that the whole fyftem of revelation reprefents the Supreme Being in the moft fublime and amiable light: that, in it, religion appears efientially connected with morality: that the legillative code of Mofes was fuch as no legif- lator ever formed and eftablifiied among a people e* qually rude and uncultivated: that the manners and morals of the Jews, vicious and favage as they may in fome inftances appear, yet merit a much higher cha- ra&er than thofe either of their neighbours, or of almoft any other nation, whofe circumilances and charafter were in other refpe&s fimilarto theirs : that there is an infinite difference between the Scripture prophecies and the oracles and predidlions which prevailed among hea¬ then nations : and that the miracles recorded in thofe writings which we efteem facred wefe attended with circumilances which entitle than to be ranked in a very different in Pn jfaft aga- ii . perfevering in depbeffing them under calamities. On Rel^ion, their malevolent deities they conferred a freedom of —1*v— agency which they denied to the benevolent. No won¬ der, then, that they were more aftiduous in paying their court to the one than to the other. They might with as much propriety have thought of being grateful to the boar or ftag whofe flelh fupporteef them, as to dei¬ ties who were always benevolent, becaufe they could not poflibly be otherwife. Though negligent of fuch deities, this can fcarce be thought to have had any ten¬ dency to render them ungrateful to benefa6lors like themfelves. And yet, it muft not be diflembled, that the American Indians, among whom fuch religious fentiments have been found to prevail, are faid to be very little fenftble to the emotions of gratitude. An Indian receives a prefent without thinking of making any grateful acknowledgments to the beftower. He pleafes his fancy or gratifies his appetite with what you have given, without feeming to confider himfclf as un¬ der the fmalleft obligation to you for the gift. It may be doubted, however, whether this fpirit of ingratitude originates from, or is only collateral with, that indifference which refufes adoration and worfhip to the benevolent divinities. If the fonner be actually the cafe, we muft acknowledge that thofe religious notions which vre now confuler, though preferable to general atheifm, are in this refpeft unfriendly t6 virtue. But if the Indians may be thought to owe the ingratitude for which they are diftinguifhed to the opinion which they entertain of the exiftence of a benevolent order of deities, whofe benevolence is ncceflary and involuntary, their ideas of the nature of their malevolent demons do not appear to have produced equal effefts on their mo¬ ral fentiments. However fubmiflive to thofe dreaded beings, they are far from fhowing the fame tame and cowardly fubmiflion to their human enemies: towards them they feem rather to adopt the fentiments of their demons. Inveterate rancour and brutal fury, inhuman cruelty and inconceivable cunning, are difplayed in the hoftilities of tribes at war; and we know not, after all, if even thefe fentiments do not owe fomewhat of their force to the influence of religion. Yet let us remember that thefe fame Indians have not been always reprefented in fo unamiable a light ; or, at leaft, other qualities have been aferibed to them which feem to be inconftftent with thofe barbarous dif- pofitions. They have been deferibed as peculiarly fuf- ceptible of conjugal and parental love ; and he who is fo cannot be deftitute of virtue. 2 t 2. But leaving the religion of favages, of which very The influ- little is known with certainty, let us proceed to exa- cnee of mine what is the natural influence of that mixed fyftem Gieek an^ of theology which reprefents to the imagination of men j a number of fuperior and inferior divinities, actuated *' ‘u ‘ by the fame paiflons and feelings with themfelves, and often making ufe of their fuperior power and knowledge for no other purpofe but to enable them to violate the laws of moral order with impunity. This is the cele¬ brated polytheifm of the Greeks and Romans, and moft other nations of antiquity (fee Polytheism). Could its influence be favourable to virtue ? At a firft view every perfon will readily declare, that ^t'Parcnl4T fuch a fyftem muft have been friendly'to profligacy. j£friendly t<> you commit the government of the univerfe, and theprulllsacy? infpe&ion of human focietyr, to a fet of beings who are I often R E L C6S Religion, often difpofed to regard vice with a no lefs favourable 1|11”' v gye than virtuCj and who, though there be an ehabhlh* ed order by which virtue is difcriminated from vice, and right from wrong, yet fcruple not to violate that order in their own condudt; you cannot cxpecf them to require in you a degree of reftitude of which they themfelves appear incapable. A Mercury will not dif- courage the thicvifh arts of the trader ; a Bacchus and a Venus cannot frown upon debauchery ; Mars will be¬ hold with favage delight all the cruelties of war. I he Thracians indeed, one of the moft. barbarous nations of antiquity, whofe ferocity was little if at all inferior to that of the Indians who have been diftinguilhed as ca- nibals, was the favourite nation of Mars; among whom ftood his palace, to which he repaired when about to mount his chariot, and arm himfelf for battle. Even Jupiter, who had been guilty of fo many a&s of ty¬ rannical caprice, had been engaged in fuch a multitude of amorous intrigues, and feemed to owe his elevated ftation as monarch of the Iky, not to fuperior goodnefs or wifdom, but merely to a fuperior degree of brutal force, could not be feared as the avenger of crimes, or revered as the impartial rewarder of virtues. That this fyllem had a pernicious effect on morals, and that, as compared with pure theifm, it was injuri- But vvhen ous to f°ciety> cannot be denied ; but yet, when con- contra/led trailed with atheifm, it was not without its favourable with a- effects. It was fo connected with the order of fociety, theitm its tjiat> w{thout its fupport, that order could fcarce have favourable?heen maintained. The young rake might perhaps ju- ftify himfelf by the example of Jupiter, or Apollo, or fame other amorous divinity ; the frail virgin or matron might complain of Cupid, or boaft of imitating Venus ; and the thief might pra£tife his craft under the patron¬ age of Mercury : Bat if we take the whole fyltem together, if we 'Confider with what views thofe deities were publicly worfhipped, what temples were railed, what rites inftituted, what facrifices offered, and what fer'ue confecrated ; we fhall perhaps find it neceffary to acknowledge that the general effects even of that mixed and incoherent fyllem of polytheifm which prevailed among the Greeks and Romans were favourable to fo- ciety. To Hate a particular inflance ; the ancilia of Mars and the fire of Vefla were thought to fecure the perpetuity of the Roman empire. As long as the fa- cred ancile, which had been dropped from heaven for that benevolent purpofe, was fafely preferved in thofe holy archives in which it had been depofited ; and as long as the facred fire of Veftawas kept burning, with¬ out being once extinguifhed, or at lead fuffered to remain for an inflant in that Hate ; fo long was Rome to fubliil and flourifh. And, however fimple and ab- furd the idea which connedled the profperity of a na¬ tion with the prefeivation of a piece of wood in a cer¬ tain place, or with the conHant blazing of a flame upon an hearth; yet no fa6l can be more certain, than that the patriotifm and enthufiaHic valour of the Romans, which we fo much extol and admire, were, in many in- ftances, owing in no inconfiderable degree to the vene¬ ration which they entertained for the ancilia and the ^ veflal fire. As is pro- A numerous feries of fails occur in the Roman hi¬ ved by a flory, which fhow the happy effedls of their religious feriesof18 oP™0ns and ceremonies on their fentiments concerning facbj focial order and the public welfare. How powerful ] R E L was the influence of the faeramentum adminlflered to ReK/i^ the foldiers when they enliHed in the fervice of their v-* country ? The promifes made, the idea of the powers invoked, and the rites performed on that occafion, pro. duced fo deep and fo awful an impreffion on their minds, that no danger, nor dillrefs, nor difeontent, could prompt them to violate their engagements. The re- fponfes of the oracles, too, though the dictates of de¬ ceit and impoHure, were often of Angular fervice to thofe to whom they were uttered ; when they infpired the warrior, as he marched out to battle, with the con. fidence of fuccefs, they communicated to him new vi¬ gour, and more heroic valour, by which he was actu¬ ally enabled to gain, or at lealt to deferve, the fuccefs which they promiied. Again, when in times of pub- lie diflrefs, the augur and the prieH directed fome games to be celebrated, certain facrifices to be offered, or fomc other folemnities to be performed, in order to appeafe the wrath of the oft’ended deities ; it is plain that the means were not at all fuited to accomplifh the end pro. pofed by them ; yet Hill they were highly beneficial. When the attention of the whole people was turned en¬ tirely to thofe folemnities by which the wrath of hea¬ ven was to be averted, they were roufed from that de- fpondency under which the fenfe of the public diltrefs or danger might have ©therwxfe caufed them to fink : the public union was at the fame time more clofely ce¬ mented, and the hearts of the people knit together ; and when perfuaded, that by propitiating the gods they had removed the caufe of their difirefs, they acquired fuch calmnefs and Hrength of mind as enabled them to take more diredt and proper meafures for the fafety of the Hate. Could we view the ancient Greeks and Romans adl- ing in public or in private life under the influence of that fyHem of fuperllition which prevailed among them; could we perceive how much it contributed to the maintenance of civil order ; could we behold Numa and Lycurgus eflablifhing their laws, which would other- wife have met with a very different reception under the fandlion of divinities ; could we obferve all the be¬ neficial effedls which arofe to communities from the ce¬ lebration of religious ceremonies - we fhoiild no longer hefitate to acknowledge, that thofe principles in the hu¬ man heart by which we are fuceptible of religious fen¬ timents, are fo eminently calculated to promote the hap- pinefs of mankind, that even when perverted and abu- fed, their influence is Hill favourable. j; The ideas which prevailed among the nations of the Their no heathen world concerning a future Hate of retribution rio“r° j[a were, it muH be coufeffed, not very correct. Some of ^g^j. the poets, we believe, have reprefented them in no un- tion into fair light: both Homer and Virgil have condudled their red; heroes through the realms of Pluto, and have taken oc- calion to unfold to us the fecrets of thole dreary abodes. The feenes are wild and fanciful; the rewards of the juH and virtuous are of no very refined or dignified na¬ ture : and of the punifhments inflidted on the guilty, it is often hard to fay for what ends they could be in¬ flicted ; whether to corredl and improve, or for the gra¬ tification of revenge or whim : they are often fo whim- fical and unfuitable, that they cannot with any degree of propriety be aferibed to any caufe but blind chance or wanton caprice. A great dog with three tonguesj, a peevifh old boat-man with a leaky ferry-boat, de¬ manding R E L t pijen- manding In's freight in a furly tone, ami an uxorious monarch, are objects too familiar and ludicrous not to degrade the dignity of thofe awful feenes which arc reprefented as the manfions of the dead, and to prevent them from making a deep enough imprefiion on the imagination. The actions and qualities, too, for which departed fpirits were admitted into Elyfium, or doom¬ ed to the regions of fuffering, were not always of fuch a nature as under a well-regulated government on earth would have been thought to merit reward, or to be worthy of punilhment. It was not always virtue or wifdom which conduced to the Elyfian fields, or gain¬ ed admifiion into the fociety of the immortal gods.— Ganimede was for a very different reafon promoted to be the cup-bearer of Jove ; and Hercules and Bacchus could not furely plead that any merits of that kind en¬ titled them to feats in the council, and at the banquets of the immortals. That do&rine, likewife, which re¬ prefented mortals as hurried by fate to the commiffion of crimes, which they could no more abftain from com¬ mitting than the fword can avoid to obey the impulfe of a powerful and furious arm plunging it into the bread: of an unrefifting antagoniit, could not but pro¬ duce effects unfavourable to virtue; and it afforded a ready excufe for the mod: extravagant crimes. Yet, after all, he who attentively conliders the ideas of the Greeks and Romans concerning the moral government of the world and a future date of rewards and punifhments, will probably acknowledge, that their general influence mull have been favourable to virtue and moral order. Allow them to have been incorreft and dafhed with abfurdity ; ftill they reprefent punifhments prepared for fuch qualities and a&ionsas were injurious to the welfare of fociety ; whilll, for thofe qualities which rendered men eminently ufeful in the world, they hold forth a reward. Though incorrecl, their ideas con¬ cerning a future date were exceedingly didinft ; they were not vague or general, but fuch as might be readi¬ ly conceived by the imagination, in all their circum- ftances, as really exifting. When a man is told that for fuch a deed he will be put to death, he may fh ud¬ der and be alarmed, and think of the deed as what he mud: by no means commit; but place before him the feene and the apparatus for his execution, call him to behold fome other criminal mounting the fcaffold, ad¬ drefling his lad: words in a wild feream of defpair to the furrounding fpe&ators, and then launching into eternity—his horror of the crime, and his dread of the punifhment, will now be much more powerfully excited. In the fame manner, to encourage the foldier marching out to battle, or the mariner fetting fail under the pro- fpedl of a ftorm, promife not, merely in general terms, a liberal reward ; be lure to fpecify the nature of the -reward which you mean to beftow; deferibe it fo as that It may take hold on the imagination, and may rife in oppolition to the images of death and danger with which his courage is to be aflailed. If thefe phenomena of the human mind are fairly ftated, if it be true that general ideas produce no very powerful effc&s on the fentiments and difpofitions of the human heart, it mud: then be granted, that though the feenes of future rew.ard and punifliment, which the heathens confidered as prepared for the righteous and the wicked, were of a fomewhat motley complexion ; yet ft ill, as they were diftindt and even minute draughts, 6 u ever- ic fs fa- ib!e fo : and ic 1 or- (r 67 1 R E L they muft have been favourable to virtue, and contribu- Religion, ted in no inconfxderable degree to the fupport of civil v—^ order. ^ . Another thing of which we may take notice under The notion this head, is the vaft multiplicity of deities with which deities the Greek and Roman mythology peopled all the gions of nature. Flocks and fields, and woods and TuS oaks, and flowers, and many much more minute objefts, tendency had all their guardian deities. Thefe were fomewhatwhcn com* capricious at times, it is true, and expedted to have at- ^ tention paid them. But yet the faithful fliepherd, and"1 ‘U * the indullrious farmer, knew generally how to acquire their friendfhip ; and in the idea of deities enjoying the fame iimple pleafures, partaking in the fame labours, protecting their pofieffions, and bringing forward the truits of the year, there could not but be fomething of a very pleafing nature, highly favourable to induftry, which would animate the labours, and cheer the fefti- vals, of the good people who entertained fuch a notion; nay, would diffufe a new charm over all the fcencs of the country, even in the gayeft: months of the year. From all of thefe particular obfervations, we think ourfelves warranted to conclude, that notwith(landing the mixed charadters of the deities who were adored by the celebrated nations of antiquity ; though they are in many inilaoces reprefented as confpicuous for vices and frolics ; however vain, abfurd, and morally criminal, fome of the rites by which they were worftupped may have been, and however incorrect the notions of the heathens concerning the moral government of the univerfe and a future (late of retribution ; yet ftill, after making a juft allowance for all thefe imperfedlions, the general in¬ fluence of their religious fyftem was rather favourable than unfavourable to virtue and to the order and hap- pinefs of fociety. It was not without good reafo* that the earlieft legif- The ad van*' lators generally endeavoured to cilablifh their laws and tape of conftitutions on the bafis of religion ; government needs eftaWi(hinB the fupport of opinion; the governed muft be im-&ba- prefled with a belief that the particular eftablifliment li?0f reli " to whieh they are required to fubmit, is the bell ealeu- gion. luted for their fecurity and happinefs, or is fupported on fome fuch folid foundation, that it muft prove im- poflible for them to overturn it, or is conneded with fome awful fan&ion, which it would be the mod hei¬ nous impiety to oppofe. Of thefe feveral notions, the laft will ever operate on mod men with the mod deady influence. W e arc frequently blind to our own intereft ; even when eager for the attainment of happinefs, we often refufe to take the wifeft mcafures for that end. The great bulk of the people in every community are fo lit¬ tle capable of reafomng and forefight, that the public mimfter who (hall mod fteadily dired his views to the public good will often be the mod unpopular. Thofe laws, and that fyftem of government, which are the moll beneficial, will often excite the ftronged popular difeontents. Again, it is not always eafy to perfuade people that your power is fuperior to theirs, when it is not really fo. No one man will ever be able to perfuade a thoufand that he is ftronger than they all together: and theiefore, in order te perfuade one part of his fub- jtds or army that it is abfolutely neceflary for them to fubmit to him, becaufe any attempts to refift his power would prove ineffcdual, a monarch or general mud take care iirll to perfuade another part that it is for their in- * 2 tereil RcK^ion. R E L [ tereft to fubmlt to him ; or to imprefs the whole with a belief that, weak and pitiful as he himfelf may appear, when viewed fingly in oppofition to them all, yet by the afiiilance of fome awful invifible beings, his friends and proteftors, he is fo powerful, that any attempts to re¬ fill his authority mull prove prefumptuous folly. Here, then, the aid of religion becomes requifite. Religious fentiments are the molt happily calculated to ferve this purpofe. Scarce ever was there a fociety formed, a mode of government ellablifhed, or a code of laws framed and enabled, without having the religious fenti¬ ments of mankind, their notions of the exiltence of fu- perior invifible beings, and their hopes and fears from thofe beings, as its fundamental principle. Now, we believe, it is almoft univerfally agreed, that even the rudelt form of fociety is more favourable to the happi- nefs of mankind, and the dignity of the human charac¬ ter, than a folitary and lavage Hate. And if this, with what we have afierted concerning religion as the balls of civil government, be both granted, it will follow, that even the moll imperfect religious notions, the moil foolilh and abfurd rites, and the wildell ideas that have been entertained concerning the moral government of the univerfe by fuperior beings, and a future Hate of retribution, have been more advantageous than atheifm. to the happinefs and virtue of human life. We have al¬ ready granted, nor can it be denied, indeed, that many of the religious opinions which prevailed among the an¬ cient heathens, did contribute, in fome degree, to the depravation of their morals : and all that we argue for is, that on a comparative view of the evil and the good which refulted from them, the latter mull appear mure than adequate to counterbalance the effedts of the former. The infinite But if fuch be the natural tendency of thofe princi- ajvantage p|es which *he human heart is made fufceptihle of re- a *>ure’ ligious fentiments, that even enthuliafm and abfurd fu- perftition are produdlive of beneficial efl’edls more than iufficient to counterbalance whatever is malignant in their influence on fociety—furcly a pure rational reli¬ gion, the do&rines of which are founded in undeniable truth, and all the obfervances which it enjoins, calcula¬ ted to promote by their diredl and immediate effedls fome ufeful purpofes, mull be i* a very high degree conducive to the dignity and the happinefs of human nature. Indeed one collateral proof of the truth of any religion, which mull have very confiderable weight ■with all who are not of opinion that the fyftem of the univerfe has been produced and hitherto maintained in order and exillence by blind chance, will be its having a ftroager and more diredl tendency than others to pro¬ mote the interefts of moral virtue and the happinefs of mankind in the prefent life. Even the tellimony of thoufands, even miracles, prophecies, and the fantlion of remote antiquity, will fcarce have fufficient weight to.perfuade us, that a religion is of divine origin, if its general tendency appear to be rather unfavourable than advantageous to moral virtue. III. We lhall therefore, in the next place, endea¬ vour to determine, from a comparative view of the ef- fefts produced on the chara&er and circumllanccs of focicty by the moll eminent of thefe various fyllems of religion which have been in different ages or in diffe¬ rent countries ellablilhed in the world, how far any one of them has in this refpeft the advantage over the reft > and, if the utility of a fyllem of religion were to 68 1 R E L be received as a tell of its truth, what particular fyllem Retipo* might, with the bell reafon, be received as true,,while.— the reft were rejected. tft, The principle upon which we here fet out is, that all, or almoft all, fyftems of religion with which we are acquainted, whether true or falfe, contribute more or lefs to the welfare of fociety. But as one field is more fruitful, and one garden lefa overgrown with weeds than another; fo, in the fame manner, one fyftem of religious opinions and ceremonies may be more hap¬ pily calculated than others to promote the truell inte- ^ re Its of mankind. In oppofition to thofe philbfophers Adnntjp who are fo vehement in their declamations againll the °f bvilizi, *9 rational, and true religion. 30 Compara¬ tive view the ef- ferts of different religious fy items. inequality of ranks, we have ever been of opinion, tlon» that refinement and civilization contribute to the hap¬ pinefs of human life. The charabler of the folitary fa- vage is, we are told, more dignified and refpedlable than that of the philofopher and the hero, in pro¬ portion as he is more independent. He is indeed more independent; but his independence is that of a Hone, which receives no nourifhment from the earth or air, and communicates none to animals or vegetables around it. In point of happinefe, and ia point of refpedlability, we cannot hefitate a moment, let philofophers fay what they will, to prefer a virtu¬ ous, enlightened, and pcjilhed Briton to any of the rudeft favages, the leall acquainted with the reftraints and the fympathies of focial life, that wander through jt the wild forefts of the weftern world. But if we pre- Andthcri fer civilization to barbarifm, we muft admit, that in this view' Chriftianity has the advantage over every other religious fyftem which has in any age or country prevailed among men ; for nowhere has civilization and ufeful fcicnce been carried to fueh a height as among Chriftians. It is not, indeed, in any confiderable degree that the v,iew of abfurd fuperftitions of thofe rude tribes, who can fcarce ^ ^ be faid to be formed into any regular fociety, can con-nitjonj(l tribute to their happinefs. Among them the faculty pag4nni of reafon is but in a very low Hate; and the moral prin-lions, ciple ufually follows the improvement or the depreffion ot the reafoning faculty. Their appetites and merely animal pafiions are almoft their only principles of ac¬ tion : their firft religious notions, if we fuppofe them not to be derived from revelation or tradition, are pro¬ duced by the operation of gratitude, or grief, or hope, or fear, upon their imaginations. And to thefe, however wild and fanciful, it is not improbable that they may owe fome of their earlieft moral notions. The idea of fuperior powers naturally leads to the thought that thole powers have fome influence on human life. From this they will moll probably proceed to fancy one fet of aftions agreeable, another offenfive, to thofe beings to whom they believe themfelves fuhjebl. And this, perhaps, is the firft diilinclion that favages can be fup- poled to form between actions, as right or wrong, to be performed or to be avoided. But if this be the cafe, we muft acknowledge that the religious notions ol the favage, however abfurd, contribute to elevate his -chara&er, and to improve his happinefs, when they call forth the moral principle implanted in his breail. But if the focial Hate be preferable to a ftate of wild and folitary independence, even the rude fuperftiticns of unenlightened tribes of favages are in another refpedl beneficial to thofe among whom they prevail. They ufually ifcn. ■ R E L l 69 ] R E L ufualty form, as has been already obferved' under this ments, Is fald to have produced equally unhappy ef- ReIig;owy article the bafis of civil order. Religious opinions has among the Japanefe. They not only bribed their may lead the great body of the community to reve- priefts to folicit for them; but looking upon the enjoy. . rence fome .particular fet of inflitutions, fome indivi- ments of the prefent life with difgull or contempt, they dual or fome family, which are reprefented to them as ufed to daft themfelves from precipices, or cut their peculiarly conneaed udth the gods whom they adore, throats, in order to get to paradife as foon as poffible. Under this fanaion fome form »f government Is efta- Various other fuperftitions fubfifting among rude na- blifhed • they are taught to perform focial duties, and lions might here be enumerated, as inftances of the rendered capable of focial enjoyments. Not only Nu- perverfion of the religious principles of the human ma and Lycimms, but almoft every legiflator who has heart, which render them injurious to virtue and hap- fought to civilize a rude people, and reduce them un- pinefs. The aufterities which have been praaifed* der the reftraints of legal government, have endeavour- chiefly among rude nations, as means of propitiating ed to imprefs their people with an Idea that they a£ed fuperior powers, are efpecially worthy of notice.-- with the approbation, and under the Immediate dircc- When the favourite idol of the Banians is earned in tion, of fuperior powers. We cannot but allow that folemn proceffion, iome devotees proftrate themfelves the rude fuperftitions of early ages are produ&ive of on the ground, that the chariot in which the idol is- tliefe advantages to fociety ; hut we have already ac- carried may run over them ; others, with equal enthu- knowledged, and it cannot be denied, that they are al- fiafm, dafli themfelves on fpikes faftened on pxirpofc t® fo attended with many unhappy efte&s. When we the car. Innumerable are the ways of torture which view the abfurdities intermixed with the fyftems of re- have been invented and pra&ifed on themfelves by men ligion which prevailed among moft of the nations of ignorantly ft riving^ to recommend thcmfelves to the fa- antiquity, we cannot help lamenting that fo noble a vour of heaven. Thefe we lament as inftances in which principle of human nature as our religious fentiments religious fentiments have been fo ill dire&ed by the in- fhould be liable to fuch grofs perverfion ; and when we flficnce of imagination, and unenlightened erring rea- view the effe&s which they produce on the morals of fon, as to produce unfavourable effefts on the human mankind, and the forms of fociety, though we allow charafter, .and oppofe the happinefs of focial life.— them to have been upon the whole rather beneficial than Though wc have argued, that even the moft abfurd fy- hurtful, yet we cannot but obferve, that their unfavour- ftems of religion that have prevailed in the world, have able effects are by far more numerous than if they had been upon the whole rather beneficial than injuriinis to been better direfted. What unhappy eftefts, for inftance, the dignity and happinefs of human nature; yet if it have been produced by falfe notions concerning the ftall not appear, as we proceed farther in our compara- condition of human fouls in a future ftate. Various na- tive view of the effe&s of religion on fociety, that others tions have imagined that the feenes and obje&s of the have been attended with happier effefts than thefe fu- world of fpirits are only a ftadowy representation of perflitions which belong to the rude ages of fociety, the things of the prefent world. Not only the fouls we may fcarce venture to brand the infidel with the ap- of men, according to them, inhabit thofe regions ; all pellation of fool, for refufing to give his aflent to reli— tiie info or animals and vegetables, and even inanimate gious do&rines, or to aft under their influence, bodies that are killed or deftroyed here, are fuppofed 2d, The polytheifm of the Greeks and Romans, to pafs into that vifionary world ; and, exifting there and other heathen nations in a fimilar ftate of civiliza- in unfubftantial forms, to execute the fame fun&ions, tion, we have already confidered as being, upon the or feive the fame purpofes, as on earth. Such are the whole, rather favourable than unfavourable to virtue; ideas of futurity that were entertained by the inhabi- but we muft not partially conceal its defeats. The vi- tants of Guinea. And by thefe ideas they were indu- cious characters of the deities which they worfliipped, ced, when a king or great man died among them, to the iucorrcft notions which they entertained concerning . provide for his comfortable accommodatipn in the world the moral government of the univerfe and a future re- of fpiiits, by burying w ith him meat and drink for his tribution, the abfurdity of their rites and cerempnies, fubfiftence, flaves to attend and ferve him, and wdves and the criminal practices which were intermixed with with whom he might {till enjoy the pleafures oflove. them, muft have altogether had a tendency to pervert His faithful fubjedta vied with each other in offering, both the reafoning and the moral principles of the hu- one a fervant, another a wife, a third a fon or daugh- man mind. The debaucheries of the monarch of the ter, to be ft nt to the other world in company with the gods, and the fidelity with wftich his example in that monarch, that they might there be employed in his refpedl was followed by tire whole crowd of the inferior fervice. In New Spain, in the ifland of Java, in the deities, did, we know, difpofe the devout heathen, when kingdom of Benen, and among the inhabitants of la- he felt the fame paflions wftich had afferted their power doftan, fimilar practices on the fame occafion, owing no over the gods, to gratify them without Icruple. It is doubt to fimilar notions of futurity, have been preva- a truth, however, .and we will not attempt to deny or lent. But fuch practices as thefe cannot be viewed conceal it, that the genius of the polytheifm of the with greater contempt on account of the opinions Greeks and Romans was friendly to the arts; to fuch which have given rife to them, than horror on account of them efpecially as are raifed to excellence “by the vi- ef their unhappy effedfs on the condition of thofe goious exertion of a fine imagination ; mufic, poetry, among whom they prevail. A lively impreflion of the feulpture, arcftkcClure, and painting, all of thele arts enjoyments to be obtained' in a future ftate, together appear to have been confidcrably indebted for that per- witb fome very falfe or incorredt notions concerning fedlion to which they attained,, efpecially among the the qualities or adtions which vycre to entitle the dc- Greeks, to the fplendid and fanciful fyftem of mytholo- parting foul to admiffion into the feene of thofe enjoy- gy which was received among that ingenious people. — But" R E L [ 70 3 R E L Ileliglon, But we cannot give an equally favourable account oi U»l - v jtg influence on the fciences. There was little in that fyftem that could contribute to call forth reafon. We rnay grant indeed, that if reafon can be fo fhocked with absurdity as to be roufed to a more vigorous exertion of her powers, and a more determined aflertion of her rights in confequence of furveying it; in that cafe tins fyftem of mythology might be favourable to the exer* cife and improvement of reafon ; not otherwife. The connexion of paganifm with morality was too imperfedt for it to produce any very important effedts on the morals of its votaries. Sacrifices and prayers, and temples and feftivals, not purity of heart and in¬ tegrity of life, were the means prefcribed for propitia¬ ting the favour of the deities adored by the Pagans, There were other means, too, befides true heroifm and patriotifm, of gaining admiftion into the Elyfian fields, or obtaining a feat in the council of the gods. Xeno¬ phon, in one of the moft beautiful parts of his Memoirs of Socrates, reprcfents Hercules wooed by Virtue and Pleafure in two fair female forms, and deliberating with much anxiety which of the two he ftiould prefer. But this is the fidtion of a philofopher defirous to im¬ prove the fables of antiquity in fuch a way as to render them truly ufeful. Hercules does not appear, from th© tales which are told us of his adventures, to have been at any fuch pains in choofing his way of life. He was received into the palace of Jove, without having occa- fion to plead that he had through life been the faithful follower of that goddefs to whom the philofopher makes him give the preference ; his being the fon of Jove, and his wild adventures, were fufficient without any other merits to gain him that honour. The fame may be faid concerning many of the other demi-gods and heroes who were advanced to heaven, or conveyed to the blefs- ful fields of Elyfium. And whatever might be the good effedfs of the religion of Greece and Rome in ge¬ neral upon the civil and political eftablifiiments, and in fome few inftances on the manners of the people, yet ftill it muft be acknowledged to have been but ill calculated to imprefs the heart with fuch principles as might in all circumftances diredt to a firm, uniform, te¬ nor of virtuous condudt. But after what has been faid on the charadter of this religion elfewhere (fee Polytheism), and in the fecond part of this article, we cannot without repeti¬ tion enlarge farther on it here. Of die Jewifti reli¬ gion, however, we have as yet faid little, having on purpofe referved to this place whatever we mean to in¬ troduce under the article, concerning its influence on fociety. 3d, When we take a general view of the circum¬ ftances in which the Jewifli religion was eftabliflied, the effe&s which it produced on the charadler and fortune of the nation, the rites and ceremonies which it enjoin¬ ed, and the lingular political inftitutions to which it gave a fandtion, it may perhaps appear hard to deter¬ mine, whether it were upon the whole more or lefs be¬ neficial to fociety than the polytheifm of the Egyp¬ tians, Greeks, and Romans. But if fuch be the judge¬ ment which preconceived prejudices, or an hafty and carelefs view, have induced fome to form of this celebra¬ ted fyftem , there are others who, with equal keennefs, and founder reafoning, maintain, that it was happily calculated, not only to accomplilh the great defign of 34 View f>( Judaifm. preparing the way for the promulgation of the Cofpel, Religion, but likewife to render the Jews a more refined and vir- —r-* tuous people, and a better regulated community, than any neighbouring nation. In the firil place, the attri¬ butes of the Deity were very clearly exhibited to the Jews in the eftabliihment of their religion. The mi¬ racles by which he delivered them from fervitude, and condudted them out of Egypt, were ftriking demon- ftrations of his power ; that condefeenfion with which he forgave their repeated a£ts of perverfenefs and rebel¬ lion, was a moft convincing proof of his benevolence ; and the impartiality with which the obfervance and the violation of his laws were rewarded and puniftied, even in the prefent life, might well convince them of his juftice. A part of the laws which he di&ated to Mo- fes are of eternal and univerfal obligation ; others of them were local and particular, fuited to the character of the Jews, and their circumftances in the land of Ca¬ naan. The Jewifti code, taken altogether, is not to be confidercd as a complete fyftem of religion, or laws cal¬ culated for all countries and all ages of fociety. When we confider the expediency of this fyftem, we muft take care not to overlook the defign for which the Jews are faid to have been feparated from other nations, the cir¬ cumftances in which they had lived in Egypt, the cu« ftoms and manners which they had contradied by their intercourfe with the natives of that country, the man¬ ner iu which they were to acquire to themfelves fettle- ments by extirpating the nations of Canaan, the rank which they were to hold among the nations of Syria and the adjacent countries, together with the difficulty of reftraining a people fo little civilized and enlighten¬ ed from the idolatrous worfhip which prevailed among their neighbours: All thefe circumftances were cer¬ tainly to be taken into account; and had the legiflator oi the Jews not attended to them, his inllitutions muft have remained in force only for a ftiort period ; nor could they have produced any latling effe&s on the chara&er of the nation. With a due attention to thefe circumftances, let us defeend 10 an examination of par¬ ticulars. Although in every religion or fuperftition that has The prevailed through the world, we find one part of its m-bath* ftitutions to confift in the enjoining of certain feftivals to be celebrated by relaxation from labour, and the per¬ formance of certain ceremonies in honour of the gods; yet in none, or almoft none befides the Jewifh, do we find every feventh day ordained to be regularly kept holy. One great end which the legiflator of the Jews had in view in the inftitution of the Sabbath w^as, to im¬ prefs them with a belief that God was the maker of the univerfe. In the early ages of the world a great part of mankind imagined the ftars, the fun, the moon, and the other planets, to be eternal, and confequently ob- je£\s highly worthy of adoration. To convince the If* raelites of the abfurdity of this belief, and prevent them from adopting that idolatry, Mofes taught them, that thofe confpicnous obje&s which the Gentile nations re¬ garded as eternal, and endowed with divine power and intelligence, were created by the hand of God ; wffio, after bringing all things out of nothing, and giving them form, order, and harmony, in the fpace of fix days, refted on the feventh from all his works. Vari¬ ous paflages in the Old Tcftament concur to (how, that this was one great end of tke inftitution of the Sabbatk 3b ird ill A her »1 bil< ws R E L r Sabbath. The obfervance of the Sabbath, and deteila- tion of idolatrous worfhip, are frequently inculcated tq- g:ther; and, again, the breach of the Sabbath, and the worlhip of idols, are ufually reprobated at the fame time. Another good reafon for the inftitution of a Sabbath might be, to remind the Jews of their delive¬ rance from bondage, to infpire them with humanity to Grangers and domeftics, and to mitigate the rigours of fervitude. The purpofes for which the other feflivals of the Jewifh religion were inflituted appear alfo of fufficient importance. The great miracle, which, after a feries of other miracles, all dire&ed to the fame end, finally effedted the deliverance of the Jews out of Egypt ; and their aft ual departure from that land of fervitude, might well be commemorated in the feaft of the paffover. To recal to the minds of polterity the hiftory of their an- ceitors, to imprefs them with an awful and grateful fenfe of the goodnefs and greatnefs of God, and to make them think of the purpofes for which his almighty power had been fo fignally exerted, were furely good reafons for the inllitution of fuch a feftival. The feaft of Pentecoft celebrated the firlt declaration of the law by Mofts, in the fpace of fifty days after the feaft of the pafibver. It fervcd alfo as a day of folemn thankf- giving for the blefiings of a plenteous harveft. On the feaft of tabernacles, they remembered the wanderings of their anceftors through the wildernefs, and exprefled their gratitude to heaven for the more comfortable cir- cumftances in which they found themfelves placed. The feaft of new moons ferved to fix their kalendar, and determine the times at which the other fellivals were to be celebrated ; on it trumpets were founded, to give public notice of the event which was the caufe of the feftival; no fervile works were performed, divine fer- vice was carefully attended, and the firft fruits of the month were offered to the Lord. The Jewiftr legifia- tor limited his feftivals to a very fmall number, while the heathens devoted a confiderable part of the year to the celebration of theirs. But we perceive the occa- iions upon which the Jewifti feftivals were celebrated to have been of fuitable importance ; whereas thofe of the heathens were often celebrated on trifling or ridiculous occafions. Piety and innocent recreation fhared the Jewifli feftival; the feftivals of the heathens were chief¬ ly devoted to debauchery and tdlenefs. The Hebrews had other folcmn feafons of devotion atidbefi with a creative genius, which never attained perfec¬ tion. It was find of him, that he would have invent¬ ed painting, if he had not found it already difeovered. Without ftudy, without the affiftauee of any mafter, but by his own . inftincl, he formed rules,- and a cer¬ tain practical method for colouring ; and the mixture produced the deiig»ed eilect. Nature is not let off to the greateft advantage in his pictures; but there is fuch a striking truth and fimplicity in them, that his heads, particularly his portraits, feem animated, and' riling from the canvas* He, was fond of Itrong contrails of light and lhade. The light entered in his working-room only by a hole, in the manner of a camera obfeura, by / which he judged with greater certainty of his produc¬ tions. This artift cunfidered painting like tho ftage, where REM T 78 ] REM Re mbrandt where the characters do not ftrlke unlefs tltey are ex¬ aggerated. He did not purfue the method of the hle- mifh painters of finifhing his pieces. He fometimes gave his light fuch thick touches, that it teemed more like modelling than painting. A head of his has been fhown, the nofe of which was fo thick of paint, as that which he copied from nature. He was told one day, that by his peculiar method of employing colours, his pieces appeared rugged and uneven—he replied, he was a painter, and not a dyer. He took a pleafure in dref- ling his figures in an extraordinary.manner : with this view he had collefted a great number of eatlern caps, ancient armour, and drapery long tince out of fain ion. When he was advifed to confult antiquity to attain a better tafte in drawing, as bis was ufually heavy and uneven, he took his coimfellor to the clofet where thefe old veftments were depofited, faying, by way of deri- fion, thofe were his antiques. Rembrandt, like moll men of genius, had many ca¬ prices. Being one day at work, painting a whole fa¬ mily in a fingle picture, word being brought him that -Jus monkey was dead, he was fo afFefted at the lofs of this animal, that, without paying any attention to the Remora, of orders ; he alfo takes all bonds for the king’s debts, Rsmesi* &c. and makes out procefies thereon. He likewife if- brancer* fucs proceffes againft the collectors of the cultoms,excife, and others, for their accounts; and informations upon penal ftatutes are entered and fued in his office, where all proceedings in matters upon Englilh bills in the ex¬ chequer-chamber remain. His duty further is to make out the bills of compofitions upon penal laws, to take the ftatement of debts; and into his office are deliver¬ ed all kinds of indentures and other evidences which concern the affuring any lands to the crown. lie every year incrajlmo an'fmarum, reads in open court the Ifatutc for eledb'on of fiieriffs; and likewife openly reads in court the oaths of all the officers, when they are ad¬ mitted. The lord treafurer’s remembrancer is charged to make out procefs againft all IherifFs, efeheators, receivers, and bailiffs, for their accounts. He alfo makes out writs of Jieri facias, and extent for debts due to the king, either in the pipe or with the auditors ; and pro¬ cefs for all fuch revenue as is due to the king on ac¬ count of his tenures. He takes the account of iheiiffs; and alfo keeps a record, by which it appears whether perfons who were iitting for their piftures, he painted the fheriffs or other accountants pay their proffers due *l,^ ^rvnlrl at anrl ATirhnrlmnci • anA at thP lamp timp lip the monkey upon the fame canvas. This whim could not fail of difpleafmg thofe the piece was defigtied for; but he would not efface it, choofing rather to lole the dale.of his picture. This freak will appear ftill more extraordinary in Rembrandt, when it is confidered that he was extremely avaricious; which vice daily grew upon him. He prac- tifed various ftratagems to fell his prints at a high price. The public were very defirous of purchafmg them, and not without reafon. In his prints the fame taile prevails as in his pictures ; they are rough and irregular, but pifturefque. In order to. heighten the value of his prints, and increafe their price, he made his fon fell them as if he had purloined them from his father; others he expofed at public fales, and went thither himfelf in difguife to bid for them ; fometimes ‘he gave out that he was going to leave Holland, and fettle in another country. Thefe ftratagems were fuc- eefsful, and he got his own price for his prints. At other times he would print his plates half ffnifhed, and expofe them to fale ; he afterwards finiftied them, and .they became frefti plates. When they wanted retouch¬ ing, he made fome alterations in them, which promo¬ ted the fale of his prints a third time, though they ^differed but little from the firft impreffions. His pupils, who were not ignorant of his avarice, one day painted fome pieces of money upon cards ; and Rembrandt no fooner faw them, than he was going to take them up. He was not angry at the pleafantry, but his avarice ftill prevailed. He died in 1674. 'REMEMBRANCE, is when the idea of fome- thing formerly known recurs again to the mind with¬ out the operation of a like objedt on the external fen- fory. See Memory and Reminiscence. REMEMBRANCERS, anciently called clerks of the remembrance, certain officers in the exchequer, whereof three are diftinguilhed by the names of the kmfs remem¬ brancer, the lord treafurer’s remembrancer, and the remem¬ brancer of the fifl fruits. The king’s remembrancer enters in his office all recognizances taken before the barons for ■&ny of the king’s debts, for appearances or obferving at Eafter and Michaelmas; and at the fame time he makes a record, whereby the iheriffs or other accoun¬ tants keep their prefixed days: there are likewife brought into his office all the accounts of cuftomers, comptrollers, and accountants, in order to make entry thereof on record ; alfo all eftreats and amercements are certified here, &c. The remembrancer of the firft-fruits takes all com¬ pofitions and bonds for the payment of firft-fruits and tenths ; and makes out procefs againft fuch as do not pay the fame. REMINISCENCE, that power of the human mind, whereby it recolledts itfelf, or calls again into its re¬ membrance fuch ideas or notions as it had really for¬ got : in which it differs from memory, which is a treafuring up of things in the mind, and keeping them there, without forgetting them. REMISSION#- in phyfics, the abatement of the power or efficacy of any quality ; in oppofition to the increafe of the fame, which is called intenjion- Remission, in law, &c. denotes the pardon of a crime, or the giving up the punifhment due thereto. Remission, in medicine, is when a diftemper abates for a time, but does not go quite off. REMI TTANCE, in commerce, the traffick or re¬ turn of money from one place to another, by bills of ex¬ change, orders, or the like. REMONSTRANCE, an expoftulation or humble fupplication, addreffed to a king, or other fuperior, be- feeching him to refleft on the inconveniences or ill con- fequences of fome order, edift# or the like. This word is alfo ufed for an expoftulatory counfci, or advice ; or a gentle and handfome reproof, made either in general, or particular, to apprize of or correct fome fault, &c. REMORA, or Sucking-fish, a fpecies of Eche- neis. Many incredible things are related of this ani¬ mal by the ancients ; as that it had the power of Hop¬ ping the largeft and fwifteft veffel in its courfe : and even to this day it is afferted by the fifhermen in the Mediterranean, that it has a power of retarding the motion of their boats by attaching itfeli to them ; for which Re -!rfe, ]lfe|ihan. 11 E M [ ; winch reafon they kill it whenever they perceive this retardation. But in what manner the remora perforins this, we have no account. REMORSE, in its woril fenfe, means that pain or anguifh which one feels after having committed fome bad action. It alio means tendernefs, pity, or fym- pathetic forrow. It is moft generally ufed in a bad fenfe, and is applied to perfons who feel compunftion for fome great crime, as murder and fuch like. Mur¬ ders which have been committed with the utmoft cir- cumfpedtion and fecrecy, and the authors of which could never have been difcovered by any human inve- lligation, have been frequently unfolded by the remorfe and confefiion of the perpetrators, and that too many years afterwards. Of this there are numerous inltances, which are well authenticated, and which are fo generally known that it is needlefs to relate them here. See Re¬ pentance. REMPHAN, an idol or Pagan god whom St Ste¬ phen fays the Ifraelites worfhipped in the wildernefs as they pafled from Egypt to the land of Promife : “ Yea, ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch, and the ftar of your god Remphan ; figures which ye made to worfhip them.” That the martyr here quotes the following words of the prophet Amos, ail commentators are a- greed : “ Ye have borne the tabernacle of your Moloch, and Chiun your images, the ftar of your god, which ye made to yourfelves.” But if this coincidence be¬ tween the Chriftian preacher and the Jewifli prophet be admitted, it follows, that Chiun and Remphan are two names of one and the fame deity. This is indeed farther evident from the LXX tranflators having fub- ftituted in their verlion the word Paipo:v} inftead of Cb/iWy which we read in the Hebrew and Englifh Bibles. But the queftion which ftill remains to be an- fwered is, what god was worfhipped by the name of Remphan, Ralphan, or Chiun P for about the other divi¬ nity here mentioned there is no difpute. See Moloch. That Chiun or Remphan was an Egyptian divinity, cannot be queftioned ; for at the era of the Exodus the Hebrews muft have been ftrangers to the idolatrous wor- fhip of all other nations ; nor are they ever accufed of any other than Egyptian idolatries during their 40 years wanderings in the wildernefs, till towards the end of that period that they became infefted bv the Moa¬ bites with the worfhip of Baal-peor. That Moloch, Mo¬ led, Meld, or Milcom, in its original acceptation denotes a ktnp or chief, is known to every oriental fcholar ; and therefore when it is ufed as the name of a god, it un¬ doubtedly fignifies the fun, and is the fame divinity with the Egyptian Ofuis. Reafoning in this way many critics, and we believe Selden is in the number, have concluded that Chiun, and of courfe Remphan, is the planet Saturn ; becaufe Chiun is written Ciun, Cevan, Leuan, Chew in; all of which are modern oriental names of that planet. But againft this hypothefis infurmountable objec¬ tions prefent themfelves to our minds. It is univerfal- ly allowed (fee Polytheism), that the firft obje&s of idolatrous worfhip were the/an and moon, conlidered 9 ] REM as the king and queen of heaven. The fixed ftars, in- Remphan. deed, and the planets, were afterwards gradually admit- T“—^ ted into the Pagan rubric ; but we may be fure that thofe would be firft aflbeiated with the two prime lu¬ minaries which moft refembled them in brightnefs, and were fuppofed to be moft benignant to man. But the planet Saturn appears to the naked eye with fo feeble a luftre, that, in the infancy of aftronomy, it could not make fuch an impreffion on the mind as to excite that admiration which we muft conceive to have always preceded planetary worfhip. It is to be ob- ferved, too, that by the Pagan writers of antiquity Saturn is conftantly reprefented as a ftar of baleful in¬ fluence. He is termed the leaden planet; the planet of malevolent afped ; the difmal, the inhumane far. That the Egyptians, at fo early a period as that under confi- deration, fhould have adored as one of their greateft gods a planet obfeure in its appearance, diftant in its situation, and baleful in its influence, is wholly incre¬ dible. There is, however, another ftar which they might naturally adore, and which we know they aftually did adore, as one of their moft beneficent gods, at a very early period. This is the a.a'iqx.wj, or s Qf tlie Greeks, the cams or fella canicularis of the Romans, and the dog-far of modem Europe. By the Egyp¬ tians it was called Sothis or Soth, which fignifies fafety, benefpence, fecundity ; and it received this iMine, becaufe making its appearance in the heavens at the very time ' when the Nile overflowed the country, it was fuppofed to regulate the inundation. On this account Plutarch {If.. et OJir.) tells us, they believed the foul of their illuftrious benefabfrefs IJC to have tranfmigrated into the ftar&>//&/>, which they therefore worfhipped as the divinity which rendered their country fruitful. It made its appear¬ ance, too, on the firft day of the month Thoth[A), which was the beginning of the Egyptian' year, and as fuch celebrated with feafting and feftivity ; and being by- much the brighteft ftar in the heavens, Horopollo {cap. 3.) informs us it was conlidered as fovereign over the reft. A combination of fo many import¬ ant circumftances might have induced a people lefs fu- peiftitious than the Egyptians to pay divine homage to that glorious luminary, which was confounded with Ifs, who had been long regarded with the higheft ve- nerat ion ; and as Ifis was the wife and lifter of Ofiris, and always afibciated with him, the ftar of Ills or Rem- phan' was naturally afibciated with Moloch, the fame with O fin’s. v But it will be afked, how the ftar which by the E- gyptians was called Soth or Sothis came to be worfhip- ped by the Hebrews under the appellation of Chiun or Remphan ? This is a very pertinent queftion, and we fhall endeavour to artfwer it. Every one knows that the pronunciation of oriental words is very uncertain ; and that as the vowels were often omitted in writing, it is of very little importance to. the meaning how they be fupplied, provided we re¬ tain the radical confonants. The word Chiun may with equal propriety be written Kiun, Kwn, or even Kyon, the Elfff Stc ttafartida TCry rem0“ ^ * but !t “ otherwife “ «wi»g «o the />««»»* tftl,. M r R E the Hebrew jod being convertible irtto the Greek « or the Romany; but the words Cane, Ckan, which are often diverfified into Ken, Kyn, ^ Cahan, lignJfying ftW, CKf, Prl^ tog**** through a great part ot Aiia _ _ P * r n Chine* language $u">’ whkh fxSnlfies a K,J\ 18 [• f tnilar to the word Chiun or Khiun under confideration, Renfre#, (hire, milar to the word Chiun or Khiun under cot ^ mulus to appeafe the manes of his brother Remus. They that no etymologift will hefitate to pumo were after|ards called Lemuria, and celebrated yearly, of the fame original and the lame tmpot . REMUS, the brother of Romulus, was expofed to- Kan or Khan is univerfally known to je gether with his brother by the cruelty of his gmndfa- title in Tartary ; and Katan or Kaw, which ^ In the conteft which happened between the two lv cognate of the word Chiun or Ktun, t^m brothers about building a city, Romulus obtained the or oil Perfran language the ep^etapphed o tWy- brothes ^ ^ ^ ^ nafty of princes which fucceeded Cyrus tie }^as t tQ death by his brother’s orders, or by Romu- Among the ScytUms or an«CTt 1 ^ lu8 himfelf {fee RomUlus). The Romans were afflift- fies the Sun and hkew.fe the * 1 ^ fig Gothfc ed with a plague after this murder; upon which the ora- Kun, runs throngli aU dl" dia 6t fon)ereCn, In cle was confulted, and the manes of Remus appeafed by tongue, every where-denoting a chiej or jo a , . n’. „ir TJo-mni-ia ' theSSyrian dialea, Kon a prince; and hence the Almighty is ftyled (Gen. xiv. 19.) Konah, which is tranflated^/#^ but might have, with perhaps more propriety, been rendered of heaven and earth/ In Hebrew, the .word Kahan or Kahen, \\h c is'the very feme with Khan or Kan, figmnes either a Liu. yv. ; , name or pr'ujl or a prince ; and in Egypt Kon was the name of battle. the inftitution of the Remuria. ‘ . RENAL, fomething belonging to the reins or Kid- * "RENCOUNTER, in the military art, the encoun- tei of two little bodies or parties ef forces. In which fenfe rencounter is ufed in oppoiition to a pitched the firft Hercules or the/««. Hence^ the fame woid in competition denotes greatnefs, as Can-obus the great ferpent; Can-athoth, the great Thoth or Mercury, Can- ^FromdfbMeHftion we would conclude, that the word, which is found in fo many tongues, and always denotes Chief, Prince, Sovereign, is the very word GW cue. • r 1 r Rencounter, in Angle combats, is ufed by way ot contradiftindion to duel.—When two perfons fall out and fight on the fpot without having premeditated the combat, it is called a rencounter. RENDEZVOUS, or Rendevous, aplace appoint¬ ed to meet in at a certain day and hour. RENEALMIA, in botany 5 a genus of the mono- - . 1 1 * * . 1 /Ir>r T»?^nr lenotes Ch>,f, Prince, » the ^ word ^X^gl’ng to the ^nan'dria clafs of plant, ■vhich the Egyptians and Hebrews apphed M, as gyma^, ^ ; the calyx wmen me-Eagypuauo tiiiLt— rr • „ being, in their conceptions, the chief or fovereign of all the liars. This will appear Hill more probable, when we have afeertained the import of the word Remphan, or, as the LXX have it, Raiphan. _ Phan, the latter part of this word, is unquestionably the feme with Pan, the moil ancient of the Egyptian -r-L \ t. * O r'nrrnafO of LllC 1'he corolla is trifid ; the nedarium oblong ; the calyx monophylkms ; the anthera felfile, oppofite to the nec- tarium-; the berry is flelhy. I here is only one fpecies, which is a native of Surinam. RENEGADE, or Renegado, a perfon wEo has apollatized or renounced the Chriltian faith, to^ em- trods (fee Pan). -ll *c -- p , .. Hebrew Phanah, confpexit, fpedavit, vidit; and tie radical word feems to be phah, which figmfies ome- times the countenance, and fometimes Hence Phaethon, which is compounded of pha light, eth or ejo fire, and on {Length, came to be one of the names ol the fun. Rai, which we commonly write Rajah, has long fig-nified, among the Indians, a fubordmate prince ; and we know, that between India and Egypt there was a very early intercourfe. Raiphan, therefore, may be .either the royal light or the bright prince, fubordinate to • j .• It a vprv nvouer emthet i v?dit , and the RENFREW, the cot.nty.town of Renfrewlh.re ace lome omer rcngn/H, „ r n • RENFREW, the county-town of Renfrewihire, (landing on the fmall river Cathcart, which flows into the Clyde at the dillance of five miles from Glaigow, is a fmall but ancient royal borough, the feat of the Iheriff’s -court and of a prefeytery. The town is neat¬ ly built, and the inhabitants enjoy a tolerable lhare or commerce.—Renfrew w'as originally joined to Lanerk, but was made an independent theriffdom by Robert 11. who had a palace here. W. Long. 4. 26. N. Lat. 55. 51. RENFREWSHIRE, a county of Scotland, ityled r* • x . 1. V>nif- \xrnR t’VlC* JlH* ither the royal light or the bright prince, fubordmate to ^ biaufe it was the an- Dfiris ; and in either fenfe, it was a very proper epithet ^ Stnai, is a fmall county, ex- »f Sothis in the Egyptian kalendar. _ The wor e 2Q mdes from n0rth to fouth, and 13 >r Rom, again (for it is fometimes written Remphan, tending Dumbartonlhire by the .nd fometimes Rompha), ia no other than the Hebrew rom eaft «, weft ^ d Qn the eaft w!thy La. Run, “high, exalted.” Hence Remphan .a the h,gh n^C^on the we.t,^^ jr exalted light, which Sothis certainly was. r tdc country ;s varied with hill and vale, wood For this etymological difquilltion we are indebted to crowded with populous villages, and a- Dr Doig, the learned author of teller, m theSn^e andjl ^ ^ ^ Tht. foil ;s in ge. State, wrho has written a diflertation on Chiun and Rem- " rye barley, oats, peafe, beans, than, of fuel, value that we hope it will not be much "eml fert.le^preduc ^eUs ^ „f coalj longer with-held from the public. 1 he alee,taming *nd>turffor fud, and affords abundance of pafturage the identity of thofe names, and the god to which <-) Thc inhabitants are 1- owlander* belonged, is the leali of its merit; lor it will oe found to 101 V ^ and indullrious, addided to throw much light upon many paffeges m the O d I ef- -d Prefby tenans 1 ^ the Unen manufeclure. tament. What confirms his interpretation is, that the tia e, j ) -i ^ Their fo ] REN idol confecrated by the Egyptians to Sothis or the dog- Rmov,, liar, was a female figure with a liar on her head ; and hence the prophet upbraids his countrymen with ha¬ ving: borne the Star of their deity. Action of REMOVING, in Scots law. See Law, N'clxvii. 18. REMURIA, feftivals eftabhlhed at Rome by Ro- $ innai f It ealirg. \ettres Ciantes urieufes REP [ Their genius is ftimulated to commerce, by the example of their neighbours of Glafgow, as well as the conve¬ nience of the river and frith of Clyde, along the courfe of which they are fituated. RENNES, a town of France, in Bretagne, and ca¬ pital of that province. Before the revolution it had a biihop’s fee, two abbeys, a parliament, and a mint. It is very populous; the houfes are fix or feven Itories high, and the fuburbs of larger extent than the town itfeif. The cathedral church is large, and the parlia- ment-houfe a handfome ftruCture. The great fquare belonging to it is fur-rounded with handfome houfes. There is a tower, formerly a pagan temple, which now contains the town-clock. It is feated on the river Vil- laine, which divides it into two parts, and was ancient¬ ly fortified, but the walls are now in ruins, and the ditch nearly filled up. The fiege of the city by Ed¬ ward III. king of England, is very celebrated in hi- ftory. The Englifh and Breton army confided of 40,000 men ; and neverthelefs, after having remained before it fix months, were obliged to retire without fuccefs. E. Long. o. 23. N. Lat. 48. 7. RENNET. See Runnet. RENT, in law, a fum of money, or other confidera- tion, iffuing yearly out of lands or tenements. RENTE RING, in the manufa&ories, the fame with fine-drawing. It confifts in fewfing two pieces of cloth edge to edge, without doubling them, fo that the feam fcarce appears; and hence tt is denominated jine-drawing. It is a French word meaning the fame thing, and is de^ rived from the Latin retrahere, or re, in, and trahere, becaufe the feam is drawn in or covered. We are told*, that in the Eaft Indies, if a piece of fine muffin be torn and afterwards mended by the fine-drawers, it will be impoflible to difcover where the rent was. In this country the dexterity of the finevdrawers is not fo great as that of thofe in the eafl; but it is ftill fuch as to en¬ able them to defraud the revenue, by fewing a head or flip of Englifh cloth on a piece of Dutch, Spanifh, or other foreign cloth : or a flip of foreign cloth on a piece of Englifh, fo as to pafs the whole as of a piece ; and by that means avoid the duties, penalties, &c. The trick was firft difcovered in France by M. Savary. Rentering, in tapeftry, is the Working new warp into a piece of damaged tapeftry, whether eaten by the rats or otherwife deftroyed, and on this warp to reftore the ancient pattern or defign. The warp is to be of woollen, not linen. Among the titles of the French tapeftry makers is included that of renterers. Fine- drawing is particularly ufed for a rent or hole, which happens in dreffing or preparing a piece of cloth art¬ fully fewed up or mended with filk. All fine-drawings are reckoned defedls or blemifhes ; and fhould be allow¬ ed for in the price of the piece. RENVERSE, inverted, in heraldry, is when any thing is fet with the head downwards, or contrary to its natural way of {landing. Thus, aTs (curia requifitionum) was a court ©f equity, of the fame nature with the court of chan¬ cery, but inferior to it; principally inflituted for the relief of fuch petitioners as in confcionable cafes addref- this fubjeA: though Mr Gwyn, in his preface to his Readings, faith it began from a commiffion firft grant¬ ed by king Henry VIII. This court, having affurned great power to itfelf, fo that it became burthenfome, Mich, anno 40 and 41 Eii-z. in the court of com¬ mon-pleas it was adjudged upon folemn argument, that the court b£ requefts was no court of judica¬ ture, &c. and by flat. 16 & 17 Car I. c. 10. it was taken away. There are ftill courts of requefts, or courts of con¬ fidence, conftituted in London and other trading and populous diftrifts for the recovery of fmall debts, The firft of thefe was eftablifhed in London fo early as the reign of Henry VIII. by an aft of their common council; which however was certainly infufficient for that purpofe, and illegal, till confirmed by ftatute 3 Jac» I. c. 15. which has fince been explained and amended by ftatute 14 Geo. II. c. 10. The conftitution is this: two aldermen and four commoners fit twice a week to hear all caufes of debt not exceeding the value of forty {hillings; which they examine in a fummary way, by the oath of the parties or other witneffes, and make fuch order therein as is confonant to equity and good confcience. The time and expence of obtaining this fummary redrefs are very inconfiderable, which make it a great benefit to trade ; and thereupon divers trading towns and other diftrifts have obtained afts of parlia* ment for eftablifhing in them courts of confcience upon nearly the fame plan as that in the city of London. By 25 Geo. III. c. 45. ^which is confined to profe- cutions in courts of confcience in London, Middlefex, and the borough of Southwark), and by 26 Geo. III. c. 38. (which extends the provifions of the former aft to all other courts inftituted for the recovery of fmall debts), it is enafted, that after the firft day of Septem¬ ber 1786, no perfon wholcever, being a debtor or de¬ fendant, and who has been or fhall be committed to any gaol or pnfon by order of any court or commiflioners authorifed by any aft or afts of parliament for conftitu- ting or regulating any- court or courts for the recovery of fmall debts, where the debt does not exceed twenty {hillings, fhall be kept or continued in cuftody, on any pretence whatfoever, more than twenty days from the commencement of the laft mentioned aft ; or from the time of his, her, or their commitment to prifon: and where the original debt does not amount o or exceed thefum of forty fhi!lings, more than forty- days from the commencement of the faid aft, or from the time of his, her, or their commitment as aforefaid ; and all gaolers are thereby required to difeharge luch perfons accord¬ ingly. And by feft. 2. if it (hall be proved to the fa- tisfaftion of the court, that any fuch debtor has money or goods which he has wilfully and fraudulently con¬ cealed : in that cafe the court {hall have power to en¬ large the aforelaid times of imprifonment for debts un¬ der twenty {hillings, to any time not exceeding thirty days, and for debts under forty {hillings, to any time not .exceeding fixty days ; which laid ground of farther de¬ tention fhall be fpecifled in the faid commitment. And that (by feft. 3.) at the expiration of the laid refpec- tive times of imprifonment, every fuch perfon fhall im¬ mediately be difeharged, without paying any fum of moneyj RES [ 87 T RES iem mancy, or other reward or gratuity whatfoever, to the gaoler of fuch gaol on any pretence whatfoever ; and ’ a‘ every gaoler demanding or receiving any fee for the difcharge of any fuch perfon, or keeping any fuch per- fon prifoner after the faid refpe&ive times limited by the faid aft, (hall forfeit five pounds, to be recovered in a fummary way before two juftices of the peace, one moiety thereof to be paid to the overfeers ol the poor of the parifii where the offence fhall be committed, and the other to the informer. REQUIEM, in the Romifh hlftory, a mafs fung for the reft of the foul of a perfon deceafed. RESCISSION, inthe civil law, an aftion intended for the annulling or fetting afide any contraft, deed, See. RESCRIPT, an anfwer delivered by an emperor, or a pope, when confulted by particular perfons on fome difficult queftion or point of law, to ferve as a decifion thereof. RESEDA, dyer’s-weed, Te/lovu-weed, IVeU, or Wild-woad : A genus of the order of trigynia, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 54th order, MifcelUnea. The calyx is monophyllous and partite ; the petals lan- ciniated ; the capfule unilocular, and opening at the mouth. There are 11 fpecies ; of which the moll re¬ markable is the luteola or common dyer’s weed, grow¬ ing naturally in wafte places in many parts of Britain. The young leaves are often undulated ; the ftalk is a yard high, or more, terminated with a long, naked fpike of yeliowifh-green flowers : the plant is cultivated and much ufed for dying filk and wool of a yellow colour. The great recommendation of the plant is, that it will grow with very little trouble, without dung, and on the very worft foils. For this reafon it is commonly fown with, or immediately after, barley or oats, without any additional care, except drawing a bufh over it to harrow it in. The reaping of the corn does it little or no hurt, as it grows but little the firft year; and the next fummer it is pulled and dried like flax. Much care and nicety, however, is requiiite, fo as not to injure either the feed or ftalk; or, which fometimes happens, dama¬ ging both, by letting it ftand too long, or pulling it too green. To avoid thefe inconveniences, a better method of culture has been deviled. This new me¬ thod is to plough and harrow the ground very fine, without dung, as equally as poffible, and then lowing about a gallon of feed, which is very finall, upon an acre, fome time in the month of Auguft. In about two months it will be high enough to hoe, which muft be carefully done, and the plants left about fix inches afunder. In March it is to be hoed again, and this labour is to be repeated a third time in May. About the clofe of June, when the flower is in full vigour, and the ftalk is become of a greenifli-yellow, it ftiould be pulled; a fufficient quantity of Items be- ing left growing for feed till September. By this means the flower and ftalk, both of them being care¬ fully dried, will lell at a good price to the dyers, who employ it conftantly, and in large quantities; add to this, that the feed being ripe and in perfeft order, will yield a very confiderable profit. In a tolerable year, when the feafons have not been unfavourable, the ad¬ vantages derived from this vegetable will anfwer very well ; but if the fummer ftiould be remarkably fine, and proper care is taken in getting it in, there will be a very large produce upon an acre. The crop being, Refenr* as has been flrown, fo early removed, the ground may be conveniently prepared for growing wheat the next * year. Upon the whole, weld is in its nature a very valuable commodity in many refpefts, as it ferves e- qually for woollen, linen, or filk ; dyeing not only a rich and lafting yellow, but alfo, properly managed, all the different (hades of yellow with brightnefs and beauty ; and if thefe be previoufly dipped blue, they are by the weld changed into a very pleaixng green,- which our artifts can alfo diverfify into a great variety of (hades. RESEMBLANCE, aw^/Dissimilitude, the rela¬ tions of likenefs and difference among objefts. See Comparison. The conneftion that man hath with the beings around ^em; *f him, requires fome acquaintance with their nature, their <~rtUciJm' powers, and their qualities, for regulating his conduft. For acquiring a branch of knowledge fo effential to our well-being, motives alone of reafon and intereff are not fufficient: nature hath providentially fuperadded curio- fity, a vigorous propenfity, which never is at reft. This propenfity alone attache.s us to every new objeft f ; and incites us to compare objefts, in order to diicover their vtlt> differences and refemblances. Refemblance among objefts of the fame kind, and diffimilitude among objefts of different kinds, are too obvious and familiar to gratify our curiofity in any de¬ gree : its gratification lies in difeovering differences among things where refemblance prevails, and refem- blances where difference prevails. Thus a difference in individuals of the fame kind of plants or animals, is deemed a difeovery, while the many particulars in which they agree are neglefted ; and in different kinds, any refemblance is greedily remarked, without attending to the many particulars in which they differ. - A comparifon of the former neither tends to gra¬ tify our curiofity, nor to fet the objefts compared in a ftronger light: two apartments in a palace, fimilar in fhape, fixe, and furniture, make feparately as good a figure as when compared ; and the fame obfervation is applicable to. two fimilar compartments in a garden : on the other hand, oppofe a regular building to a fall of water,, or a good pifture to a towering hill, or even a little dog to a large horfe, and the contraft' will pro¬ duce no effeft. But a refemblance between objefts of different kinds, and a difference between objefts of the fame kind, have remarkably an enlivening effeft.. The poets, fuch of them as have ajuft tafte, draw all. their limilies from things that in the main differ wide¬ ly from the principal fubjeft ; and they never attempt a contraft:, but where the things have a common ge-' nus, and a refemblance in the capital circumftances : place together a large and a fmall-fized animal of the fame fpecies, the one will appear greater, the other lefs, than when viewed feparately: when we oppofe beauty to deformity, each makes a greater figure by the. comparifon. We compare the drefs of different nations with curiofity, but without furprife ; becaufe they have no fuch refemblance in the capital parts as to pleafe us by contrafting the fmaller parts. But a new cut of a fleeve, or of a pocket, enchants by its. novelty ; and, in oppofition to the (ormer (aftuon, raifes fome degree of furprife. T hat refemblance and diffimilitude have an enliven- a' wg Hefem* b'.anco. RES [S3 W effea upon objefts of fight, k made fufficiently evident; and that they have the fame eifeft upon ob- iefts of the other fenfes, is alfo certain. Nor is that law confined to the external fenfes ; for charaaers con- trafted make a greater figure by the oppoution : lago, in the tragedy of Othello, fays, He hath a daily beauty in his life That makes me ugly. The charaacr of a fop, and of a rough warrior, are nowhere more fuccefsfully contrafted than in Shake- fpeare: Hot [pur. My liege, I did deny no prlfonerst But I remember, when the fight was done, When I was dry with rage, and extreme toil, Breathlefs and faint, leaning upon my fword. Came there a certain lord, neat, trimly drefs’d, J’refh as a bridegroom ; and his chm, new-reap’d, Show’d like a ftubble-land at harveft-home. He was perfumed like a milliner ; And ’twixt his finger and his thumb he held A pouncet-box, which ever and anon He gave his nofe :—and ftill he fmd’d and taht d ; And° as the foldiers bare dead bodies by, He call’d them untaught knaves, unmannerly, To bring a flovenly, unhandfome corle Betwixt the wind and his nobility. With many holiday and lady terms He queftion’d me : among the reft, demanded My pris’ners, in your majefty’s behalf. . I then, all fmarting with my wounds ; being gall d To be fo pefter’d with a popinjay, Out of my grief, and my impatience, Anfwer’d, negtedingly, I know not what: He fhould, or ftiould not; for he made me mad. To fee him {bine fo brifk, and fmell fo fweet, And talk fo like a waiting gentlewoman, Of guns, and drums, and wounds, (God fave the mark. J And telling me, the foyereign’ft thing on earth Was parmacity for an inward bruife ; And that it was great pity, fo it was, , This villanous faltpetre fhould be digg’d Out of the bowels of the harmlefs earth, Which many a good, tall fellow had deftroy d So cowardly : and but for thefe vile guns, He would himfelf have been a foldier. Firjl part, Henry IV. aB I. yr. 4 Pafiions and emotions are alfo enfiamed by compa- rifon. A man of high rank humbles the byftanders even to annihilate them in their own opinion : Css far, beholding the ftatce of Alexander, was greatly mor¬ tified, that now, at the age of 32, when Alexander died, he had not performed one memorable aftion. Our opinions alfo are much influenced by compan¬ ion. A man whofe opulence exceeds the ordinary ftandatd is reputed richer than he is in reality ; ana wifdom or weaknefs, if at all remarkable in an indivi¬ dual, is generally carried beyond the truth. The opinion a man forms of his prefent diftreft is heightened by contrailing it with his former happi- siefs : ] RES That have been wretched : but to think how much I have been happier. Southern's Innocent Adultery, aft 2. The diftrefs of a long journey makes even an indif¬ ferent inn agreeable ; and, in travelling, when the road is good, and the horfeman well covered, a bad day may be agreeable, by making him fenfible how fnug he is. The fame effedt is equally remarkable, when a man oppofes his condition to that of others. A ftiip tof- fed about in a ftorm, makes the fpe&atop refled upon his own eafe and fecurity, and puts thefe in the ftrong- ion, grandeur ought to be tontralled with neatnefs, regularity with wildnefs, and gaiety with melancholy, fo as that each emotion may fucceed its oppofite : nay, it is an improvement to intermix in the fucceffion rude uncultivated fpots as well as unbounded views, which in themfelves are difagreeable, but in fucceffion heighten the feeling of the agreeable objedl; and we have nature for our guide, which in her moll beautiful landfcapes often intermixes rugged rocks, dirty marfhes, and barren llony heaths. The greatell mailers of mu¬ fic have the fame view in their compofitions : the fecond part of an Italian fong feldom conveys any fentiment : and, by its harlhnefs, feems purpofely contrived to give a greater reliffi for the intereiling parts of the compofition. A fmall garden, comprehended under a Angle view, affords little opportunity for that embellilhment. Diffi¬ milar emotions require different tones of mind j and therefore in conjun&ion can never be pleafant : gai¬ ety and fweetnefs may be combined, or wildnefs and gloominefs ; but a compofition of gaiety and gloomi- nefs is dillalleful. The rude uncultivated compartment of furze and broom in Richmond garden, hath a good effeft in the fucceffion of objedls ; but a fpot of that nature would be infufferable in the midll of a polilhed parterre or flower-plot. A garden, therefore, if not of great extent, admits not diffimilar emotions; and in ornamenting a fmall garden, the fafell courfe is to confine it to a Angle expreffion. For the fame reafon, a landfcape ought alfo to be confined to a Angle ex¬ preffion ; and accordingly it is a rule in painting, that if the fubjeft be gay, every figure ought to contribute to that emotion. It follows from the foregoing train of reafoning, that a garden near a great city ought to have an air of foli- tude. The folitarinefs, again, of a wafte country ought to be contralled in forming a garden ; no temples, no obfeure walks ; but jets d’eau, cafcades, objetls active, gay, and fplendid. Nay, fuch a garden Ihould in fome meafure avoid imitating nature, by taking on an ex¬ traordinary appearance of regularity and art, to fhow the bufy hand of man, which in a wafte country has a fine effetl by contrail. Wit and ridicule make not an agreeable mixture with grandeur. Diffimilar emotions have a fine effeft R«rem. in a flow fucceffion ; but in a rapfd fucceffion, which blancc approaches to co-exiHence, they will not be relilhed. - rj*. In the midll of a laboured and elevated defeription of _ j battle, Virgil introduces a ludicrous image, which is certainly out of its place : Obvius ambuftum torrem Chorinams ab ara Corripit, et venienti Ebufo plagamque ferenti Occupat os flammis : illi ingens barba reluxit, Nidoremque ambulla dedit. JEn. xii. 298. E qual tauro ferito, il fuo dolore Verfo mugghiando e fofpirando fuorc. Gierufal. cant. 4. ft. r. It would however be too auftere to banifh altoge¬ ther ludicrous images from an epic poem. This poem doth not always foar above the clouds : it admits great variety ; and upon occafion can defeend even to the ground without Anking. In its more familiar tones, a ludicrous feene may be introduced without improprie¬ ty. This is done by Virgil * in a foot-race : the cir- cumftances of which, not excepting the ludicrous part, ' ' v‘ are copied from Homer-f-. After a fit of merriment, xxiii* we are, it is true, the lefs difpofed to the ferious and fublime : but then, a ludicrous feene, by unbending the mind from fevere. application to more interefting fubjects, may prevent fatigue, and preferve our relifli entire. RESEN, (Mofes) ; a town on the Tigris, built by Nimrod ; thought to be the Larijfa of Xenophon ; which fee. But as LariJJa is a name in imitation of a Greek city ; and as there were no Greek cities, con- fequently no Larijfa in Affyria, before Alexander the Great ; it is probable that the Greeks afking of wffiat city thofe were the ruins they fawr, the Affyrians might anfwer, Larefen, “ Of Re/en which word Xenophon exprefled by Lanjfay a more familiar found to a Greek ear, (Wells). RESENTMENT, means a ftrong perception of good or ill, generally a deep fenfe of injury, and may be diftinguiftied into anger and revenge. By anger (fays Archdeacon Paley), I mean the pain we fuffer upon the receipt of an injury or affront, with the ufual effects of that pain upon ourfelves. By revenge, the infl idling of pain upon the perfon who has injured or offended us, farther than the juft ends of punilhment or repara¬ tion require. Anger prompts to revenge ; but it is poffible to fufpend the effedt when we cannot altoge¬ ther quell the principle. We are bound alfo to endea¬ vour to qualify and corredl the principle itfelf. S« that our duty requires two different applications of the mind •’ and for that reafon anger and revenge ihould be confidered feparately.,, See Revenge. RESERVATION, in law, an adlion or claufe whereby fomething is referved, or fecured to one’s felf. Mental Reservation, a propofition which, ftridlly* taken, and according to the natural import of the terms, is falfe ; but, if qualified by fomething concealed in the mind, becomes true. Mental refervations are the great refuge of religious hypocrites, who ufe them to accommodate their con¬ fidences with their interefts : the Jefuits are zealous ad¬ vocates for mental refervations ; yet are they real liess as including an intention to deceive. M 2 RESERVE, IWhitt s i'' vyage y /ippcndix. RES [ 93 1 RESERVE, in law, the fame with refemtion. Sec mod fraRrar.t balfams, Reservation. Body of Rp.sF.Kf'Ef of Corps dr Ri'SFRPF, in military af¬ fairs, the third or laft line of an army, drawn up for battle; fo called becaufe they are referred to luilain the reft as occafion requires, and not to engage but in cafe of neceflity. RESERVOIR, a place where water is collected and referred, in order to- be conveyed to diftant places through pipes, or fupply a fountain or jet d’eau. RESET, in law, the receiving or harbouring an outlawed perfon. See Outlawry. Reset of Theft, in Scots law. See Law, nr elxxxvi. 29. _ RESIDENCE, in the canon and common law, tne abode of a perfon or incumbent upon his beneftce ; and his afiiduity in attending on the fame. RESIDENT, a public minifter, who manages the affairs of a kingdom or ftate, at a foreign court. They are a clafs of public minifters inferior to am- fcaffaders or envoys.; but, like them, are under the protefti.on of the law of nations. RESIDUE, the remainder or balance of an account, debt, or obligation. RESIGNATION, in general, figmftes the impli¬ cit fubmiflion ef ourfelves, or of fomething we poffefs, to the will of another. In a religious fenfe it fignifies a perfect fubmiflion, without difeontent, to the will of God. See Moral Philosophy, n° 119. RESIN, in natural hiftory, a vifeidjuice oozing either fpontaneoufly, or by incifion, from feveral trees, as the pine, fir, &c.— A premium for feveral years has been of¬ fered by the London Society for Encouraging Arts, &c. for difeovering a mode of reducing the inflammable quality of refin, fo as to adapt it to the purpofes of ma¬ king candles; but no fuch difeovery has yet been made. R hi file Resin. See Caoutchouc. Gum Resin, a mixture of gum and refin. See Phar¬ macy, n° 38. Red Gum Resin, is procured from the red gum tree, or eucalyptus rehnifera f a tree fo large and lofty as to exceed in fize the Englifh oak. The wood of the tree is brittle, and of little ufe but for firewood, from the large quantity of refinous gum it contains. The tree is diftinguifhed by having pedunculated flowers, and an acute or pointed conical calyptra. To obtain the juice from this tree incifions are made in the trunk of it, and fometimes upwards of 60 gallons of red refinous juice have been obtained from one of them. “ When this juice is dried, it becomes a very powerful aftrin- gent gum-refin, of a red colour, much refembling that known in the fhops by the name of hino, and, for all medical purpofes, fully as efficacious. Mr White ad- miniftered it to a great number of patients in the dy- fentery, which prevailed much foon after the landing of the convicts, and in no one inftance found it to fail. RES It exudes from the bark fpaii- RAmmi!, taneouily, but more readily if incifions are made. The colour of it is yellow, and at firft it is fluid; but after 'r's| being infpiffated in the fun, it becomes folid. When burnt on hot coals, it fmeHs like a mixture of balfam of Tolu and benzoin, approaching feme what to ftorax. “ It is perfectly foluble in fpirit of wine, but not in wz-Wet, ter, nor even in effential oil of turpentine, unlefs it be digefted in a ftrong heat. The varnifh which it makei with either is very weak, and of little ufe. With re- fpeft to its medicinal qualities, Mr White has found it, *in many cafes, a good peftoral medicine, and very balfamic. It is not obtainable in fo gieat abundance as the red gum produced by the eucalyptus relinifera. The plant which produces the yellow gum feems to be perfectly unknown to botanifts, but Mr White has com¬ municated no fpecimens by which its genus or even clals could he determined.” RESINOUS electricity, is that kind of elec¬ tricity^ which is produced by exciting bodies of the re¬ finous kind, and which is generally negative. See E- lectricity pafiim, RESISTANCE, or Resisting Force, in philofo- phy, denotes, in general, any power which acts in an oppoiite direction to another, fo as to deftroy or di- minifh its effect. See Mechanics, Hydrostatics, and Pneumatics. i Of all the reiiftances of bodies to each, there is un- ImportaM; of the fuj. doubtedly none of greater importance than the re-. ^ fiftance or reaction of fluids- It is here that weJ mult look for a theory of naval architecture, for the impulfe of the air is our moving power, and this muft be modified fo as to produce every motion we want by the form and difpofition of our fails ; and it is the rdiftance of the water which muft be over¬ come, that the fhip may proceed in her courfe ; and this muft alfo be modified to our purpofe, that the fhip may not drive like a log to leeward, but on the con¬ trary may ply to windward, that fhe may anfwer her helm brifkly, and that fhe may be eafy in all her mo¬ tions on the furface of the troubled ocean. The,im¬ pulfe of wind and water makes them ready and inde¬ fatigable fervants in a thoufand fhapes for driving our machines ; and we fhould lofe much of their fervic# did we remain ignorant of the laws of their aCtion : they would fometinjes become terrible mafters, if we did not fall upon methods of eluding or foftening their attacks. , : J We cannot refufe the ancients a confiderable know- anci. ledge of this fubjeft. It was equally interefting to them ents we e as to us ; and we cannot read the accounts of the naval1 brafty exertions of Phoenicia, Carthage, and of Rome, exertions which have not been furpaffed by any thing of modenf^uh ic. date, without believing that they poffeffed much prac¬ tical and experimental knowledge of this fubjeft. It was not, perhaps, poffeffed by them in a ftrict and ! his gum-refin diffolves almoft; entirely ia ipirit of fyftematic form, as it is now taught by our mathema- wme, to which it gives a blood-red tinefure. Water diffolves about one fixth part only,[and the watery folu- tion is of a bright red. Both thefe folutions are power¬ fully aftringent.” Tellolamed* makes us imagine that there is a force adting in the oppoiite direction, or oppoling the motion, and that this force refides in, or is exerted by, the fluid. And the phenomena retemble tliofe which accompany the known refiftance of adtive beings, fuch as animals.. There¬ fore we give to this fuppofed force the metaphorical name of Resistance. We alio know that a fluid in motion will hurry a folid body along with the ftream,, and that it requires force to maintain it in its place: A limilar analogy makes us fuppofe that the fluid exerts force, in the fame maimer as when an adlive being im¬ pels the body betore him ; therefore we call this the Impulsion of a Fluid. And as our knowledge of nature- inloims us that the mutual adtions of bodies are im every RES t 94 1 RES Reftftance.every cafe equal and oppofite, and that ^ferved v—' chancre of motion Is the only indication, charaaeriftic, and meafure, of the changing force, the forces are t fame (whether we call them impuihons or refiftances) when the relative motions are the fame, and therefore depend entirely on thefe relative motions, i he force, therefore, which is neceffary for keeping a body im¬ moveable in a ftream of water, flowing with a certain velocity, is the fame with what is required foi mo^ng .this body with this velocity through ftagnant water. To any one who admits the motion of the earth round the fun, it is evident that we can neither obferve nor reafon from a cafe of a body moving through ft.ll wa¬ ter, nor of a ftream of water preffing upon or impelling d f A^body k motion appears to be refilled by a ftag- nant fluid, becaufe it is a law of mechanical nature that force mull be employed in order to put any body m motion. Now the body cannot move forward without putting the contiguous fluid in motion, and force mu be employed for producing this motion. In like man¬ ner, a quiefeent body is impelled by a ftream of flmt, .becaufe the motion of the contiguous fluid is dimimih- ed by this folid obftacle ; the refiftance, therefore, or impulfe, no way differs from the ordinary communica¬ tions of motion among folid bodies. r . Sir Ifaac Newton, therefore, begins his theory of the refiftance and impulfe of fluids, by fekamg a cale fuppoles where, although he cannot pretend to afeertam the mo- two fyftemetjons themfelves which are produced in the paitides ot lirnilar in contigUOUS fluid, he can tell precifely their mutual ra- their parts, . & paft‘ha-1 1 He fuppofes two fyftems of bodies fuch, that each Ving a con ,body of the iirft is fimilar to a correfponding body ot ftant ratio - * i i .i h 4-^ m ^ /dormant rutlO# of the curves deferibed by the correfponding bodies, will have the fame ratio with the diftances of the par- \pn tides. The curves deferibed by the correfpondmg bodies ^ will therefore be fimilar, the velocities will be propor¬ tional, and the bodies wall be fimilarly fituated at the end of the firft moment, and expofed to the adion of fimilar and fimilarly fituated centripetal or centrifugal forces; and this will again produce fimilar motions du¬ ring the next moment, and fo on for ever. All this is evident to any perfon acquainted with the elementary dodrines /of curvilineal motions, as delivered in the theory of phyfical aftronomy. > ** From this fundamental propofition, it clearly Mows, Confe r- •, i _ j: hr»mnlr>crnusHuclll,c to Sir Ifaac ■Newton fuppoles to .each. it the fecond, and that each is to each in a conftant ratio. He alfo fuppofes them to be fimilarly iituated, that is, at the angles of fimilar figures, and that the homologous lines of thefe figures are in the fame ratio with die dia¬ meters of the bodies. He farther fuppofes, that they attraft or repel each other in fimilar diredions, and that the accelerating conneding forces are alfo propor¬ tional ; that is, the forces in the one fyftem are to the correfuonding forces in the other fyftem in a conftant ra¬ tio, and that, in each fyftem taken apart, Ue forces are as the fquares of the velocities directly, and as the dia¬ meters of the correfponding bodies, or their diftances, a f ^ This^being the cafe, it legitimately follows, that if Sir fimilar parts of the two fyftems are put into fimilar mo- parts being tions, in any given inftant, they w\l contmue to move put in mo- fimilar!y, each correfpondent body defcnbmg fimilar curves, with proportional velocities : b or the bodies be¬ ing fimilarly fituated, the forces which ad on a body in one fyftem, arifing from the combination of any number of adjoining particles, will have the fame direftion with the force ading on the correfponding body in the other fyftem, arifing from the combined adion of the fimilar and fimilarly direded forces of the adjoining cqrrefpon- dent bodies of the other fyftem ; and thefe compound forces will have the fame ratio with the Ample forces which conftitute them, and will be as the fquares of the velocities direftly, and as the diftances, or any ho¬ mologous lines inverfely ; and therefore the chords of curvature, having the diredion of the centripetal or centrifugal forces, and fimilarly inclined to the tangents that if two fimilar bodies, having their homologous^ lines proportional to thofe of the two fyftems, be limi-£romjt| larly projeded among the bodies of thofe two fyftems with any velocities, they will produce fimilar motions in the two fyftems, and will themfelves continue to move fimilarly; and therefore will, in every fubfequent moment, fuffer fimilar diminutions or retardations. It the initial velocities of projedion be the fame, but the denfities or the two fyftems, that is, the quantities of matter con¬ tained in an equal bulk or extent, be different , it is evi¬ dent that the quantities of motion produced in the two fyftems in the fame time will be proportional to the den¬ fities ; and if the denfities are the fame, and uniform in each fyftem, the quantities of motion produced will be as the fquares of the velocities, becaufe the motion communicated to each correfponding body will be pro¬ portional to the velocity communicated, that is, to the velocity of the impelling body ; and the number of fimilarly fituated particles which will be agitated will alfo be proportional to this velocity. _ Therefore, the whole quantities of motion produced in the fame mo¬ ment of time will be proportional to the fquares ot the velocities. And laftly, if the denfities of the two fyf¬ tems are uniform, or the fame through the whole ex¬ tent of the fyftems, the number of particles, impelled by fimilar bodies will be as the furfaces ot theie Now the diminutions of the motions of the projected bodies are (by Newton’s third law of motion) equal to the motions produced in the fyftems; and thefe diminu¬ tions are the meafures of what are called the refiftances oppofed to the motions of the projected bodies. I here- fore, combining all thefe circumftances, the refiftances are proportional to the fimilar furfaces of the moving bodies, to the denfities'of the fyftems through which the motions are performed, and to the fquares of the ve o<- cities, jointly cion. -ICS, jointly. . r A fluid We cannot form to ourfelves any diftintt notion ot^, a fluid, otherwife than as a fyftem ©f fmall bodies, or aas a {,4 collection of particles, fimilarly or fymmetrically ar ran-off A ged, the centres of each being fituated in the angles ofbofe regular fobds. mull form this notion of it, vv ie ther we fuppofe, with the vulgar, that the particles are little globules in mutual contad, or, with the partisans of corpufcular attra&ions and repulfions, we iuppoie the particles kept at a diftance from each other by means of thefe attractions and repulfions mutually ba¬ lancing each other. In this laft cafe, no othei anange- nient is confiftent with a quiefeent equilibrium : and m this cafe, it is evident, from the theory of cumlineal motions, that the agitations of the particles will always be fuch, that the connecting forces, in aCtual exertion. -J? RES [ ante.will be proportional to the fquares of the velocities di- reftly, and to the chords of curvature having the direc¬ tion of the forces inverfely. From thefe premifes, therefore, we deduce, in the ftridteft maimer, the demonftration of the leading theo- rem of the refiilance and impulfe of fluids; namely, [w of Prop. I. The refiftances, and (by the third law of mo- rhl* tion), the impulfions of fluids on fimilar bodies, are ?cC' proportional to the furfaces of the fplid bodies, to the denfities of the fluids, and to the fquares of the ve¬ locities, jointly. We mull now obferve, that when we fuppofe the par¬ ticles of the fluid to be in mutual contadt, we may ei¬ ther fuppofe them elaftic or unelaftic. The motion communicated to the colledtion of elaftic particles mull be double of what the fame body, moving in the fame manner, would communicate to the particles of an un- daftic fluid. The impulfe and refiftance of elaftic fluids mult therefore be double of thofe of unekftic fluids.— But we mull caution our readers not to judge of the ty dafticity of fluids by their fenfible compreflibility. A -'r* diamond is incomparably more elaftic than the fineft foot¬ ball, though not comprefiible in any fenfible degree.— Jt remains to be decided, by well chofen experiments, whether water be not as elaftic as air. If we fuppofe, with Bofcovich, the particles of perfedl fluids to be at a diftance from each other, we fhall find it difficult to conceive a fluid void of elafticity. We hope that the theory of their impulfe and refiftance will fuggeft ex¬ periments which will decide this queftion, by pointing out what ought to be the abfolute impulfe or refiftance in either cafe. And thus the fundamental propofition of the impulfe and refiftance of fluids, taken in its pro¬ per meaning, is fufceptible of a rigid demonftration, re¬ lative to the only diftintt notion that we can form of the internal conftitution of a fluid. We fay, ta&en in its proper meaning; namely, that the impulfe or refiftance of fluids is a preffure, oppofed and meafured by another preflure, fuch as a pound weight, the force of a fpringr the preflure of the atmofphere, and the like. And we apprehend that it would 'be very difficult to find any legitimate demonftration of this leading propofition dif¬ ferent from this, which we have now borrowed from Sir Ifaac Newton, Prop. 23. B. II. Princip. We ac¬ knowledge that it is prolix and even circuitous : but m all the attempts made by his commentators and their copyifts to Amplify it, we fee great defedls of logical argument, or affumption of principles, which are not only gratuitous, but inadmiffible. We ffiall have occa- fion, as we proceed, to point out fome of thefe defefts • and doubt not but the illuftrious author of this demon¬ ftration hadexercifed his uncommon patience and fagacity in fimilar attempts, and was diflatisfied with them all. Before we proceed further, it will be proper to make a general remark, which will fave a great deal of difeuffion. Since it is a matter of univerfal experience that every aftion of a body on others is accompanied by an equal and contrary re-a&ion ; and fince all that we can demonftrate concerning the refiftance of bodies du¬ ring their motions through fluids proceeds on this fup- pofition, (the refiftance of the body being ajfumed as equal and oppofite to the fum of motions communicated to the particles of the fluid, eftimated in the diretftion ot the bodies motion), we are intitled to proceed in the 95 1 RES contrary order, and to confider the impulfions which Refiftance. each of the particles of fluid exerts on the body at reft,“i* l'IUJ|1 as equal and oppofite to the motion which the body would communicate to that particle if the fluid were at reft, and the body were moving equally fwift in the op¬ pofite direction. And therefore the whole impulfion of the fluid mull be conceived as the meafure of the whole motion which the body would thus communicate to the fluid. Itmuft therefore be alfo confidered as themeafureof the refiftance which the body, moving with the fame ve¬ locity, would fuftain from the fluid. When, therefore, we fliall demonftrate anything concerning the impulfion ol a fluid, eftimated in the diredlion of its motion, we muft confider it as demonftrated concerning the refift¬ ance of a quiefeent fluid to the motion of that body, having the fame velocity in the oppofite diredlion. The determination of thefe impulfions being much eafier than the determination of the motions communicated by the body to the particles of the fluid, this method will be followed in moft of the fubfequent difeuffions. The general propofition already delivered is by no m^ans fufficient for explaining the various important phenomena obferved in the mutual a&ions of folids and fluids. In particular, it gives us no affiftance in afeer- taining the modifications of this refiftance or impulfe, which depend on the ihape of the body and the incli¬ nation of its impelled or refifted furface to the direction of the motion. Sir Ifaac Newton found another hy- pothefis neceffary ; namely, that the fluid fiiould be fo extremely rare that the diftance of the particles may be incomparably greater than their diameters; This addi¬ tional condition is neceflary for confidering their adlions as fo many feparate collifions or impulfions on the folid body. Each particle muft be fuppofed to have abun¬ dant room to rebound, or otherwife efcape, after haviii'v made its ftroke, without fenfibly affedling the fituations and motions of the paitides which have not yet made their ftroke : and the motion muft be fo fwift as not to give time for the fenfible exertion of their mutual forces of attractions and repullions. Keeping thefe conditions in mind, we may proceed to determine the impulfions made by a fluid on furfaces of every kind : And the moft convenient method to purfue in this determination, is to compare them all ei- thei with the impulfe which the fame Jurface would re- ceive from the fluid impinging on it perpendicularly, or with-the impulfe which the fame fir earn of fluid would make when coming perpendicularly on a furface of fuch extent as to occupy the whole ftream. It will greatly abbreviate language, if we make ufeT oi a few terms m an appropriated fenfe. plained. . By zp™™, we fliall mean a quantity of fluid movino- in one dire&ion, that is, each particle moving in parak lei lines ; and the breadth of the ftream is a line perpen¬ dicular to all thefe parallels. . r A. filament means a portion of this ftream of very fmall breadth, and it confifts of an indefinite number of particles following one another in the fame direction, and fucceffively impinging on, or gliding along, the fur¬ face of the fohd body. . rjJe bafe ?f an7 furface expofed to a ftream of fluid,. 1S, ^at.Portlon of a P^ane perpendicular to the ftream, which is covered or protefted from the adion of the ftream by the furface expofed to its impulfe. Thus the bale oi a fphere expofed to a ftream of fluid is its great ^ CU'clCj . res r. 96 fUfifWf. circle, wliofe plane Is perpendicular to the ^rcam. If BC fiu'. 1.) be a plane fnrface expofed to the adion p^afc \ C> r A.\*n HP. then v——,,—— f ng>' I I uc a uiaiiv. r ' . 1 CCCCxStviof a llream of fluid, moving in the direction DC, then BR, or SE, perpendicular to DC, is its bade. 1 nirea impjfe fhall exprefs the energy or aftion of the particle or filament, or ftream of fluid, when meeting the furface perpendicularly, or when the furface is per¬ pendicular to the direction of the ftream. 1 Abfolute impu!fe means the actual preffure on the im celled7 furface, ariftng from the action of the fluid, whe¬ ther ftriking the furface perpendicularly or obliquely , or it is the force impreffed on the furface, or tendency to motion which it acquires, and which muft be oppoled by an equal force in the oppofite direction, m order that the furface may be maintained in its place It is ol im¬ portance to keep in mind, that this preffure is always perpendicular to the furface. It is a propofition found¬ ed on univerfal and uncontradifted experience, that the mutual actions of bodies on each other are always ex¬ erted in a direftion perpendicular to the touching fin - faces. Thus, it is obferved, that when a billiard ball A is ftruck by another B, moving in any direftion what¬ ever, the ball A always moves off m the direction perpen¬ dicular to the plane which touches the two balls in the point of mutual contaft, or point of impulte. ihis indu&ive propofition is fupported by every argument which can be drawn from what _we know concerning the forces which connect the particles of matter together, and are the immediate caufes of the communication oi motion. It would employ much time and room to ftate them here ; and we apprehend that it is uuneee - fary : for no reafon can be afligned why the preflure fhould be in any particular oblique direction. _ -R^ny one fhould fay that the impulfe will be in the direction off the ftream, we have only to delire him to take no¬ tice of the effect of the rudder of a (hip. I his {hows that the impulfe is not in the diredion of the Jirearn, and is therefore in fome direction tranfverfe to the ftream.-— He will alio find, that when a plane furface is impelled obliquely by a fluid, there is no direftion in which it can be fupported but the direction perpendicular to it- felf It is quite fafe, in the mean time, to take it as an experimental truth. We may, perhaps, in fome other part of this work, give what will be received as a rigorous demonftration. Relative or effective impulfe means the preffure on the furface eftimated in fome particular dire&iom I bus BC (fig. ».) may reprefent the fail of a (hip, impelled by the wind blowing in the direftion DC. GO may be the direftion of the fhip’s keel, or the line of her courfe. The wind ffrikes the fail in the direftion OH parallel to DC ; the fail is urged or preffed in the di¬ reftion GI, perpendicular to BC. But we are inte- refted to know what tendency this will give the ftup to move in the direftion GO. This is the effeftive or re¬ lative impulfe. Or BC may be the tranfverfe feftion of the fail of a common wind-mill. This, Iry the conftruc- tion of the machine, can move only in the direftion GP, perpendicular to the direftion of the wind ; and it is only in this direftion that the impulfe produces the defired effeft. Or BC may be half of the prow of a punt or lighter, riding at anchor by means of the cable DC, attached to the prow C. In this cafe, GQj pa¬ rallel to DC, is that part of the abfolute impulfe which is employed in ftraining the cable. 1 res The anfh af incidence is the angle FgC contained Rcfiftsnfi between the ' direftion of the ftream EG and the —r* Pl^JThe^angle of obliquity is the angle OGC contained between the plane and the direftion GO, in which we wifli to eftimate the impulfe. Prop II The direft impulfe of a fluid on a plane fur-Secondl» face, is to its abfolute oblique impulfe on the fame fur* ^ face, as the fquare of the radius to the fquaie of the fine of the angle of incidence. I et a ftream of fluid, moving in the direftion DC, (fia, 1.), aft on the plane BC. With the radius CB deftribe the quadrant ABE ; draw CA perpendicular to CE, and draw MN BS parallel to CE. Let the par¬ ticle F, moving in the direftion EG, meet the plane m G and in EG produced take GH to reprefent the magnitude of the direft impulfe, or the impulfe which the0particle would exert on the plane AC, by meeting it in V Draw GI and HK perpendicular to BC, and HI perpendicular to GI. Alfo draw B R perpendicu- ^The force GH is equivalent to the two forces GI and GK; and GK being in the direftion of the plane has no {hare in the impulfe. The abfolute impulfe, therefore, is reprefented by GI ; the angle GHI is equal to FGC, the angle of incidence ; and there¬ fore GH is to GI as radius to the fine ot the angle of incidence : Therefore the direft; impulic of each particle or filament is to its abfolute _ ob¬ lique impulfe as radius to the fine of the angle of inci¬ dence. But further, the number of particles or fila¬ ments which ftrike the furface AC, is to-the number ot thofe which ftrike the furface B C as A C to NC : for all the filaments between LA and MB go paft the ob¬ lique furface BC without ftriking it. But BC .* INC- rad. : fin. NBC, = rad. : fin. FGC, - rad. : im. inci¬ dence Now the whole impulfe is as the impulle or each filament, and as the number of filaments exerting equal impulfes jointly ; therefore the whole direft im¬ pulfe on AC is to the whole abfolute impulfe on BC, as the fquare of radius to the fquare of the fine of the angle of incidence. „ i r r . , , Let S exprefs the extent of the furface, 1 the angle of incidence, * the angle of obliquity, v, the velocity of the fluid, and d its denfity. Let b reprefent the direft impulfe, f the abfolute oblique impulfe, and ? the relative or effeftive impulfe: And let the tabular fines and cofines be confidered as decimal fraft 10m ot the radius unity. -j c* , . _ This propofition gives us F:/ — K : bm- b — 1 * Sin.5 i, and therefore / = F X Sin.5 1. Alfo, becaufe impulfes are in the proportion of the extent of furface fimilarly impelled, we have, in general,/= b t> X S*n 2 i > '"The Yirft who puhlifhed this theorem was Pardies, in his Oeuvres de Mathematique, in 1673. We.know that Newton had inveftigated the chief propofitions ot the Principia before 1670. 1 Prop. III. The direft impulfe on any furface is to theThlK effeftive oblique impulfe on the fame furface, as t e cube of radius to the folid, which has for its bafe th fquare of the fine of incidence, and the fine of obli¬ quity for its height. For, 1 pu. eft -pu. 9 irtien : di- ffed m- to the *n : c late RES r 97 T*or, when GH reprcfents the direA impulfe of a particle, GI is the abfolute oblique Impulfe, and GO is the effe&ive impulfe in the direftion GO : Now GI is to GO as radius to the fine of GIO, and GIO is the complement of IGO, and is therefore equal to CGO, the angle of obliquity. Therefore f: : Sin. O. But Fi/zrR'rSin.T Thetefore F : f— R3 : Sin.5* X Sift. and f =F X Sin.5/X Sin. 0. Cor.—The dire& impulfe on any furface is to the effeftive oblique impulfe in the diredlion ol the ftream, as the cube of radius to the cube of the fine of inci¬ dence. For draw I Qjmd GP perpendicular to G H, lb! ueim-and IP perpendicular to GP ; then the abfolute ixn- pulfe GI is equivalent to the impulfe GQ__in the direc¬ tion of the ftream, and GP, which may be called the tranfverfe impulfe. The angle G I Q_js evidently equal to the angle GHl, or FGC, the angle of incidence. Therefore f: ? r=GI : GQ^, = R : Sin. i. But F:/= R5: Sin.’/. Therefore F :

— F X Sin.5 i. Ife on Before we proceed further, we {hall confider the im- face in pulfc on a furface which is alfo in motion. This is evi¬ dently a frequent and an important cafe. It is per¬ haps the moft frequent and important: It is the cafe of a Jhip under fail, and of a wind or water-mill at work. Therefore, let a ftream of fluid, moving with the di¬ rection and velocity DE, meet a plane BC, (fig. J. :xxxvi. n° 2.1, which is moving parallel to itfelf in the direCtion and with the velocity DF: It is required to determine the impulfe ? Nothing is more eafy : The mutual actions of bodies depend on their relative motions only. The motion HE of the fluid relative to BC, which is alfo in mo¬ tion, is compounded of the real motion of the fluid and the oppofite to the real motion of the body. 1 here- lore produce FI) till D /“DF, and complete the pa¬ rallelogram D / e E, and draw the diagonal D e. The impulfe on the plane is the fame as if the plane were at reft, and every particle of the fluid impelled it in the diixftion and with the velocity D e ; and may therefore be determined by the foregoing propofition. Thispro- pofition applies to every pofiible cafe ; and we {hall not bellow more time on it, but referve the important mo¬ dification of the general propofition for the cafes which fhall occur in the pradlical applications of the whole doftrine of the impulfe and reiillance of fluids. 1 B portion Prop. IV. The dire£l impulfe of a ftream of fluid, " o' ie di- whofe breadth is given, is to its oblique effedlive im¬ pulfe in the direction of the ftream, as the fquare of radius to the fquare of the line ef the angle of in¬ cidence; For the , number of filaments which occupy the ob¬ lique plane BC, would occupy the portion NC of a perpendicular plane, and therefore we have only to compare the perpendicular impulfe on any point V with the efteftive impulfe made by the fame filament FV on the oblique plane at G. Now GH reprefents the im¬ pulfe which this filament would make at V ; and G Q_ is the effedlive impulfe of the fame filament at G, efti- mated in the diredtion G H of the ftream ; and G H is toGQjtsG H! to GH, that is, as rad,* to fin.T Vox,. XVI. Part I. in f.h ft : of Ki , en ft] m to th ?ffec- oblique tilfc ii ame dlion. 1 RES Cor. r. The cffedlive impulfe in the diredlion of the Refiftat re> ftream on any plane furface BC, is to the diredl inipulfe V“ on its bafe BR or SE, as the fqtiare of the fine of the angle of incidence to the fquare of the radius. 2. If an ifofceles wedge ACB (fig. 2.) be expofed to a ftream of fluid moving in the diredtion of its height CD, the impulfe on the fides is to the diredl impulfe on the bale as the fquare of half the bafe AD to the fquare of the fide AC, or as the fquare of the fine of half the angle of the wedge to the fquare of the radius. For it is evident, that in this Cafe the two tranfverfe impulfes, fuch as GP in fig. I, balance each other, and the only impulfe which can be cblerved is the fum of the two impulfes, fuch as GQjof fig. I, which are to be compared with the impulfes on the two halves AD, DB of the bafe. Now AC : AB rad. : fin. ACD, and ACD is equal to the angle of incidence. Therefore, if the angle ACB is a right angle, and ACD is half a right angle, the fquare of AC is twice the fquare of AD, and the impulfe on the fides of 1 redlangular wedge is half the impulfe on its bafe. Alfo, if a cube ACBE (fig. 3.) be expofed to a ftream moving in adire&ion perpendicular to one of its fides, and then to a ftream moving in a diredlion per¬ pendicular to one of its diagonal plaftes, the impulfe in the firft cafe will be to the impulfe in the fecond as ^2 to 1. Call the perpendicular impulfe on a fide F, and the perpendicular impulfe on its diagonal plane f, and the tffe&ive oblique impulfe on its fides ? ;—we have F :/= AC : AB =1:^2, and /: ? r= ACT AD* = 2 : 1. ^Therefore , F : e == 2 ; V^2, = : 1, or very nearly as 10 to 7. The fame reafoning will apply to a pyramid whofe bafe is a regular polygon, and whofe axis is perpendicu¬ lar to the bafe. If fuch a pyramid is expofed to a ftream of fluid moving in the direction of the axis, the diredl impulfe on the bafe is to the effedlive impulfe on the pyramid, as the fquare of the radius to the fquare of the fine of the angle which the axis makes with the fides of the pyramid. And, in like manfter, the diredl impulfion on the bafe of a right cone is to the effedlive impulfion on the conical furface, as the fquare of the radius to the fquare of the fine of half the angle at the vertex of the cone,, This is demonftrated, by fuppofing the cone to be a pyramid of an infinite number of fides, We may in this manner compare the itnpulfe on any polygonal furface with the impulfe on its bafe, by com¬ paring apart the impulfes on each plane with thofe ic their correfponding bafes, and taking their fum. And we may compare the impulfe on a curved fur¬ face with that on its bafe, by refolving the curved fur¬ face into elementary planes, each of which is impelled by an elementary filament of the ftream. The following beautiful propofition, given by Le Seur and Jaquier, in their Commentary on the fecond Book of Newton’s Principia, with a few examples of its appliqation, will fuffice for any further account of this theory. o.i Prop. V.—Let ADB (fig. /p) be the fedlion of apulfeona furface of fimplc curvature, fuch as is the furface of curved fur- a cylinder. Let this be expofed to the adfion of af;ice corn- fluid moving in the diredtion AC. Let BC be the N fedlion bafe. RES [98 JUfiftanie. feftlon €jf the plane (which we have called its hafe), perpendicular to the direction of the ftream. In produced, take any length CG; and on CG defcnbe the femicircle CHG, and complete the rectangle BCGO. Through any point D of the curve draw ED'parallel to AC, and'meeting BC and OG in Q_ and P- Let DF touch the curve in D, and draw the chord GH parallel to DF, and HKM perpendi¬ cular to CG, meeting ED in M. Suppofe this to he done for every point of the curve ADB, and let •«- LMN be the curve which paffes through all the points of interfetlion of the parallels EDP and the correfponding perpendiculars HKM. The effective impulfe on the curve furface ADB in tlie direaion of the ftream, is to its direft impulfe on the bafe BC as the area BCNL is to the reftangle HCGO. Draw edqmp parallel to EP and extremely near it. The arch D d of the curve may be conceived as the feftion of an elementary plane, having the polition of the tangent DF. The angle EDI is the angle of in¬ cidence of the filament ED de. This is equal to CGH, becaufe ED, DF, are parallel to CG, GH ; and (be- caufe CHG is a femicircle) CH is perpendicular to GH. Alfo CG : CH = CH : CK, and CG : CK = CG" : CH1, = rad.1 : fin.1, CGH, rrrad.1 : fin.1 in- cid. Therefore if CG, or its equal DP, reprefent the diredl impulfe on the point Q__of the bafe, CK, or its equal QM, will reprefent the effe&ive impulfe on the point D of the curve. And thus, Q?/* P will repre¬ fent the direA impulfe of the filament on the element Qjr of the bafe, and Oym M will reprefent the ef¬ fective impulfe ' of the fame filament on the element D fi ft. a void. He never faw the wake perfectly tranfparent (and therefore completely filled with water) when the velocity exceeded 9 or 10 feet per fecond. While this broken water is obferved, there can be no doubt that there is a void and an additional refiftance. But even when the fpace left by the body, or the fpace behind a ftill body expofed to a ftream, is completely filled, it may not be filled fufficiently fait, and there may be (and certainly is, as we (hall fee afterwards-) a quantity .of water behind the body, which is moving more flow- ly away than the reft, and therefore hangs in fome ftiape by the body, and is dragged by it, increaling the refiftance. The quantity of this mull depend partly on> the velocity of the body or ftream, and partly on the rapidity with which the fur rounding water comes in behind. This laft muft depend on the preffiare of the furrounding water. It would appear, that when this adjoining preflure is very great, as muft happen when the depth is great, the augmentation of reliftance now ipoken of would be lefs. Accordingly this appears in Newton’s experiments, where the balls were lelVretard- ed as they were deeper under water. Thefe experiments are fo Ample in their nature, and were made with fuch care, and by a perfon fo able to deteft and appreciate every circumilance, that they de- ferve great credit, and the conclulions legitimately drawn from them deferve to be confidered as phyfical laws. We think that the prefent deduction is unexception¬ able : for in the motion of balls, which hardly defcen- ded, their preponderancy being hardly feniible, the ef- fedt of depth muft have borne a very great proportion to the whole refiftance, and muft have greatly influenced, their motions ; yet they were obferved to fell as if the refiftance had no way depended on the depth. The fame thing appears in Borda’s experiments, where a fphere which was deeply immerfed in the wa¬ ter was lefs refilled than one that moved with the fame velocity near the furfaee ; and this was very conftant and regular in a courfe of experiments. D’Ulioa, how¬ ever, affirms the contrary : He fays that the refiftance of a board, which was a foot broad, immerfed one foot in a ftream moving two feet per fecond, was 15,4- lbs. and the refiftance to the fame board, when immerfed 2 feet in a ftream moving if feet per fecond (in which cafe (he furface was 2 feet), was 263 pounds (a). We are very fony that we cannot give a proper account of this theory of refiftance by Don George Juan D’Ul¬ ioa, an author of great mathematical reputation, and the iffipedlor of the marine academies in Spain. We have not been able to procure either the original or the Trench tranflation, and judge of it only by an cxtrail by Mr Prony in his ArchiteSure HydrauUque, § 86S. &c. The theory is enveloped (according to Mr Pro- ny’s cuftom) in the moft complicated expreffions, fo that the phyfical principles are kept almoft out of fight. When accommodated to the iimpleft. poffible cafe, it is nearly as follows. Let 0 be an elementary orifice or portion of the fur- fece of the fide of a vefTel filled with a heavy fluid, and let b be its depth under the horizontal furface of the 3 RES id. Let I be the denfity of the fluid, and ? the ac- Refi£; erative power of gravity, ~ 32 feet velocity acqui- ’ [ ICI fluid celerative red in a fecond. It is known, fays he, that the water would flow out at this hole with the velocity u = V2 1 b, u1 and b —— » It is alfo known that the preffiire p on ..Z the orifice 0 h ? a t /?,

- Rfififtance RES [ io2 ] «, not that tvith which water would iffue from a hole tion of fluids. whole depth under the furface is A, but the velocity with which it will ifiue from a hole whofe depth is h -f 33 feet. Becaufe the prefiure of the atmo- fphere is equal to that of a column of water 33 feet high: for this is the acknowledged velocity with which it would rufli in to the void left by the body. If therefore this velocity (which does not exift) has any lhare in the effort, we muff have for the fluxion of preffure not 4^-- but 4>v/ h 4-331^ This would not only give preffure or refiftances many times exceeding thofe that have been obferved in our experiments, but would alfo totally change the proportions v/hich this theory determines. It was at any rate improper to em- barrafs an inveftigation, already very intricate, with the preffure of gravity, and with two motions of efflux, which do not exift, and are neceffary for making the preffures in the ratio o( u-^-v and u- Mr Prony has been at no pains to inform his readers of his reafons for adopting this theory of refiftance, lo contrary to all received opinions, and to the moft diftindt experiments. Thofe of the French academy, made un¬ der greater preffures, gave a much fmaller refiftance ; and the very experiments adduced in fupport of this theory are extremely deficient, wanting fully j d of what the theory requires. The refiftances by experiment were 15^ and 26-5, and the theory required 20^ and 39. The equation, however, deduced from the theory is greatly deficient in the exprefiion of the preffurcs cau- fed by the accumulation and deprellion, Hating the heights of them as = They can never be fo high, becaufe the heaped up water flows off at the fides, and it alfo comes in behind by the fides; fo that the preffure is much lefs than half the weight of a column whofe becaufe the accumulation and de¬ height RES Newton’s demonftration of it takes no notice of the manner in which the various particles of the fluid are put into motion, or the motion which each in particular acquires. He only (hows, that if there be nothing concerned in the communication but pure iir- ertia, the fum total of the mot ions, of the particles, efti- mated in the direftion of the bodies motion, or that of the ft-ream, will be in the duplicate ratio of the velocity.. It was therefore of importance to fhow that this part of the theory was juft. To do this, we had to confider the efftdft of every circumftance which could be com¬ bined with the inertia of the fluid. Allthefe had been forefeen by that great man, and are moft briefly, though perfpicuoufly, mentioned in the laft fcholium to prop. 36. B.H. , . |t 2. It appears from a comparifon of all the expen- ments, that the impulfes and reliftances are very nearly and refill, in the proportion of the furfaces. They appear, how- ancesns ever, to increafe fomewhat fafterthan the furfaces. The Chevalier Borda found that the refiftance, with the fame the fui velocity, to a furface of ces. was inftead of * both 2f> preflion are lefs at the lides than in the middle, and be¬ caufe, when therbody is wholly immerfed, the accumu¬ lation is greatly diminifhed. Indeed in this cafe the final equation does not include their effedls, though as real in this cafe as when part of the body is above water. Upon the whole, we are fomewhat furprifed that an author of D’Ulloa’s eminence fhould have adopted a theory fo unneceffarily and fo improperly embarraffed with foreign circumftances ; and that Mr Prony fhould have inferted it with the explanation by which he was to. abide, in a work deftined for practical ufe. This point, or the effe& of deep immerfion, is ftill much contefted ; and it is a received opinion, by many not ac- cuftomed to mathematical refearches, that the refiftance is greater in greater depths. This is affumed as an im¬ portant principle by Mr Gordon, author of 4 Theory vf Naval Arch'iteSure ; but on very vague and flight grounds ; and the author feems unacquainted with the manner of reafeming on fuck fubjeCts. It fhall be con- fidered afterwards. With thefe corredtions, it may be affertedthat theory and experiment agree very well in this refpedt, and that the refiftance may be afferted to be in the duplicate ra¬ tio of the velocity. We have been more minute on this fubjedt, becaufe it is the leading propofitien in the thepry ©f«the ae« 9 17*535 42,750 ,104,737 The deviation in thefe experiments from the theory increafes with the furface, and is probably much greater in the extenfive furfaces of the fails of fhips and wind¬ mills, and the hulls of ihips. 3. The reiiftances do by no means vary in the du¬ plicate ratio of the fines of the angles of incidence. As this is the moft interefting circumftance, having a chief influence on all the particular modifications of the refiftance of fluids, and as on this depends the whole theory of the conftrudtiou and working of fhips, and the action of water on our moft important machines, and feems moft immediately connedted with the mecha- nifm of fluids, it merits a very particular confideration. We cannot do a greater fervice than by rendering more generally known the excellent experiments of the French academy. 33 Fifteen boxes orveffelswere conftrudfed, which were Expen two feet wide, and two feet deep, and four feet long, One of them was a parallelepiped of thefe dimenfions ; aa(jeni)1 the others had prows of a wedge-form, the angle ACB (fig* ?•) varying by 12° degrees from 120 to pin: 1 Bo*; fo that the angle of incidence increafed by 6° ccccnf from one to another. Thefe boxes were dragged acrofs a very large fcafon °f fmooth water (in which,they were immerfed two feet) by means of a line paffing over a wheel connected with a cylinder, from which the adtu- ating weight was fufpended. The motion became per- fedlly uniform after a very little way ; and the time of paffing over 96 French feet with this uniform motion was very carefully noted. The reiiftance was meafiv- red by the weight employed, after deducing a certain quantity (properly eftimated) for fiidfion, and for the accumulation of the water againft the anterior furfacc. The refults of the many experiments arc given in the following table ; where column 1 ft contains the angle of the prow, column 2d contains the refiftance as given by the preceding theory, column 3d contains the refiftance exhibited in the experiments, and column 4th contain* the deviation of the experiment from the theory. 4 I* **1 RES i. i8o 168 156 144 132 IZQ I08 96 84 72 60 4S 3^ 24- 12 II. 10000 9890 9568 9045 8346 7500 6545 5523 4478 3455 2500 1654 955 432 109 in. 10000 9893 9578 9084 8446 7710 6925 6x48 5433 4800 4404 4240 4x42 4063 3999 iv. o + 3 +10 + 39 -j-100 4-210 +380 4-625 + 955 +1345 +19°4 4-2586 + 3 87 + 363i + 3890 The refxftance to 1 fquare foot, French meafure, mo¬ ving with the velocity of 2,56 feet pet fecond, was ve¬ ry nearly 7,625 pounds French. Reducing thefe to Euglilh meafures, we have the fuiface = 1,1363 feet, the velocity of the motion equal to 2,7263 feet per fecond, and the refiftance equal to 8,234 pounds avoirdupois. The weight of a column ot Irelh water of this bafe, and having for its height the fall neceffary for communicating this velocity, is 8,264 pounds avoirdupois. The refiftances to other velocities were accurately proportional to the fquares of the velocities. There is great diverfity in the value which different authors have deduced for the abfolute refiftance of wa¬ ter from their experiments. In the value now given nothing is taken into account but the inertia of the wa¬ ter. The accumulation againft the forepart of the box was carefully noted, and the ftatical preffure backwards, arifing from this canfe, was fubtrafted from the whole refiftance to the drag. There had not been a fufficient variety of experiments for difeovering the fhare which tenacity and friction produced ; fo that the number of pounds fet down here may be confidered as fomewhat luperior to the mere effedts of the inertia of the water. W.e think, upon the whole, that it is the moll accurate determination yet given of the yeftftance to a body in motion : but we {hall afterwards fee reafoas for belie¬ ving, that the impulfe of a running ftream having the fame velocity is fomewhat greater ; and this is the form in which moft of the experiments have been made. Alfo obferve, that the refiftanee here given is that to a veffcl two feet broad and deep and four feet long. The reliltance to a plane of two feet broad and deep would probably have exceeded this in the proportion of 15,22 to 14,54, f°r reafons we fhall fee afterwards, icrs. From the experiments of Chevalier Buat, it appears that a body of one foot fquare, French meafure, and two feet long, having its centre 15 inches under water, moving three French feet per fecond, fuftained a preffure of 14,54 French pounds, or 15,63 Englifh. This redu- ced in the proportion of 3* to 2,56* gives 11,43 pounds, conliderably exceeding the 8,24, Mr Bouguer, in his Maneuvredes V/iJfeaux, fays, that he found the refiftance of fea-water to a velocity of one foot to be 23 ounces f ours des Marc. The Chevalier Borda found the refiftance of fea-wa¬ ter to the face of a cubic foot, moving againft the wa¬ ter one foot per fecond, to be 21 ounces nearly. But Itefiftanee. ——dl 103 ] RES this experiment is complicated s the w-ave was not de¬ duced ; and it was not a plane, but a cube. Don George d’UHoa found the impulfe of a ftream of fea water, running two feet per fecond on a foot fquare, to be 15* pounds Engliili meafure. This greatly exceeds all the values given by others. ^ From thefe experiments we learn, in the firft place, Confequen* that the direeft refiftance to a motion of a plane furfaceces from through water, is very nearly equal to the weight of atIieiTl’ column of water having that furface for its bafe, and for its height the fall producing the velocity of the mo¬ tion. This is but one half of the refiftance determined by the preceding theory. It agrees, however, very well with the befl experiments made by other philofo- phers on bodies totally immerfed or furrounded by the fluid ; and fufficiently fliows, that there mutt be feme fallacy in the principles or reafoning by which this ic- . fult of the theory is fuppofed to be deduced. We fhall • have occafion to return to this again. But we fee that the effedts of the obliquity of inci¬ dence deviate enormoufly from the theory, and that this deviation increafes rapidly as the acutenefs of the prow increafes. In the prow of Go^ the deviation is neatly equal to the whole refiftance pointed out by the theory, and in the prow of 12° it is nearly 4o times greater than the theoretical refiftance. The refiftance of the prow of 90° fhould be one half the reiiftance of the bafe. We have not fuch a prow; but the medium between the refiftance of the prow of 96 and 84 is 57^0, inftead of 500. Thefe experiments are very conform to thofe of other authors on plane furfaces. Mr Robins found the re¬ fiftance of the air to a pyramid of 45g, with its apex foremoft, was to that of its bafe as 1000 to 1411, In¬ ftead of one to two. Chevalier Borda found the re¬ fiftance of a cube, moving in water in the diredliou of the fide, was to the oblique rtfiftance, when it was moved in the diredfion of the diagonal, in the proportion of 54 to 7 ; whereas it fhould have been that of -v/2 to 1, or of 10 to 7 nearly. He alfo found, that a wedge whofe angle was 90°, moving in air, gave for the proportion of the refiftances of the edge and bafe 7281 : 10000, initead of 5000: 10000. Alfo when the angle of the wedge was 60’’, the refiftances of the edge and bafe were 52 and 100, inftead of 25 and 100. To fhort, in all the cafes of oblique plane furfaces, the refiftances were greater than thofe which are afligned by the theory. The theoretical law agrees tolerably with obfervation in large angles of incidence, that is, in incidences not differing very far from the perpendi¬ cular ; but in more acute prows the refiftances are more nearly proportional to the fines of incidence than to their fquares. i he academicians deduced from thefe experiments an expreffion of the general value of the refiftance, which correfponds tolerably well with obfervation. Thus let * be the complement of the half angle of the prow, and let P be the diredl preffure or refiftance, with an incidence of 90°, and p the effedtive oblique preffure : then ^ P x cofine This gives for a prow of 12 an error in defedt about Tr-^» and in larger angles it is much nearer the truth ; and this is exadl enough for any practice. This V, E S t i°4 1 R E S a^fiftwire This k an abundantly fimple formula; but if we in¬ troduce it in our calculations of the refiftances of curvi- lineal prows, it renders them fo complicated as to be al- moft ufelefs ; and what is worfe, when the calculation is completed for a curvilineal prow, the ref;fiance which refults is found to differ widely from experiment. This fliows that the motion of the fluid k fo modified by the aftion of the moft prominent part of the prow, that its impulfe on w’hat fucceeds is greatly affected, fo '■that we are not allowed to confider the prow as cornpofed of a number of parts, each of which js afledted as if it were detached from all the reft. .As the very nature of naval arclutedliure feems to re¬ quire curvilineal forms, in order to give the neceffary ftrength, it feemed of importance to examine more par- ticulary the deviations of the refiftances of fuch prows from the refiftances afligned by the theory. The aca¬ demicians therefore made veffels with prows of a cylin¬ drical fhape 5 one of thefe was a half cylinder, and the other was one-third of a cylinder, both having the fame breacfth, viz. two feet, the fame depth, alfo two feet, and the fame length, four feet. The refiftance of the half cylinder was to the refiftance of the perpendi¬ cular prow in the proportion of 13 to inftead of being as 13 to 19,5. The Chevalier Borda found nearly the fame ratio of the refiftances of the half cylin¬ der. and its diametrical plane when moved in air. He alfo compared the refiftances of two prifms or wedges, of the fame breadth and height. The firft had its iides plane, inclined to the bafe in angles of 6o0: the fecond had its Tides portions of cylinders, of which the planes were the chords, that is, their feftions were arches of circles of 60 . Their refiftances were as 133 to 100, inftead of being as 133 to 220, as required by the the¬ ory ; and as the refiftance of the firft was greater in pro¬ portion to that of the bafe than the theory allows, the refiftance of the laft was lefs. Mr Robins found the refiftance of a fphere moving in air to be to the reiiftance of its great circle as 1 to ,27 ; whereas theory requires them to be as I to 2. He found, at the fame time, that the abfolute refiftance was greater than the weight of a cylinder of air of the feme diameter, and having the height neceffary for ac¬ quiring the velocity. It was greater in the proportion of 49 to 40 nearly. Borda found the refiftance of the fphere moving in water to be to that of its great circle as 1000 to 3 708, and it was one-ninth greater than the weight of the column of water whofe height was that necefiary for producing the velocity. He alfo found the refin¬ ance of air to the fphere was to its refiftance to its great circle as I to 2,45. The theory lt appears, on the whole, that the theory gives the gives fome refiftance of oblique plane furfaces too fmall, and that every obliquity. They therefore put it in our power Rtfifht© to fcleft the moft proper obliquity in a thoufand im- portant cafes. By appealing to them, we can tell what is the proper angle of the fail for producing the great- eft impulfe iu the direftion of the Chip’s courfe ; or the beft inclination of the fail of a wind-mill, or the beft in¬ clination of the float of a water-wheel, &c. &c. Thefe dedu&ions wall be made in their proper places in the eourfe of this work. We fee alfo, that the deviation from the fimple theory is not very confiderable till the obliquity is great; and that, in the inclinations which other circumftances would induce us to give to the floats of water-wheels, the fails of wind-mills, and the like, the refults of the theory are fufficiently agreeable to experiment, for rendering this theory of very great ufe in the conftru&ion of machines. Its great deleft is in the impulfions on curved furfaces, which puts a ftop to our improvement of the faience of naval archi- ledture, and the working of fhips. But it is not enough to deteft the faults of this theo¬ ry : we fhould try to amend it, or to fubftitute ano¬ ther. It is a pity that To much ingenuity fliould have been thrown away in the application of a theory fo de- feftive. Mathematicians were feduced, as has been al¬ ready obferved, by the opportunity which it gave for exercifing their calculus, which was a new thing at the time of publifhing this theory. Newton faw clearly the defefts of it, and makes no ufe of any part of it in his fubfequent difeuffions, and plainly has ufed it merely as an introdudtion, in order to give fome gene¬ ral notions in a fubjeft quite new, and to give a demon- ftration of one leading truth, viz. the proportionality of the impulfions to the fquares of the velocities. While we profefs the higheft refpeft for the talents and labours of the great mathematicians who have followed New¬ ton in this moft difficult refearch, we cannot help being ferry that fome of the greateft of them continued to attach thcmfelves to a theory which he neglected, mere¬ ly becaufe it afforded an opportunity of diiplaying their profound knowledge of the new calculus, of which they were willing to aferibe the difeovery to Reibnitz. It has been in a great meafure owing to this that we have been fo late in difeovering our ienoiance of the fub- je£t. Newton had himfelf pointed out all the defefts of this theory ; and he fet himfelf to work to difeover pointed* another which ftiould be more conformable to the na- by Ntf ture of things, retaining only fuch deductions from the an¬ other as his great fagacity affured him would ftand the teft of experiment. Even in this he feems to have been miftaken by his followers. He retained the propor¬ tionality of the refiftance to the fquare of the _ velocity- 'This they have endeavoured to demonftrate in a man- conformable to NewtoiTs determination of the 31. refiftances of curved furfaces too great; and tnat it is quite unfit too fmall yor afcertaitiing the modifications of refiftance arifing GQoVreatr from the %ure of thc bocly- .Thc moft Prominent ^ 0 ' part of the prow changes the aftion of the fluid on the fucceeding parts, rendering it totally different from what it would be were that part detached from the reft, and expofed to the ftream with the fame obliquity. It is of no confequence, therefore, to deduce any formula from the valuable experiments of the French academy. The experiments themfelves are of great importance, becaufe they give us the impulfes on plane furfaces with •oblique unpulfes of fluids; and under the cover of the agreement of this propofition with experiment, they in¬ troduced into mechanics a mode of expreffion, and even of conception, which is inconliftent with all accurate notions on thefe fubjefts. Newton’s propofition was, that the motions communicated to the fluid, and there¬ fore the motions loft by the body, in equal times, were as the fquares of the velocities ; and he conceived thefe as proper meafures of the refiftances. It is a matter of experience, that the forces orpreffures by which a body xnuft be fupported in oppofition to the impulfes 0 fluids, are in tliis very proportion. In determining the , proportion i npa- e- iim- nd II E 5 [ « proportion of the direct and oblique refiftances of plane furfaces, he confiders the refiftances to arife from mu¬ tual collifions of the furface and fluid, repeated at inter¬ vals of time too fmall to be perceived. But in making this comparifon, he has no occaflon whatever to confi- der this repetition ; and when he afligns the proportion between the refiftance of a cone and of its bafe, he, in fact, affigns the proportion between two fimultaneous and inftantaneous impulfes. But the mathematicians who followed him have confidered this repetition as equivalent to an augmentation of the initial or firft im- pulfe ; and in this way have attempted to demonftrate that the refiftances are as the fquares of the velocities. When the velocity is double, each impulfe is double, and the number in a given time is double ; therefore, fay they, the refiftance, and the force which will with- ftand it, is quadruple ; and obfervation confirms their dedudfion : yet nothing is more gratuitous and illogi¬ cal. It is very true that the refiftance, conceived as Newton conceives it, the lofs of motion lullained by a body moving in the fluid, is quadruple ; but the inftan- taneous impulfe, and the force which can withftand it, is, by all the laws of mechanics, only double. Wlia tis the force which can withftand a double impulfe ? No¬ thing but a double impulfe. Nothing but impulfe can be oppofed to impulfe ; and it is a grofs mifconception to think of ftating any kind of comparifon between im¬ pulfe and preffure. It is this which has given rife to much jargon and falfe reafoning about the force of percufiion. This is ftated as infinitely greater than any prefiure, and as equivalent to a prefliire infinitely repeated. It forced the abettors of thefe dodtrines at laft to deny the exiftence of all preffures whatever, and to affert that all motion, and tendency to motion, was the refult of impulfe. The celebrated Euler, perhaps the firft mathematician, and the loweft philofopher, of this century, fays, “ fince motion and impulfe are feen to exifl, and fince we fee that by means of motion pref¬ iure may be produced, as when a body in motion ftrikes another, or as when a body moving in a curved channel prefies upon it, merely in confequence of its curvilineal -motion, and the exertion of a centrifugal force; and fince Nature is moft wifely economical in all her operations; it is abfurd to fuppofe that preifure, or tendency to mo¬ tion, has any other origin ; and it is the bufinefs of a pkilofopher to difcover by what motions any obferved preflure is produced.” Whenever any preffure is ob- Jerved, fuch as the preffure of gravity, of magnetifm, of eledfricity, of condenfed air, nay, of a fpring, and of elafticity and cohefion themfelves, however difparate, nay, oppofite, the philofopher muft immediately caft about, and contrive a fet of motions (creating pro re natd the movers) which will produce a prefliire like the one obferved. Having pleafed his fancy with this, he cries out “ this nvill produce the preflureet fruflra fit per plura quod fieri pot ejl per pauctora, “ there- lore in this way the preffure is produced.” Thus the vortices of Defcartee are brought back in triumph, and have produced vortices without number, which fill the univerfe with motion and preflure. Such bold attempts to overturn long-received doc¬ trines in mechanics, could not be received without much •cnticilm and oppofition ; and many able diflertations appeared from time to time in defence of the common doctrines. In confequence of the many objections to Vol. XVI. Part I. 05 ] RES the comparifon of pure prefliire with pure percuffion ReQftance. or impulfe, John Bernoulli and others were at laft obli- ged to aflert that there were no perfectly hard bodies in nature, nor could be, but that all bodies were elaftic; and that in the communication of motion by percufiion, the velocities of both bodies were gradually changed by their mutual elafticity aCting during the finite but im-- perceptible time of the collifion. I his was, in faCt, giving up the whole argument, and banifhing percuf¬ fion, while their aim was to get rid of preflure. For what is elafticity but a preflure ? and bow fliall it be produced ? To aft in this inftance, muft it arife from a ftill fmaller impulfe ? But this will require another ela¬ fticity, and fo on without end. Thefe are all legitimate confequences of this attempt to ftate a comparifon between percufiion and preflure. Numberlefs experiments have been made to confirm the ftatement; and there is hardly an itinerant-lefturing ftiowman who does not exhibit among his apparatus Gravefande’s machine (Vol. I. plate xxxv. fig. 4). But nothing affords fo fpecious an argument ?s the ex¬ perimented proportionality of the impulfe of fluids to the fquare of the velocity. Here is every appearance of the accumulation of an infinity of minute impulfes, in the known ratio of the velocity, each to each, pro¬ ducing preffures which are in the ratio ol the fquares of the velocities. The preffures are obferved ; but the impulfes or per- cufiions, whofe accumulation produces thefe preffures, are only fuppofed. I he rare fluid, introduced by New¬ ton for the purpofe already mentioned, either does not exit! in nature, or does not aft in the manner we have faid, the particles making their impulfe, and then efca- ping through among the reft without affefting their mo¬ tion. We cannot indeed fay what may be the proportion between the diameter and the diftance of the particles. The firft may be incomparably fmaller than the fecond, even in mercury, the denfeft fluid which we are famili¬ arly acquainted with ; but although they do not touch each other, they aft nearly as if they did, in confe¬ quence of their mutual attraftions and repulfions. We have feen air a thcufand times rarer in fome experi¬ ments than in others, and therefore the diftance of the particles at leaft ten times greater than their diameters; and yet, in this rare ftate, it propagates all preffures or impulfes made qn any part of it to a great diftance, almoft in an inftant. It cannot be, therefore, that fluids aft on bodies byr impulfe. It is very poflible to conceive a fluid advancing with a flat furface againft the flat furface of a folid. The veiy firft and fuperficial par¬ ticles may make an impulfe ; and if they were annihi¬ lated, the next might do the fame : and if the velocity were double, thefe impulfes would be double, and would be withftood by a double force, and not a quadruple, as is obferved : and this very circumftance, that a qua¬ druple force is neceffary, fhould have made us conclude that it was not to impulfe that this force was oppofed. The firft particles hav ing made their ftroke, and not be ing annihilated, muft efcape laterally. In their efea- very. ping, they effeftually prevent every farther impulfe, fmall part becaufe they come in the way of thofe filaments which °f a fluid would have ftruck the body. The whole procefs feemscan niakc.r to be fomewhat as loilows: on a fur_ When the flat furface of the fluid has come into con-face, taft with the plane furface AD (fig. 6.), perpendicular Hate O to R E S [ i Hf firtancf. to the direction DC of their motion, they muff defledt —* to both fides equally, and in equal portions, becaufe no reafon can be affigned why more (hould go to either fide. By this means the filament KFr which would have ft ruck the furface in G, is deflected before it arrives at the furface, and defcribes a curved path EFIHK, continuing its rectilineal motion to I, where it is inter¬ cepted by a filament immediately adjoining to E f, on the fide of the middle filament DC. The difterent par¬ ticles of DC may be fuppofed to impinge in fucceffion at C, and to be dcfle&ed at right angles ; and gliding along C B, to efcape at B. Each filament in fucceftion, outwards from DC, is defledted in its turn ; and being hindered from even touching the furface CB, it glides oft in a diredtion parallel to it ; and thus E F is defledt- ed in I, moves parallel to CB from I to H, and is again deflected at right angles, and defcribes IT K parallel to DC. The fame thing may be fuppofed to happen on the other fide of DC. And thus it would appear, that except two filaments immediately adjoining to the line DC, which bifedts the furface at right angles, no part of the fluid makes any impulfe on the furface AB. All the other filaments are. merely prefled againft it by the lateral filaments without them, which they turn afide, and prevent from linking the furface. Plate In like manner, when the fluid ftrikes the edge of a ccccxxxvi. priftn or wedge ACB (fig. 7.), it cannot be faid that No itn ulfcany rea* imPu^e made- Nothing hinders us from on the^edgefuppdlmg C a mathematical angle or indivifible point, of a prifm. not fufceptible of any impulfe, and ferving merely to di¬ vide the ftream. Each filament EF is effedlually pre¬ vented from impinging at G in the line of its diredlion, and with the obliquity of incidence EGC, by the fila¬ ments between. EF and DC, which glide along the fur¬ face CA ; and it may be fuppofed to be deftedled when it comes to the line CF wfliich bTe&s the angle DC A, and again deflected and rendered parallel to D C at I. The fame thing happens on the other fide of DC ; and we cannot in this cafe aflert that there is any impulfe. We now fee plainly how the ordinary theory muft be totally unfit for furnifhing principles of naval architec¬ ture, even although a formula could be deduced from fuch a feriesof experiments as thofe of the French Aca¬ demy. Although we {hould know precifely the im¬ pulfe, or, to fpeak now mare cautioufly, the adtion, of the fluid on a furface GL (fig. B.) of any obliquity, when it is alone, detached from all others, we cannot in the fmalleft degree tell what wall be the action of part of a ftream of fluid advancing towards it, wfith the fame obliquity, when it is preceded by an adjoining fur¬ face CG, having a different inclination ; for the fluid will not glide along G L in the fame manner as if it made part of a more extenfive furface having the fame inclination. The previous deflexions are extremely dif¬ ferent in thefe two cafes ; and the previous defledtions are the only changes wThich we can obferve in ^he mo¬ tions of the fluid, aud the only caufes of that preffure which we obferve the body to fuftain, and which we call the impulfe on it. This theory muff, therefore, be quite unfit for afeertaining the adtion on a curved fur¬ face, which may be confidered as made up of an indefi¬ nite number of fucceffive planes. We now fee with equal evidence how it happens that 41 The ordi¬ nary theo¬ ry of no nfe in na¬ val archi- te&ure. -6 ] RES the adtion of fluids on folid bodies may and muft be op-'Refibics, pofed by preffures, and may be compared with and mea- lured by the preffure of gravity. We are not compa- p..^ ring forces of different kinds, percuffions with preffures, the aaijn but preflures with each oth«r. Let us fee whether of fluids, this view of the fubjedt will afford us any method ol comparifon or abfolute meafurement. When a filament of fluid, that is, a row of corpufcles, are turned out of their courfe EF (fig. 6.), and forced to take another courfe IH, force is required to produce this change of diredtion. The filament is prevented from proceeding by other filaments which lie between it and the body, and which defledt it in the fame manner as if it were contained in a bended tube, and it will prefs on the concave filament next to it as it would prefs on the concave fide of the tube. Suppofe fuch a bend¬ ed tube ABE (fig. 9.), and that a ball A is projedted along it with any velocity, and moves in it without fric¬ tion : it is demonftrated, in elementary mechanics, that the ball will move with undiminhhed velocity, and will prefs on every point, fuch as B, ot the concave fide of the tube, in a diredlion BE perpendicular to the plane CBD, which touches the tube in the point B. This preffure on the adjoining filament, on the concave fide of its path, muft be w'ithftood by that filament which defledls it ; and it muft be propagated acrois that fila¬ ment to the next, and thus augment the preffure upon that next filament already preffed by the defledlion of the intermediate filament and thus there is a preffure towards the middle filament, and towards the body, ari- fing from the defledlion of all the outer filaments ; and their accumulated fum muft be conceived as immediate¬ ly exerted on the middle filaments and on the body, be¬ caufe a perfedt fluid tranfmits every preffure undimi- nifhed. The preffure BE is equivalent to the two BH, BG, one of which is perpendicular, and the other parallel, to the diredlion of the original motion. By the firit (taken in any point of the curvilineal motion of any fi¬ lament), the two halves of the ftream are preffed toge¬ ther ; and in the cafe of fig. 6. and 7. exadtly balance each other. But the preffures, fuch as BG, muft be ultimately wflthftood by the furface ACB ; and it is by thefe accumulated preffures that the folid body is urged down the ftream ; and it is thefe accumulated preffures which we obferve and meafure in our experiments. We fhall anticipate a little, and fay that it is moil eaftly de¬ monftrated, that when a ball A (fig 9.) moves withun- diminiftred velocity in a tube fo incurvated that its axis at E is at right angles to its axis at A, the accumulated adlion of the preffures, fuch as BG, taken for every point of the path, is precifely equal to the force which wTould produce or extinguifti the original motion. This being the cafe, it follows moft obvioufly, that if the two motions of the filaments are fuch as we have de- feribed and reprefented by fig. 6. the whole preffure in the diredlion of the ft ream, that is, the whole preffure which l- can be obferved on the furface, is equal to the weight of a whefl®1 column of fluid having the furface for its bafe, and twice thtyb^ the fall produdlive of the velocity for its height, pre- e'a^lC cifely as Newton deduced it from other coniiderations ; and it feems to make no odds whether the fluid be elai- tic or unelaftic, if the defledlions and velocities are the fame. New it is a fadt, that no difference in this re- fpc£l RES [ i°7 ] RE S ~ *te' ance. fpec\ can be obferved in the actions of air and water; "w —— anj t-^jg always appeared a great defeft in Newton’s theory : but it was only a defeft of the theory attributed to him. But it is alfo true, that the obferved attion is but one-half of what is juft now deduced from this im¬ proved view of the fubjecl. Whence arifes this diffe¬ rence ? The reafon is this : We have given a very er¬ roneous account of the motions df the filaments. A.fi¬ lament EF does not move as repreiented in fig. 6. with two rectangular inflexions at I and at H, and a path IH between them parallel to CB. The procefs of na¬ ture is more like what is reprefented in fig. 10. It is obferved, that at the anterior part of the body A B, there remains a quantity of fluid AD B, almoft, if not alto¬ gether, ftagnant, of a Angular fhape, having two curved concave Ades A a D, B 3 D, along which the middle i (4 filaments glide. This fluid is very (lowly changed.— If >Bant The late Sir Charles Knowles, an officer of the Britifh I Irr -"by navy> equally eminent for his fcientific profeflional fi s; hades knowledge and for his militar-y talents, made many ;Ki *v!es. beautiful experiments for afeertaining the paths of the filaments of water. At a diftance up the ftream, he allowed fmall jets of a coloured fluid, which did not mix with water, to make part of the ftream ; and the experiments were made in troughs with fides and bottom of plate-glafs. A fmall taper was placed at a confider- able height above, by which the fhadows of the colour¬ ed filaments were moft diftindfly proje&ed on a white plane held below the trough, fo that they were accu¬ rately drawn with a pencil. A few important parti¬ culars may be here mentioned. The ftill water AD C lafted for a long while be¬ fore it was renewed ; and it feemed to be gradually wafted by abrafion, by the adhefion of the furrounding water, which gradually licked away the outer parts from D to A and B ; and it feemed to renew itfelf in the diredfion CD, oppofite to the motion of the ftream. There was, however, a confiderable intricacy and eddy in this motion. Some (feemingly fuperficial) water was continually, but (lowly, (lowing outward from the line DC, while other water was feen within and below it, coming inwards and going backwards. The coloured lateral filaments were moft conftant in their form, while the body was the fame, although the ve¬ locity was in fome cafes quadrupled. Any change which this produced feemed confined to the fuperficial filaments. As the filaments were deflefted, they were alfo con- ftipated, that is, the curved parts of the filaments were nearer each other than the parallel ftraight filaments up the ftream ; and this conftipation was more confiderable as the prow was more obtufe and the deflexion greater. The inner filaments were ultimately more defle&ed than thofe without them ; that is, if a line be drawn touching thewurve EFIH in the point H of contrary flexure, where the concavity begins to be on the fide next the body, the angle HKC, contained between the axis and this tangent line, is fo much the greater as the filament is nearer the axis. When the body expofed to the ftream was a box of upright fides, flat bottom, and angular prow, like a wedge, having its edge alfo upright, the filaments were not all deflefted laterally, as theory would make us ex- pedl; but the filaments near the bottom were alfo de¬ fle&ed downwards as well as laterally, and glided along at fome diftance tinder the bottom, forming lines of Refinance, double curvature. _ l—v The breadth of the ftream that was defie&ed was much greater than that of the body ; and the fenlible deflection begun at a confiderable diftance up the ftream, efpecially in the outer filaments. Daftly, the form of the curves was greatly influenced by the proportion between the width of the trough and that of the body. The curvature was always lefs when the trough was very wide in proportion to the body. Great varieties were alfo obferved in the motion or velocity of the filaments. In general, the filaments increafed in velocity outwards from the body to a cer¬ tain fmall diftance, which was nearly the fame in all cafes, and then diminiftted all the way outward. This was obferved by inequalities in the colour of the fila¬ ments, by which one could be obferved to outftrip an¬ other. The retardation of thofe next the body feemed to proceed from fri&ion; and it was imagined that without this the velocity there would always have been greateft. ^ Thefe obfervations give us confiderable information Wrh inre- refpe&ing the mechanifm of thefe motions, and the ac-r^nces ^rom tion of fluids upon folids. The preffure in the duplicate ‘lcn ' ratio of the velocities comes here again into view. We found, that although the velocities were very different, the curves were precifely the fame. Now the obferved preffures arife from the tranfverfe forces by which each particle of a filament is retained in its curvilineal path ; and we know that the force by which a body is retain¬ ed in any curve is dire&ly as the fquare of the velocity, and inverfely as the radius of curvature. The curvature, therefore, remaining the fame, the tranfverfe forces, and confequently the preffure on the body, mult be as the fquare of the velocity : and, on the other hand, we can fee pretty clearly (indeed it is rigoroufly demonftrated by D’Alembert), that whatever be the velocities, the curves ’will be the fame. For it is known in hydraulics, that it requires a fourfold or ninefold preffure to pro¬ duce a double or triple velocity. And as all preffures are propagated through a perfedt fluid without diminu¬ tion, this fourfold preffure, while it produces a double velocity, produces alfo fourfold tranfverfe preffures, which will retain the particles, moving twice as fall, in the fame curvilineal paths. And thus we fee that the impulfes, as they are called, and refiftances of fluids, have a certain relation to the weight of a column of fluid, whofe height is the height neceffary for producing the velocity. How it happens that a plane furface, im- merfed in an extended fluid, fuftains juft half the pref¬ fure which it would have fuftained had the motions been fueh as are (Icetched in figure 6th, is a matter of more cu¬ rious and difficult inveftigation. But we fee evidently that the preffure muft be lefs than what is there affigned; for the ftagnant water a-head of the body greatly di- minifhes the ultimate defle&ions of the filaments : And it may be demonftrated, that when the part BE of the canal, fig. 9. is inclined to the part AB in an angle lefs than 90°, the preffures BG along the whole canal are as the verfed fine of the ultimate angle of defle&ion, or the verfed fine of the angle which the part BE makes with the part AB. ".Therefore, fince the deflexions re- femble more the fketch given in fig. 1 o. the accumulated fum of all thefe forces BG of fig. 9. muft be lefs than thefimilar fum correfponding to fig. 6. that is, lefs than O 2 . the 46 Inveftiga- tioru of Wcwton RES [ i Refiftince. the weight of the column of fluid, having twice the produ&ive height for its height. How it is juft one- half, {hall be our next inquiry. And here we muft return to the labours of Sir Ifaac Newton. After many beautiful obfervations on the na¬ ture and mechanifm of continued fluids, he fays, that the refinance which they occafion is but one-half of that occafioned by the rare fluid which had been the fubjeCt of his former propofition ; “ which truth,” (fays he, with his ufual caution andmodefly), “ I fhall endeavour to (how.” He then enters into another, as novel and as difficult an invefligation, viz. the laws of hydraulics, and endea¬ vours to afcertain the motion of fluids through orifices when urged by preffures of any kind. He endeavours to afcertain the velocity with which a fluid efcapes through a horizontal orifice in the bottom of a veil'd, by the action of its weighr, and the preflure which this Vein of fluid will exert on a little circle which occupies part of the orifice. To obtain this, he employs a kind of approximation and trial, of which it would be extreme¬ ly difficult to give an extrad ; and then, by increafing the diameter of the veffcl and of the hole to infinity, he accommodates his reafoning to the cafe of a plane furface expofed to an indefinitely extended flream of fluid ; and laftly, giving to the little circular furface the motion which he had before afcribed to the fluid, he fays, that the refiftance to a plane furface moving through an unelaflic continuous fluid, is equal to the weight of a column of the fluid whofe height is one- half of that neceflary for acquiring the velocity ; and he fays, that the refiltance of a globe is, in this cafe, the fame with that of a cylinder of the fame diameter. The refiflance, therefore, of the cylinder or circle is four times lefs, and that of the globe is twice lefs than their refiftances on a rare elaftic medium. But this determination, though founded on princi¬ ples or aflumptions, which are much nearer to the real flate of things, is liable to great objeftiens. It de¬ pends on his method for afcertaining the velocity of the ifiuing fluid ; a method extremely ingenious, but defective. 1'he cataraft, which he fuppofes, cannot ex- ift as he fuppofes, defcending by the full atlion of gravity, and furrounded by a funnel of ftagnant fluid. For, in fuch circumftances, there is nothing to balance the hydroftatical preffure of this furrounding fluid ; be- caufe the whole preflure of the central cataradt is em¬ ployed in producing its own defcent. In the next place, the preflure which he determines is beyond all doubt only half of what is obferved on a plane furface in all our experiments. And, in the third place, it is repugnant to all our experience, that the refiflance of a globe or of a pointed body is as great as that of its circular bafe. His reafons are by no means convincing. He fuppofes them placed in a tube or canal; and fince they are fuppofed ol the lame diameter, and therefore leave equal fpaces at their lides, he concludes, that be- caufe the water efcapes by their fides with the fame ve¬ locity, they will have the fame refiftance. But this is by no means a neceftary confequence. Even if the water ftiould he allowed to exert equal preflures on them, the preffures being perpendicular to their fur- faces, and tliefe furfaces being inclined to the axis, while in the cafe of the bafe of a cylinder it is in the diredion of the axis, there muft be a difference in - 6 47 Liable to great eb- je&io; s, 08 ] RES the accumulated or compound prtffure in the diredion Refills^., of the axis. He indeed fays, that in the cafe of the cylinder or the circle obftruding the canal, a quantity of water remains ftagnant on its upper furface \ viz. all the water whofe motion would not contribute to the moft ready paffage of the fluid between the cy¬ linder and the fldes of the canal or tube; and that this water may be confidered as frozen. If this be the cafe, it is indifferent what is the form of the body that is covered with this mafs of frozen or ftagnant wa¬ ter. It may be a hemifphere or a cone ; the refiftance will be the fame.— But Newton by no means affigns, ei¬ ther with precilion or with diftind evidence, the form and magnitude of this ftagnant water, fo as to give con¬ fidence in the refults. He contents himfelf with fay¬ ing, that it is that water whofe motion is not neceffary or cannot contribute to the moft eafy paffage of the water. There remains, therefore, many imperfe&ions in this rho^!h theory. But notwithftanding thefe defeds, we camiotdifplayi^ but admire the efforts and fagacity of this great phi- treat kgs. lofopher, who, after having diicovered fo many fublimec‘T truths of mechanical nature, ventured to trace out a path for the folution of a problem which no peifon had yet attempted to bring within the range of ma¬ thematical inveftigation. And his folution, though inac¬ curate, fhines throughout with that inventive genius and that fertility of refource, which no man ever pof- feffed in fo eminent a degree. Thofe who have attacked the folution of Sir Ifaac Newton have not been more fuccefsful. Moft of themy initead of principles, have given a great deal of calculus; and the chief merit which any of them can claim, is that of having deduced fome iingle propofition which happens to quadrate with fome iingle cafe of experi¬ ment, while their general theories are either inappli¬ cable, from difficulty and obfeurity, or are difeordant with more general obfervation. We muft, however, except from this number Daniel Bernoulli, who was not only a great geometer, but one of the firft philofophers of the age. He peffefled all the talents, and was free from the faults of that celebrated family; and while he was the mathemati¬ cian of Europe who penetrated fartheft in the invefti¬ gation of this great problem, he was the only perfon who felt, or at leaf! who acknowledged, its great dif¬ ficulty. In the 2d volume of the Comment. Petrofml. 1727, he propofes a formula for the refrftance of fluids, de- ^nf.n\kr- duced from coniiderations quite different from thofe on nuilafoun- which Newton founded his folution. But he deliversTd onkj- it with modelt diffidence; becaufe he found that it gave fothells‘ a rdiftance four times greater than experiment. In the fame differtation he determines the reiiltance of a fphere to be one half of that of its great circle. But in his fubfequent theory of Hydrodynamics (a work which muft ever rank among the firft produ&ions of the age, and is equally eminent for refined and elegant mathe¬ matics, and ingenious and original thoughts in dyna¬ mics), he calls this determination in queition. It is indeed founded on the fame hypothetical principles which have been unfkilfully detached from the reft of Newton’s phyfics, and made the ground-work of all the fubiequent theories on this fubjeit. In 1741 Mr Daniel Bernoulli publifhed another dif- fertation •l f ie ft u! ith ecil »etc R E S. ice. fertation (in the Bth volume of ths •'•ie a ;nicrt ‘ it e vei uid. r i Com. Petrapsh) on the adtion and refiftance of fluids, limited to a very particular cafe; namely, to the impulfe of a vein ct ^ fluid falling perpendicularly on an infinitely extended ti- plane furface. This he demonftrates to be equal to the •e weight of a column of the fluid whofe hafe is the area tat of the vein, and whofe height is twice the fall produ¬ cing the velocity. This demonftration is drawn from the true principles of mechanics and the acknowledged laws of hydraulics, and may be received as a flridt phy- flcal demonllration. As it is the only propofltion in the whole theory that has as yet received a demonllration accefllble to readers not verfant in all the refinement of modern analylis ; and as the principles on which it pro¬ ceeds will undoubtedly lead to a folution of every pro¬ blem which can be propofed, once that our mathemati¬ cal knowledge fhall enable us to apply them—we think it our duty to give it in this place, although we mull acknowledge, that this problem is fo very limited, that it will hardly bear an application to any cafe that dif¬ fers but a little from the exprefs conditions of the pro¬ blem. There do occur cafes however in pradlice, where it may be applied to very great advantage. Daniel Bernoulli gives two demonflrations; one of which may be called a popular one, and the other is more fcientific and introduftory to further invelligation. We lhall give both. lines Bernoulli firft determines the whole adlion exerted ou in the efflux of the vein of fluid. Suppofe the velocity ’Ajof efflux v is that which would be acquired by falling through the height b. It is well known that a body moving during the time of this fall with the velocity v would defcribe a fpace 2 h. The effeft, therefore, of the hydraulic aftion is, that in the time t of the fall by there ifi'ues a cylinder or prifm of water whofe bafe is the crofs feCfion for area of the vein, and whofe length is 2 h. And this quantity of matter is now moving with the velocity v. The quantity of motion, therefore, which is thus produced is 2 s hv ; and this quantity of motion is produced in the time t. And this is the ac¬ cumulated efFect of all the expelling forces, eflimated in the direftion of the efflux. Now, to compare this with the exertion of fome prefiing power with which we are familiarly acquainted, let us fuppofe this pillar 2 j ^ to be frozen, and, being held in the hand, to be dropped. It is well known, that in the time t it will fall through the height hy and will acquire the velocity v, and now pofleffes the quantity of motion 2 s h v— and all this is the effeft of its weight, d he weight, therefore, of the pillar 2 s b produces the fame effedl, and in the fame time, and (as may eahly be feen) in the fame gradual manner, with the expelling forces of the fluid in the veflel, which expelling forces arife from the preflure of all the fluid in the vefiel. Therefore the accumulated hydraulic preflure, by which a vein of a hea¬ vy fluid is forced out through an orifice in the bottom, or fide of a veflel, is equal (when eftimated in the direc¬ tion of the efflux) to the weight of a column of the fluid, having for its bafe the leilion of the vein, and twice the fall produdive of the velocity of efflux for its height. :e Now let ABDC (fig. it.) be a quadrangular veflel xvi. with upright plane fldes, in one of which is an orifice EF. From every point of the circumference of this 09 1 RES orifice, fuppofe horizontal lines E», F/, See. which wilt Refinance, mark a fimilar furface on the oppoute fide of the veflel. - v rf Suppofe the orifice F.F to be (hut. There can be no doubt but that the furfaces EF and ef will be equally prefled in oppoflte diiedions. Nov? open the orifice EF ; the water will ruih out, and the preflhre on EF is now removed. There will therefore be a tendency in the veffel to move back in the diredion E e. And this tendency mnil be precifely equal and oppoflte to the whole effort of the expelling forces. This is a conclu- fion as evident as any propefition in mechanics. It is thus that a gun recoils and a rocket rifes in the air; and on this is founded the operation of Mr Parents or Dr Barker’s mill, deferibed in all treatifes of mechanics, and moll learnedly treated by Euler in the Berlin Me- . moirs. Now, let this ffcream of water be received on a circu¬ lar plane MN, perpendicular to its axis, and let this circular plane be of fuch extent, that the vein efcapes from its lides in an infinitely thin Iheet, the water flow¬ ing oft in a diredion parallel to the plane. The vein by this means will expand into a trumpet-like ftiape, ha¬ ving curved iides, EKG,FLH. We abltrad at pre- fent the adion of gravity which would caufe the vein to bend downwards, and occaiion a greater velocity at H than at G ; and we fuppofe the velocity equal in every point of the circumference. It is plain, that ir the action of gravity be negleded after the water has iffued through the orifice EF, the velocity in every point of the circumference of the plane MN will be that of the efflux through EF. Now, becaufe EKG is the natural lhape affumed by the vein, it is plain, that if the whole vein were co¬ vered by a tube or mouth-piece, fitted to its fhape, and perfedly polilhed, fo that the water fhall glide along it, without any fridion (a thing which we may always fuppofe), the water will exert no preffure whatever on this trumpet mouth-piece. Laitly, let us fuppofe that the plane MN is attached to the mouth-piece by fomc bits of wire, fo as to allow the water to efcape all round by the narrow chink between the mouth-piece and the plane : We have now a veffel confiding of the upright part ABDC, the trumpet GKEFLH, and the plane MN; and the water is efcaping from eveiy point of the circumference of the chink GHNM with the velocity v. If any part of this chink were fhut up, there would be a preffure on that part equivalent to the force of ef¬ flux from the oppofite parr. Therefore, when all is open, thefe efforts of efllux balance each other all round. There is not therefore any tendency in this compound vefltl to move to any fide. But take away the plane MLN, and there would immediately arife a preffure in the diredion E e equal to the weight of the column 2 s b. "This is therefore balanced by the preffure on the circular plane MN, which is therefore equal to this weight, and the propofition is demonflrated. A number of experiments were made by Profeffor Kraft at St Peterfburg, by receiving the vein on a plane MN (fig. ii.) which was faflened to the arm of a ba¬ lance OPQ_^ having ^fcale R hanging on the oppolite arm. The refiflance or preffure on the plane was mea» hired by weights put into the fcale R; and the velocity of the jet was meafured by means of the diitance KH>. to which it foouted on a horizontal plane. The RES [ no 1 RES Plate CCCCXXXVI. •P eftlhnce. The refults of thefe experiments were as conformable * ^ ' t-o the theory as could be wiihed. The refifbance was Difference always a little lefs than what the theory required, but between greatly exceeded its half; the refult of the generally re- this tiieory ceived theories. This defeat fliould be expected ; for n'.ents'ac11'the demonftration fuppofes the plane"MN to be infinite- counted ly extended, fo that the film of water which iffues for. through the chink may be accurately parallel to the plane. This never can be completely effe&ed. Alfo it was fuppofed, that the velocity was juflly meafured by the amplitude of the parabola EGK. But it is well known that the very putting the plane MN in the way of the jet, though at the diftance of an inch from the orifice, will diminifh the velocity of the efflux through this orifice. This is eafily verified by experiment. Ob- ferve the time in which the veffel will be emptied when there is no plane in the way. Repeat the experiment with the plane in its place ; and more time will be ne- -ceffary. The following is a note of a courfe of ex¬ periments, taken as they Hand, without any feleClion. N° i Ref'ft. by theory Refift. by experiment Difference In order to demonftrate this propofition in fuch a manner as to furniffl the means of invelligating the whole mechanifm and aftion of moving fluids, it is necef- fary to premife an elementary theorem of curvilineal motions. If a particle of matter deferibes a curve line ABCE (fig. 13.) by the continual aftion of defieAing forces, which vary in any manner, both with refpedt to inten- fity and direftion, and if the aftion of thefe forces, in every point of the curve, be refolved into two direc¬ tions, perpendicular and parallel to the initial direftion AK; then, 1. The accumulated effeft of the defle&ing forces, eftimated in a direftion AD perpendicular to AK, is to the final quantity of motion as the fine of the final change of direction is to radius. Let us firfi: fuppofe that the accelerating forces aft by Harts, at equal intervals of time, when the body month a ted. js ;n tpe p0Jnts A, B, C, E. And let AN be the de- flefting force, which, afting at A, changes the origi¬ nal direftion AK to AB. Produce AB till BH== AB, and complete the parallelogram BFCH. Then FB is the force which, by afting at B, changed the motion BH (the continuation of AB) to BC. In like manner make Ch (in BC produced) equal to BC, and complete the parallelogram C/E A. C/is the deflefting force at C, &c. Draw BO parallel to AN, and GBK perpendicular to AK. Alfo draw lines through C and E perpendicular to AK, and draw through B and C lines parallel to AK. Draw alfo HE, /j/per¬ pendicular,, and EG, HI, hi, parallel to AK. It is plain that BK is BO or AN eHimated in the direftion perpendicular to AK, and that BG is BE eHimated in the fame way. And fipce BH = AB, HE ot 1M is equal to BK. Alfo Cl is equal to BG. T herefoie CiVI is equal to AP bBG. By fimilar rea- fining it appears that E?k = E f 4- />/, - Cf 4- CM, = C^-fBG, + AP. L herefore if CE be taken for the meafure of the final velocity or quantity of motion, Em will be the accumulated effeft of the deflefting forces eHimated in the direftion AD perpendicular to AK. But Em is 53 His propo ficion de- to CE as the fine of wCE is to radius; and the angle Refiftam mCE is the angle contained between the initial and "””“ final direftions, becaufe Cm is parallel to AK. Now let the intervals of time diminifh continually and the frequency of the impulfes increafe. The defleftion be¬ comes ultimately continuous, and the motion curvili¬ neal, and the propofition is demonfirated. We fee that the initial velocity and its fubfequent changes do not affeft the conclufion, which depends entirely on the final quantity of motion. 2. The accumulated effeft of the accelerating forces, when eHimated in the direftion AK of the original motion, or in the oppofite direftion, is equal to the difference between the initial quantity of motion and the produft of the final quantity of motion by the cofine of the change of direftion. For *'2m — C l — m /, ~ BM —f q BM= BL -ML, = AK—EG A K-AO - O K,~ AO—PN. Therefore PN+FG-}/(//the accumulated impulfe in the direftion OA)—AO—CM, =AO—CEX co¬ fine of ECM. Cor. 1. The fame aftion, in the direftion oppofite to that of the original motion, is neceffary for caufing a body to move at right angles to its former direftion as for Hopping its motion. For in this cafe, the co¬ fine of the change of direftion is = 0, and AO—CE Xcofine ECM=AO—0, —AO, — the original mo¬ tion. Cor. 2. If the initial and final velocities are the fame, the accumulated aftion of the accelerating forces, efii- mated in the direftion OA, is equal to the produft of the original quantity of motion by the verfed fine of the change of direftion. The application of thefe theorems, particularly the fecond, to our prefent purpofe is very obvious. All the filaments of the jet were originally moving in the direc¬ tion of its axis, and they are finally moving along the refiHing plane, or perpendicular to their former motion. Therefore their tranfverfe forces in the direftion of the axis are [in amulo) equal to the force which would Hop the motion. For the aggregate of the fimulta- neous forces of every particle in the whole filament is the fame with that of the fucceflive forces of one particle, as it arrives at different points of its curvineal path. All the tranfverfe forces, eHimated in a direftion per¬ pendicular to the axis of the vein, precifely balance and fuHain each other; and the only forces which can pro¬ duce a fenlible effeft are thofe in a direbdion parallel to the axis. By thefe all the inner filaments are pref- fed towards the plane MN, and muff be withffood by it. It is highly probable, nay certain, that there is a quantity of Hagnant water in the middle of the vein which fuffains the preffures of the moving filaments without it, and tranfmits it to the folid plane. But this does not alter the cafe. And, fortunately, it is of no confequence what changes happen in the velocities of the particles while eacli is deferibing its own curve. And it is from this circumftance, peculiar to this particular cafe of per¬ pendicular impulfe, that we are able to draw the con¬ clufion. It is by no means difficult to demonftrate that the velocity of the external furface of this jet is con- ftant, and indeed of every jet which is not aided on by external forces after it has quitted the orifice : but this difeuffion is quite unncceffary here. It is however ex¬ tremely difficult to afeertain, even in tins moft fimple 5 cafe, RES r HI ] RES :7(b 5Z ' tl TV em :d vai o J'C! T- ge; a'. cafe, what is tlie velocity of the internal filaments in the different points of their progrefs. Such is the demonllratioil which Mr Bernouilli has given of this proportion. Limited as it is, it is highly valuable, becaufe derived from the true principles of hydraulics. He hoped to render it more extenfive and applicable to oblique impulfes, when the axis AC of the vein (fig. 13. n° 2.) is inclined to the plane in an angle ACN. But here all the fimplicity of the cafe is gone, and we are now obliged to afcertain the motion of each filament. It might not perhaps be impoffible to deter¬ mine what mull happen in the plane of the figure, that is, in a plane paffing through the axis of the vein, and perpendicular to the plane MN. But even in this cafe it would be extremely difficult to determine how much of the fluid will go in the direction EKG, and what will go in the path FLH, and to afcertain the form of each filament, and the velocity in its different points. But in the real flate of the cafe, the water will diffipate from the centre C on every fide; and we cannot tell in what proportions. Let us however con- fider a little what happens in the plane of the figure, and fuppofe that all the water goes either in the courfe EKG or in the courfe FLH. Let the quantities of water which take thefe two courfes have the propor¬ tions of p and n. Let ^2a be the velocity at A, V2b \>o the velocity at G, and be the velocity at H. ACG and ACH are the two changes of di- reftion, of which let c and —c be the colines. Then, adopting the former reafoning, we have the preffure of the watery plate GKEACM on the plane in the di- reftion AC= ~— X2 a—zc b, and the preffure of the r .ate FILFACN = - , n pi P+n __ py.2a—2^+nX2a+2r'8 P 4*11 the fine of ACM or V1 - X 2 a 2 cfiy and their fum ; which being mult iplied by gives the preffure per¬ pendicular to the plane MN =^.2/7~-2A.A+n X / + n + 2C p, , V 1 —rl. But there remains a preffure in the dire&ion perpen¬ dicular to the axis of the vein, which is not balanced, as in the.former cafe, by the equality on oppofite fides of the axis. 1 he preffure arifing from the water which efcapes at G has an effedl oppoiite to that pro- vhrced by the water which efcapes at H When this is taken into account, we fhall find that their joint ef- p n J forts peipendicular to AC arc ^—-Xzrr^i —which, being multiplied by the cofine of ACM, gives the ac¬ tion perpendicular to MN =7-— Y. 2 ac\/i —r. P ~Tn The fum or joint effort of all thefe preffures is P'XZ 1 — 2^-f-n X2n-i-2c/3 P+n yL- ./—n> -c2-F ~Y,2ac /-Fu a/ j I bus, from this cafe, which is much fimpler than can happen in nature, feeing that there will always be a lateral efflux, the determination of the impulfe is as uncertain and vague as it‘was fure and precife in the former cafe. It is therefore without proper authority that the Refinance, abfolute impulfe of a vein of fluid on a plane which re- -——v'""—** ceives it wholly, is afferted to be proportional to the fine of incidence. If indeed we fuppofe the velocity in G and H are equal to that at A, then —a, and the whole impulfe is 2aV 1—i2, as is commonly fup- pofed. But this cannot be. Both the velocity and quantity at H are lefs than thofe at G. Nay, frequent¬ ly there is no efflux on the fide H when the obliquity is very great. We may conclude in general, that the oblique impulfe will always bear to the direct impulfe a greater proportion than that of the fine of incidence to radius. If the w’hole water efcapes at G, and none goes off laterally, the preffure will be 2a-\-2ac—zbe'A V i — r2. The experiments of the Abbe Boffut fhow in the plaineft manner that the preffure of a vein, ftri- king obliquely on a plane which receives it wholly, di- minifhes faifer than in the ratio of the fquare of the fine of incidence ; whereas, when the oblique plane is wholly immerfed in the ftream, the impulfe is much greater than in this proportion, and in great obliqui¬ ties is nearly as the fine. Nor will this propofition determine the impulfe of a fluid on a plane wholly immerfed in it, even when the impulfe is perpendicular to the plane. The circum- ftance is now wanting on which we can eitablilh a calculation, namely, the angle of final defleftion. Could this be afeertained for each filament, and the velocity of the filament, the principles are completely adequate to an accurate folution of the problem. In the expe¬ riments which we mentioned to have been made under' the infpeftion of Sir Charles Knowles, a cylinder of fix inches diameter was expofed to the adtion of a llream moving precifely one foot per fecond; and when certain deductions were made for the water which was held adhering to the pofterior bafe (as will he noticed afterwards), the impulfe was found equal to 3^ ounces avoirdupois. There were 36colotired filamentsdiilributed on the ftream, in fuel /dilations as to give the moft ufeful indications of their curvature. It was found neceffary te have fome which paffed under the body and fome above it ; for the form of thefe filaments, at the fame diftance from the axis of the cylinder, was confiderably diffe¬ rent : and thofe filaments which were fituated in planes neither horizontal nor vertical took a double curvature. In fhort, the curves were all traced with great care, and " the defledting forces were computed for each, and re¬ duced to the diredtion of the axis ; and they were fummed up in fuch a manner as to give the impulfe of the whole ftream. The defledtions were marked as far a-head of the cylinder as they conld be affuredly ob- ferved. By this method the impulfe was computed to be 2 if- ounces, differing from obfervation T5^ ©f an- ounce, or about of the whole; a difference which may moft veafonably be aferihed to the adhefion of the water, which mull be moft fenfible in fuch fmall velo¬ cities. Thefe experiments may therefore be confidered as giving all the confirmation that can be defired of the jullnefs of the principles. This indeed hardly admits of a doubt : but, alas ! it gives us but fmall affiftance ; lor all this is empirical, in as far as it leaves us in every cafe the talk of obferving the form of the curves and the velocities in their different points. rFo derive fer- vice from this moft judicious method of Daniel Ber¬ noulli, we mult difeover fome method of determining, a priori. \ * RES' f n Refinance. a priori) what will be the motion of the fluid whofe couvfe is obftruded by a body of any form. And here we cannot omit taking notice of the cafual ob- fervation of Sir Ifaac Newton when attempting to de¬ termine the refiftance of the plane furface or cylinder, or fphere expofed to a ftream moving in a canal. He favs that the form of the refilling furface is of lefs con- fequence, becaufe there is always a quantity of water llagnant upon it, and which may therefore be confider- ed as frozen ; and he therefore confiders that water only whofe motion is necefiary for the moil expedi¬ tious difeharge of the water in the veffel. He endea¬ vours to diferiminate that water from the reft ; and although it mull be acknowledged that the principle which "he aflumes for this purpofe is very gratuitous, becaufe it only fhows that if certain portions of the wa¬ ter, which he determines very ingenioufly, were really frozen, the reft will iffue as he fays, and wrill exert the preflure which he alfigns ; ftill we mull admire his fer¬ tility of refource, and his fagacity in thus forefeeing what fubfequent obfervation has completely confirmed. We are even difpofed to think, that in this cafual ob- fervation Sir liaac Newton has pointed out the only method of arriving at a folution of the problem ; and that if we could difeover what motions are not neceffary for the mofl expeditious pajfage of the water, and could thus determine the form and magnitude of the llagnant wa¬ ter which adheres to the body, we Ihould much more eafily afeertain the real motions which occafion the ob- i'erved refiftance. We are here difpofed to have recoune to the economy of nature, the improper ufe of which we have fometimes taken the liberty of reprehend¬ ing. Mr Maupertuis publilhed as a great difeovery his principle of fmalleft aftion, where he Ihowed that in all the mutual aftions of bodies the quantity of ac¬ tion was a minimum ; and he applied this to the folu- tion of many difficult problems with great fuccefs, ima¬ gining that he was really reafoning from a contingent law of nature, fele&ed by its infinitely wife Author, viz. that in all occafions there is the fmalleft poffible exertion of natural powers. Mr D’Alembert has, however, fhown vid. Encyclopedic Frangofe, Action) that this was but a whim, and that the minimum obferved by Mau¬ pertuis is merely a minimum of calculus, peculiar to a formula which happens to exprefs a combination of ma¬ thematical quantities which frequently occurs in our way of confidering the phenomena of nature, but which is no natural meafure of aftion. A nun hod But the chevalier D’Arcy has fhown, that in the ♦•u-ommeir- trains of natural operations which terminate in the pro- ♦kd forob- dndtion of motion in a particular direftion, the interme- diate communications of motion are fuch that the fmall- ihtoi y. eft poffible quantity of motion is produced. We feem obliged to conclude, that this law will be obferved in the prefent inftance ; and it feems a problem not above our reach to determine the motions which refult from it. Wc would recommend the problem to the eminent mathematicians in -fome Ample cafe, fuch as the propo- fition already demonftrated by Daniel Bernoulli, or the perpendicular impulfe on a cylinder included in a tubu¬ lar canal; and if they fucceed in this, great things may be expected. We think that experience gives great encouragement. We fee that the refiilance to a plane furface is a very fmall matter greater than the weight of a column of the fluid having the fall productive of j ] RES the velocity for its height, and the fmall excefs is mofl Refiftam probably owing to adhefion, and the meafure of the real refiftance is probably precifely this weight. The velocity of a fpouting fluid was found, in fact, to be that acquired by falling from the furface of the fluid; and it was by looking at this, as at a pole ftar, that Newton, Bernoulli, and others, have with great fagaci- ty and ingenuity difeovered much of the laws of hy¬ draulics, by fearching for principles which would give this refult. We may hope for fimilar fuccefs. In the mean time, we may receive this as a phyficai truth, that the perpendicular impulfe or refiftance of a plane furface, wholly immerfed in the fluid, is equal to the weight of the column having the furface for its bafe, and the fall producing the velocity for its height. This is the medium refult of all experiments made in thefe precife circumftances. And it is confirmed by a fet of experiments of a kind wholly different, and which feem to point it out more certainly as an im¬ mediate confequence of hydraulic principles. ^ If Mr Pitot’s tube be expofed to a llream of fluid ExperiK iffuing from a refervoir or veffel, as reprefented in fig. 14. with the open mouth I pointed dire&ly again ft LUtp^ the ftream, the fluid is obferved to Hand at K in the cccm upright tube, precifely on a level with the fluid AB in the refervoir. Here is a moft unexceptionable experi¬ ment, in which the impulfe of the ilream is aftually op- pofed to the hydroftatical preffure of the fluid on the tube. Preffure is in this cafe oppofed to preffure, be¬ caufe the iffuing fluid is defle&ed by what flays in the mouth of the tube, in the fame way in which it would be deflected by a firm furface. We ffiall have occafion by and by to mention fome mofl valuable and inftruc- tive experiments made with this tube. „ ; It was this which fuggefttd to the great mathema-Ealer’i tician Euler another theory of the impulfe and refill-theory, ance of fluids, which muft not be omitted, as it is ap¬ plied in his elaborate performance On the Theory of the Conftru&ion and Working of Ships, in two vo¬ lumes qto, which was afterwards abridged and ufed as a text book in fome marine academies. He fuppofes a ftream of fluid ABCD (fig. 15.), moving with any ve¬ locity, to ftrike the plane BD perpendicularly, and that part of it goes through a hole EF, forming a jet EGHF. Mr Euler fays, that the velocity of this jet will be the fame with the velocity of the ftream. Now compare this with an equal ftream iffuing from a hole in the fide of a veffel with the fame velocity. The one ftream is urged out by the preflure occaiioned by tin; impulfe of the fluid ; the other is urged out by the preflure of gravity. The effects are equal, and the mo¬ difying circumftances are the fame. The caufes are therefore equal, and the preffure occafioned by the im¬ pulfe of a ftream of fluid, moving with any velocity, is equal to the weight of a column of fluid whofe height is produdlive of this velocity, &c. Pie then determines the oblique impulfe by the refolution of motion, and deduces the common rules of refiftance, &c. But all this is without juft grounds. This gentle¬ man was always fatisfied with the flighteft analogies which would give him an opportunity of exhibiting his great dexterity in algebraic analyfis, and was not after- wards ftartled by any difcordancy with obfervation. Anahfi magis fider.dum is a frequent affertion with him. Though Viti ,«n A VA RES [i tee, TKougli lie wrote a large volume, containing a theory —' of light and colours totally oppofite to Newton’s, he has publifhed many differtations on optical phenomena on the Newtonian principles, exprefsly becaufe his own principles non idea facile anfam pralebat analyji injlru- endec. Not a fhadow of argument is given for the leading iun' principle in this theory, viz. that, the velocity of the jet is the fame with the velocity of the ilream. None can be given, but faying that the preffure is equivalent to its production ; and this is affuming the very thing he la¬ bours to prove. T he matter of fad is, that the velo¬ city of the jet is greater than that of the ftream, and may be greater almoit in any proportion. Which cu¬ rious circumftance was difcovered- and ingenioufly ex* plained long ago by Daniel Bernoulli in his Hydrodyna~ mica. It is evident that the velocity mull be greater. Were a ftream of fand to come againft the plane, what goes through would indeed preferve its velocity un¬ changed: but when a real fluid ftrikes the plane, all that does not pafs through is defledted on all lides; and by thefe defledtions forces are excited, by which the fila¬ ments which furround the cylinder immediately fronting the hole are made to prefs this cylinder on all fides, and as it were fqueeze it between them : and thus the par¬ ticles at the hole muft of neceffity be accelerated, and •the velocity of the jet mutt be greater than that of the ftream. We are difpofed to think that, in a fluid per- fe&ly incomprefiible, the velocity will be doubled, or at leait increafed in the proportion of I to 2- If the fluid is in the fmalleft degree comprefiible, even in the very fmall degree that water is, the velocity at the firft impulfe may be much greater. D. Bernoulli found that a column of water moving 5 feet per fecond, in a tube fome hundred feet long, produced a velocity of 136 feet per fecond in the firft moment. There being this radical defedt in the theory of Mr Euler, it is needlefs to take notice of its total infuffi- ciency for explaining oblique impulfesand the reliftance , of curvilineal prows. ictus We are extremely forry that our readers are deriving m of f0 little advantage from all that we have faid ; and that :n" having taken them by the hand, we are thus obliged to grope about, with only a few fcattered rays of light to diredf our fteps. Let us fee what affiftance we can get from- Mr d’Alembert, who has attempted a folution of this problem in a method entirely new and extremely ingenious. He faw clearly that all the followers of Newton had forfaken the path which he had marked out for them in the fecond part of his inveftigation, and had merely amufed themfelves with the mathematical difeufiions with which his introdudlory hypotkelis gave them an opportunity of occupying themfelves. He paid the deferved tribute of applaufe to Daniel Ber¬ noulli for having introduced the notion of pure preffure as the chief agent in this biifinefs ; and he faw that he was in the right road, and that it was from hydroftati- cal principles alone that we had any chance of explain¬ ing the phenomena of hydraulics. Bernoulli had only eonlidered the preffures which were excited in confe- quence of the curviliueal motions of the particles. Mr d’Alembert even thought that thefe preffures were not the coniequences, but the caufes, of thefe curvilineal motions. No internal motion can happen in a fluid but in confequence of an unbalanced preflure; and even'’ Von. XVI. Part I. I3 ] R E s. fuch motion will produce an inequality of preffure, Refifantr. which will determine the fucceeding motions. He there- ' v "’'"A fore endeavoured to reduce all to the difeovery of thofe difturbing preffures, and thus to the laws of hydrofta- tics. He had long before this hit on a very refined and ingenious view of the adtion of bodies on each other, which had enabled him to folve many of the moft difficult problems concerning the motions of bodies, fuch as the centre of ofcillation, of fpontaneous converfion, the preceffion of the equinoxes,. &c. &c. with great fa¬ cility and elegance. He faw that the fame principle would apply to the adtion of fluid, bodies. The prin¬ ciple is this. “ In ’whatever manner any number of bodies are fup- pofed to alt on each other, and by thefe a&ions.come to change their prefent motions, if voe conceive that the motion ’which each body would have in the following infant (if it became free), is rfolved into two other motions ; one of which is the motion which it really takes in the following infant; the other will be fuch, that if each body had no other mo¬ tion but this fecond, the whole bodies would have remained in equilibrio.” We here obferve, that “ the motion which each body would have in the following inftant, if it became free,” is a continuation of the motion which it has in the firft inftant. It may therefore per¬ haps be better expreffed thus : If the motions of bodies, anyhow aEting on each other, he confidered in two confecutive infants, and if we conceive the motion which it has in the firf infant as compounded of two others, one of which is the motion which it aEtually takes in the fecond infant, the other is fuch, that if each body had only thofe fecond motions, the whole fyfem would have remained in equilibria. The propofition itfelf is evident. For if thefe fe¬ cond motions be not fuch as that an equilibrium of the whole fyftem would refult from them, the other com¬ ponent motions would not be thofe which the bodies really have after the change ; for they would neceftari- ly be altered by thefe unbalanced motions. See D’A¬ lembert EJfai de Dynamique. Affifted by this inconteftable principle, Mr d’Alem¬ bert demonftrates, in a manner equally new and fimple, thofe propofitions which Newton had fo cautioufly de¬ duced from his hypothetical fluid, fliowing that they were not limited to this hypothefis, viz. that the mo¬ tions produced by limilar bodies, fimilarly projedled in them, would be fimilar; that whatever were the pref¬ fures, the curves deferibed by the particles would be the fame ; and that the refiftances would be proportional to the fquares of the velocities. He then comes to con- fider the fluid as having its motions conftrained by the form of the canal or by folid obftacles interpofed. We ffiall here give a fummary account of his funda-Summary mental propofition. ^ It is evident, that if the body ADCE (fig. 16.) did^n^i pr"oir not form an obftruftion to the motion of the water, thepofuion. particles would deferibe parallel lines TF, OK, PS, &c. But while yet at a diftance from the body in F, K, S,ccccxxxvu they gradually change their directions, and deferibe the curves FM, K m, S n, fo much more incurvated as they are nearer to the body. At a certain diftance ZY-this curvature will be infenfrble, and the fluid included in the fpace ZYHQjvill move uniformly as if the folid body were not there. The motions on the other, fide of tire axis AC will be the fame ; and we need only P attend RES [ XH 1 RES Refinance, attend to one half, «ind we fhall confider thefe as in a '“■“"V—""' ftate of permanency. No body changes either its direftion or velocity other- wife than by infenfible degrees : therefore the particle wl!ich is moving in the axis will not reach the vertex A of the body, where it behoved to defied inftantane- oufiy at right angles It will therefore begin to be de- fleded at feme point F a-head of the body, and will de- feribe a curve FM, touching the axis in F, and the body in M ; and then, gliding along the body, will quit it at feme point L, deferibing a tangent curve, which will join the axis again (touching it) in R; and thus there will be a quantity of ftagnant water FAM before or a head of the body, and another LCR behind or aftern of it. . . . Let a be the velocity of a particle of the fluid m any inftant, and a' its velocity in the next inftant. The velocity a may be confidered as compounded of a and c". If the particles tended to move with the velocities a” only, the whole fluid would be in equilibrio (general principle), and the preffure of the fluid would be the fame as if all were itagnant, and each particle were urged by a force V expreffmg an indefinitely fmall moment of time. (N. B. — is the proper expreffion of the accelerating force, which, by afting during the mo¬ ment f, would generate the velocity a"; and a' is fup- pofed an indeterminate quantity, different perhaps for each particle). Now let a be fuppofed conftant, or a — a'. In this cafe a' — o. That is to fay, no pref¬ fure whatever will be exerted on the folid body unlefs there happen changes in the velocities or direftions of the particles. Let a and a! then be the motions of the particles in two confecutive inflants. They would be in equilibrio d' if urged only by the forces — Therefore if y be the fure from l towards n, or from n towards b. Therefore Reft{lanC{, frnce the fluid in this ftagnant canal ftiould be in equili- —r-* brio, there mull alfo be fome a&ion, at leaft in one of the parts b m, m q, qn, to counterbalance the a&ion on the part b n. But the fluid is ftagnant in the fpace FAM (in confequence of the law of continuity). Therefore there is no farce which can a£t on b m, m y, q n; and the preflure in the canal in the direftion bn ox n b is nothing, or the force b e — o, and the force ie is perpendicular to the canal ; and there is therefore no preffure in the canal FM, except what proceeds from, the part y F, or from the force e i; which laft being per¬ pendicular to the canal, there can be no force exerted ou the point M, hut what is propagated from the part y F. The velocity therefore in the canal FM is conftant if finite, or infinitely fmall if variable : for, in the firft cafe, the force b e would be abfolutely nothing ; and in- the fecond cafe, it would be an xnfinitefimal of the fe- cond order, and may be confidered as nothing in com- parifon with the velocity, which is of the firft order. We fhall fee by and by that the laft is the real ftate of the cafe. Therefore the fluid, before it begins to change its dire&ion in F, begins to change its velo¬ city in fome point y a-head of F, and by the time that it reaches F its velocity is as it were annihilated. Cor. r. Therefore the preffure in any point D arifes- both from the retardations in the part y F, and from- the particles which are in the canal MD: as thefe laft move along the furface of the body, the force —> de¬ point where the particles which deferibe the curve FM begin to change their velocity, the preffure in D would be equal to the preffure wliich the fluid contained in the canal y FMD would exert, if each particle were folicited by its force . The queftion is therefore reduced to the finding the curvature in the canal y FMD, and the ac- celerating forces — in its different parts. ftroyed in every particle, is compounded of two others,, one in the direction of the furface, and the other per¬ pendicular to it ; call thefe p and />'. The point D is preffed perpendicularly to the furface MD ; iff, by all the forces p in, the curve MD ; 2d, by the force p' act¬ ing on the fingle point D. This may be neglected in comparifon of the indefinite number of the others:, therefore taking in the arch MD, an infinitely fmall portion N m, = s, the preffure on D, perpendicular to the furface of the body, will be — J'p s > an^ flu¬ ent muft be fo taken as to be = 0 in the point M. Cor. 2. Therefore, to find the prefibre on D, we muft find the force p on any point N. _ Let u be the velocity of the particle N, in the direftion N m in any inftant, and a + « its velocity in the following inftant j It appears, in the firft place, that no preffure is ex¬ erted by any of the particles along the curve F M : for fuppofe that the particle a (fig. 17.) deferibes the in¬ definitely fmall ftraight line a b \n the firft inftant, and bt'm the fecond inftant; produce a b till b d zr. ab, and we muft have / =r Therefore the whole queftion is reduced to finding the velocity a in every point N, in the direftion N m. u And this is the aim of a feries of propofitions which His ^ follow, in which the author difplays the moft accurateeq1131' '. xCCOJICl IIllLdlil. j jpiULil.lLC U U kill U C* m* U Uy dllkl J.Uilk/Wj 111 V> iilk.il Lllv ctLILiiv/i kHl^llctyb L-11C XllUiL. vli dLv . 1 joining dc, the motion ab ox b d may be confidered as and precife conception of the fubjedt, and great addrefs'J^. \ oi b c, which the particle really takes in the and elegance in his mathematical analyfis. Heat lengthy^ jh1 COmpofed Ul u 6, wnu.11 me paiLieic iccuiy Ldiv.es in Liie aim eieganee in ins,inaLiieniaLieai auctions, jiae au lengm-- next inftant, and ^ motion dc which fhould be deftroy- brings out an equation which expreffes the preffure on fd. Draw b i parallel to d c, and i e perpendicular to b c. the body in. the moft general and unexceptionable man- It is plain that the particle £>, folicited by the forces ner. We cannot give an ab draft, becaufe the train of bey ei (equivalent to dc} fhould be in eqdilibrio. This reafoning is already concife in the extreme : nor can we being eftabliftied, b e muft be = 0, that is, there will be even exhibit the final equation ; for it is conceived in no accelerating or retarding force at b; for if there the be, draw^rn (fig. 18.) perpendicular to £ F, and the parallel n q infinitely near it. The part bn of the fluid contained in the canal bn qm would fuftain fome pref- moft refined and abftrufe form of indeterminate funftions, in order to embrace every pofiible circum- ftance. But we can affure our readers, that it truly ex¬ preffes the folution of the problem. But, alas! it is of 8 ’ R.c Snce. Vi, the imj fedt flat f ma ;ma- tic? c is afe! >. 1M >3 _ aema- J tic is ‘ flu Id aj> »ir= c«f : . >4 Ai multi f>i; xperi- fet s. RES [ i no ufe. So Itnperfeft is our mathematical knowledge, that even Mr d’Alembert has not been able to exem¬ plify the application of the equation to the fimpleft cafe which can be propofed, fuch as the direft impulfe on a plane furface wholly immerfed in the fluid. All that he is enabled to do, is to apply it (by iome modifica¬ tions and fubftitutions which take it out of its ftate of extreme generality) to the direft impulfe of a vein of fluid on a plane which defle&s it wholly, and thus to fhow its conformity to the folution given by Daniel Bernoulli, and to obfervation and experience. . He fhows, that this impulfe (independent of the deficiency arifing from the plane’s not being of infinite extent) is fomewhat lefs than the weight of a column whofe bafe is the feftion of the vein, and whofe height is twice the fall neceffary for communicating the velocity. This great philofopher and geometer concludes by faying, that he does not believe that any method can be found for folving this problem that is more direft and Ample; and imagines, that if the dedu&ions from it fhall be found not to agree with experiment, we mull give up all hopes of determining the refiftance of fluids by theory and analytical calculus. He fays analytical calculus ; for all the phyfical principles on which the calculus pro¬ ceeds are rigoroufly demonftrated, and will not admit of a doubt. There is only one hypothefis introduced in his inveftigation, and this is not a phyfical hypothe¬ fis, but a hypothefis of calculation. It is, that the quantities which determine the ratios of the fecond flu¬ xions of the velocities, eftimated in the directions pa¬ rallel and perpendicular to the axis AC (fig. 16.) are functions of the abfeifla AP, and ordinate PM of the curve. Any perfon, in the leafl acquainted with ma¬ thematical analyfis, will fee, that without this fuppofi- tion no analyfis or calculus whatever can be inftituted. But let us fee what is the phyjical meaning of this hy¬ pothefis. It is Amply this, that the motion of the par¬ ticle M depends on its fituation only. It appears im- pofiible to form any other opinion ; and if we could form fuch an opinion, it is as clear as day-light that the cafe is defperate, and that we mufl renounce all hopes. We are forry to bring our labours to this conclufion; but we are of opinion, that the .only thing that remains is, for mathematicians to attach themfelves with firm- nefs and vigour to fome fimple cafes; and, without aiming at generality, to apply Mr d’Alembert’s or Ber¬ noulli’s mode of procedure to the particular circum- ftances of the cafe. It is not improbable but that, in the folutions which may be obtained of thefe particular cafes, circumftances may occur which are of a more ge¬ neral nature. Thefe will be fo many laws of hydrau¬ lics to be added to our prefent very fcanty ilock ; and thefe may have points of refemblance, which will give birth to laws of ftill greater generality. And we re¬ peat our expreffion of hopes of fome fuccefs, by endea¬ vouring to determine, in fome fimple cafes, the minimum poQiliU of metion. The attempts of the Jefuit com¬ mentators on the Principia to afceitain this on the New¬ tonian hypothefis do them honour, and have really gi¬ ven us great afliilance in the particular cafe which came through their hands. And we fliould multiply experiments on the refift¬ ance of bodies. Thofe of the French academy are un¬ doubtedly of ineftimable value, and will always be ap- 1 R E s . pealed to. But there are circumftances in thofe experi- Rcfiftanee. ments which render them more complicated than is —-v—""* proper for a general theory, and which therefore limit the conclufions which we wiih to draw from them. The bodies were floating on the furface. This greatly mo¬ difies the dcfledlions of the filaments of water, cauling fome to defledl laterally, wdiich would otherwife have remained in one vertical plane ; and this circumftance alfo neceflarily produced what the academicians called the remou, or accumulation on the anterior part of the body, and deprefiion behind it. This produced an ad¬ ditional refiftance, wdrich wras meafured with great diffi¬ culty and uncertainty. The effedl of adhefion mull alfo have been very confiderable, and very different in the different cafes ; and it is of difficult calculation. It cannot perhaps be totally removed in any experiment, and it is neceffary to confider it as making part of the refiftance in the moft important practical cafes, viz. the motion of {hips. Here we fee that its efftfi is very great. Every feaman knows that the fpeed, even of a copper-fheathed {hip, is greatly increafed by greafing her bottom. The difference is too remarkable to admit of a doubt: nor fliould we be furprifed at this, when we attend to the diminution of the motion of water in long pipes. A fmooth pipe four and an half inches diame¬ ter, and 500 yards long, yields but one-fifth of the quantity which it ought to do independent of fridfioa. But adhefion does a great deal which cannot be com¬ pared with friftion. We fee that water flowing thro* a hole in a thin plate will be increafed in quantity fully one-third, by adding a little tube, whofe length is about twice the diameter of the hole. ‘ The adhefion therefore will greatly modify the adlion of the fila¬ ments both on the folid body and on each other, and wall change both the forms of the curves and the velo¬ cities in different points ; and this is a fort of objec¬ tion to the only hypothefis introduced by d’Alembert. Yet it is only a fort of obje&ion ; for the effect of this adhefion, too, muff undoubtedly depend on the fituation of the particle. ^ The form of thefe experiments of the academy is ill-The expe- fuited to the examination of the refiftance of bodies r’nje.nt8 wholly immerfed in the fluid. The form of expe- ^orda^fuf- riment adopted by Robins for the refiftance of air, ceptihle of and afterwards by the Chevalier Borda for water, is confide- free from thefe inconveniences, and is fufceptible of ia^e accut equal accuracy. The great advantage of both is theraC** exaft knowledge which they give us of the velocity of the motion; a circumftanceeffentially neceffary, and but imperfectly known in the experiments of Mariotte and others, who examined quiefeent bodies expofed to the aCtion of a ftream. It is extremely difficult to meafure the velocity of a ftream. It is very different in its dif¬ ferent parts. It is fwifteft of all in the middle fuperfi- cial filament, and diminifhes as we recede from this to¬ wards the fides or bottom, and the rate of diminution is not precifely known. Could this be afeertained with the neceffary preciiion, we fliould recommend the fol¬ lowing form of experiment as the moft fimple, eafy, eco¬ nomical, and accurate. Let a, b, c, d, (fig. 19.) be four hooks placed in a horizontal plane at the corners of a redtangular paral-^’m^e ex* lelogram, the fides a c, b d being parallel to the direc- tion of the ftream ABCD, and the fides a by c u being ring the perpendicular to it. Let the body G be Mened to vel,,city Plate ccccxxxvi. 66 Pi an a ftream. II 11 E S [ Refinance an axis ey of fUff-tempered ileel-wirCj fo that the fur- * face on which the fluid is to a& may be inclined to the flream in the precife angle we defire. Let this axis have hooks at its extremities, which are hitche into the loops of four equal threads, fufpended fiom t ic hooks a, b, c, d; and let He be a fifth thread,'fufpend¬ ed from the middle of the line joining the points of fufperifion a, b. Let HIK be a graduated arch, vvhoie centre is H, and whofe plane is in the direction of the ftream. It is evident that the impulfe on the body (j will be meafured (by a procefs well known to eveiy mathematician) by the deviation of the thread He from the vertical line HI; and this will be done without any intricacy of calculation, or any attention to the centres of gravity, of ofcillation, or of percuflion. Thefe mult be accurately afcertained with refpeft to that form in which the pendulum has always been employed for meafuring the impulfe or velocity of a ftream. d hefe advantages arife from the circumftance, that the axis ef remains always parallel to the horizon. * We may be allowed to obferve, by the by, that this would have been a great improvement of the beautiful experiments of Mr Robins and Dr Hutton on the velocities of cannon-fhot, and would have faved much intricate cal¬ culation, and been attended with many important ad¬ vantages. The great difficulty is, as we have obferved, to mea- fure the velocity of the ftream. Even this may be done in this way with fome precifion. Let two floating bo¬ dies be dragged along the furface, as in the experiments of the academy, at fome diftance from each other late¬ rally, fo that the water between them may not be fen- fibly difturbed. Let a horizontal bar be attached to them, tranfverfe to the direction of their motion, at a proper height above the furface, and let a fpherical pen¬ dulum be fufpended from this, or let it be fufpended from four points, as here defcribed. Now let the de¬ viation of this pendulum be noted in a variety of velo¬ cities. This will give us the law of relation between the velocity and the deviation of the pendulum.. Now, in making experiments on the refiftance of bodies, let the velocity of the ftream, in the very filament in which the refiftance is meafured, be determined by the devia¬ tion of this pendulum. It were greatly to be wifhed that fome more palpable argument could be found for the exiilence of a quantity of ftagnant fluid at the anterior and pofterior parts of the body. The one already given, derived^ from the eonfideration that no motion changes either its velocity or direction by finite quantities in an inftant, is unex« ceptionable. But it gives us little information. The fmalleft conceivable extent of the curve FM in fig. 16. will anfwer this condition, provided only that it touch¬ es the axis in fome point F, and the body in fome point M, fo as not to make a finite angle with either. But furely there are circumftances which rigoroufly deter¬ mine the extent of this ftagnant fluid. And it appears without doubt, that if there were no cohefion or fric¬ tion, this fpace will have a determined ratio to the fize of the body (the figures of the bodies being fuppofed fimilar). Suppofe a plane furface AB, as in fig. 10. there can be no deubt but that the figure A a D £ B will in every cafe be fimilar. But if we fuppofe an adhefion or tenacity which is conftant, this may make a change both in its extent and its form; for its con- 6 ] 11 E . s . ftancy of form depends on the difturbing forces being Refiflactf, always as the fquares of the velocity ; and this ratio of — the difturbing forces is preferved, while the inertia of the fluid is the only agent and patient in the procefs. But when we add to this the conftant (that is, invaria¬ ble) difturbing force of tenacity, a change of form and dimenfions muft happen. In like manner, the friction, or fomething analogous to friftion, which produces an effect proportional to the velocity, muft alter this ne- ceffary ratio of the whole difturbing forces. We may conclude, that the effedt of both thefe circumftances will be to diminiih the quantity of this ftagnant fluid, by licking it away externally ; and to this we mult aferibe the fadt, that the part FAM is never perfedlly ftagnant, but is generally difturbed with a whirling mo¬ tion. We may alfo conclude, that this ftagnant fluid will be more incurvated between F and M than it would have been, independent of tenacity and fridtion ; and that the arch LR will, on the contrary, be lefs incur¬ vated.—And, laftly, we may conclude, that there will be fomething oppofite to preffure, or fomething which we may call abjt rail ion, exerted on the pofterior part of the body which moves in a tenacious fluid, or is expo- fed to the ftream of fuch a fluid ; for the ftagnant fluid LCR adheres to the furface LC ; and the paf- fing fluid tends to draw it away both by its tenacity and by its fridtion. This muft augment the apparent impulfe of the ftream on fuch a body; and it muft greatly augment the refiftance, that is, the motion loft by this body in its progrefs through the tenacious fluid : for the body muft drag along with it this ftagnant fluid, and drag it in oppofition to tire tenacity and fridtion of the furrounding fluid. The effedt of this is moft re¬ markably feen in the refiftances to the motion of pen¬ dulums ; and the chevalier Buat, in his examination of Newton’s experiments, clearly flrows that this confti- tutes the greateft part of the refiftance. This moft ingenious writer lias- paid great attention " to this part of the procefs of nature, and has laid the foundation of a theory of refiftance entirely different from all the preceding. We cannot abridge it; and it is too imperfedt in its prefent condition to be offered as a body «f dodtrine : but we hope that the ingenious au¬ thor will profecute the fubjedt. -rL Ang <5? 'ifr c| We cannot conclude this differtation (which we ac*Accourt knowledge to be very unfatisfadfory and imperfedf) ^ better, than by giving an account of fome experiments eIf)er:. of the chevalier Buat, which feem of immenfe confe-nunt*, quence, and tend to give us very new views of the fub¬ jedt Mr Buat obferved the motion of water iffuing from a glafs cylinder through a narrow ring formed by a bottom of fmaller diameter ; that is, the cylinder was open at both ends, and there was placed at its lower end a circle of fmaller diameter, by v/ay of bottom, which left a ring all around. Fie threw fome powder¬ ed fealing wax into the water, and obferved with great attention the motion of its fmall particles. He faw thofe which happened to be in tire very axis of the cy¬ linder defeend along the axis with a motion pretty uniform, till they came very near the bottom ; from this they continued to defeend very flowly, till they were almoft in contadl with the bottom; they then devia¬ ted from the centre, and approached the orifice in ftraight RES . r II Aft ,;e. ftraight Hoes and with an . accelerated motion, and at Jail darted into the orifice with great rapidity. He had obferved a thing fimilar to this in a horizontal ca¬ nal, in which he had fet up a fmall board like a dam or bar, over which the water flowed. He had thrown a goofeberry into the water, in order to meafure the velo¬ city at the bottom, the goofeberry being a fmall matter heavier than water. It approached the dam uniform¬ ly till about three inches from it. Here it almoit Hood Itill, but it continued to advance till almoit in contact. It then rofe from the bottom along the infide of the dam with an accelerated motion, and quickly efcaped over the top. Hence he concluded, that the water which covers the anterior part of the body expofed to the ftream is not perfectly Itagnant, and that the filaments recede from the axis in curves, which converge to the furface of the body as different hyperbolas converge to the fame affymptote, and that they move with a velocity continually increafing till they efcape round the iides of the body. . He had eftablilhed (by a pretty reafonable theory, confirmed by experiment) a propofition concerning the preffure which water in motion exerts on the furface along which it glides, viz. that the prejfure is equal to that which it would exert if at rejl minus the weight of the co¬ lumn whofe height would produce the velocity of the paffing Jlream. Confequently the preffure which the ftream exerts on the furface perpendicularly expoled to it' will depend on the velocity with which it glides along it, and will diminilh from the centre to the circumference. This, fays he, may be the reafon why the impulfe on a plane wholly immerfed is but one half of that on a plane which defledhs the whole ftream. He contrived a very ingenious inftrument for exami¬ ning this theory. A fquare brafs plate ABGF (fig. ed exa- 20.) was pierced with a great number of holes, and fixed his in the front of a (hallow box reprefented edgewife in fig. 21. The back of this box was pierced with a hole r, in which was inferted the tube of glafs CDE, bent fquare at D. This inftrument was expofed to a ftream of water, which beat on the brafs plate. The water having filled the box through the holes, flood at an equal height in the glafs tube when the furrounding water was ftagnant; but when it was in motion, it al¬ ways flood in the tube above the level of the fmooth water without, and thus indicated the preffure occairon- ed by the adtion of the ftream. When the inftrument was not wholly immerfed, there was always a confiderable accumulation againft the front of the box, and a depreffion behind it. The water before it was by no means ftagnant: indeed it fhould not be, as Mr Buat obferves ; for it confifts of the water which was efcaping on all fides, and therefore upwards from the axis of the ftream, which meets the plate perpendi¬ cularly in c confiderably under the furface. It efcapes upwards ; and if the body were fufficiently immerfed, it would efcape in this direction almoft as eafily as laterally. But in the prefent circumftances, it heaps up, till the elevation occafions it to fall off fidewife as fad as it is renewed. When the inftrument w7as immer¬ fed more than its femidiameter under the furface, the water ftill rofe above the level, and there was a great depreflion immediately behind this elevation. In con-, fcquence of this difficulty of efcaping upwards, the wa- "'iflr the ient e r< :ri HI): o I 7 J RES ter flows off laterally; and if the horizontal dimenfiona R-cflftanee. of the furface is great, this lateral efflux becomes more difficult, and requires a greater accumulation. From this it happens, that the refifiance of broad furfaces equally immerfed is greater than in the proportion of the breadth. A plane of two feet wide and one foot deep, when it is not completely immerfed, will be more refilled than a plane two feet deep and one foot wide ; for there will be an accumulation againft both : and even if thefe were equal in height, the additional fur- face will be greateft in the wideft body ; and the ele¬ vation will be greater, becaufe the lateral efcape is more difficult. 69 The circumftances chiefly to be attended to are Ckcum' ftances thefe rFhe preffure on the centre was much greater than to-^attend- wards the border, and, in general, the height of the wa- ed to in ter in the tube DE was more than y of the height ne-lllmg ceffary for producing the velocity when only the Cen-*‘1^ruinellS:* tral hole was open. When various holes were opened at different dillances from the centre, the height of the water in DH continually diminifhed as the hole was nearer the border. At a certain diftance from .the bor¬ der the water at E was level with the furrounding wa¬ ter, fo that no preffure was exerted on that hole. But 7° the mod unexpected and remarkable circumflance was, that, in great velocities, the holes at the very border, tum^ance and even to a fmall diftance from it, not only fuftained no preffure, but even gave out water ; for the water in the tube was lower than the furrounding water. Mr Buat calls this a non-prejjion.. In a cafe in which the velocity of the ftream was three feet, and the preffure on the central hole caufed the water in the vertical tube to (land 33 lines or -|4 of an inch above the level of the furrounding fmooth water, the action on a hole at the lower corner of the fquare caufed it to Hand 12 lines lower than the furrounding water. Now the velocity of the ftream in this experiment was 36 inches per fe- cond. This requires 2ii lines for itsprodudtive fall ; whereas the preffure on the central hole was 33. This- approaches to the preffure on a furface which deflects it wholly. The intermediate holes gave every variation of preffure, and the diminution was more rapid as the holes were nearer the edge ; but the law of diminu¬ tion could not be obferved. This is quite a new and moil unexpected circum-Not kicon*- ftance in the adtion of fluids on folid bodies, and ren-fifient witht; ders the fubjedt more intricate than ever ; yet it is byPr‘!lci- no means inconfiftent with the genuine principles of^roa^ics"- hydroftatics or hydraulics. In as far as Mr Buat’s0r kydrau- propofition concerning the preffure of moving fluids lies, is true, it is very reafonable to fay, that when the lateral velocity with which the fluid tends to efcape exceeds the velocity of percuffion, the height neceffa- ry for producing this velocity muft exceed that which would produce the other, and a non-preffion muft be obferved. And if we confider the forms of the la¬ teral filaments near the edge of the body, we fee that the concavity of the curve is turned towards the bo¬ dy, and that the centrifugal forces tend to diminifh their preffure on the body. If the middle alone were {truck with a confiderable velocity, the water might even rebound, as is frequently obferved. This attual rebounding is here prevented by the furrounding wa¬ ter, which is moving with the fame velocity : butx the.: yi Subiiance «f Buat’s theory. 73 " Experi- RES C 1 Keliftance, the preffure n\ay be almoft annihilated bj the undcncy ■'’v'-”"" to rebound ot the inner filaments. Part (and perhaps a confiderable part) of this appa¬ rent non-preflion is undoubtedly produced by the tena¬ city of the water, which licks off with it the water lyine in the hole. But, at any rate, this ts an im¬ portant faft, and gives great value to thefe experi¬ ments. It gives a key to many curious phenome¬ na in the refiftance of fluids; and the theory of Mr Buat deferves a very ferious confideration. It is all contained in the two following propofitions. l “ If, h any caufe -whatever, a column of find, whe¬ ther making part of an indefinite fluid, or contained in [olid canals, comes to move with a given velocity , the prejjure ■which it exerted laterally before its motion, 'lther on the a f joining fluid or on the fides of the canal, is diminished by the weight of a column having the_ height neceffary for commu¬ nicating the velocity of the motion, _ r . 2. “ The preffure on the centre of a plane furface Per' pendicular to the fiream, and wholly immerfed in it is 1 of the weight of a column having the height neceffary for com¬ municating the velocity. For 33 is \ of 21 F.xperi- He attempted to afcertain the medium preflure on In^nt® hV. the whole furface, by opening 625 holes difperled aU ^firmed3 over it. With the fame velocity of current, he found the height in the tube to be 29 lines, or more than the height neceffary for producing the velocity. But he juftly concluded this to be too great a meafure, be- caufe the holes were | of an inch from the edge : had there been holes at the very edge, they would have fuf tained a non-preflion, which would have dimimflied the height in the tube very confiderably. He expofed to the fame ftream a conical funnel, which raifed the wa- * ter to 34 lines. But this could not be confidered as a meafure of the preffure on a plane folid furface ; for the central water was undoubtedly fcooped out, as it were, and the filaments much more defied!ed than they would have been by a plane furface. Perhaps Something of this happened even m every fmall hole in the for¬ mer experiments. And this fuggefts fome doubt as to the accuracy of the meafurement of the preffure and of the velocity of a current by Mr Pitot s tube. It furely renders fome corre&ions abfolutely neceffary. It is a fadf, that when expofed to a vein of fluid coming through a fhort paffage, the water in the tube Hands on a level with that in the refervoir. Now we know that the velocity of this if ream does not exceed what would be produced by a fall equal to TVo of the head of wa¬ ter in the refervoir. Mr Buat made many valuable ob- fervations and improvements on this moil ufeful inftru- ment, which will be taken notice of in the articles Ki- vers and Water-Works* . . Mr Buat, by a fcrupulous attention to all the circum- ifances, concludes, that the medium of preffure on the 18 ] RES ties, or as the heights h which produce the velocities, RA, we may exprefs this preffure by the fmybol h, or 1,186 h, or mh, the value of m being "i,186. This exceeds confiderably the refult of the experiments of the French academy. In thefe it does not appear that m fenfibly exceeds unity. Note, that in thefe experi¬ ments the body was moved thi'ough {fill water ; here it is expofed to a ftream. Thefe are generally fuppofed to be equivalent, on the authority of the third law of mo¬ tion, which makes every aftion depend on the lelative mo¬ tions. We (hall by and by fee fome caufes of difference. )4 The writers on this fubjeft feem to think their tailcThcailioa completed when they have confidered the adtion of the-^hb- 2 r C whole furface is equal to^— of the weight of a co COIUpiCLCU WHV.11 uih; f _ tiaftnf fluid on the anterior part of the body, or that part ofa'bo^or it which is before the broadeff fed! ion, and have paid ft, . .,. - Ticirt Vpt tbofe wholv tl_ - -up equal. little or no attention to the hinder part. Yet thofe wholy impor. are moil interefted in the fubjeft, the naval architeaS,™J feem convinced that it is of no lefs importance to at-^^ tend to the form of the hinder part of a (hip. And the univerfal pradtice of all nations has been to make the hinder part more acute than the fore-part. This has undoubtedly been deduced from experience; for it is in direft oppofition t© any notions which a perfon would naturally form on this fubjea. . Mr Buat there¬ fore thought it very neceffary to examine the aaion of the water on the hinder part of a body by the fame method. And, previous to this examination, in order to acquire fome fcientific notions of the^ fubjea, he made^jj^j the following very curious and inftruAive experiment, by final, Two little conical pipes AB (fig. 22.) were inferted fto into the upright fide of a prifmatic veffel. They were ccccau an inch long, and their diameters at the inner and outer ends were five and four lines. A was 57 lines under the furface, and B was 73. A glafs fyphon was made of the fhape reprefented in the figure, and its internal diameter was 1 j lines. It was placed with its mouth UlalllCLCi was a 2T # r ” ... in the axis, and even with the bafe or the conical pipe. The pipes being fliut, the veffel was filled witii water,, and it was made to Hand ou a level in the two legs of the fyphon, the upper part being full of air. When this fyphon was applied to the pipe A, and the water running freely, it rofe 32 lines in the fhortleg, and funk as much in the other. When it was applied to the pipe B, the water rofe 41 lines in the one leg of the fyphon, and funk as much in the other. yphon, and lunK as mucu m me umv-i. . ■ ^ He reafons in this manner from the experiment. 1 21,5 lumn, having the furface for its bafe, and the produc¬ tive fall for its height. But we think that there is an uncertainty in this conclufion; becaufe the height of the water in the vertical tube was undoubtedly augmented by an hydroftatical preffure arifing from the accumula¬ tion of wrater above the body which was expofed to the ftream. r c i • gijjce the preffures are as the fquarcs of the veloa- bipce tl r tie reaions 111 ims inaum-i huih ,rcafo'«Ill ring comprehended between the end of the fyphon andupuD;t) the fides of the conical tube being the narroweft part of the orifice, the water iffued with, the velocity cor- refponding to the height of the water in the veffel above the orifice, diminiftied for the contraction. If therefore the cylinder of water immediately before the mouth of the fyphon iffued with the fame velocity, the tube would be emptied through a height equal to this HEAD OF WATER (charge). If, on the contrary, this cylinder of water, immediately before the mouth of the fyphon, were ftagnant, the water in it would exert its full preffure on the mouth of the fyphon, and the water in the fyphon would be level with the water in the veffel. Between thefe extremes we muft find the real ftate of the cafe, and we muft meafure the force of non-preffure by the rife of the water in the fyphon. We fee that in both experiments it bears an accurate ^ pro RES [ i ifif ice. proportion to the depth under the furface. For 5 7 : —^ 72 = 32 : 41 very nearly. He therefore eftimates the non-prelfure to be of the height of the water above X the orifice. =em r]y We are difpofed to think that the ingenious author acc ue. has not reafoned accurately from the experiment. In the firft place, the force indicated by the experiment, whatever be its origin, is certainly double of what he fuppofes ; for it muft be meafured by the fum of the rife of the water in one leg, and its deprefiion in the other, the weight of the air in the bend of the fyphon being negle&ed. It is precifely analogous to the force a cling on the water ofcillating in a fyphon, which is acknowledged to be the fum of the elevation and de- preffion. The force indicated by the experiment there¬ fore is rgi of the height of the water above the ori¬ fice. The force exhibited in this experiment bears a {till greater proportion to the productive height ; for it is certain that the water did not iffue with the velo¬ city acquired by the fall from the furface, and pro¬ bably did not exceed \ of it. The effeft of contradlion muft have been confiderable and uncertain. The velo¬ city ftiould have been meafured both by the amplitude of the jet and by the quantity of water difcharged. In the next place, we apprehend that much of the eftedt is produced by the tenacity of the water, which drags along with it the water which would have {lowly iffued from the fyphon, had the other end not dipped into the water of the veffel. We know, that if the hori¬ zontal part of the fyphon had been continued far enough, and if no retardation were occafioned by fric¬ tion, the column of water in the upright leg would have accelerated like any heavy body j and when the laft of it had arrived at the bottom of that leg, the whole in the horizontal part would be moving with the velocity acquired by falling from the furface. The water of the vef¬ fel which ifiues through the furrounding ring very quick¬ ly acquires a much greater velocity than what the water defcending in the fyphon would acquire in the fame time, and it drags this laft water along with it both by tenacity and fri&ion, and it drags it out till its action is oppofed by the want of equilibrium produced in the fyphon, by the elevation in the one leg and the depreffion in the other. We imagine that little can be concluded from the experiment with refped to the real non-preffure. Nay, if the Tides of the fyphon be fuppofed infinitely thin, fo that there would be no curvature of the fila¬ ments of the furrounding water at the mouth of the fyphon, we do not very diftin&ly fee any fource of non- prefiure : For we are not altogether fatisfied with the proof which Mr Buat offers for this meafure of the preffure of a ftream of fluid gliding along a furface, and objlrutied by friaicn or any other cauje* We imagine that the paffing water in the prefent experiment would be a little retarded by accelerating continually the water de- feending in the fyphon, and renewed a-top, fuppofing the upper end open; becaufe this water would not of it- felf acquire more than half this velocity. It however drags it out, till it not only refifts with a force equal to the weight ©f the whole vertical column, but even ex¬ ceeds it by tVs-* This it is able to do, becaufe the whole preffure by which the water iffues from an orifice has been fhown (by Daniel Bernoulli) to be equal to twice this weight. We therefore confider this beauti¬ ful experiment as chiefly valuable, by giving us a mea- 19 ] RES fure of the tenacity of the water; and we wilh that it Refiftanse. were repeated in a variety of depths, in order to difco- " I|J' vcr what relation the force exerted bears to the depth. It would feem that the tenacity, being a certain deter¬ minate thing, the proportion of 100 to 112 would not beconftant; and that the obferved ratio would be made up of two parts, one of them conftant, and the other proportional to the depth under the furface. But ft ill this experiment is intimately connefted with the matter in hand; and this apparent non-pref¬ fure on the hinder part of a body expofed to a ftream, from whatever caufes it proceeds, does operate in the aftion of water on this hinder part, and muft be taken into the account. We muft therefore follow the Chevalier de Buat in Further his difeuffions on this fubjefl. A prifmatic body, ha- difeuflionfr ving its prow and poop equal and parallel furfaces, andgfu^e plunged horizontally into a fluid, will require a force to keep it firm in the direditon of its axis precifely equal to the difference between the real preffures exerted on its prow and poop. If the fluid is at reft, this diffe¬ rence will he nothing, becaufe the oppoiite dead pref¬ fures of the fluid will be equal: but in a ftream, there is fuperadded to the dead preffure on the prow the ac¬ tive preffure arifing from the defledlions of the filaments of this fluid. If the dead preffure on the poop remained in its full intenfity by the perfedl ftagnation of the water be¬ hind it, the whole fenllble preffure on the body would be the adlive preffure only on the prow, reprefented by m h. If, on the other hand, we could fuppofe that the water behind the body moved continually away from it (being renewed laterally) with the velocity of the ftream, the dead preffure would be entirely removed from its poop, and the whole fenfible preffure, or what muft be oppofed by fome external force, would be m b 4- h. Neither of thefe can happen ; and the real ftate of the cafe muft be between thefe extremes. The following experiments were tried : The perfo- Expm- rated box with its vertical tube was expofed to thements. •ftream, the brafs plate being turned down the ftream. The velocity was again .36 inches per fecond. The central hole A alone being opened, gave a non- preffure of - - 13 lines. A hole B, of an inch from the edge, gave A hole C, near the furface A hole D, at the lower angle Here it appears that there is a very confiderable non-preffure, increafing from the centre to the border. This increafe undoubtedly proceeds from the greater la¬ teral velocity with which the water is gliding in from the fides. The water behind was by no means ftag- nant, although moving off with a much fmaller velocity than that ef the palling ftream, and it was vifibly re¬ moved from the fides, and gradually licked away at its further extremity. A nether box, having a great number of holes, all open, indicated a medium of non-preffure equal to 13,1 lines. Another of larger dimenfions, but having fewer holes, indicated a non-preffure of 12£. But the moft remarkable, and the moft important phenomena, were the following : The firft box was fixed to the fide of another box, ' fo 15 J5>7 J5>3 RES l 120 1 RES Hafifhnce fo that, when all was made fmoath, it made a perfea w-v—- cube, of which the perforated brafs plate made the r°The apparatus being now expofed to the ftream, with the perforated plate looking down the ftream, The hole A indicated a non-preffion - — 7»2 B l C - - • , Here was a great diminution of the non-preffions produced by the diftance between the prow and the P°This box was then fitted in the fame manner, fo as to make the poop of a box three feet long. In this fituation the non-preffures were as follow : Hole A - - ‘I’! B - ' ‘ 3’,2 The non-preffions were ftill farther diminiffied by this increafe of length. . , „ , . , The box was then expofed with, all the holes open, in three different fituations : i ft, Single, giving a non-preffure 2d, Making the poop of a cube - 3d, Making the poop of a box three feet long Another larger box : ' I ft, Single 2d, Poop of a cube 3d, Poop of the long box So threat u- tility of them in ihip-build ing. 13*1 5>3 3>° 12,2 3>2 it is plain that the real velocity of a filament in its oh- kefihn lique path is augmented. We always obferve, that a —rw ftonc lying in the fand, and expofed to the waffi of the fea, is laid bare at the bottom, and the fand is generally waffied away to fome diftailce all round. This is ow¬ ing to the increafed velocity of the water which comes into contact with the Hone. It takes up more fand than it can keep floating, and it depofits it at a little diftance all around, forming a little bank, which fur- rounds the ftone at a fmall diftance. When the fila¬ ments of water have paffed the body, they are preffed by the ambient fluid into the place which it has quit¬ ted, and they glide round its ftern, and fill up the fpace behind. The more divergent and the more rapid they are, when about to fall in behind, the more of the cir¬ cumambient preffure muft be employed to turn them in¬ to the trough behind the body, and lefs of it will re¬ main to prefs them to the body itfelf. The extreme of this muft obtain when the fiream is obftrufted by a thin plane only. But when there is fome diftance be¬ tween the prow and the poop, the divergency of the fi¬ laments which had been turned afide by the prow, is diminifhed by the time that they have come abreaft of the ftern, and flrould turn in behind it. They are therefore more readily made to converge behind the body, and a more confiderable part of the furrounding preffure remains unexpended, and therefore preffes the water againft the ftern ; and it is evident that this ad -L to . rPV, 1*1 Thefe are molt valuable experiments. ^ ^ vantage0muft be fo much the greater as the body is or lomrer. But the advantage will foon be fufceptible of hinder part of the body. Tor the whole impulfe or refiftance, which muft be withftood or overcome by the external force, is the fum of the adive preffure on the fore-part, and of the non-preffure on the hinder-part; > and they fhow that this does not depend folely on the form of the prow and poop, but alfo, and perhaps clnet- ly, on the length of the body. We fee that the non- preffure on the hinder-part was prodigioully diminifhed (reduced to one-fourth) by making the length of the body triple of the breadth. And hence it appears, that merely lengthening a (hip, without making any change in the form either of her prow or her poop, will greatly diminifh the refiftance to her motion through the wa¬ ter ; and this increafe of length may be made by conti¬ nuing the form of the midfhip frame in feveral timbers alomr the keel, by which the capacity of the fhip, and her power of carrying fail, will be greatly increafed, and her other qualities improved, while her fpeed is oT augmented. . . Phyfical It is furely of importance to confider a little the eaufe of it phvlical caufe of this change. The motions are ex- e.xplaincd. tmnely complicated, and we muft be contented if we can but perceive a few leading circumftances. The water is turned afide by the anterior part of the body, and the velocity of the filaments is increafed, and they acquire a divergent motion, by which they alfo pufh afide the furrounding water. On each fide of the body, therefore, they are moving in a divergent direc¬ tion, and with an increafed velocity. But as they are longer. But the advantage will foon be fufceptible of no very confiderable increafe : for the lateral and di¬ vergent, and accelerated filaments, will foon become fo nearly parallel and equally rapid with the reft of the flream, that a great increafe of length will not make any confiderable change in thefe particulars ; and it muft be accompanied with an increafe of fri&ion. Thefe are very obvious reflexions. And if we attend minutely to the way in which the almoft ftagnant fluid behind the body is expended and renewed, we fhall fee all thefe effedts confirmed and augmented. But as we cannot fay any thing on this fubjeX that is pre- cife, or that can be made the fubjeX of computation, it is needlefs to enter into a more minute diferffipn. The diminution of the non-preffure towards the centre moll probably arifes from the fmaller force which is ne- ceflary to be expended in the infledtion of the lateral fi¬ laments, already infleXed in fome degree, and having their velocity diminilhed. But it is a fubjeX highly de- ferving the attention of the mathematicians; and we prefume to invite them to the ftudy of the motions of thefe lateral filaments, paffing the body, and prefled into its wake by forces which are fufceptible of no dif¬ ficult inveftigation. It feems highly probable, that if a prifmatic box, with a fquare ftern, were fitted with an addition precifely ffiaped like the water which would (abftraXing tenacity and friXion) have been ftagnant behind it,"the quantity of non-preffion would be the fmalleft poffible. The mathematician would furely dii- all id with an increaiea velocity, out ao mv-j 1 u r -n r ...A,'™* fides preffed by the fluid without them, their , cover circumitances which would lurmfti fome maxim* y .. * 1 • r _• f/ir tVif* hinHer nart as well as for the motions gradually approach to parallelifm, and their ve¬ locities to an equality with the ftream. The progref- five velocity, or that in the direXion of the ftream, is checked, at leaft at firft. But fince we obferve the fi¬ laments conftipated round the body, and that they are not dtfleXed at right angles to their former direXion, of conftruXion for the hinder part as well as for the prow. And as his fpeculations on dhis laft have not been wholly fruitlefs, we may expeX advantages from his at- tention to this part, fo much negleXed. ^ In the mean time, let us attend to the deduXiortS ^ k which Mr de Buat has made from his few experiments. expen ^ Wheaijit^' RES [ ice. When the velocity is three feet per fecond, requi- ring the productive height 21,5 lines, the heights cor- refponding to the non-preffure on the poop of a thin plane is J4,4-T lines (taking in feveral circumftances of judicious correction, which we have not mentioned), that of a foot cube is 5,83, and that of a box of triple length is 3,31. Let q exprefs the variable ratio of thefe to the height producing the velocity, fo that q h may exprefs the non- prefiure in every cafe ; we have, For a thin plane - - q — 0,67 a cube - 0,271 a box =r 3 cubes - - o^fS It is evident that the value of q has a dependence on the proportion of the length, and the tranfverfe feCtion of the body. A feries of experiments on prifmfltic bo¬ dies fhowed Mr de Boat that the deviation of the fila¬ ments was fimilar in fimilar bodies, and that this ob¬ tained even in difiimilar prifms, when the lengths were as the fquare-roots of the tranfverfe feCtions. Although therefore the experiments were not fufficiently nume¬ rous for deducing the precife law, it feemed not impof- fible to derive from them a very ufeful approximation. By a dexterous comparifon he found, that if / expreflfes the length of the prifm, and s the area of the tranfverfe feCtion, and L expreffes the common logarithm of the quantity to which it is prefixed, we fhall exprefs the non-preffure pretty accurately by the formula = L(,4^7). Hence arifes an important remark, that when the height correfponding to the non-preffion is greater than and the body is little immerfed in the fluid, there will be a void behind it. Thus a furface of a fquare inch, juft immerfed in a current of three feet per fe¬ cond, will have a void behind it. A foot fquare will be in a fimilar condition when the velocity is 12 feet. We muft be careful to diftinguifh this non-preflure from the other caufes of reliftance, which are always neceffarily combined with it. It is fuperadditive to the aCtive imprefiion on the prow, to the ftatical pref- fure of the accumulation a-head of the body, the ftatical preflure arifing from the depreflion behind it, the effeCts of friCtion, and the effeCts of tenacity. It is indeed next to impofiible to eftimate them feparately, and many of them are actually combined in the meafures now gi¬ ven. Nothing can detennine the pure non-preflures till we can afeertain the motions of the filaments, itro- ^ Buat here takes occafion to controvert the ' univerfally adopted maxim, that the preffure occafioned uni-by a ftream of fluid _ on a fixed body is the fame with ' that on a body moving with equal velocity in a qui- ’ efcent He repeated all thefe experiments with the perforated box in ftill water. The general diftinc- tion vvas, that both the preflures and the non-prefiure m this cafe was lefs, and that the odds was chiefly to be obferved near the edges of the furface. The gene¬ ral faCtor of the preffure of a ftream on the anterior fur- face was m~ 1,186; but that on a body movintr through a ftill fluid is only m- 1. He obferved no non-preffure even at the very edge of the prow, but m en a leniible preffure. The preffure, therefote, or re- 1 dance,18 more. equably diffufed over the furface of the prow than the impulfe is.—He alfo found that the re- iiitanees dimimfhed in a lefs ratio than the fquares of the velocities, efpecially in fmall velocities. Vol.XVI. Parti. I2T 1 RE S Tlie non-preffures increafed in a greater ratio than the Re'iftarcet fquares of the velocities. The ratio of the velocities to a v— fmall velocity of 2 inches per fecond increafed geome¬ trically, the value of q increafed arithmetically; and we may deteimine q for any velocity V by this proportion L — L — : L ~ = 0,5 :y, ancl q — 1 Jiat 1S> let the common logarithm of the velocity, divided by 2f, be confidered as a common number ; divide this common number by 2 T^, the quotient is y, which mult be multiplied by the productive height. The pro¬ duct is the preffure. When Pitot’s tube was expofed to the ftream, we had w? — 1 ; but when it is carried through ftill water, m ~ 1,22. When it was turned from the ftream, we had q —0,151 \ but when carried through ftill water, y is =0,138. A remarkable experiment. 84 When the tube was moved laterally through the wa- fup. ter, fo that the motion was in the direction of the plane r"’r's ^ of its mouth, the non-preffure was 1= 1. This is one^™khy of his chief arguments for his theoiy of non-preffion. able expe- He does not give the detail of the experiment, anddmeut. only inferts the refult in his table. As a body expofed to a ftream deflefts the fluid, heaps it up, and increafes its velocity; fo a body moved through a ftill fluid turns it aflde, caufes it to fvvell up before it, and gives it a real motion alongfide of it in the oppofite direction. And as the body expofed to a ftream has a quantity of fluid almoft ftagnant both be¬ fore and behind; fo a body moved through a ftill fluid carries before it and drags after it a quantity of fluid, which accompanies it with nearly an equal velocity. Plus addition to the quantity of matter in motion muft make a diminution of its velocity ; and this forms a very confiderable part of the obferved refiftance. ' S-- We cannot, however, help remarking that it would He .>bj<«c- require very diftind and ftrong proof indeed to over-tio!,11>oc turn the common opinion, which is founded on our moft "d. certain and fimple conceptions of motion, and on a law of nature to which we have never obferved an excep¬ tion. Mr de Buat’s experiments, tho’ moft judicioufly contrived, and executed with fcrupulous care, are by no means of this kind. T[ hey were, of abfolute neceffity, very complicated; and many circumftances, impoffible to avoid or to appreciate, rendered the obfervation, or at leaft the comparifon, of the velocities, very uncertain. ^ We can fee but two circumftances which do not ad-Remarks mit of an eafy or immediate comparifon in the two n^nTon itates of the problem. When a body is expofed to a the motion ftream in our experiments, in order to have an impulfeof bodies made on it, there is a force tending to move the bodyin runn,n» backwards, independent of the real impulfe or preffureWa“ occafioned by the defle&ion of the ftrean>. We cannot * ’ have a ftream except in confcquence of a floping fur- fact. Suppofe a body floating on this ftteam. It will not only fail down along with the Jlrecim, but it will fad down thejlream, and will therefore go fafter along the canal than the ftream does: for it is floating on an inclined plane ; and if we examine it by the laws of hydroftatics, we fhall find, that befides its own ten¬ dency to/hk down this inclined plane, there is an odds of hydroftatical preffure, which pujhes it down this plane. It will therefore go along the canal fafter than the ftream. For this acceleration depends on the diffe- unce of preffure at the two ends, and will be more re- markable RES t 12 RefiAancr. markable as the body is larger, and efpecially as it is f_i f -T' jonger> This may be diftinftly obferved. All floating to¬ dies go into the ftream of the river, becauie there they’ find the fin ailed obdruaion to the acquifition of this motion along the inclined plane; and when a number of bodies are thus floating down the dream, the large and longed outdrip the red. A log of wood floating down in this manner may be obferved to make its way very fad among the chips and faw-dud which float a- longfide of it. , , Now when, in the courfe of our experiments, a body is fupported againd the action of a (Iream, and the im- pulfe is mehfured by the force employed to fupport it, it is plain that part of this force is employed to act jnrain't that tendency which the body has to outdrip the dream. This does not appear in cur experiment, when we move a body with the velocity of this tlream through dill water having a horizontal fuiface. The other diitinguithing circum(lance is, that the re¬ tardations of a ftream arifmg from friction are found to be nearly as the velocities. When, therefore, a fi ream moving' in a limited canal is checked by a body put in its way, the diminution of velocity occaiioned by the friftion of the dream having already produced its ef- feft, the impulfe is not affeded by it; but when the body puts the dill water in motion,,the fridion of the bottom produces fome effed, by retarding the recefs of the water. This, however, mud be next to no¬ thing. . , • in. The chief difference will arife from its being almott impoffible to make an exad compavifon of the veloci¬ ties : for when a body is moved againd the dream, the relative velocity is the fame in all the filaments. But when we expofe a body to a dream, the velocity of the different filaments is not the fame ; becaufe it decreafes from the middle of the ftream to the fides. Mr Buat found the total fenfible refidance of a plate 12 inches fquare, and meafured, not by the height of water in the tube of the perforated box, but by weights ading on the arm of a balance, having its centre 15 inches under the farface of a dream moving three feet per fecond, to be 19,46 pounds; that of a cube of the fame dimenfions was 15,22; and that of a prifm three feet long was 13,87 ? that of a prifm fix feet long was 14,27. The three fird agree extremely well with the determination of m and y, by the experiments with the perforated box. The total refidance of the lad was undoubtedly much increafed by fridion, and by the retrograde force of fo long a prifm floating in an in¬ clined dream. This lad by computation is 0,223 pounds; this added to h (rn 4- y), which is I3>59>£*ve3 leaving 0,46 for the effed of fridion. If the lame refidances be computed on the.fuppofi- tion that the body moves in dill water, in which cafe we have m — 1, and y for a thin plate — 0,433 » «ind if y be computed for the lengths of the other two bo- 87 Mr Buat's calculation of refin¬ ance. * 1 RES body which is carried along thro’- dill water, or whichRefifhn«, remains nearly ftagnant in the midd of a ftream. He ”*v^ takes the fum of the motions in the diredion of the ftream, viz. the fum of the adual motions of all thofe particles which have loft part of their motion, and he divides this fum by the general velocity of the ftream. The quotient is equivalent to a certain quantity of wa¬ ter perfedly ftagnant round the body. Without being able to determine this with precifion, he obferves, that it augments as the refiftance diminifhes ; for in the cafe of a longer body, the filaments are obferved to con¬ verge to a greater diftance behind the body. The ftagnant mafs a-head of the body is more conftant; for the defledton and refiftance at the prow are obferved not to be affeded by the length of the body. Mr Buat, by a very nice analyfis of many circum (lances, comes to this conclufion, that the whole quantity of fluid, which in this manner accompanies the folid body,, re¬ mains the fame whatever is the velocity. He might have deduced it at once, from the conlideration that the curves deferibed by the filaments are the fame in all ve¬ locities. He then relates a number of experiments made to f certain the abfolute quantity thus made to accompany the body. Thefe were made by caufing pendulums to ofcillate in fluids. Newton had determined the re¬ finances to fuch ofcillation by the diminution of the arches of vibration. Mr Buat determines the quantity of dragged fluid by the increafe of their duration ; for this ftagnation or dragging is in fa will ex- P +/> . prefs its weight in vacuo, and —7— will be the ratio of thefe weights. aP P+/ We fliall therefore have ? +P j- and l- / dies by the formula L = L 1,42 5 we (ball get for Let n P exprefs the fum of the fluid difplaced, and the fluid dragged along, « being a. number greater than unity, to be determined by experiment. The mafs in motion is no longer P + />, but P -f n P, while its weight irt the fluid is ftill p. Therefore we muft have ap a , P ia \ _ ru-»and"= p -+1 the refiftances 14,94; I2,22 ; and ii,49* 8S Hence Mr Buat concludes, that the refiftances in And of the thefe two ftates are nearly in the ratio of 13 to 10. quantity of This, he thinks, will account for the difference obfer- water ad- ve(j t]ie experiments of different authors. bodH^Tnov1 Mr Buat next endeavours to afeertain the quantity ii°g Infill of water which is made to adhere in fome degree to a water, &c. « P 4- p — n P_ P A prodigious number of experiments made by Mr Buat on fpheres vibrating in water gave values of », which were very conftant, namely, from 1,5 to 1,7 5 and by confidering the circumftances which accompa¬ nied the variations of n ( which he found to arife. chief¬ ly from the curvature of the path deferibed by the 2 baftji ’ RES [ 123 1 RES nee. ball\ he Hates the mean value of the number n at degree of compreflibility, however fmall, feems necef- Refiftanee, — 1,583. So that a fphere in motion drags along with fary. If this be infenfible, it may be rigidly demon- it about -1% of its own bulk of fluid with a velocity Hrated, that an external force of compreflion will make equal to its own. no fenjib/e change in the internal motions, or in the re- He made fimilar experiments with prifms, pyramids, fiftances. This indeed is not obvious, but is an imme- and other bodies, and found a complete continuation diate confequence of xhs. quaquaverfurh preffure of fluids, of his affertion, that prifms of equal lengths and fee- As much as the preflure is augmented by the external tions, though diflimilar, dragged equal quantities of compreflions on one fide of a body, fo much is it aug- fluid ; that fimilar prifms and prifms not flmilar, but mented on the other fide ; and the fame muft be faid of whofe length were as the fquare-root of their fee- every particle. Nothing more is neceflary for fecuring tions, dragged quantities proportional to their bulks. the fame motions by the fame partial and internal forces; He found a general value of n for prifmatic bodies, and this is fully verified by experiment. Water re- which alone may be confidered as a valuable truth j mains equally fluid under any compreflions. In fome y'j of Sir Ifaac Newton’s experiments balls of four inches namely, that « = 0,705 b ^13‘ diameter were made fo light as to preponderate in wa- From all thefe circumftances, we fee an intimate ter only three grains. Thefe balls defeended in the connexion between the prefliires, non-prefliires, and iame manner as they would have defeended in a fluid the fluid dragged along wfith the body. Indeed this where thc refiftance was equal in every pail; yet, when is immediately deducible from the firft principles; for they were near the bottom of a vefiel nine feet deep, what Mr Buat calls the dragged fluid is in fad a cer- tlie compreflion round them was at lalt 2400 times tain portion of the wdrole change of motion produced the moving force; whereas, when near the top of the in the diredion of the bodies motion. veffeI> ^ was above 50 or 60 times. It was found, that with refped to thin planes, fpheres, But m a fluid fenfibly comprefiible, or which is not and pyramidal bodies of equal bafes, the refiftances were confined, a void may be left behind the body. Its mo- inverfely as the quantities of fluid dragged along. ti011 may be fo fwift that the furrounding preflure may The intelligent reader will readily obferve, that thefe noit fuffice for filling up the deferted ip ace ; and, in views of the Chevalier Buat are not fo much difeoveries cafe, a ftatical preffure will be added to the reliftance. of new principles as they are claffifications of confe- ri'b|s may be the cafe in a veflel or pond of w^ater quences,wrhich may all be deduced from the general prin- having an open furface expofed to the finite or limited ciples employed by D’Alembert and other mathemati- preffure of the atmofphere. . The queftion now is, whe- cians. But they greatly affift us in forming notions of tlier the reiiffance will be increafed by an increafe of different parts of the procedure of nature in the mutual external preffure ? Suppofing a fphere moving near the aft ion of fluids and folids on each other. This muff be furface of water, and another moving equally faff at very acceptable in a fubjeft which it is by no means f°ur times the depth. If the motion be fo fwift that a probable that we (hall be able to inveftigate with ma- v°id is formed in both cafes, there is no doubt but that thematical precifion. We have given an account of tbc fphere which moves at the greateft depth is molt thefe laft obfervations, that we may omit nothing of refilled by the preffure of the water. If there is no confequence that has been written on the fubjefl j and void in either cafe, then, becaufe the quadruple depth, we take this opportunity of recommending the Hydrau- would caufe the water to flow in with only a double ve- liqut of Mr Buat as a moll ingenious work, containing locity, it would feem that the refillance would be more original, ingenious, and pra&ically ufeful thoughts, greater ; and indeed ±he water flowing in laterally with than all the performances we have met with. His doc- a double velocity produces a quadruple non-preflure.— trine of the principle of uniform motion oj fluids in pipes But, on the other hand, the preffure at a fmall depth and open canals, will be of immenfe fervice to all engi- may be infuflicient for preventing a void, while that neers, and enable them to determine with fufficient pre- below effectually prevents it; and this was obferved in cifion the mofl important quellions in their profeffion ; fome experiments of Chevalier de Borda. The effeft, quellions which at prefent they are hardly able to guefs therefore, of greater immerfion, or of greater compref- at. See Rivers and Water Works. lion, in an elaitic fluid, does not follow a precife ratio . 0f The only circumltance which we have not noticed in of the preffure, but depends partly on abfolute quanti- ce detail, is the change of refillance produced by the void, ties. It cannot, therefore, be Hated by any very limpte ed. or tendency to a void, which obtains behind the body ; formula wliat increafe or diminution of refiHance will ^0R and we omitted a particular dilcuflion, merely becaufe refuk from a greater depth ; and it is chiefly on this we could fay nothing iufliciently precife on the fubject. account that experiments made with models of Ihips and Perfons not accullomed to the diicufiions in the phylico- mills are not conclulive with rclpetl to the performance mathematical iciences, are apt to entertain doubts or of a large machine of the iame proportions, without cor- falfe notions connedled wfith this circumllance, which redfions, fometimes pretty intricate. We affert, how- we Hi all attempt to remove ; and with this we lhall con- ever, with great confidence, that this is of all methods elude this long and uniatisfadlory difl'ertation. the moll exadl, and infinitely more 'certain than any icd. If a fluid were perfectly incomprefiible, and were . thing that can be deduced from the moll elaborate cal- contained in a veffei incapable of extenfion, it is im- culation from theory. If the refinances at all depths be poflible that any void could be formed behind the body; equal, the proportionality of the total reiillance to the and in this cafe it is not very eafy to fee how' motion body is exadt, and perfedlly Conformable to obfervation. could be performed in it. A fphere moved in fuch a ' It is only in great velocities where the depth has any medium could not advance the Imallell dillance, unlefs material influence, and the influence is not near fo con- fome particles -of the fluid, in hhing up the fpace left fiderable as we lluiuld, at firil fight, fuppofe ; for, in by ft, moved wfith a velocity next to 'infinite. Some eilimating the effedt ol immerfion, which has a relation Q 2 to> RES r 124 3 Rffiftence to the cKfFerence of prefTure, we muft alwnys take in equation v— the preffure of the atjnofphere ; and thus the preilure at 3 ^ feet deep is not 33 times the prefiure at one foot deep, but only double, or twice as great. I he atmo- fpheric predate is omitted only when the refilled plane is at the very furface. D’Ulloa, in his Examino Mari- time, has introduced an equation exprefling this rela¬ tion ; but, except with very limited conditions, it will miflead us prodigiouffy. To give a general notion of its foundation, let AB (fig. 23.) be the feftion of a plane moving through a fluid in the diredlion CD, with heap up a known velocity. The fluid will be heaped up before it above its natural level CD,becaufe the water will not be pufhtd before it like a folid body, but will be pufh- ed alide. And it cannot acquire a lateral motion any other way than by an accumulation, which will diffule itfelf in all directions by the law of undulatory mo¬ tion. The water will alfo be left lower behind the plane, becaufe time muji elapfe before the prefiure of the water behind can make it nil the fpace. \'Ve may acquire fome notion of the extent of both the accumu¬ lation and deprefikm in this way. There is .a certain RES Three points will do it with fdme approachRefi(Him to precifion ; but four, at leaft, are neceffary for giving — any notion of its nature. D’Ulloa has only given two experiments, which we mentioned in another place. We may here obferve, that it is this circumitance which immediately produces the great refiflance to the .motion of a body through a fluid in a narrow canal.— The fluid cannot pafs the body, unlefs the area of tire feftion be fufficiently extenlive. A narrow canal pre-. vents the extenfion fidewife. The water mull therefore till the feftion and velocity of diffufion arc fufficiently enlarged, and thus a great backward preffure is produced. (See the fecond feries of Experiments by the French Academicians; fee alfo Franklin’s Efiays.)- It is important, and w ill be confidered in another place. dep •u1 depth CF (=~ T*hus have we attempted to give our readers fome ac¬ count of one of the moll interefting problems in the whole of mechanical philofophy. We are forry that fo little advantage can be derived from the united efforts of the firll mathematicians of Europe, and that there is fo little hope of greatly improving our feientific where v -is the velocity, and ? the accelerating power of gravity) under the furface, fuch that water would flow through a hole at F with the ve¬ locity of the plane’s motion. Draw' a horizontal line EG. The v/ater will certainly touch the plane in G, and w'e may fuppofe that it touches it no higher up. '1 herefore there w'ill be a hollow, fuch as CGE. The elevation HE will be regulated by confiderations nearly fimilar. ED muft be equal to the velocity of the plane, and HE mull be its productive height. Thus, if the velocity of the plane be one foot per fecond, HE and EG will be A-s- of an inch. This is fufficient (though not exadl) for giving us a notion of the thing. We lee that from this muft arife a preffure in the dire&ion DC, viz. the preffure of the whole column HG. Something of the fame kind will happen although the plane AB be wholly immerged, and this even to fome dey‘3 We fee fuch elevations in a fwift running ftream, :.iie there are large {tones at the bottom.— This oecafions an excefs of preffure in the direction op- pofite to the plane’s motion ; and w'e fee that there muft, in every cafe, be a relation between the velocity and this excefs of preffure. This D’Ulloa exprefles by an equation. But it is very exceptionable, not taking properly-into the account the comparative facility with which the water can heap up and diffufe itfelf. It muft always heap up till it acquires a fufficient head of water to produce a lateral and progreflive diffufion fufficient for the purpofe. It is evident, that a imaller elevation will fuffice when the body is more immerfed, becaufe the check or impulfe given by the body below is propa¬ gated, not vertically only, bat in every diredlion ; and therefore the elevation is not confined to that part of the furfaee which is immediately above tin* moving body, but extends fo much farther laterally as the centre of agitation is deeper : Thus, the elevation neceffary for the pafiVge of the body is fo much fmaller; and it Is the height only of this accumulation or wave which de¬ termines the backward preflure on the body. D’Ulloa’s equation may happen to quadrate with two experiments at different depths, without being nearly juft ; for any two points, may be in a curve, without exhibiting its knowledge of the fubjecl. What wre have delivered will, however, enable our readers to perufe the waitings of thofe wffio have applied the theories to pra&ical pur- pofes. Such, for inftance, are the treatifes of Johnfmp‘|feof Bernoulli, of Bouguer, and of Euler, on the conltruc-watercs tion and working of ffiips, and the occafional differta- water tions of different authors on water-mills. In tlus laft1111118, application the ordinary theory is not without its va¬ lue, for the impulfes are nearly perpendicular ; in which cafe they do not materially deviate from the duplicate proportion of the fine of incidence. But even here this- theory, applied as it commonly is, miileads us exceed¬ ingly. The impulfe on one float may be accurately enough ftated by it; but the authors have not been at¬ tentive to the motion of the water after it has made its- impulfe; and the impulfe on the next float is ftated the fame as if the parallel filaments of water, wffich.were not Hopped by the preceding float, did impinge on the oppofite part of the fecond, in the fame manner, and with the fame obliquity and energy, as if it were de¬ tached from the reft. But this does not in the leaft re- femble the real procefs of nature. Suppofe the floats B, C, D, H (fig. 24.) of a wheel immerfed in a ftream whole furface moves in the direc¬ tion A K, and that this fnrface meets the float B in E, The part BE alone is fuppofedto be impelled-; whereas the water, checked by the float, heaps up on it to e.—• Then drawing the horizontal line BF, the part CF of the next float is fuppofed to be all that is impelled by the parallel filaments of the ftream; whereas the water bends round the lower edge of the float B by the fur¬ rounding preffure, and rifes on the float c all the way to f. In like manner, the float D, inllead of receiving an impulfe on the very fmall portion DG, is impelled all tire way from D to g, not much below the iurface of the llream. The furfaces impelled at once, therefore, greatly exceed what this flovenly application of the theory fuppofes, and the w'hole impulfe is much greater; but this is a fault in the application, and not in the theory. It will not be a very difficult thing to acquire a knowledge of the motion of the water which has palled the preceding float, which, though not accurate, will yet approximate couiiderably to the truth; and i then RES- [ I2C 3 RES Ion tHen the nrdinary theoi’y will furmfh w»xims of eon’ ftruftion which will be very ferviceuble. This will be a* attempted in its proper place ; and we lhall endeavour, 11 in our treatment of all the practical queftions, to derive ufeful information from all that has been delivered on the prefent occafion. RESOLUTIONp/'Ideas. See Logic, Parti.ch. 3. Resolution, in mufic. To refolve a difeord or dif- fonance, fays Roufieau, is to carry it according to rule into a confonance in the fubfequent chord. There is for that purpofe a procedure preferibed, both for the fundamental bafs of the diffonant chord, and for the part by which the difibnance is formed. There is no po0ible manner of refolving a diffo* nance which is not derived from an opeiation of cadence: it is then by the kind of cadence which we wifh to form, that the motion of the fundamental bafs is de¬ termined, (fee Cadence). With refpedf to the part by which the diffonance is formed, it ought neither to continue in its place, nor to move by disjointed gra¬ dations ; but to rife or defeend diatonically, accord¬ ing to the nature of the difibnance. Theoriils fay, that major dilfonances ought to rife, and minor to de¬ feend ; which is not however without exception, fince in particular chords of harmony, a feventh, although major, ought not to rife, but to defeend, unlefs in that chord which is, very incorreftly, called the chord of'the Jeventh redundant. It is better then to fay, that the feventh and all its derivative diffonances ought to defeend; and that the fixth fuperadded, and all its de¬ rivative diffonances, Ihould rife. This is a rule truly general, and without any exception. It is the fame cafe with the rule of refolving diffonances. There are fome diffonances which cannot be prepared ; but there is by no means one which ought not to be refolved. With refpebt to the fenfible note, improperly called a major diffonance, if it ought to afeend, this is lefs on account of the rule for reiolving diffonances, than on account of that which preferibes a diatonic procedure, and prefers the fhorteft road ; and in reality, there are cafes, as that of the interrupted cadence, in which this fenfible note does not afeend. In chords by fuppoiition, one fingle chord often produces two diffonances ; as the feventh and ninth, the ninth and fourth, &c. I hen thefe two diflonances ought to have been prepared, and both muff likewife be refolved;. it is becaufe regard fhould be paid to every thing which is difeordant, not only in the fun¬ damental, but even in the continued bafs. Resolution, in chemiftry, the redudfion of a mix¬ ed body into its component parts or firft principles, as far as can be done by a proper analylls. Resolution, in medicine, the difappearing of any tumor without coming to fuppuration or forming- an abfeefs. b RESOLVENT S, in medicine, fuch as are proper for diffipating tumors, without allowing them to come to fuppuration. RESONANCE, Resounding, in mufic, &c. a found returned by the air inclofed in the bodies of “ringed inftruments, fuch as lutes, &c. or even in the bodies of wind-inftruments, as flutes, &c. RESPIRATION, the adf of refpiring or breathino- the air. Sec Anatomy, n° 118. Blood, n° 29. MiT- picine, n° 104. Physiology, Se is roundifti, and lex-fulcated ; there are three ereft and perfiftent ftyles ;-the capfule is roundifh, with fix plaits, and is roftrated and trilocular; the feeds are oblong and > cylindrical. RESTITUTION, in a moral and legal fenfe, is reftoring a perfon to his right, or returning fome thing unjuftly taken or detained from him. Restitution of Medals, or Rejiituted Medals, is a term ufed by antiquaries for fuch medals as were ftruck - by the emperors, to retrieve the memory of their pre- deceffors. Hence, in feveral medals, we find the letters rest. This pradtice was firft begun by Claudius, by his ftrJU king afrefh feveral medals of Auguftus. Nero did the fame ; and Titus, after his father’s example, ftruck re- ftitutions of moft ot his predeceffcis. GaJlienus ftruck a general reftitution of all the preceding emperors on- two medals; the one bearing an alt-ar, the other an eagle, without the rest. RESTIVE, or Resty, in the manege, a ftubborn, unruly, ill-broken horfe, that Hops, or runs back, in- ftead of advancing forward. Refpirjt. tion Reftive, % RESTO Definition. RES [ i2 RESTORATION, the fame with reflauration. See Restauration. In England, the return of king Charles II. in 1660, is, by way of eminence, called the Rejioration ; and the 29th of May is kept as an anniverfary feftival, in com¬ memoration of that event, by which the regal and epif- copal government was reftored. RESTORATIVE, in medicine, a remedy proper for reftoring and retrieving the Hrength and vigour both of the body and animal fpirits. All under this clafs, fays Quincy, are rather nutri- mental than medicinal; and are more adminiftered to repair the waftes of the conftitution, than to alter and reftify its diforders. RESTRICTION, among logicians, is limiting a term, fo as to make it iignify lefs than it ufually does. RESTRINGENT, in medicine, the fame with aftringent. See Astringents. RESULT, what ie gathered from a conference, in¬ quiry', meditation, or the like ; or the conclufion and effect thereof. RESURRECTION, in theology, is a rifing again from the Hate of the dead ; and is that event, the be¬ lief of which conftitutes one of the principal articles in a the Chriftian creed. ?lan of the Jn treating of this objeft of our faith, it has been article. t0 raention, firft, the refurre&ion of our Bleffed Lord, with the charafter of the witnefles, and the au¬ thenticity of the gofpel hiftory by which it has been proved, and from which, as a confequence, ours is in¬ ferred. But as moft of the arguments for his refurrec- tion are contained in the gofpels, and as merely to re¬ peat them would afford, we hope, but little informa¬ tion to moft of our readers, we mean here to take a view of the feveral grounds on which tlie belief of a. future exiftence is fuppofed to be founded; to collect together fome of the fentiments of authors and nations concerning the place where departed fpirits reiide ; con¬ cerning the nature of their prefent ftate; concerning the kinds of their future deftination ; that we may af¬ terwards fee how far their notions differ and agree with what we confider as the dodtrines oi Scripture. The notion Of a future ftate, there have fometimes been found a of a future few wandering and obfcure tribes who feemed to enter- ftate un- tain no notion at all; though it fhould be remarked, that cn0W"lt? fome of thefe were likewife obferved in fo low a degree icare tribes.°f favage barbarity as not to be acquainted with the ufe of the bow, the dart, or the lling, and as not knowing how to wield a club, or to throw a ftone, as a weapon of defence*. Wherever the human mind has been cultivated, or properly Ipeaking, begun to be cultivated, the opinion has likewife generally prevailed that human exiftence is Jnas ieen 1101 confined to the prefent fcene ; nay, fo very gene- aimoft uni- ral has this notion been found among mankind, that verfal. many are puzzled how to account for what they fuppofe 5 to be almoft next to its univerfality. * The origin To explain the phenomenon, fome have imagined of this no- fijat {s a notion derived by tradition from primeval re- ved b ^* velation. They fuppofe that the firft parent of man- fome from kind, as a moral agent accountable for his conduct, was primeval informed by his Maker of every thing which it was of ireveiatiun. importance for him to know ; that he muft have been acquainted with this doCIrine of a future ftate in parti¬ cular j and that he could hardly fail to communicate a 5 1 RES matter fo interefting to his pofterity. They fuppofe, Rtfursc, too, that the hiftory of the tranflation of Enoch muft tion have made a great noife in the world, and that the re- membrane e of it muft have been long retained and widely diffufed ; and they find in the book of Job plain intimations of a refurreftion from the dead, which, from the manner in which they are introduced, they think that very ancient patriarch muft have received through this channel. 6 It is not thought to be any obje&ion to thefe fuppo- The u(iij| fitions, that the Moft High, when delivering his laws from the top of Mount Sinai, did not enforce them by 9( the awful fan&ions of a future ftate. The intelligent no forct, reader of the Scriptures knows that the fandtions of a future ftate belong to a different and more univerfal dif- penfation than was that of Mofes ; that the primeval revelation related to that difpenfation ; and that the Jewilh law, with its temporal fan&ions, was introduced only to preferve the knowledge and worftiip of the true God among a people too grdfs in their conceptions to have been properly influenced by the view of future re¬ wards and punilhments, of fuch a nature as eye hath not feen, nor ear heard, neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive. He fees at the fame time, everywhere fcattered through the Old Teftament, plain indications of the Mofaic economy, being no more than preparatory to the bringing in of a better Hope ; and he thinks it evident, that inch Jews as underftood any thing of the nature of that better hope, muft have been convinced, that, however the ceremonial rites of their religion might be fufficiently guarded by temporal fanc- tions, the fundamental principles of all religion and virtue are fupported by rewards and punifliments to be difpen- fed in a ftate beyond the grave. See Prophecy and Theology. ^See .£«• bsrtjon s Hif. of America. 4 Has keen “ — » That the progenitors of the human race muft have Rea/on!j, been infpired by their Creator with the knowledge of fupportoi their immortality, and of every thing neceffary to their the op everlafting welfare, cannot, we fhould think, be quef-™0"* tioned by any one who believes that the world had a beginning, and that it is under the government of good- nefs and juftice. The progrefs from fenfe to fcience is fo flow, that however capable we may fuppofe the ear- lieft inhabitants of this earth to have been of making philofophical difeoveries, we cannot believe that the Fa¬ ther of mercies left his helplefs creature to difeover for himfelf his future exiftence. Death, when firft pre- fented to him, muft have been a ghaftly objeft; and had he been left without any hope of redemption from it, he would undoubtedlyhave funk into liftlefsdefpondency. But a pn 'pedl of immortality is fo pleafing to the human mind, that if it was communicated to the firft man, it would of courfe be cherifhed by his pofteri¬ ty; and there is no difficulty in conceiving how it might be handed down by tradition to very remote ages, among fuch of his defeendents as were not fcattered over the face of the earth in fmall and favage tribes. — In the courfe of its progrels, it would frequently be new-modelled by the ever a£tive imagination ; and at laft many abfurd and fantailic circumftances would *- FT i — doubtlefs be combined with the original truth, that death puts not an end to human exiftence. But though we are firmly convinced that the firft principles of ufeful knowledge, and among them the doctrine of a future ftate, were communicated to man hv j'-c s srs: th on ht| I : i n, ^he: la; 9 ln:ro RES [ 127 ] - by his Maker} and though this doftrine, in large and J permanent focieties, might certainly be conveyed more ^ or lefs pure to late pofterity through the channel of tra¬ dition—we are far from attributing fo much to tradition as fome writers are difpofed to do, or thinking it. the only fource from which mankind could derive the belief of their exiftence beyond the grave. In fmall tribes of favages fuch a tradition could hardly be prefervedand yet fome indiftindt notions of a future ftate have been found among tribes who are faid to have loll all tradi¬ tionary notions even of th£ being of a God. a- Others, therefore, are inclined to believe that, in¬ dependent of any traditions, mankind might be led by certain phenomena to form fome conjedtures of a future j ftate. They obferve, that although a few individuals . perhaps may, yet it feldom happens that the whole in- • dividuals of any nation are exempted from dreaming : They obferve, too, and this obfervation is founded on experience, that the images of the dead are from the remaining impreffions of memory frequently fummoned up in the fancy ; and that it appears from all the lan¬ guages of rude nations, who pay the greateft attention to their dreams, and who fpeak of feeing the dead in their vifions, that thefe images (a) have always been taken by them for realities ; nay, fome of the learned, and the celebrated Baxter is of the number, are difpo¬ fed to doubt whether thefe appearances be not fome- thing more than illufions of the brain : But whether they really be fo or not, one thing is certain, that all nations in all countries, in the darkeft ages and the ru- deft periods, are accuftomed to dream ; and whether fleeping or waking, in the ftillnefs of the night, in the gloom of folitude, in the fondnefs of friendlhip, in the rovings of love, the delirium of fever, and the anguifh of remorfe, to fee and converfe with the fhades of the departed; and Lucretius * has remarked, that even the inferior animals are not exempted from fuch illuiions of a reftlefs fancy. Fer often fleeping racers pant and fweat, Breathe fliort, as if they ran their fecond heat ; As if the barrier down with eager pace I hey ftretch’d, as when contending for the race. And often hounds, when fleep hath clos’d their eyes, They tofs, and tumble, and attempt to rife ; They open often, often fnufF the air, As if they preft the footfteps of the deer ; And fometimes wak’d, purfue their fancy’d prey, The fancy’d deer, that feem to run away, Till quite awak’d, the follow’d ftiapes decay. And fofter curs, that lie and fleep at home, Do often roufe, and walk about the room, And bark, as if they faw fome ftrangers come. A nd birds will ftart, andfeek the woods, by night,") VV hene’er the fancy’d hawk appears in fight, ^ C Whene’er they fee his wing or hear him fight. j Crsech. Thefe powers of fancy extend wide over animal crea- R E S Refunec. tioB. tion; and it Is on this general principle that neero- raancers and dreamers have in all ages eftablifhed their trade, that the ftories of goblins have at all times fo ' ^ very eaflly procurer! belief, and that The village matron, round the blazing hearth, Sufpends the infant audience with her tales. Breathing aftonifhment! Of witching rhymes And evil fpints ; of the deathbed call Of him who robb’d the widow and devour’d The orphan’s portion ; of unquiet fouls Ris’n from the grave to eafe the heavy guilt Of deeds in life conceal’d ; of fhapes that walk At dead of night, and clank their chains, and wave The torch of hell around the murderer’s head. Aikenside. Mankind in general would willingly difpenfe with thefe troublefome vifits of the dead. To prevent the return of the %umli or the ghoft, fome nations of Afri¬ ca ufe many fuperftitious rites*; and Kolben tells mb,* Voyage {»■ that the frighted Hottentots leave in the hut where a C°nso and perfon has died all the utenfils and furniture, left tHe cbulcliirt angry ghoft, incenfed at their avarice, ftiould haunt Voyaget* them in their dreams, and infeft them in the night. Divines and moralifts have laboured to fhow that thefe are merely imaginary terrors: but God and nature feem to have determined that they (hall produce the fame effedls upon certain minds as if they were real; and that, while there is any fenfibility in the heart, while there is any remembrance of the paft, and any conju¬ ring power in the fancy ; the ignorant, the benighted, the timid, (hall often meet with the goblins of darknefs, the fpeftres of the tomb, the apparitions that hover round the grave, and the forms of the dead in the mid¬ night dream.. See Spectre. Ia From thefe phenomena, which have been fo common Probable in all countries and in all ages, what would mankind 'nferences naturally infer? Would they not infer, that there &ci fomething in the nature of man that fiirvives death, and ’ that there is a future ftate of exiftence beyond the grave ? Are not ftill many fpecimens of this reafoning preierved in the ancient poets ? and is it not thus that Achillesf reafons after imagining that he faw the ghoft f Hom. TV,ad Jib. a I* 1. 103, of his friend Patroclus ? ’Tis true, ’tis. certain, man, though dead, retains Part of himfelf; the immortal mind remains : The form fubfifts without the body’s aid, Aerial femblance, and an empty (hade. This night my friend, fo late in battle loft. Stood at my fide-a penfive plaintive ghoft ; Ev’n now familiar as in life he came, Alas! how diff’rent, yet how like the fame. Pope. Lucretius *, a ftudious obferver of nature, though-*Lib. & no friend to the foul’s immortality, acknowledges frank¬ ly that thefe phantoms often, terrify the mind, haunt us in our fleep, and meet us while awake. He confefles, too, that by fuch appearances mankind have been led to ' itlPf ‘mageS were.caHed by the Greets and among the Romans they had various names, nor llr,L e* an were fometimes calk'd o:curf,icu.'j ticflium, bv/lorvm farmijaltuna, fepukhro~- culamenta, antma err antes ^ which are all comprehended under i^fpeeies mortwrum. IJ Folly of al lowing too much to tradition. RES f 128 to believe the future exiftence of die foul; but, aware of the confequence, Ne forte animas Acherunte reamur Effugere, nut umbras inter vivos volitare, he endeavours to explain thefe curious phenomena on fome of the odd and fantaftic principles of the Epicu¬ reans. In doing this, however, he pretends not to de- nv that thefe images appear to be real; but candidly acknowledges that They ftrike and drake Tbe airy foul, as when we are awake, 'With ftroke fo lively, that we think we view The abfent dead, and think the image true. Creech. We here fee how the belief of the foul’s immortality came to be general among maakind. But lor this in¬ formation we are much more indebted to the poets, who have given us faithful tranferipts of nature, than to the philofophers who have wifhed to entertain us with their own theories, or to thofe laborious men of erudition, who have dreaded as much to examine the fource of an ancient report as the friends of Ulyffes to approach the coafl: of Cimmerian darknefs. With them tradition is the ultimate boundary of refearch : and as gorgons, chimeras, and hydras, have come down to us by tradition -, fo they, with great fagacity, fuf- pe&, that tradition muft like wife be at the bottom of the foul’s immortality, and occafion the vifions and phantoms of the dead. To tradition we have allowed all that it can juftly claim ; but we cannot allow it to be the only fource. of this opinion : and we have felt the higheft indignation upon hearing men of learning and genius affiim, fiom a falfe zeal for the honour of revelation, that mankind, without this inftru&ion, could never have acquired the art of building huts to fereen them from the cold, or have learned the method of propagating their fpecies ! The reader muft not here fuppofe that we allude to Polydore Virgil (b). We have in our eye perfons now ■alive, with whom we have converfed on the fubject, and who (terrified at the length to which fome philofophers have carried the dodlrme of inffinifts, and others the reafoning powers of the mind) have contended, with the utmoft earneftnefs, that we know nothing—not even the fun&ions of our animal nature—but by tradi¬ tion or written revelation. 1 % Opinions of _ ■jshilofo- phers. Having now feen the fource of the opinion concern- ing the future exiftence of the foul, and pointed out the natural phenomena by which mankind were led to embrace it, we come next to review the arguments by which the philofophers attempted to confirm it. ] RES Pythagoras believed, with the reft of his country, that Refirrt annihilation was never the end, and that nonentity was ti(®, never the beginning, of any thing that is. Pits geneial ^ doctrine upon this fubject was fhortly exprefled in very py.haff> few words, Omnia mutantur, nihil interit. He afterwards ras s ne. learned from Egyptian priefts that the foul migrates into^ d new bodies; and being, it feems, a perfon of a 'ri!)ft a extraordinary and aftomfhing memory, he found there was fome truth in the ftory: for after muting, he began to remember that he was Euphorbus, the ion of Pan- theus, that was (lain by Menelaus in the Piojan war; and upon a jaunt to Peloponnefus, recollefted the ftueld which he had worn at the time of the fxege, in one of the temples of Juno at Argos ! That none might quef- tion the truth of his aifertion, his followers prefently removed all doubts by' the famous argument, the ipse dixit of Egyptian origin. 14 As Pythagoras taught that human fouls are frequent-Phtos ly thruft into brute ihapes, and, as fome imagined, by trine of way of puniftiment; it occurred to Plato, that all bodies, even the human, are a iort of prifons; and that, in confequence of this confinement, the foul was iubjefted to the rage of defire, appetite, and paffion, and . to all the wretched miferies of a jail. To explain this my- ftery, he fuppofed that defires and appetites belong to a foul that is purely animal refiding in the body. But be was perplexed with another difficulty 4 for as he thought highly of the goodnefs of Deity, he could not imagine how he fhould imprifon us without a crime. He fuppofed, therefore, that prior to its union with the prefent body the foul had exifted in one of ether, which it ft ill retains; but that even in this etherial body it had felt fomething of impure defire ; and happening to indulge the vicious appetite, had contrafted fome ftains of pollution, for which it was confined in its pre¬ fent body as a houfe of correction to do penance and improve its morals. [ To prove this ideal pre-exiftence of the foul, Plato And availed himfelf of an opinion that was general in hisof pi time, that coincided with the do&rines of Pythagoras,,t- and that was partly founded on a fort of reafoning and obfervation. He thought that matter and intelligence are coeternal (fee Platonism) ; that there are various orders of fouls; that thofe of both the man and the brute are parts or emanations -(c) of the ammo, munaiy or foul of the world ; that all are ultimately parts or emanations of Deity itfelf; and that all tnen faculties are more or lefs reftri&ed and confined, according to thofe organifed fyftems with which they are connefted. Know firil (fays one delivering his do&riues), Know firft, that heav’n and earth’s compared frame, And flowing waters, and the Hairy flame, And both the radiant lights, one common foul Infuires, and feeds, and animates, the whole. 1 Tins (b) This writer allots part of a chapter to (how, “ Quis primum inftituerit artem meretnciam,” as being, in his opinion, a traditionary praftice. See Lib. iii. cap. 17. De Rerum Inventoribus. _ (c) The Deity was conceived by the ancients fometimes as a folid, when inferior on s were cai nTHTxx'ry.cilct e. fragments or parts broken off from him ; and fometimes as a fluid, when they con 1 eie a-jroppotxi or emanations : but from none of thefe hypothefes did they reafon confequentially. . were often after death reunited to the Deity; and their often i-e.mained ft par ate and or a ong while, without flowing back as they o’Shht to have done, and mingling with the great ocean 01 pint. urr«- r6 *r opi- i s of th 3nof- lit RES [ This Rftive mind, infus’d through all the fpace, Unites and mingles with the mighty mafs: Hence men and beafts the breath of life obtain, And birds of air, and monfters of the main ; The ethereal vigour is in all the fame, And every foul is fill’d with equal flame ; As much as earthy limbs, and grofs allay Of mortal members, fubjedl to decay, Blunt not the beams of heav’n and edge of day(D) Dryden. Befides this hypothefis, that in fome meafure was common to others, Plato had an argument peculiarly his own. Happening to peep into the region of me- taphylics, he was fomewhat furprifed on obferving the ideas which we derive from refleftion and confciouinefs; and fuppofing that they could not have entered by the fcnfes, he naturally, though not veryjuftly, concluded, that we muft have received them in fome Hate of prior exiftence. As, according to him, the foul was eternal, as well as the matter which compofed the body, and as their union was only temporary and accidental, he might have been fatisfied that the death of the foul was not to be the confequence of their feparation. But, fome how «r other, fatisfied he was not. Pie had recourfe to a new argument. As the foul, he faid, was an adtive principle, and a felf-moving, it did not depend for its life on another ; and therefore would always continue to exift, though the body were reduced to the general mafs out of which it was formed. See Metaphysics, Part III. chap. iv. v Whether Plato had borrowed any of his dodtrines from the eaftern magi, we pretend not to fay. We on¬ ly obferve a flriking fimilarity, in fome refpedls, between his and theirs. In Plato’s philofophy, the fun, moon, and ftars, were animated beings, and a fort of divinities that originally had fprung from the great fountain of heat and light, and our earthly bodies a fort of dun¬ geons in which our miferable fouls are benighted and debafed by defires, appetites, and paflions. In the ma- gian philofophy, the Supreme Being was called Oromaf- des; was the god of light, or was light itfelf, and re- prefented by Mithras, a fubordinate divinity, and the fame with the fun. Another deity of very great power was Arimanes, the god of darknefs, who prefided over matter, and was the origin of all evil (fee Polytheism). Vol. XVI. Part I. * 29 1 RES The ancient Gnofties, who derived their tenet? from R-cfinrec- this fource, believed, with Pythagoras and Plato, in a , tin1' great number of fubordinate genii; and faid, that De- miurgus, the god of matter and the foul or fpirit of this world, had contrived the bodies of men and brutes; and in the former particularly, as in fo many prifons, had confined a number of celeftial fpirits, that by expoiing them to the low defires of appetite and paffion, he might feduce them from their allegiance to the God of light, and render them tnore ftibmiflive to himfelf. From thefe prifons the Supreme Being was continually making attempts to refeue them; and in the mean time was frequently fending divine meflengers to en¬ lighten and inftruft them, and to render them capable of returning t© the regions of light and happinefs, to which they had belonged (e). The Stoics attempted to Amplify this fyftem, which appears anciently to have pervaded Egypt and the eaft, and which would feem to be no more than varioufly modified by Orpheus, Pythagoras, Plato, and others of the more northerly and weftern nations. None of thenf allowed a creation out of nothing; and the fhaping and modelling of matter into forms wras varioufly explained, according as they happened to be moft addi&ed to fu- perftition, to morals, or to phyfics. Some aferibed thefe operations to ancient Time, Chaos, and Darknefs, and explained the future changes in nature by the genealo¬ gies of thefe deities; fome obferving attradlion and repulfion, or at leaf! a fort of agreement and difeor- dance among bodies, were inclined to aferibe them to Friendfhip and Hatred, or Love and Antipathy ; fome obferving, that while one body rofe another defeended, made Levity and Gravity primary agents; and fomc taking notice that living bodies fprung from corruption, were difpofed to confer the fame powers on Moifture and Heat. The phyfical hypothefes were what had moft charms °f the for the Stoics. From their fyftem immaterial beingsStoic*' were openly excluded; all things were regulated by phyfical laws or inexorable fate; and all things origi¬ nated in the To 'E, or the Firjl One, which was probably fuggefted by the 0f Pythagoras. This T° '£» ap. pears to have been a materia prima devoid of all the qualities of body. In their language it was an Ap** or firjl principle, not fubjedt to change. When it was fn- vefted with the properties of body, it then became R a (d) The general doarine, as delivered here in thefe verfes of Virgil, is the fame with that not only of Pytha- _goras, but or the Stoics. 1 ] mfde the ftarS the"atIve refictence of inferior fouls ; and when thefe were thoroughly purified below, eturned them home again ; and therefore, fays Virgil, alluding to his doarine, ———Some have taught That bees have portions of ethereal thought, Endu’d with particles of heav’nly fires ; For God the whole created mafs infpires : Thro’ heav’n, and earth, and ocean’s depth, he throws His influence round, and kindles as he goes. , Hence flocks, and herds, and men, and beafts, and fowls, With breath are quicken’d, and attraa their fouls: ’ Hence take the forms his preference did ordain, And into him at length rejolve again. No room is left for death, they mount the Iky, > Amd to their own congenial elanets ply, Dryden, f RES [ >3° 1 RES Hffurrec* eion. 19 Of Ari- {lotle. 19 Of Critias and otilers. ao Of the, Jews. a 5T fo far as refpetled its qualities, efpecially its forms, it was fubjedl to chan¬ ges almoft perpetual. The gods themfelves and the fouls of men were in this fyilem only modifications of matter (f). Man was compofed of their four elements, Fire, Air, Water, and Earth ; and upon diffolution, every part returned to the element from which it had come, as the water of a veflel fwimming in the fea unites with the ocean when the vefiel is broken. his fyftem, it is plain, cannot poffibly admit of any fepaiate confcioufnefs of exiftence(G)- The fame may be faid of the fyftems of Democrates »nd Epicurus, and all thofe who undertook to explain things upon phyfical principles ( h). rIhe chief merit of the phyfical fy¬ ftems appears to be this 1 Abfurd as they were, it would feem from the whimfical and the almofl childifh reafoning of Lucretius, that they had a tendency to lead mankind from extravagant hypothefes to fome- thing that was fimilar to obfervation. What Ariftotle thought of the feparate exiftence of the foul after death is not very certain. I he foul he calls an EvliXf^na; and if the reader can divine the mean¬ ing of the word, he perhaps can divine the meaning of- the Stagyritey and will then be a better diviner than we. At other times he fays, that the foul is fomething di¬ vine that it refembles the element of the ftars; that it is fomething of a fiery nature ; that it is the vicegerent of God in the body j and that the acutenefs of the fenfes, the powers of the intelleA, with the various kinds of appetites and paffions, depend entirely on the qualities of the blood (1). Another opinion of very old date was that of the late ingenious Mr Hunter. According to him, the. living principle refidcs >fi the blood. This opinion, which is mentioned by hlofes, was adopted by Cntias and otners of the ancients. Harvey likewife embraced it. But Mr Hunter, who always wiflied to be thought an original, inclines to Hand at the head of the opinion, and fup- ports it by experiments fimilar to thofe of the famed Taliacotius in mending nofes. Should any of our read¬ ers wifh to extract the foul’s immortality from fuch an opinion, we muff refer them to the many refources of ingenuity, fophiftry, and logic. Among the Jews, the belief of a future and feparate exiftence for a long time was deemed no eflential article of their creed. Some thought that the foul was a fpark in the moving of the heart; fome imagined that it was Hefttne* the breath, and that upon the diflblution of the body tion. it naturally vanifiied into foft air. The Sadducees de- "~Y-« nied the exiftence of either angel or fpirit. Many be¬ lieved the doftrine of ghofts, and were accuftomed to invoke them at the grave. It is hence that we hear the prophets complaining that they were feeking from the living God unto dead men. Some imagined that there was a pre-exiftence of fouls; and, in the cafe of a blind man, afiked our Saviour, whether the man or his parents had finned that he was born blind ? Others inclined to a revolution of foul and body, and thought that our Saviour was either Elias or one of the old prophets returned ; and a great many new-modelled their opinion of the foul’s immortality according to cer¬ tain pafiages in Scripture. The infpired mother of Sa¬ muel had faid, “ The Lordkilleth and maketh alive: he bringeth down to the grave, and bringeth up.” Ifaiali had exclaimed, “ Thy dead (hall live; together with my dead body ihall they arife : Awake, and ling, ye that dwell in the dull; for thy dew is as the dew of herbs, and the earth {hall caft out the dead.” Daniel had de¬ clared, that many of them that fleep in the dull of the earth Ihall awake to everlafting life, and fome to lhame and everlafting contempt. In the vifion of the valley7 of dry bones, Ezekiel had feen that “ at the word of the Lord” the bones came together, bone to his bone, the linews-and the flelh came upon them, and the Ikin covered them above, and the breath came into the bo¬ dies, and they lived and ftood upon their feet. And a pTIage of Job led them to fuppofe, that at fome di- ftant and future period a particular time, which was call¬ ed the lajl or the hitter day, was appointed by heaven for. the general refurreftion of all thofe who are fleeping in their graves. “ I know (fays Job) my Redeemer liveth, and that he. Ihall Hand at the latter day upon the earth; and though after my lkin worms deftroy this body, yet in my flefh fhall I fee Godd’ Whether thefe pafiages were fairly interpreted agree¬ ably to their true and original meaning, it is not here our bufinefs to inquire. It is fufficient for us to eb-^ ferve, that from them many of the Jews inferred the reality of a general refurrettion ( k). In this perfua- fion, Martha, fpeaking of her brother Lazarus, fays to our Lord, “ I know that he {ball rife again in the re- furre&ion at the laft day.” This refurrektion appears to (f) The Apx*’ of the Stoics appeals to be the fame with the Li of the Chinefe. . (g) Yet without regarding the inconfiftency, many of the Stoics believed, that the foul continued feparate long after death ; though all in general feemed to deny a future ftate of rewards and punilhments. ( h) In his Phyfical Cofmogony, Plato differed but little from the Stoics ; but he had another fort of cofmogony, in which all things appear to have fprung from, and to be almoft wholly compofed of, metaphylxcal entities, as ideas of forms, numbers, and mathematical figures. Thefe kinds of notions were common both to mm and Py¬ thagoras ; and were originally borrowed from Egypt, where calculation and geometry were hair deified, bee Platonism* . . . /-» (1) The immortal Harvey has colledbed thefe different opinions of the Stagynte in Exercit. 52. De Generatwne (k) At prefent fome are for allowing only thofe of their own nation to {bare in the benefits of this refurrec- tion ; and fome are not even for allowing them, except they be meR. of piety and virtue.. To. render this re- furre&ion probable, the rabbins fay, with fome of the Mahometans, tnat there is a certain bone in the bo y ^ which refifts putrefaction, and ferves as a feed for the next body*. What that bone is, is °f no great moment, # .ee as any bone, we believe, in the Ikeleton will anfwer the purpofe equally well. With refpea to the manner o ri/e this refurredion, the learned Hody has quoted feveral opinions of the Jews, and, among others, that of the C ^a- 4«r ® E S T Mi 1 RES iirree- to have been a general opinion among tbe Pharifees j for although it was a notion of the fe£l of the Saddu- y cees that there was no refurreftion, neither angel nor fpirit, yet the Pharifees, we are told, confefied both. A nd this aflertion is plainly confirmed by St Paul him- felf when his countrymen accufed him before Felix, “ I confefs unto thee (fays this eminent apoftle),*:that after the way which they call herefy fo worihip I the God of my fathers, believing all things which are written in the law and in the prophets, and having hope toward God, which they themfelves alfo allow, that there (hall be a refurredtion of the dead, both of the juft and un¬ it juft.”. he This refurreftion of the dead to judgment, though .ftians. not perhaps in the fame fenfe in which the old Phari¬ fees conceived it, is now generally and almoft univer¬ sally (l) maintained by Chriftians (m). Yet the Chri- ftians differ confiderably with refpeft to the nature of the human foul. Some imagine, that this fpirit is na¬ turally mortal, and that it is propagated along with the body from the loins of the parent. In fupport of this opinion, it has been obferved that a great number of infefts and plants transfer their lives to their pofterity, and die foon after the aft of propagation ; that after this aft the vital principle is in the moft vigorous of ^plants and animals always found to be much exhaufted; and that Tertullian a father of the church, in attempt¬ ing fome experiments of the kind, became fubjeft to a momentary blindnefs, and felt a portion of his foul go¬ ing out of him (n). ft hefe imagine that immortality was only condition- ally promifed to man ; that Adam forfeited this immor¬ tality by his difobedience ; and that Chrift has reftored tis to the hopes of it again by his fufferings and death : for as in Adam we have all died, fo in Chrift, they fay, we (hall all be made alive ; and that now the fting is taken from death, and the viftory over our fouls from the grave. . Others have conceived the human foul as naturally immortal, and as fetting death and the grave at de- iance. Adam, they iay, died only in a figure; and only from the confequences of this figure, which means fin, has our Lord faved us. In this fenfe Adam died Rtfarree- on the very day in which he had finned ; or lit died li- tion’ terally m 1000 years, which with the Lord are as one " ^ day. . To thefe arguments their opponents reply, What then is the viftory over death and the grave ? You muft ftill have recourfe to a new figure, and betake yourfelves to the fecond death; though, after all, where is your grave ? To this it is anfwered, that the foul of itfelf is natmally immortal, and that it depends not either for its exiftence or the exercife of its faculties upon the body; that the properties of matter, as figure, magnitude, and motion, can produce nothing that is like to per¬ ception, memoiy, and confcioufnefs. This is true, re¬ join their opponents; but befides thefe few properties of matter, which are only the objefts of that phi'lofophy which has lately and properly been termed ‘mechanical the chemical philofophy has difcovered other properties of matter; has found that matter is of various kinds; that it very often does not aft mechanically; that it acquires many new properties by combination ; and that no man, till farther experiment and obfervation, fliould \entuie to affert how tar the foul is or is not dependent on its prefent organifed fyftem. The others, proceeding on their hypothecs, maintain that the foul, as being im¬ material, is not divifible; and though the body of a froT may live without the head for a whole day ; thou^b the body of a tortoife may live without the head fo°a whole month ; though a human limb may for fome mi¬ nutes after amputation continue to perform a vital mo¬ tion, independent of a brain, a ftemach, or a heart; and though the parts of a plant, a polype, or a worm, may furvive their reparation and become living wholes*, * See Poly' yet the foul, they cbferve, is not to be compared with P:/s and the vital principles of plants and animals, nor ought t0f’roduiiion' be divided on reafons fo fiender as thofe of analogy Even granting, they fay, that the foul were not natu¬ rally immortal of itfelf; yet the juftice of God, which is not remarkable for its equal diftribution of rewards and pumlhments in the prefent world, is bound to make lome amends in the next. And to this again their op¬ ponents anfwer, as to the equal diftribution of juftice in a future world, of that we are affured on much bet- ^ 2 tef P7fhet had laid, “ When the dead (hall revise, and the jnd t„„V died l'. ^ and the juft too that died in captivity ftiall com > tfi C ^ \ ^ ? u °f 11VaeI ^ C°me OUt from thcnce; come forth out „f the Mount of Olivet HeTas hkewife nnhedY pcavej;^s under the earth, and (hall which, we ate told that many of the lews hv th ' w f ’ Saunderfon’s Voyage to the Holy Land, in that in the r,w/,ns or Avollhn of the eavem! ,h r r um’ ^ 7"? ln the vaIley °f Jehofaphet; and nails. ^ the caver”s’ thofe at » 1 2'2' r The next thing that falls to be confidered is the place thTdead of the dead. From a natural enough affociation of near to the ideas, an opinion had very early prevailed, that the ipi- rit continued near to the body; and the offerings there- fore intended for the dead were by moff nations pre- fented at the grave ; and that on which the departed fpirit is fuppofed to reil is always placed near the grave in China. , ^ From the dreams of the night and the natural ten¬ dency of the fancy to work and to fummon up fpeftres when the world around us is involved in darknefs, it has alfo been imagined, that thefe fpirits delight in the night and fhadow of death (p ), or have been prohibited from enjoying the exhilarating beams of day. And hence we are told, That in the difmal regions of the dead Th’ infernal king once rais’d his horrid head; Leap’d from his throne, left Neptune’s arm fhould lay His dark dominions open to the day, And pour in light. The nations, therefore, who have fancied a general receptacle for the dead, have thus been induced to 1 RES grave. *3 In dark¬ nefs. place it in the weft (qJ, where the night begins sn